总结

翻译理论
translation theory

翻译史

翻译批评
translation criticism

完美翻译的神话——信达雅
A Myth of Perfect Translation--Xinda Ya

规定性 描述性 解释性（表达了翻译研究的三个过程）
prescriptive descriptive interpretive (expressing the three processes of translation research)

规定性（Prescriptive）定义：规定性翻译研究侧重于制定翻译的标准、规则或原则，强调对翻译实践的指导和规范作用。特点：以原语或源文本为中心，目的主要是指导翻译实践，为翻译实践及评估设定普遍标准。在传统的规定性翻译研究中，翻译实践及评估的标准主要来自原文。具有明显的价值判断，提出翻译应该达到的目标。例子：泰特勒的“翻译三原则”，每一条都以源文本为标准，要求翻译完全复写原作的思想、风格笔调，与原作性质相同，并且流畅。
prescriptive definition: prescriptive translation studies focus on the formulation of translation standards, rules or principles, emphasizing the guiding and normative role of translation practice. Characteristics: Focusing on the source language or source text, the main purpose is to guide translation practice and set universal standards for translation practice and evaluation. In traditional prescriptive translation studies, the criteria for translation practice and evaluation are mainly derived from the source text. With obvious value judgment, propose the goal that translation should achieve. Example: Tytler's "three principles of translation", each of which is based on the source text, requires that the translation completely reproduce the original idea, style and tone, and the same nature as the original, and fluent.

描述性（Descriptive）定义：描述性翻译研究侧重于对翻译实践、过程和结果的客观描述，强调对翻译现象的观察和分析。特点：以客观描述为主，尽量不予以价值判断。强调翻译现象在特定文化和社会背景下的多样性和复杂性。强调对翻译过程中译者、原文、译文以及读者之间互动关系的理解。例子：近年来，翻译研究开始更多地关注翻译在目的语文化中的功能，以及译者真实的行为和选择。
Descriptive definition: Descriptive translation studies focus on the objective description of translation practice, process and results, emphasizing the observation and analysis of translation phenomena. Characteristics: objective description, try not to give value judgment. Emphasize the diversity and complexity of translation phenomena in specific cultural and social contexts. Emphasis is placed on understanding the interaction among the translator, the source text, the target text and the reader in the translation process. Example: In recent years, translation studies have begun to focus more on the function of translation in the target culture, as well as the translator's real behavior and choices.

解释性（Explanatory）定义：解释性翻译研究侧重于对翻译现象、过程和结果的解释和阐述，强调对翻译背后原因和机制的理解。特点：在充分描述的基础上，具备较强而普遍的解释力。强调翻译现象与其他文化、社会、历史等因素之间的关联。旨在揭示翻译现象背后的普遍规律和原则。例子：在翻译学体系的构建中，解释性研究方法被用于探讨翻译原则范畴的理论，以及这些理论如何指导翻译实践。
Explanatory definition: Interpretative translation studies focus on the explanation and elaboration of translation phenomena, processes and results, emphasizing the understanding of the causes and mechanisms behind translation. Characteristics: On the basis of full description, it has strong and universal explanatory power. It emphasizes the relationship between translation phenomena and other cultural, social and historical factors. It aims to reveal the universal rules and principles behind translation phenomena. Example: In the construction of the system of translation studies, interpretive research methods are used to explore theories of categories of translation principles and how these theories guide translation practice.

归纳：规定性、描述性和解释性在翻译研究中是相辅相成、相互补充的。规定性研究强调对翻译实践的规范和指导，而描述性研究则强调对翻译现象的客观描述和分析。解释性研究在描述的基础上，进一步探讨翻译现象背后的原因和机制，从而揭示翻译的普遍规律和原则。在实际的翻译研究和实践中，这三种方法
Induction: prescriptive, descriptive and interpretive are complementary in translation studies. Prescriptive studies emphasize standardization and guidance of translation practice, while descriptive studies emphasize objective description and analysis of translation phenomena. Interpretative studies, on the basis of descriptions, further explore the causes and mechanisms behind translation phenomena, thus revealing the universal laws and principles of translation. In actual translation research and practice, these three methods

对等

形式对等（Formal Equivalence）

定义：形式对等强调在翻译过程中保持原文与译文在形式上的对等，即尽可能地保持原文的语序、句式结构和其他表面结构的等价性。
Definition: Formal equivalence emphasizes maintaining formal equivalence between the source text and the target text in the translation process, that is, maintaining the equivalence of word order, sentence structure and other superficial structures of the source text as much as possible.

特点：

重视原文的语言结构和表达方式，尽可能保留原文的形式。
Pay attention to the language structure and expression of the original text, and keep the original form as much as possible.

有时可能导致译文在目标语言中的不自然或难以理解。
Sometimes this may lead to unnatural or difficult to understand translations in the target language.

应用：

当原文的形式对于传达其意义至关重要时，如诗歌、歌词等文学作品，形式对等可能更为重要。
Formal equivalence may be more important when the form of the original text is crucial to conveying its meaning, as in literary works such as poetry and lyrics.

然而，在大多数情况下，过度的形式对等可能会导致翻译失去流畅性和可读性。
In most cases, however, excessive formal equivalence may result in translation losing fluency and readability.

功能对等（Functional Equivalence）

定义：功能对等是指翻译时不求文字表面的死板对应，而要在两种语言间达成功能上的对等。它强调译文与原文在功能上的一致，即译文读者能够获得与原文读者相同或相似的信息、感受和理解。
Definition: Functional equivalence means that translation does not seek rigid correspondence of words, but achieves functional equivalence between two languages. It emphasizes functional identity between the target text and the original text, that is, the target readers can obtain the same or similar information, feelings and understandings as the original readers.

特点：

重视译文在目标语言中的自然性和可读性，不拘泥于原文的形式。
The naturalness and readability of the translation in the target language should be emphasized.

考虑原文的上下文、语气、风格和表达方式，确保译文的准确性和流畅性。
Consider the context, tone, style and expression of the original text to ensure the accuracy and fluency of the translation.

应用：

在大多数翻译实践中，功能对等是更为实用和广泛应用的翻译原则。
Functional equivalence is the more practical and widely applied translation principle in most translation practices.

它适用于各种文本类型，包括科技文献、商业文件、新闻报道、文学作品等。
It applies to all types of text, including scientific literature, business documents, news reports, literary works, etc.

归纳：

形式对等和功能对等是翻译中的两个重要概念，它们各有特点和应用场景。
Formal equivalence and functional equivalence are two important concepts in translation, each with its own characteristics and application scenarios.

形式对等注重原文与译文在形式上的对等，适用于需要保留原文形式的文本类型；而功能对等则强调译文在功能上的对等，适用于追求译文自然性和可读性的文本类型。
Formal equivalence focuses on formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, which is applicable to text types that need to retain the original form, while functional equivalence emphasizes functional equivalence of the target text, which is applicable to text types that pursue naturalness and readability of the target text.

在实际翻译过程中，译者需要根据具体的文本类型和翻译目的选择合适的翻译原则，并灵活运用这两种对等概念，以实现翻译的最佳效果。
In the actual translation process, the translator should choose the appropriate translation principles according to the specific text type and translation purpose, and flexibly apply the two equivalent concepts to achieve the best translation effect.

准确性（意化的翻译） 恰当性（规划的翻译）
Accuracy (Italian translation) Appropriateness (Planned translation)

化境

“化境”作为翻译标准是由钱钟书先生提出的。这一理论主要源自钱钟书在《林纾的翻译》一文中的阐述，他明确指出：“文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’。”
"Huajing" as a translation criterion was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu. This theory is mainly derived from Qian Zhongshu's exposition in Lin Shu's Translation, which clearly points out: "The highest standard of literary translation is 'transformation.' When a work is transformed from one language to another, it is considered to be 'refined' if it does not reveal traces of rigidity due to differences in language habits, but it can completely preserve its original flavor."

一、化境的定义
I. Definition of the environment

“化境”是翻译的最高境界，它包含两个方面的含义：不隔：译文不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，达到原文与译文之间的“不隔”。这意味着译者在翻译过程中需要充分考虑目标语言的表达习惯和读者的阅读习惯，使译文自然流畅，易于理解。美的感受和体验：站在艺术审美的角度对译文进行解读后，译文能给读者带来美的感受和体验。这要求译者在翻译过程中不仅要传达原文的意义，还要尽可能保留原文的艺术风格和美学价值。
"Transmutation" is the highest level of translation, which contains two meanings: non-separation: the translation does not show any traces of rigidity due to differences in language habits, and achieves the "non-separation" between the original text and the translation. This means that the translator should fully consider the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the readers in the process of translation, so as to make the translation natural and easy to understand. Aesthetic feeling and experience: After interpreting the translation from the perspective of artistic aesthetics, the translation can bring readers aesthetic feeling and experience. This requires the translator not only to convey the meaning of the original text, but also to preserve the artistic style and aesthetic value of the original text as much as possible.

三、实现化境的方法
III. Methods to realize transformation

深入理解原文：译者在翻译之前要深入理解原文的意义、风格和背景等信息，确保对原文有准确而全面的理解。掌握目标语言：译者需要熟练掌握目标语言的语法、词汇和修辞等知识，以便在翻译过程中灵活运用目标语言来表达原文的意思。注重审美体验：译者在翻译过程中要注重审美体验，尽可能保留原文的艺术风格和美学价值，使译文能够给读者带来美的感受和体验。不断学习和实践：翻译是一项需要不断学习和实践的技能。译者需要不断积累翻译经验，提高翻译水平，以更好地实现化境。总之，“化境”是翻译的最高境界，它要求译者在翻译过程中忠实于原文的意义、表达流畅自然、保留原文的艺术风格和美学价值。实现化境需要译者具备深厚的语言功底、较高的文学素养和审美能力，并经过不断的学习和实践来提高自己的翻译水平。
In-depth understanding of the original text: Translators should thoroughly understand the meaning, style and background of the original text before translation to ensure an accurate and comprehensive understanding of the original text. Mastering the target language: Translators need to master the grammar, vocabulary and rhetoric of the target language so that they can use the target language flexibly to express the meaning of the original text in the translation process. Emphasis on aesthetic experience: Translators should pay attention to aesthetic experience in the process of translation, and try their best to retain the artistic style and aesthetic value of the original text, so that the translation can bring readers a sense of beauty and experience. Continuous learning and practice: Translation is a skill that requires continuous learning and practice. Translators need to accumulate translation experience and improve their translation skills in order to achieve better translation. In a word,"translation" is the highest level of translation, which requires the translator to be faithful to the original meaning, express fluently and naturally, and retain the artistic style and aesthetic value of the original in the translation process. Translators need to have profound language skills, high literary literacy and aesthetic ability, and improve their translation level through continuous study and practice.

二、化境的特点
II. Characteristics of Huajing

忠实性：化境要求译文忠实于原文的意义，不歪曲、不遗漏、不随意增减原文的意思。这是翻译的基本原则，也是实现化境的前提。
Faithfulness: the translation requires fidelity to the original meaning, without distortion, omission, or arbitrary addition or subtraction of the original meaning. This is the basic principle of translation and the premise of translation.

流畅性：化境要求译文表达流畅自然，符合目标语言的表达习惯和读者的阅读习惯。这要求译者在翻译过程中要充分考虑目标语言的语法、词汇和修辞等因素。
Fluency: The translation should be fluent and natural, in line with the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the readers. This requires translators to fully consider grammar, vocabulary and rhetoric of the target language in the process of translation.

艺术性：化境强调译文的艺术性，要求译者在翻译过程中尽可能保留原文的艺术风格和美学价值。这要求译者具备较高的文学素养和审美能力。
Artistic quality: the translator is required to preserve the artistic style and aesthetic value of the original text as much as possible in the process of translation. This requires translators to have high literary literacy and aesthetic ability.

宁信勿顺
Better believe than obey

“宁信勿顺”这一翻译思想是由鲁迅提出的，它主要体现了鲁迅在翻译过程中对准确性与恰当性的独特理解和坚持。
Lu Xun put forward the translation idea of "believing rather than obeying", which reflects Lu Xun's unique understanding and persistence of accuracy and appropriateness in translation.

“宁信勿顺”的意思可以理解为：宁可为了准确（而不通顺），也不要为了顾及到汉语表达的通顺而随意增删改动原意。这一思想强调了在翻译过程中，对原文的忠实和准确传达应优先于译文的语言流畅性和通顺性。
The meaning of "rather letter than fluency" can be understood as: rather for accuracy (rather than fluency), but also do not take into account the fluency of Chinese expression and random addition and deletion of the original meaning. This idea emphasizes that fidelity and accuracy of the source text should take precedence over fluency and fluency of the target text in the translation process.

来源：鲁迅的这一翻译思想最初是在与翟秋白的书信中提出的，后来被收录在他的著作《二心集》中。
Source: Lu Xun's translation thought was first put forward in a letter with Zhai Qiubai, and later included in his book "Two Hearts Collection."

背景：在五四新文学运动时期，翻译理论经历了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的局面。赵景深等人提出了“与其信而不顺，不如顺而不信”的观点，这在一定程度上反映了当时翻译界对原文忠实性和译文流畅性之间的权衡。而鲁迅针对这一现象，提出了“宁信勿顺”的理论，强调了对原文忠实性的坚持。
Background: During the May 4th New Literature Movement, translation theory experienced a situation of "a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend". Zhao Jingshen and others put forward the view that "it is better to believe without disobeying", which reflects to some extent the trade-off between fidelity and fluency in translation circles at that time. Lu Xun put forward the theory of "believing rather than obeying" and emphasized the fidelity of the original text.

实际应用：在翻译实践中，鲁迅的这一思想要求译者在翻译过程中要深入理解原文的含义，选择恰当的词汇和表达方式，以确保译文能够准确地传达原文的信息和意图。同时，也要避免为了追求译文的流畅性和通顺性而随意增删改动原文的内容。
Practical application: In translation practice, Lu Xun's idea requires translators to deeply understand the meaning of the original text and choose appropriate words and expressions to ensure that the translation can accurately convey the information and intention of the original text. At the same time, we should avoid adding, deleting and changing the original content in order to pursue the fluency and smoothness of the translation.

影响：鲁迅的这一翻译思想对后来的翻译理论和实践产生了深远的影响。它提醒译者在翻译过程中要始终保持对原文的忠实和尊重，同时也促进了翻译界对翻译质量和标准的深入思考和探讨。
Influence: Lu Xun's translation thought exerted a profound influence on the later translation theory and practice. It reminds the translator to keep faithful and respectful to the original text in the process of translation, and at the same time promotes the translation community to think deeply about the quality and standard of translation.

信达雅

翻译中的“信达雅”是由我国清末新兴启蒙思想家严复提出的，这一理论在翻译领域具有深远的影响。
Yan Fu, a new enlightenment thinker in late Qing Dynasty, put forward the theory of "faithfulness and elegance" in translation, which has a profound influence on translation field.

一、信（Faithfulness）“信”指意义不悖原文，即译文要准确，不偏离，不遗漏，也不要随意增减意思。在翻译过程中，译者需要确保译文的每一个细节都忠实于原文，准确地传达原文的信息和意图。这要求译者对原文有深入的理解，能够准确把握原文的含义和精髓。
Faithfulness means that the meaning does not contradict the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviated, not omitted, and not arbitrarily added or subtracted. In the process of translation, the translator needs to ensure that every detail of the translation is faithful to the original and accurately conveys the information and intention of the original. This requires the translator to have a deep understanding of the original text, be able to accurately grasp the meaning and essence of the original text.

二、达（Expressiveness）“达”指不拘泥于原文形式，译文通顺明白。在翻译过程中，译者需要在确保准确传达原文意义的基础上，注重译文的流畅性和可读性。这要求译者具备较高的语言能力和表达能力，能够灵活运用目标语言，使译文既忠实于原文，又符合目标语言的表达习惯。
2. Expressiveness: "Expressiveness" means not sticking to the original form, but translating smoothly and clearly. In the process of translation, the translator should pay attention to the fluency and readability of the translation on the basis of ensuring the accurate transmission of the original meaning. This requires translators to have high language competence and expressive ability, and to be able to use the target language flexibly, so that the translation is faithful to the original text and conforms to the expression habits of the target language.

三、雅（Elegance）“雅”则指译文时选用的词语要得体，追求文章本身的古雅，简明优雅。在翻译过程中，译者需要注重译文的文学性和艺术性，使译文不仅准确传达原文的信息，还具有一定的美感和吸引力。这要求译者具备较高的文学素养和审美能力，能够选用恰当的词汇和表达方式，使译文既忠实于原文，又具有一定的文学价值。
Elegance means that the words chosen in translation should be appropriate, and the article itself should be quaint, concise and elegant. In the process of translation, the translator should pay attention to the literariness and artistry of the translation, so that the translation not only conveys the information of the original text accurately, but also has certain beauty and attraction. This requires translators to have high literary literacy and aesthetic ability, and to be able to choose appropriate words and expressions to make the translation faithful to the original and have certain literary value.

四、归纳与总结“信达雅”作为翻译的标准和原则，体现了翻译工作的核心要求。其中，“信”是翻译的基础和前提，要求译者忠实于原文，准确传达原文的信息和意图；“达”是翻译的目标和要求，要求译者在确保准确传达原文意义的基础上，注重译文的流畅性和可读性；“雅”是翻译的追求和境界，要求译者在翻译过程中注重译文的文学性和艺术性，使译文既忠实于原文，又具有一定的美感和吸引力。在翻译实践中，译者需要全面考虑“信达雅”的要求，结合原文的语境和语用特征，采用合适的翻译策略和方法，以实现译文在意义、表达和文化三个方面的等值转换。同时，译者还需要不断学习和提高自己的语言能力和翻译水平，以更好地实现“信达雅”的翻译标准。
As a standard and principle of translation,"faithfulness and elegance" embodies the core requirements of translation. Among them, faithfulness is the basis and premise of translation, which requires the translator to be faithful to the original text and accurately convey the information and intention of the original text; attainment is the goal and requirement of translation, which requires the translator to pay attention to the fluency and readability of the translation on the basis of ensuring the accurate transmission of the original meaning; elegance is the pursuit and realm of translation, which requires the translator to pay attention to the literariness and artistry of the translation in the process of translation, so that the translation is faithful to the original text and has certain beauty and attraction. In translation practice, translators should fully consider the requirements of "faithfulness and elegance", combine the context and pragmatic features of the source text, and adopt appropriate translation strategies and methods to achieve equivalence transformation in meaning, expression and culture. At the same time, translators need to constantly learn and improve their language ability and translation level in order to better achieve the translation standard of "faithfulness and elegance".

五不翻

玄奘大师提出的“五不翻”原则，在翻译佛经时具有指导意义。
The principle of "five non-translation" put forward by Master Xuanzang has guiding significance in translating Buddhist scriptures.

一、秘密故不翻解释：当某些词汇或概念含有秘密或神秘的含义时，采用音译而非意译，以保持其神秘性和特殊性。示例：咒语、陀罗尼等，这些词汇如果采用意译，可能会失去其原有的神秘性和特殊意义。二、多义故不翻解释：当某些词汇在原文中具有多种含义，且这些含义在目标语言中难以找到等价的词汇来表达时，采用音译。示例：梵语“bhagavat 薄伽梵”一词具有六种意义，包括自在、炽盛、端严、名称、吉祥、尊贵等，这些意义在汉语中难以找到完全等价的词汇，因此采用音译。三、此无故不翻解释：当某些词汇在原文中描述的事物或概念在目标语言的文化或环境中不存在时，采用音译。示例：如“阎浮树”，这是一种只产于印度的树，中国没有，因此采用音译。四、顺古故不翻解释：当某些词汇或概念的翻译在历史上已经形成了固定的用法，且这种用法已被广大读者接受和认可时，不再改变其翻译方式。示例：“阿耨多罗三藐三菩提”一词，虽然可以再进行意译，但古人已经一直沿用此翻译，故不再改变。五、生善故不翻解释：当某些词汇或概念的翻译采用音译而非意译时，能够产生更好的文化或道德效果，使人产生向善之心或更高的敬意。示例：“般若”一词，并不直接翻译为“智慧”，因为“般若”的意义高于“智慧”，更能使人生发出向善向上之心，并使人对般若产生一种更高的敬意。归纳起来，“五不翻”原则体现了玄奘大师在翻译佛经时的严谨态度和深思熟虑，他希望通过这一原则确保佛经翻译的准确性、神秘性、文化性和道德性。这一原则不仅对佛经翻译有指导意义，也对其他领域的翻译工作具有一定的参考价值。
When some words or concepts contain secret or mysterious meanings, transliteration is used instead of free translation to maintain their mystery and particularity. Examples: incantation, durani, etc. These words may lose their original mystery and special meaning if they are translated freely. When some words have multiple meanings in the original text, and these meanings are difficult to find equivalent words to express in the target language, transliteration is used. Example: The Sanskrit word bhagavat has six meanings, including freedom, prosperity, extreme strictness, name, auspicious, noble, etc. These meanings are difficult to find completely equivalent words in Chinese, so they are transliterated. When words describe things or concepts that do not exist in the culture or environment of the target language, transliteration is used. For example: "Yanfu tree", this is a tree only found in India, China does not, so use transliteration. When the translation of certain words or concepts has formed a fixed usage in history, and this usage has been accepted and recognized by the majority of readers, it will not change its translation method. Example: Although the word "Anudora Sanyao Sanbodhi" can be translated freely, the ancients have always used this translation, so they will not change it. When some words or concepts are translated in transliteration rather than free translation, they can produce better cultural or moral effects, and make people have a good heart or higher respect. Example: The word "Prajna" is not directly translated as "wisdom", because the meaning of "Prajna" is higher than "wisdom", which can make life send out a good heart and make people have a higher respect for Prajna. To sum up, the principle of "five non-translation" reflects Master Xuanzang's careful attitude and consideration in translating Buddhist scriptures, and he hopes to ensure the accuracy, mystery, culture and morality of Buddhist scriptures translation through this principle. This principle not only has guiding significance for Buddhist translation, but also has certain reference value for translation work in other fields.

三美

许渊冲教授是汉语古体诗（即格律诗）英译的大家,他提出了诗体译诗的"三美"论标准,主张译诗在意、音、形三个层面上尽量转递 [3]和保存原诗的神韵。古诗英译"三美"论标准与五四新文化运动中新月派新诗革命"三美"论主张之间有承递的关系,"三美"论标准在许渊冲翻译实践中也有得失。
Professor Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator of classical Chinese poetry, proposed the criteria of "three beauties" for translating classical Chinese poetry into English, and advocated that translated poetry should transmit and preserve the charm of the original poem in three aspects: idea, sound and form. There is a continuity between the standard of "three beauties" in translating ancient Chinese poems into English and the "three beauties" advocated by the New Moon School in the May 4th New Culture Movement. The standard of "three beauties" also has gains and losses in Xu Yuanchong's translation practice.

一、意美（Meaning Beauty）

解释：意美强调翻译要传达原文的意境和情感，使译文能够像原文一样感动读者的心。这要求译者深入理解原文，准确把握原文的意象和情感，并用恰当的语言表达出来。
Interpretation: Italian beauty emphasizes that translation should convey the artistic conception and emotion of the original, so that the translation can move the reader's heart as the original. This requires the translator to understand the original text deeply, grasp the images and emotions of the original text accurately, and express them in appropriate language.

重要性：意美是“三美”原则中最重要的一环，因为只有首先做到意美，才能进一步追求音美和形美。如果译文在意义上与原文产生偏差或缺失，那么音美和形美就失去了基础。
Importance: Italian beauty is the most important link in the principle of "three beauties", because only by achieving Italian beauty first can we further pursue the beauty of sound and shape. If there is deviation or absence in the meaning of the translation from the original, the beauty of sound and form will lose its foundation.

二、音美（Sound Beauty）
2. Sound Beauty

解释：音美要求译文在音韵上要与原文相协调，尽可能保持原文的韵律和节奏。这包括押韵、平仄、声调等方面的考虑。
Interpretation: Sound beauty requires that the translated text be harmonized with the original in phonology, and that the rhythm and rhythm of the original text be maintained as much as possible. This includes consideration of rhyme, tone and intonation.

重要性：音美是翻译中不可或缺的一部分，特别是在翻译诗词时。因为诗词往往具有优美的音韵和节奏，如果译文不能很好地传达原文的音韵美，那么译文就会失去很多魅力。
Importance: Sound is an indispensable part of translation, especially in poetry. Because poetry often has beautiful rhyme and rhythm, if the translation can not convey the original rhyme beauty well, then the translation will lose a lot of charm.

三、形美（Form Beauty）
Form Beauty (Form Beauty)

解释：形美要求译文在形式上要与原文相接近，尽可能保持原文的句式、段落和篇章结构。这包括诗行长度、句子结构、对仗工整等方面的考虑。
Interpretation: beauty of form requires that the translation be close to the original in form, keeping the sentence patterns, paragraphs and text structures of the original as much as possible. This includes line length, sentence structure and antithesis.

重要性：形美虽然在“三美”原则中排在最后，但同样不可忽视。因为形式也是文本美的一个重要组成部分，如果译文在形式上与原文相差甚远，那么就会给读者带来阅读上的不便和困惑。
Importance: Although the beauty of shape ranks last in the principle of "three beauties", it cannot be ignored either. Because form is also an important part of the beauty of text, if the translation is far from the original in form, it will bring inconvenience and confusion to readers.

归纳起来，“三美”原则在翻译中追求的是译文在意义、音韵和形式上的全面美。这一原则要求译者在翻译过程中要全面考虑原文的特点和风格，用恰当的语言和形式表达出来，使译文既忠实于原文又具有一定的艺术价值。同时，“三美”原则也体现了翻译工作的复杂性和挑战性，需要译者具备较高的语言能力和审美能力。
To sum up, the principle of "three beauties" in translation seeks the overall beauty of the translation in meaning, phonology and form. This principle requires the translator to fully consider the characteristics and style of the original text in the process of translation, and to express it in appropriate language and form, so that the translation is faithful to the original text and has certain artistic value. At the same time, the principle of "three beauties" also reflects the complexity and challenge of translation work, which requires translators to have high language ability and aesthetic ability.

善译

一、马建忠与《马氏文通》
I. Ma Jianzhong and Ma Shi Wen Tong

马建忠，一位精通英、法、希腊、拉丁等多国语言的学者，凭借其在语言学上的深厚造诣，创作了《马氏文通》这一划时代的著作。
Ma Jianzhong, a scholar proficient in English, French, Greek, Latin and other languages, with his profound attainments in linguistics, created Ma's Wentong, an epoch-making work.

《马氏文通》是中国第一部全面系统的语法学著作，也是中西方文化开始结合的产物。该书在汉语语法研究上具有重要的开创之功，受到了梁启超等维新派人物的热情称颂。
Ma Shi Wen Tong is the first comprehensive and systematic grammar work in China, and it is also the product of the combination of Chinese and Western cultures. This book has an important pioneering contribution to the study of Chinese grammar and has been warmly praised by Liang Qichao and other reformers.

二、《马氏文通》中的“善译”思想
II. The idea of "good translation" in Ma Shi Wen Tong

深入研究：马建忠在《马氏文通》中提出“善译”之说，强调要达到“善译”，必须对译与所译两种语言都深有研究，甚至对各自文字的字源及其异同也深入考察。
In-depth study: Ma Jianzhong put forward the theory of "good translation" in Ma Shi Wen Tong, emphasizing that in order to achieve "good translation", it is necessary to deeply study both the translation and the translated language, and even to deeply investigate the word origin and similarities and differences of each text.

精准翻译：他提出的“善译”标准，是力求与原文在意思上无一毫出入，而且使读者读了译文后能达到与读原文者相同的感受。这一提法与现代等值翻译理论非常接近。
Accurate translation: His standard of "good translation" is to strive for no difference in meaning from the original, and to make readers feel the same as the readers of the original after reading the translation. This formulation is very close to modern equivalence translation theory.

文化研究：马建忠在翻译时，充分考虑原文的音调、文句的繁简、文体的变化以及义理精微之所在等，这些已经涉及风格学、文法学、修辞学，以致进入一般文化研究的领域。
Cultural studies: Ma Jianzhong fully considers the tone of the original text, the complexity of sentences, the change of style and the subtlety of meaning, etc., which have already involved stylistics, grammar and rhetoric, so that they enter the field of general cultural studies.

三、马建忠的翻译实践
III. Ma Jianzhong's Translation Practice

在招商局的历史中，马建忠以其出色的外交才能和语言学造诣，为招商局的创立和发展做出了重要贡献。
In the history of China Merchants Bureau, Ma Jianzhong made important contributions to the establishment and development of China Merchants Bureau with his outstanding diplomatic ability and linguistic attainments.

在翻译工作中，他凭借对中西语言的深刻理解，成功地将西方先进的科技和文化引入中国，推动了中西文化的交流与融合。
In his translation work, he successfully introduced advanced western science and technology and culture into China by virtue of his profound understanding of Chinese and Western languages, and promoted the exchange and integration of Chinese and Western cultures.

四、总结
IV. Summary

“马氏文通善译”不仅体现在其深厚的语言学造诣和翻译理论上，更体现在其翻译实践中。他通过深入研究两种语言的文化背景和语言特点，力求在翻译中达到精准、传神的效果，使译文能够准确地传达原文的意义和风格。这种“善译”的精神和追求，对于后世的翻译工作者具有重要的启示意义。
Ma's good translation skills are embodied not only in his profound linguistic attainments and translation theories, but also in his translation practice. By studying the cultural background and linguistic features of the two languages, he strives to achieve accurate and vivid translation results, so that the translation can accurately convey the meaning and style of the original text. This spirit and pursuit of "good translation" is of great significance to later translators.

八备

隋代高僧彦琮提出的关于佛经翻译者所应具备的八种条件或修养。以下是对这“八备”的详细解释：
Yan Cong, an eminent monk of Sui Dynasty, put forward eight conditions or self-cultivation that a translator of Buddhist scriptures should possess. The following is a detailed explanation of this "eight preparations":

诚心爱法，志愿益人：翻译者应对所翻译的文本有深厚的热爱，并立志帮助那些不懂原文的人。他们应该有献身翻译事业的精神，不怕长时间的工作。
Sincere love of the law, voluntary benefit: translators should have a deep love for the translated text and be determined to help those who do not understand the original text. They should have the spirit to devote themselves to translation and not be afraid of working long hours.

将践觉场，先牢戒足：在从事翻译工作之前，翻译者应确保自己遵守一切戒规，并具有良好的品德修养。
Before engaging in translation work, translators should ensure that they observe all the precepts and have good moral cultivation.

筌晓三藏，义贯两乘：翻译者需要通晓经、律、论三藏以及大小两乘的深玄义理。这样，他们才能译出意义允当、通畅明达的经文。
The translator needs to understand the profound principles of sutras, laws, treatises on the Sanzang and the two great and small vehicles. So that they can translate the text properly and clearly.

旁涉坟史，工缀典词：翻译者应博览中国的经史，对用典遣词有适切的运用，不至拙于应付。
The translator should read extensively the classics and history of China, and make proper use of the words used in allusions, so as not to be clumsy in dealing with them.

襟抱平恕，器重虚融：翻译者应有忠恕之心，虚怀若谷，能够集思广益，不至固执己见。
The translator should be loyal and forgiving, open-minded, able to brainstorm ideas and not stubborn.

耽于道术，澹于名利：翻译者应崇信道术，淡泊名利，一心弘扬佛法，决不好高立异。
The translator should believe in Taoism, be indifferent to fame and wealth, and devote himself to promoting Buddhism. He should never be arrogant.

要识梵言，乃闲正译：翻译者需要精通梵文，明悉译事，以确保译文的准确性。
Translators need to be proficient in Sanskrit and understand the translation clearly to ensure the accuracy of the translation.

薄阅苍雅，粗谙篆隶：翻译者应有良好的国学根基，对古辞书与文字学有相当的研究，以确保译文的文从字顺。
The translator should have a good foundation in traditional Chinese studies and a considerable study of ancient dictionaries and philology to ensure that the translation is in order.

五失本 三不易
Five loses, three loses

东晋时期，苻秦高僧道安总结历代译经的成败得失，在《摩诃钵罗若波罗蜜经抄序》中提出“五失本”“三不易”的见解，对如何忠实地传达佛经原义作出具体的规范和要求。所谓“五失本”，即“一者，胡语尽倒而使从秦，一失本也。二者，胡经尚质，秦人好文，传可众心，非文不合，斯二失本也。三者，胡经委悉至于叹咏，丁宁反复，或三或四，不嫌其烦，而今裁斥，三失本也。四者，胡有义记，正似乱辞，寻说句语，文无以异，或千五百，刈而不存，四失本也。五者，事已全成，将更傍及，反腾前辞已，乃后说而悉除，此五失本也”。它涉及梵、汉文字间的语序问题、修辞问题、文风的简繁问题、文体问题、叙述问题等。简言之，翻译者不可随意增删原文，不可为了让读者满意而牺牲佛经原义。所谓“三不易”，即“然《般若经》，三达之心，覆面所演。圣必因时，时俗有易，而删雅古，以适今时，一不易也；愚智天隔，圣人叵阶，乃欲以千岁之上微言，传使合百王之下末俗，二不易也；阿难出经，去佛未久，尊者大迦叶令五百六通，迭察迭书；今离千年，而以近意量裁，彼阿罗汉乃兢兢若此，此生死人而平平若此，岂将不知法者勇乎？斯三不易也。”它讲的是由于时代语境、读者变化以及翻译者自身素质等原因，造成的译经之难。如果说，“五失本”着眼的重点是翻译的空间性，那么“三不易”关注的焦点便是翻译的时间性，二者的结合生动地体现出道安高超的翻译思维，为当时的佛经翻译确立了基本原则。
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Dao An, an eminent monk of Fu Qin Dynasty, summed up the success and failure of the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the past dynasties, and put forward the opinions of "five lost roots" and "three unchangeable" in the Preface of Mahabhara-Paramita Sutra, and made specific norms and requirements on how to faithfully convey the original meaning of Buddhist scriptures. The so-called "five lost this", that is,"one, Hu language down and make from Qin, a loss of this also." The two, Hu Jing still high quality, Qin people love literature, spread can be popular, not literature does not agree, this is the two lost the original. Three, Hu Jing learned to sigh, Ding Ning repeated, or three or four, do not mind its annoyance, now cut reprimand, three lost the original. The fourth is that Hu has a righteous record, which is just like a random word. After saying something, there is no difference in the text. Some thousand and five hundred words are cut off and do not exist. The fourth is to lose the original. The five of them are the ones who will be left behind, and the ones who will be left behind." It involves the problems of word order, rhetoric, simplified and complex style, style and narration between Sanskrit and Chinese characters. In short, the translator should not add or delete the original text at will, and should not sacrifice the original meaning of the sutra for the satisfaction of the reader. The third verse is,"The heart of the Lord is in the midst of the darkness." The sage must change according to the times, and the customs of the times have changed, and the elegant ancient times are deleted to suit the present times. One is not easy; Ignorance and wisdom are separated by heaven, and the sage is divided into different levels. He wants to use the words of a thousand years above to pass on the lowest customs of a hundred kings, and the other is not easy. Ananda came out of the scriptures. Not long after he left Buddhism, the Venerable Great Kasyapa ordered 560 passages to examine and write repeatedly. Now, a thousand years ago, he measured with his own mind. The arhat trembled like this. The dead of this life was as ordinary as this. Will he be brave as those who do not know the law? It's not easy." It talks about the difficulties in translating scriptures caused by the context of the times, the change of readers and the translator's own quality. If the focus of "Five Losses" is on the spatial nature of translation, then the focus of "Three Buyi" is on the temporal nature of translation. The combination of the two vividly reflects Dao An's superb translation thinking and establishes the basic principles for Buddhist scripture translation at that time.

然而，“五失本”与“三不易”又不仅仅是单纯的翻译原则。考虑到历史情境及相关“原则”提出的时代背景，“五失本”与“三不易”的提出似乎更具阐释学效果。道安生活的年代，玄学大兴，老庄之“道”经王弼等人的解释更多地以“无”的形象出现在世人面前，“贵道虚无”思想在社会中颇为盛行。道安深知，要使佛教能在中国流传，必须使之与本土的时代文化相适应，于是他引玄入释，用魏晋玄学本末、有无等基本概念，从本体论的角度，去理解、注释和阐明佛学。同时，道安还有着自己的人生抱负，想要借用“入世”的禅学，以“崇本”的形式解决人们的信仰问题，强调佛教所谓的“开物成务”，即“使天下兼忘我”。于是，他的翻译理论中自然会注入某些“哲学”元素。
However,"Five Losses" and "Three Unchangeable" are not merely translation principles. Considering the historical context and the background of the times when the relevant "principles" were put forward, it seems that the "five lost roots" and "three unchangeable" are more hermeneutical. Dao An lived in the era of metaphysics, Lao Zhuang's "Tao" by Wang Bi and other people's interpretation of more "nothing" image appeared in front of the world,"noble Tao nihility" thought is quite popular in society. Dao an knew that if buddhism was to spread in china, it must be adapted to the local culture of the times, so he introduced metaphysics into interpretation, using the basic concepts of metaphysics in wei and jin dynasties, such as origin and end, existence and nonexistence, to understand, annotate and clarify buddhism from the angle of ontology. At the same time, Dao An also has his own ambition in life. He wants to solve people's belief problems in the form of "worshipping the root" by borrowing the Zen of "entering the world", emphasizing the so-called "opening things into affairs" of Buddhism, that is,"making the world and selfless". Therefore, his translation theory will naturally inject some "philosophical" elements.

可以追问，“五失本”中的“本”到底是何物？按一般的说法，翻译活动中的“本”乃指“原文”，但原文却又包括内容与形式两个方面。道安虽在“失本”的论述中，将“本”最终定位于“旨”“意”，即佛经的原文内容和意义。但他又强调，句法、文本、风格等是佛经的一种“有意味的形式”，删去不译亦为“失本”，即抛弃这些就等于失去佛经本真。换言之，在佛经翻译中，原典的真理意蕴远比读者的习惯更为重要。这实际上可理解为一种讲求言意一致、文质同一的语言哲学思想——形式即内容，失去形式也就是失去了内容。这亦符合“贵无论”的思路——本体是一种非具体的、超乎概念的存在。佛教的传译，本身即体现着两种不同话语、文化之间的对话，“本”的“失”与“不失”显然已涉及语言的解释与理解问题，在抽象的思辨中，翻译的阐释学属性被放大了。
You can ask, what is the "Ben" in the "Five Lost Ben"? Generally speaking,"Ben" in translation activities refers to "original text", but the original text includes both content and form. Dao An, in his discussion of "losing the essence," finally defined "essence" as "purpose" and "meaning", i.e. the original content and meaning of Buddhist scriptures. However, he emphasized that syntax, text and style are "meaningful forms" of Buddhist scriptures, and deleting them without translation is also "losing the original", that is, abandoning them is equivalent to losing the true nature of Buddhist scriptures. In other words, in Buddhist translation, the truth implication of the source text is far more important than the habits of the reader. In fact, this can be understood as a kind of linguistic philosophy that stresses the consistency of speech and meaning and the same text and quality. Form means content, and losing form means losing content. This is also consistent with the idea of "no matter"-ontology is a non-concrete, beyond the concept of existence. Buddhist translation itself embodies the dialogue between two different discourses and cultures. The "loss" and "loss" of "Ben" obviously involve the interpretation and understanding of language. In abstract speculation, the hermeneutical attribute of translation is amplified.

再看“三不易”，从字面理解，其强调的乃是勿轻易以古适今、勿轻易以浅代深、勿轻易臆度原典等。但细细品味又可见其中的端倪：首句“然《般若经》三达之心，覆面所演”，乃承接“五失本”而言，突出佛经的意义具有普遍适应性，“覆面所演”可让不同时代的不同人体悟宇宙与人生的真谛；二句强调“圣必因时”，即佛教教义的解释应适应时代；三句重点在“乃欲以千岁之上微言，传使合百王之下末俗”，即佛经意义的阐发要通俗化、大众化；四句实言阐释者的品行，即要心怀敬畏、知难而进。佛经的翻译不仅是“传四方之语”，更是“通千年之言”，并统摄经典原义、读者领悟之意等多个内容。如此，翻译佛经的现实意义亦得以彰显——让世人体认佛性“不变”的真理。
Then look at the "three not easy", from the literal understanding, its emphasis is not easy to use the ancient to this, not easy to use shallow instead of deep, not easy to assume the original code and so on. However, we can see the clues after careful taste: the first sentence "However, the heart of the three reaches of the Prajna Sutra is performed on the surface", which is to continue the "five lost roots" and highlight the universal adaptability of the meaning of the Buddhist scriptures."The performance of the surface" can make different people understand the true meaning of the universe and life in different times; the second sentence emphasizes that "the saint must be in accordance with the time", that is, the interpretation of Buddhist teachings should adapt to the times; The three sentences focus on "is intended to be a thousand years above the subtle words, so that the end of the common under the hundred kings", that is, the interpretation of the meaning of Buddhist scriptures should be popularized and popularized; the conduct of the four-sentence interpreter, that is, to fear, know difficulties and advance. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is not only "spreading the language of the four directions", but also "communicating the words of thousands of years", and controlling many contents such as the original meaning of the classics and the understanding of readers. In this way, the practical significance of translating Buddhist scriptures can also be revealed--let the world realize the truth of "unchanged" Buddha nature.

道安的“五失本”“三不易”之说影响深远。从东晋后期至南北朝，法显、法勇、智严等僧人，正是遵照道安开创的“中国式”翻译阐释原则，西行取经后，打破梵僧、胡僧对译经的垄断，在不失佛经原义的基础上，以“汉语”话“梵语”，让印度佛经通过翻译而走入一种新的语言世界，让佛教教义通过阐释义解而进入中国佛教徒的日常生活。自此，佛典汉译纷乱无序状态，译本质量参差不齐现象得到一定缓解。更为重要的是，中国佛学阐释学亦迎来自己最初的范式。
Dao An's theory of "Five Losses" and "Three Difficulties" has far-reaching influence. From the late Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, monks such as Fa Xian, Fa Yong and Zhi Yan broke the monopoly of Buddhist monks and Hu monks on the translation of Buddhist scriptures after following the principle of "Chinese style" translation and interpretation initiated by Dao An. On the basis of not losing the original meaning of Buddhist scriptures, they translated Indian Buddhist scriptures into a new language world by using "Chinese" and "Sanskrit", so that Buddhist doctrines entered the daily life of Chinese Buddhists through interpretation. From then on, the disorder of Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures and the uneven quality of translation have been alleviated to some extent. More importantly, Chinese Buddhist hermeneutics also ushered in its own initial paradigm.

神似

傅雷的“神似说”是他在翻译实践中提出的一个重要理论，其核心观点在于追求译文与原文在精神、神韵上的高度相似，而非仅仅局限于字句的表面对应。以下是对傅雷“神似说”的详细解析：一、理论核心傅雷的“神似说”强调在翻译过程中，应追求译文与原文在精神上的契合，而非形式上的对应。他认为，翻译不仅仅是语言的转换，更是文化的传递和思想的交流。因此，在翻译时，应深入理解原文的内涵和精髓，将其中的思想、情感和意境准确地传达给目标读者。二、实践方法深入研读原文：傅雷认为，要实现“神似”的翻译，首先要对原文进行深入的研读和理解。只有深入理解原文的内涵和精髓，才能准确把握其思想和情感，为后续的翻译工作奠定基础。尊重原文风格：在翻译过程中，傅雷强调要尊重原文的风格和特点。他认为，不同的文学作品具有不同的风格特点，翻译时应尽可能保留原文的风格特色，使译文在形式上与原文保持一定的相似性。创造性翻译：为了实现“神似”的翻译，傅雷提倡在尊重原文的基础上进行创造性翻译。他认为，翻译不仅仅是语言的转换，更是对原文的再创造。在翻译时，应根据目标读者的文化背景和阅读习惯，采用适当的翻译技巧和策略，使译文在表达上更加流畅、自然、生动。三、影响与评价傅雷的“神似说”在翻译界产生了深远的影响。他的这一理论不仅为中国翻译界提供了一种新的翻译理念和思路，也为后来的翻译实践提供了重要的指导和借鉴。同时，傅雷的“神似说”也受到了广泛的认可和评价，被誉为中国翻译思想史上的重要理论之一。总之，傅雷的“神似说”是一种追求译文与原文在精神、神韵上高度相似的翻译理论。在实践中，他通过深入研读原文、尊重原文风格和创造性翻译等方法，实现了对原文的准确传达和再创造。这一理论不仅具有重要的理论价值和实践意义，也为中国翻译界的发展做出了重要贡献。
Fu Lei's theory of "spiritual likeness" is an important theory put forward by him in translation practice. Its core point lies in the pursuit of high similarity between the translated text and the original text in spirit and spirit, rather than just the superficial correspondence of words and sentences. The following is a detailed analysis of Fu Lei's theory of "spiritual likeness": First, the theoretical core Fu Lei's theory of "spiritual likeness" emphasizes that in the process of translation, the translation should be in conformity with the original in spirit, rather than in form. He believes that translation is not only the transformation of language, but also the transmission of culture and the exchange of ideas. Therefore, in translation, we should deeply understand the connotation and essence of the original text, and accurately convey the thoughts, emotions and artistic conception to the target readers. Fu Lei believes that in order to realize the translation of "divine likeness", we must first study and understand the original text in depth. Only by understanding the connotation and essence of the original text can we accurately grasp its thoughts and feelings and lay a foundation for subsequent translation work. Respect for the style of the original text: In the translation process, Fu Lei stressed the need to respect the style and characteristics of the original text. He believes that different literary works have different stylistic features, and translation should keep the stylistic features of the original as much as possible so that the translation can maintain certain similarities with the original in form. Creative translation: Fu Lei advocates creative translation on the basis of respecting the original text in order to achieve "divine likeness" in translation. He believes that translation is not only the transformation of language, but also the re-creation of the original text. In translation, appropriate translation skills and strategies should be adopted according to the cultural background and reading habits of the target readers to make the translation more fluent, natural and vivid in expression. 3. Influence and Evaluation Fu Lei's theory of "spiritual likeness" has exerted a profound influence on translation. His theory not only provides a new translation concept and train of thought for Chinese translation circles, but also provides important guidance and reference for later translation practice. Meanwhile, Fu Lei's theory of "spiritual likeness" has been widely accepted and evaluated, and is regarded as one of the most important theories in the history of Chinese translation thought. In a word, Fu Lei's theory of "spiritual likeness" is a translation theory that seeks to achieve a high degree of similarity in spirit and charm between the translated text and the original text. In practice, he realized the accurate transmission and re-creation of the original text by studying the original text deeply, respecting the style of the original text and translating creatively. This theory is not only of great theoretical value and practical significance, but also makes great contributions to the development of Chinese translation circles.

因循本旨，不加文饰
Follow the original intention without decoration

主要来源于三国时期支谦的《法句经序》，是支谦在佛经翻译过程中提出的一种重要译经原则。下面我将从几个方面详细解释这一原则：定义：“因循本旨”意味着在翻译过程中，译者应严格遵循原文的主旨和核心思想，不随意偏离或改变。“不加文饰”则指在翻译时，避免过度修饰或添加原文中没有的内容，保持译文的简洁和准确。应用背景：这一原则是在佛经翻译的背景下提出的，强调了对原文忠实度的追求，同时也反映了当时翻译界对于译文准确性和可读性的关注。实践方法：译者需深入研读原文，准确理解其主旨和核心思想。在翻译过程中，保持对原文的忠实度，不随意添加或删减内容。避免使用过于华丽或复杂的词汇，保持译文的简洁和清晰。影响与评价：“因循本旨，不加文饰”这一原则对后来的翻译实践产生了深远的影响，成为翻译界普遍遵循的准则之一。这一原则强调了对原文忠实度的追求，有助于提高译文的准确性和可信度。同时，通过保持译文的简洁和清晰，有助于提高译文的可读性和易于理解性。
The preface to Buddhist scriptures mainly originated from Zhi Qian's book in the Three Kingdoms Period, which is an important translation principle put forward by Zhi Qian in the process of Buddhist scriptures translation. Definition: "Following the original intention" means that in the process of translation, the translator should strictly follow the main idea and core idea of the original text, and should not deviate or change at will. "Unadorned" means that in translation, avoid excessive modification or add content that is not in the original text, and maintain the brevity and accuracy of the translation. Background: This principle is proposed in the context of Buddhist translation, emphasizing the pursuit of fidelity to the original text and reflecting the concern of the translation community at that time for accuracy and readability. Practical method: Translators need to study the original text deeply to understand its main idea and core idea accurately. In the process of translation, keep the fidelity to the original text, do not add or delete content at will. Avoid using overly flowery or complex words and keep the translation concise and clear. Influence and evaluation: the principle of "following the original intention without decoration" has exerted a profound influence on the later translation practice and has become one of the universally followed principles in translation circles. This principle emphasizes the pursuit of fidelity to the original text and helps to improve the accuracy and credibility of the translation. At the same time, by keeping the translation concise and clear, it helps to improve the readability and understandability of the translation.

如何理解翻译作为一种文化塑形的力量？
How to understand translation as a cultural shaping force?

1. 翻译引介外来文化,丰富和改变了本土文化的内涵。
1. Translation introduces foreign culture, enriches and changes the connotation of native culture.

通过翻译,一个民族可以全面、系统地了解和吸收其他国家和民族的文化遗产,包括文学、哲学、宗教、科学技术等各个领域的重要著作。这些译作为本土文化注入了新的内容和元素,拓宽了文化视野,催生了新的文化观念,推动了文化的发展与变革。
Through translation, a nation can comprehensively and systematically understand and absorb the cultural heritage of other countries and nations, including important works in literature, philosophy, religion, science and technology, and other fields. As native cultures, these translations inject new contents and elements, broaden cultural horizons, give birth to new cultural concepts, and promote cultural development and transformation.

以佛经翻译为例,佛教通过翻译传入中国后,不仅丰富了中国的宗教文化,也深刻影响了中国的哲学思想、文学艺术、风俗习惯等诸多方面,成为中华文化不可分割的一部分。再如明清之际西学东渐,西方科学技术和社会政治思想通过翻译进入中国,既带来了先进的科学知识,也引发了思想文化的变革,对中国近代社会发展产生了深远影响。
Taking Buddhist scriptures translation as an example, Buddhism not only enriched Chinese religious culture but also profoundly influenced Chinese philosophy, literature and art, customs and customs, becoming an inseparable part of Chinese culture. Another example is the spread of western learning to the east between the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Western science and technology and social and political thoughts entered China through translation, which not only brought advanced scientific knowledge, but also triggered ideological and cultural changes, which had a profound impact on the development of modern Chinese society.

2. 翻译推动了思想观念的交流碰撞和更新变革。
2. Translation promotes the exchange, collision and renewal of ideas.

不同国家和民族在哲学、宗教、科学等领域有着不同的思想理念和文化传统。通过翻译,这些思想可以跨越国界和语言的藩篱,相互交流、碰撞、激荡,产生新的火花和革命性的影响,形成新的文化思潮和精神风貌。
Different countries and nations have different ideological concepts and cultural traditions in philosophy, religion, science and other fields. Through translation, these ideas can cross national boundaries and language barriers, communicate, collide and stir with each other, produce new sparks and revolutionary influences, and form new cultural trends and spiritual features.

以明末清初西学东渐为例,西方的科学知识和民主思想通过翻译著作传入中国,冲击了中国传统的宇宙观和君主专制思想,启发了中国知识分子的觉醒和变革,促进了中国近代启蒙思想的发展,推动了社会变革。类似的例子还有日本明治维新时期大量翻译西方著作,对日本思想文化和社会发展产生了深刻影响。
Taking the spreading of western learning to the east at the end of Ming Dynasty and the beginning of Qing Dynasty as an example, western scientific knowledge and democratic thought were introduced into China through translated works, which impacted Chinese traditional cosmology and autocratic monarchy thought, inspired the awakening and reform of Chinese intellectuals, promoted the development of Chinese modern enlightenment thought, and promoted social reform. A similar example is the translation of a large number of Western works during the Meiji Restoration in Japan, which had a profound impact on Japanese ideological culture and social development.

3. 翻译创造了新的表现形式和文学样式。
3. Translation creates new forms of expression and literary styles.

不同语言有着不同的表达方式和修辞习惯,在翻译过程中,译者往往需要打破原有语言的束缚,创造新的表现手法和语言形式,以更好地再现原作的内容和风格。这种语言和形式的创新,可能催生新的文体和流派,引领文学创作的新潮流。
Different languages have different ways of expression and rhetorical conventions. In the process of translation, translators often need to break the shackles of the original language and create new expressions and language forms to better reproduce the content and style of the original. This kind of innovation of language and form may give birth to new styles and schools, leading the new trend of literary creation.

以中国近代新诗的诞生为例,新诗形式的确立与域外诗歌的翻译密不可分。梁启超、胡适等人通过大量翻译和介绍欧美现代诗歌,将西方诗歌的自由体形式、白话语言、新的意象等引入中国,开启了新诗创作的先河,奠定了新诗的基本样式。鲁迅的小说《狂人日记》借鉴了外国小说的日记体和意识流手法,开创了中国现代小说的新局面。
Taking the birth of Chinese modern poetry as an example, the establishment of new poetry form is closely related to the translation of foreign poetry. Liang Qichao, Hu Shi and others introduced the free form, vernacular language and new images of western poetry into China by translating and introducing a large number of European and American modern poems, which opened the precedent of new poetry creation and laid the basic style of new poetry. Lu Xun's novel Madman's Diary draws lessons from the diary style and stream of consciousness technique of foreign novels and initiates a new situation of Chinese modern novels.

4. 翻译参与了民族语言和书面语的发展演变。
4. Translation participates in the development and evolution of national languages and written languages.

翻译引入外来词汇、语法结构、修辞方式等,丰富了民族语言的表达能力,推动了语言的发展与革新。同时,翻译也促进了书面语言的规范和变革。
Translation introduces foreign words, grammatical structures and rhetorical methods, which enriches the expressive ability of national languages and promotes the development and innovation of languages. At the same time, translation also promotes the standardization and transformation of written language.

以近代汉语的演变为例,西方概念和术语大量涌入,出现了许多新词新语,如"经济""社会""科学""民主"等,极大地丰富了汉语词汇。《新青年》等进步刊物大量刊载翻译作品,推广白话文,促进了白话文运动的发展,推动了现代汉语的形成。
Taking the evolution of modern Chinese as an example, western concepts and terms poured into China in large numbers, and many new words and phrases appeared, such as "economy,""society,""science,""democracy," etc., which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. New Youth and other progressive publications published a large number of translated works, promoted the development of the vernacular movement, and promoted the formation of modern Chinese.

再如文学复兴时期,大量希腊罗马古典名著重新被翻译,拉丁语的语法和修辞被吸收,推动了欧洲各国民族语言的文学语言的形成和发展。
Another example is the literary renaissance, when a large number of Greek and Roman classics were translated again, and Latin grammar and rhetoric were absorbed, which promoted the formation and development of literary languages in European national languages.

5. 翻译深刻影响了民族文学的发展方向。
5. Translation profoundly influences the development direction of ethnic literature.

域外文学的翻译为本民族文学提供了全新的表现模式、叙事技巧、题材内容和审美情趣,开阔了文学创作的视野,引导了文学的发展方向,催生了许多新的文学流派。
The translation of foreign literature provides a brand-new mode of expression, narrative skills, subject matter and aesthetic taste for national literature, broadens the vision of literary creation, guides the development direction of literature, and gives birth to many new literary schools.

以中国五四新文学运动为例,西方文学的大量翻译,特别是现实主义和浪漫主义文学的引进,深刻影响了中国新文学的发展方向。一大批作家受域外文学的影响,从题材内容到创作手法都发生了革命性的变化,现实主义、浪漫主义、象征主义等流派蓬勃兴起,出现了鲁迅、郭沫若、茅盾、郁达夫等一批文学大家,开创了中国新文学的新纪元。
Taking the May 4th Movement of New Literature as an example, the translation of western literature, especially the introduction of realism and romanticism, profoundly influenced the development direction of Chinese new literature. Influenced by foreign literature, a large number of writers have undergone revolutionary changes from subject matter to creative techniques. Realism, romanticism, symbolism and other schools have flourished, and a group of literary masters such as Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and Yu Dafu have emerged, creating a new era of Chinese new literature.

总之,翻译作为沟通不同语言和文化的桥梁,在人类文明交流史上发挥了不可替代的作用。它引介新的文化内容,孕育新的思想观念,创造新的表现形式,塑造新的语言面貌,引领新的文学潮流,深刻影响和改变着一个民族的精神风貌和文化品格。正如著名翻译家严复所言:"译事实与著述同功,译书之益较著书尤大。"翻译对一个民族文化的塑造和革新,功莫大焉。
In short, translation, as a bridge between different languages and cultures, has played an irreplaceable role in the history of human civilization exchanges. It introduces new cultural content, breeds new ideas, creates new forms of expression, shapes new language features, leads new literary trends, and profoundly influences and changes a nation's spiritual outlook and cultural character. As Yan Fu, a famous translator, said:"Translating facts and writing are equal, but translating books is more beneficial than writing books." "translation contributes greatly to shaping and innovating a nation's culture.

林纾不懂外语，却“翻译”了许多外国文学作品，你如何看待这一翻译现象？
Lin Shu does not understand foreign languages, but he has translated many foreign literary works. How do you view this translation phenomenon?

1. "口述笔录"翻译方式的利弊。
1. Advantages and disadvantages of oral transcription translation.

林纾采取"口述笔录"的翻译方式,即由助手魏易、王寿昌等人将原文口译成中文,林纾根据口述的内容进行意译和文学加工,这种方式在一定程度上弥补了林纾本人不懂外语的缺陷,但也存在一些问题。
Lin Shu adopted the translation method of "oral transcription," that is, his assistants Wei Yi and Wang Shouchang translated the original into Chinese, and Lin Shu translated freely and processed literature according to the oral content. This method made up for Lin Shu's lack of foreign language understanding to a certain extent, but there were still some problems.

首先,这种翻译方式对助手的语言能力和文学修养要求很高,助手需要准确理解原文,并用流畅的中文表达出来,才能为林纾的文学创作提供良好的素材。但实际上助手的外语能力和文学素养参差不齐,影响了翻译的质量。
First of all, this translation method requires high language ability and literary accomplishment of assistants. Assistants need to understand the original text accurately and express it in fluent Chinese in order to provide good materials for Lin Shu's literary creation. But in fact, the assistants 'foreign language ability and literary accomplishment are uneven, which affects the quality of translation.

其次,在口述过程中,原作的语言风格、艺术特色等难以完整传达,助手的个人理解也可能对原作产生误读,加上口述的即时性和不可逆性,使得翻译难以做到准确无误。
Secondly, in the process of dictation, it is difficult to convey the language style and artistic features of the original completely, and the personal understanding of the assistant may also misinterpret the original. In addition, the immediacy and irreversibility of dictation make it difficult to translate accurately.

再次,林纾在听取译文后进行再创作,虽然赋予了作品独特的文学风貌,但也可能偏离原作的本意,造成误译或过度改编。同时,由于缺乏原文对照,译文难以校订,错误难以发现和纠正。
Thirdly, Lin Shu's re-creation after listening to the translation may deviate from the original meaning and cause mistranslation or over-adaptation, although it endows his work with unique literary style. At the same time, due to the lack of original contrast, translation is difficult to revise, errors are difficult to find and correct.

因此,"口述笔录"的翻译方式虽然在特定条件下推动了林纾的翻译实践,但其固有的缺陷也影响了翻译的准确性和忠实性。
Therefore, although Lin Shu's translation of dictation promoted his translation practice under certain conditions, its inherent defects also affected the accuracy and fidelity of translation.

2. 林纾翻译的文学再创造特点。
2. Literary re-creation in lin shu's translation.

林纾的翻译侧重于文学性的再创造,他根据自己的文学修养和语言才华,对译文进行了深度的文学加工,使译作呈现出鲜明的古文语言风格和浓郁的中国古典文学韵味。
Lin Shu's translation lays stress on literary re-creation. According to his own literary cultivation and language talent, he has carried out profound literary processing on the translation, making the translation present a distinct style of ancient Chinese language and a strong flavor of Chinese classical literature.

首先,林纾擅长驾驭古文,他对译文进行了古文化的改写,用骈俪、对偶等古文句式和修辞重新塑造语言,给原本白话通俗的域外小说披上了古典文学的华美外衣。
First of all, Lin Shu is good at controlling ancient Chinese novels. He rewrites the translation of ancient culture and reshapes the language with ancient Chinese sentences and rhetoric, which puts the gorgeous coat of classical literature on the original popular foreign novels in vernacular.

其次,林纾还根据中国文学的叙事习惯,对原作的叙事结构和表现方式进行了调整,使译作更符合中国读者的阅读习惯和审美情趣。如在人物对话和心理描写上,林纾往往采用中国古典小说中的曲笔和衬托手法,突出人物性格和故事主题。
Secondly, Lin Shu adjusts the narrative structure and presentation of the original work according to the narrative habits of Chinese literature, so that the translation is more in line with the reading habits and aesthetic tastes of Chinese readers. For example, in the dialogue and psychological description of characters, Lin Shu often adopts the curved writing and setting techniques in Chinese classical novels to highlight the characters 'personalities and story themes.

再次,林纾还在译作中融入了自己的感悟和评论,使译作带有浓重的个人色彩,表达了自己的思想感情和价值取向。
Thirdly, Lin Shu also incorporated his own perception and comments into his translation, which made his translation have a strong personal color and expressed his own thoughts, feelings and value orientation.

正是由于这些文学再创造,使林纾的译作成为独特的文学作品,在晚清民初广受欢迎,成为中国文学史上的一大译派,也在一定程度上弥补了翻译准确性的不足。但同时,过度的文学加工也可能造成对原作的改写,引起文化误读。
It is precisely because of these literary re-creations that Lin Shu's translations became unique literary works, popular in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, and became a major translation school in the history of Chinese literature, which also made up for the lack of translation accuracy to a certain extent. But at the same time, excessive literary processing may also lead to rewriting of the original works and cultural misreading.

3. 林纾翻译现象的文化意义和局限。
3. Cultural significance and limitations of lin shu's translation phenomenon.

从文化传播的角度看,林纾的翻译在客观上推动了外国文学的传入。他的译作涉及英、法、美、俄等国家的著名小说,如《茶花女》《迦茵小传》《黑奴吁天录》等,使中国读者得以接触域外文学名著,开阔了文学视野,了解了异国的社会风貌和人情世态,在一定程度上冲击了中国传统观念,也为中国现代文学的发展提供了外来养料和文学样式。
From the perspective of cultural communication, Lin Shu's translation objectively promoted the introduction of foreign literature. His translations involve famous novels of Britain, France, America and Russia, such as La Traviata, Jia Yin's Biography and Negro's Call to Heaven, which enable Chinese readers to contact foreign literary classics, broaden their literary horizons, understand foreign social features and human feelings, impact Chinese traditional ideas to a certain extent, and provide foreign nourishment and literary style for the development of modern Chinese literature.

但同时,由于翻译的间接性和再创造性,林纾的译作对原作也有一定程度的误读。一方面,原作在"口述笔录"的过程中难免失真;另一方面,林纾在文学加工中又掺入了自己的主观意识,使译作带有浓重的个人色彩和时代烙印。这在一定程度上影响了原作的原貌和本意,在文化交流中可能产生偏差。
But at the same time, due to the indirectness and re-creation of translation, Lin Shu's translation also misreads the original to a certain extent. On the one hand, the original works are inevitably distorted in the process of oral transcription; on the other hand, Lin Shu mixes his own subjective consciousness into the literary processing, which makes the translation have strong personal color and time brand. To a certain extent, this affects the original appearance and original intention of the original work, and may produce deviations in cultural exchanges.

从翻译伦理的角度看,林纾的翻译也存在一些值得商榷之处。过度的文学加工使译作偏离了原作,有悖于翻译忠实的基本要求。而"口述笔录"的方式也模糊了翻译主体的权责界限,助手的翻译工作没有得到应有的重视和肯定。
From the perspective of translation ethics, Lin Shu's translation is open to question. Excessive literary processing makes the translation deviate from the original, which is contrary to the basic requirement of translation fidelity. The dictation also blurs the boundaries of the translator's rights and responsibilities, and the translation work of the assistant is not given due attention and recognition.

但我们也应看到,林纾的翻译实践反映了清末民初时期中国翻译界的特殊状况。当时中国知识分子普遍缺乏外语能力,采取"口述笔录"的方式在所难免。这种方式在当时客观上推动了翻译事业的发展,使更多外国文学作品得以传入中国。同时,林纾的文学化翻译也迎合了当时读者的审美情趣,使译作更容易被接受和传播。
However, we should also see that Lin Shu's translation practice reflects the special situation of Chinese translation circles in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. At that time, Chinese intellectuals generally lacked foreign language ability, and it was inevitable to adopt the method of "oral transcription." This method objectively promoted the development of translation at that time, enabling more foreign literary works to be introduced into China. At the same time, Lin Shu's literary translation catered to the aesthetic taste of the readers at that time, making the translation easier to accept and spread.

因此,我们应该客观、全面、辩证地评价林纾的翻译现象。一方面,要肯定林纾翻译的文学成就和文化贡献,他的译作语言典雅、文采斐然,在中国文学史和翻译史上都占有重要地位,推动了中外文化交流。另一方面,也要看到其翻译方式和策略的局限,在翻译准确性、忠实性等方面存在不足,反映了译者个人和时代的烙印。
Therefore, we should evaluate Lin Shu's translation objectively, comprehensively and dialectically. On the one hand, we should affirm Lin Shu's literary achievements and cultural contributions. His translations are elegant in language and brilliant in literary grace, occupy an important position in the history of Chinese literature and translation, and promote cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. On the other hand, we should also see the limitations of translation methods and strategies, such as the lack of accuracy and fidelity, which reflects the brand of translators and times.

林纾的翻译现象给后世翻译实践以一定的启示。它启示我们,翻译需要译者具备扎实的外语能力和文学修养,既要准确把握原作的内容和风格,又要用优美的文字表达出来,做到形神兼备、雅俗共赏。同时,在文学翻译中适度的创作也是必要的,但过度的改编易造成对原作的背离,应该恪守翻译的基本伦理。此外,翻译还需要与时俱进,随着时代的发展不断完善翻译理论和方法,提高翻译的科学性和规范性。
Lin Shu's translation phenomenon has given some enlightenment to later translation practice. It enlightens us that translation requires translators to have solid foreign language ability and literary accomplishment, not only to accurately grasp the content and style of the original, but also to express it in beautiful words, so as to achieve both form and spirit, elegance and popularity. At the same time, moderate creation is necessary in literary translation, but excessive adaptation tends to lead to deviation from the original, so we should abide by the basic ethics of translation. In addition, translation should keep pace with the times, improve translation theories and methods with the development of the times, and improve the scientificity and standardization of translation.

如何理解翻译史研究对象就是“历史中的翻译”和“翻译中的历史”？
How to understand the object of translation history study as "translation in history" and "history in translation"?

要理解"历史中的翻译"和"翻译中的历史"作为翻译史研究对象的内涵,我们需要从翻译与历史的复杂关系入手,深入探讨二者的互动与交融。
In order to understand the connotation of "translation in history" and "history in translation" as the objects of translation history study, we need to start with the complex relationship between translation and history, and explore the interaction and blending between them.

1. "历史中的翻译"的内涵
1. Connotation of "Translation in History"

"历史中的翻译"强调将翻译置于特定的历史语境中考察,关注不同历史时期翻译活动的特点、规律及其与社会文化的互动关系。具体而言:
Translation in History emphasizes placing translation in a specific historical context and paying attention to the characteristics, rules and interaction between translation activities and social culture in different historical periods. Specifically:

首先,翻译活动始终处于特定的历史条件和社会文化语境之中,不同时代的政治、经济、文化等因素都会对翻译实践产生深刻影响。如古代帝王推崇佛经翻译,近代维新派力主西学东渐,都反映了特定历史条件下的文化诉求。因此,翻译史研究需要考察不同时期翻译的时代背景和动因。
First, translation is always in a specific historical and sociocultural context, and political, economic and cultural factors of different times have a profound impact on translation practice. For example, ancient emperors advocated Buddhist translation and modern reformers advocated the spread of western learning to the east, which reflected cultural demands under specific historical conditions. Therefore, the study of translation history needs to examine the historical background and motivation of translation in different periods.

其次,不同历史时期形成了不同的翻译规范和话语体系。如古代的"文质说"、近代的"信达雅"说等,都是特定时代翻译观念的体现。翻译史研究需要探讨这些翻译理论和思想的形成过程、内在逻辑及其历史演变。
Secondly, different translation norms and discourse systems have been formed in different historical periods. For example, the ancient theory of "literary quality" and the modern theory of "expressiveness and elegance" are the embodiment of translation concepts in specific times. The study of translation history needs to explore the formation, internal logic and historical evolution of these translation theories and ideas.

再次,翻译活动推动了中外文化交流,产生了广泛而深远的社会文化影响。如佛经翻译带来了中国佛教文化的勃兴,西学东渐引发了中国社会变革。翻译史研究需要考察翻译与文化互动的历史过程及其规律。
Thirdly, translation activities promote cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and exert far-reaching social and cultural influences. For example, Buddhist translation brought about the prosperity of Chinese Buddhist culture, and the spread of Western learning to the East triggered social changes in China. The study of translation history needs to examine the historical process and rules of the interaction between translation and culture.

因此,"历史中的翻译"强调翻译与其所处的历史语境密不可分,翻译史研究应将二者统一起来,考察翻译活动的历史演进及其所反映的社会文化状况,揭示翻译发展的内在规律。
Therefore,"translation in history" emphasizes that translation is inseparable from its historical context, and translation history research should unify them, examine the historical evolution of translation activities and the social and cultural conditions reflected by them, and reveal the inherent laws of translation development.

2. "翻译中的历史"的内涵
2. Connotation of "History in Translation"

"翻译中的历史"强调翻译本身就是一种历史性的存在,翻译文本承载和书写着历史,体现着译者和所处时代的烙印。具体而言:
"History in translation" emphasizes that translation itself is a historical existence, and the translated text bears and writes history, reflecting the brand of translators and times. Specifically:

首先,任何一部译作的问世都有其特定的时代背景和现实动因,译者选择某部作品进行翻译,本身就反映了一定的历史文化需求。如林纾翻译《茶花女》,反映了晚清社会对域外世情的好奇;鲁迅翻译《地底旅行》,体现了启蒙知识分子的思想诉求。因此,译作的选题背后往往隐含着历史的驱动力量。
First of all, the publication of any translation has its specific historical background and realistic motivation, and the translator's choice of a certain work for translation itself reflects certain historical and cultural needs. For example, Lin Shu's translation of La Traviata reflects the curiosity of the late Qing society about the extraterritorial world, while Lu Xun's translation of Underground Travel reflects the ideological appeal of the enlightened intellectuals. Therefore, there are historical driving forces behind the choice of translation topics.

其次,译者的翻译策略和风格也打上了时代的烙印。不同时期的译者受不同的翻译观念、文学思潮、美学趣味等影响,形成了不同的翻译风格和流派。如古代的"文质派"与"文雅派"之争,近代的"直译派"与"意译派"之辩,都体现了译者所处时代的翻译话语。
Secondly, the translator's translation strategy and style are marked with the brand of the times. Translators in different periods are influenced by different translation concepts, literary trends and aesthetic tastes, thus forming different translation styles and schools. For example, the debate between "literary school" and "refined school" in ancient times, and the debate between "literal school" and "free school" in modern times, all embody the translation discourse of the translator's time.

再次,译作进入目的语语境后,也会产生不同的阐释和接受,反映了译文阅读的历史语境。不同时代的读者对同一部译作会产生不同的理解和评价,折射出时代思潮和文化心理的变迁。因此,翻译作品的历史阐释也是翻译史研究的重要内容。
Thirdly, when translated texts enter into the target language context, they will also produce different interpretations and receptions, reflecting the historical context in which translated texts are read. Readers of different times will have different understanding and evaluation of the same translation, reflecting the changes of the ideological trend of the times and cultural psychology. Therefore, the historical interpretation of translated works is also an important part of translation history research.

此外,翻译文本还可能对历史产生能动的影响。许多重要译作的出版对社会文化产生了重大影响,推动了思想文化的革新,甚至引发了社会变革。如严复的译作推动了中国近代启蒙,瞿秋白的译作宣传了马克思主义。因此,翻译文本与历史的互动也是翻译史研究的重要议题。
In addition, translated texts may have dynamic effects on history. The publication of many important translations has had a great impact on social culture, promoted ideological and cultural innovation, and even triggered social changes. For example, Yan Fu's translation promoted the enlightenment of modern China, Qu Qiubai's translation propagated Marxism. Therefore, the interaction between translated texts and history is also an important topic in translation history studies.

总之,"翻译中的历史"强调翻译本身是一种历史性存在,译作承载和书写着特定的历史,体现着译者和时代的印记,同时也对历史产生影响。翻译史研究应深入挖掘蕴藏在译作中的历史信息,考察翻译与历史的互动关系。
In short,"history in translation" emphasizes that translation itself is a historical existence, and translation carries and writes a specific history, embodies the imprint of translators and times, and also exerts influence on history. The study of translation history should dig deep into the historical information contained in the translation and examine the interaction between translation and history.

3. 二者的辩证关系
3. Dialectical relationship between the two

"历史中的翻译"和"翻译中的历史"是翻译史研究的两个基本向度,二者相互交织、辩证统一:
"Translation in history" and "history in translation" are two basic dimensions of translation history research, which are intertwined and dialectically unified:

一方面,"历史中的翻译"为"翻译中的历史"提供了阐释语境。脱离了特定的历史语境,翻译现象就难以得到全面理解和解释。译作所承载的历史,需要放在整个翻译史和文化史中去考察,才能揭示其深层意蕴。
On the one hand,"translation in history" provides explanatory context for "history in translation." Without a specific historical context, translation phenomena cannot be fully understood and explained. The history of translation should be examined in the context of the whole history of translation and culture in order to reveal its deep implications.

另一方面,"翻译中的历史"也丰富和深化了"历史中的翻译"。翻译文本所反映的历史,为翻译史研究提供了重要的史料和研究路径。通过分析译作的选题、策略、阐释等,可以管窥不同历史时期翻译活动的特点和规律。
On the other hand,"History in Translation" enriches and deepens "Translation in History." The history reflected in the translated texts provides important historical materials and research paths for the study of translation history. By analyzing the topics, strategies and interpretations of translation, we can get a glimpse of the characteristics and laws of translation activities in different historical periods.

因此,二者相互依存、相互支撑,构成了翻译史研究的基本框架。在具体研究中,需要将二者有机结合起来,多维度、多视角地考察翻译与历史的复杂关系,才能揭示翻译史的奥秘。
Therefore, they are interdependent and mutually supportive, constituting the basic framework of translation history research. In order to reveal the mystery of translation history, it is necessary to combine them organically and examine the complex relationship between translation and history from multiple dimensions and perspectives.

例如,要研究林纾的翻译现象,既要将其置于晚清民初的时代背景中,考察当时的文化语境和翻译话语,又要深入分析林译作品所承载的历史信息,如林纾的翻译动机、策略、风格等,才能全面理解林译现象的历史意义。
For example, in order to study Lin Shu's translation phenomenon, we should not only place it in the background of late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, examine the cultural context and translation discourse at that time, but also analyze the historical information carried by Lin Shu's translated works, such as Lin Shu's translation motivation, strategy and style, so as to fully understand the historical significance of Lin Shu's translation phenomenon.

又如,研究佛经翻译史,既要考察古代的政治、宗教、文化背景,又要分析不同时期佛经译作的选题、风格、流传等,探讨译经活动与中国佛教文化发展的互动关系,才能揭示佛经翻译在中国文化史上的独特地位。
For example, to study the history of Buddhist translation, we should not only investigate the political, religious and cultural background in ancient times, but also analyze the topics, styles and circulation of Buddhist translations in different periods, and explore the interactive relationship between Buddhist translation activities and the development of Chinese Buddhist culture, so as to reveal the unique position of Buddhist translation in the history of Chinese culture.

如何理解译入语文化对翻译活动的推动或制约的因素及其作用？
How to understand the factors and functions of target culture in translation?

译入语文化对翻译活动具有重要的推动或制约作用,这主要体现在以下几个方面:
The target culture plays an important role in promoting or restricting translation activities, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects:

1. 译入语文化的需求和接受能力
1. Cultural Needs and Acceptability of the Target Language

译入语文化对外来文化的需求和接受能力,在很大程度上决定了翻译活动的兴衰和走向。当译入语文化处于对外开放、革新变革的时期,对外来文化持开放包容的态度时,往往会出现翻译活动的高潮。
The demand and receptivity of the target culture to the foreign culture determines the rise and fall of translation activities to a great extent. When the target culture is open to the outside world, innovative and open to foreign cultures, translation activities tend to climax.

如中国近代史上的"西学东渐"时期,维新派知识分子出于变革祖国、追求富强的需要,掀起了翻译西方科技、政治、哲学著作的热潮。又如20世纪80年代的"文化热"时期,对外开放初期的中国文化界对西方文化充满好奇,掀起了文学翻译的高潮,大量西方现代派文学作品被译介过来,推动了中国文坛的繁荣与革新。
for example, during the period of "western learning spreading to the east" in modern chinese history, reformist intellectuals, out of the need to reform the motherland and pursue prosperity, set off an upsurge in translating western scientific, technological, political, and philosophical works. Another example is the "cultural fever" period in the 1980s. At the beginning of opening up to the outside world, Chinese cultural circles were full of curiosity about western culture, which set off a climax of literary translation. A large number of western modernist literary works were translated and introduced, which promoted the prosperity and innovation of Chinese literary world.

反之,当译入语文化处于相对封闭保守的时期,对外来文化持排斥抵制的态度时,则往往抑制了翻译活动的发展。如明末清初的"尊儒排佛"运动,就抑制了佛经翻译的发展。
On the contrary, when the target culture is relatively closed and conservative, it tends to inhibit the development of translation activities. For example, the movement of "respecting Confucianism and rejecting Buddhism" at the end of Ming Dynasty and the beginning of Qing Dynasty restrained the development of Buddhist translation.

因此,译入语文化的需求和接受能力,对翻译活动起着重要的推动或制约作用。译入语文化的开放度、兼容性越强,对外来文化的需求越迫切,越能推动翻译活动的蓬勃发展。
Therefore, the needs and receptivity of the target culture play an important role in promoting or restricting translation activities. The more open and compatible the target culture is, the more urgent the need for foreign culture is, and the more vigorous the translation activity will be.

2. 译入语的语言文化特点
2. Linguistic and Cultural Features of the Target Language

译入语的语言文字特点,如语法结构、表达习惯、词汇体系等,都会对翻译活动产生重要影响。
The characteristics of the target language, such as grammatical structure, expression habits, vocabulary system, etc., will have an important impact on translation activities.

首先,译入语言的表达习惯会影响译者的翻译风格和策略。如中国古代的文言文重意合、尚意象,译者往往采取意译、归化的策略,注重译文的文学性和雅致性。而白话文则重形合、尚口语化,译者往往采取直译、异化的策略,力求再现原文的语言风貌。
Firstly, the expressive habits of the target language will influence the translator's translation style and strategy. For example, ancient Chinese classical Chinese texts emphasize coherence and imagery, and translators often adopt the strategy of free translation and domestication, paying attention to the literariness and elegance of the translation. Vernacular Chinese, on the other hand, emphasizes hypotaxis and colloquialism, and translators often adopt the strategies of literal translation and alienation to reproduce the language features of the original text.

其次,译入语言的词汇体系也影响着译者对词汇的择取。译入语言固有词汇的丰富程度,在一定程度上决定了译文的表现力。如中国古代的佛经翻译,面临着汉语固有词汇难以对应佛教术语的困境,因此创造了大量的音译词和意译词,极大地丰富了汉语词汇。
Secondly, the lexical system of the target language also influences the translator's choice of words. The richness of the inherent vocabulary in the target language determines the expressiveness of the translation to some extent. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in ancient China, faced with the dilemma that Chinese inherent vocabulary is difficult to correspond to Buddhist terms, created a large number of transliteration words and free translation words, greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary.

再次,译入语言的语法结构也制约着译文的表达方式。如汉语是孤立语,语序和虚词是表达语法关系的主要手段,译者需要根据汉语的语法特点调整译文的句式结构,才能符合汉语表达习惯。
Thirdly, the grammatical structure of the target language also restricts the expression of the target language. For example, Chinese is an isolated language, word order and function words are the main means of expressing grammatical relations, and translators need to adjust the sentence structure of the translated text according to the grammatical characteristics of Chinese in order to conform to Chinese expression habits.

因此,译入语的语言文化特点深刻影响和制约着译者的翻译策略和译文的表现力,译者需要在尊重译入语言文化的基础上,灵活采取翻译策略,实现译文的可接受性。
Therefore, the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the target language profoundly influence and restrict the translator's translation strategies and the expressiveness of the target language. The translator should adopt flexible translation strategies on the basis of respecting the target language and culture to achieve the acceptability of the target language.

3. 译入语的文学传统和审美情趣
3. Literary Tradition and Aesthetic Taste in the Target Language

译入语文化固有的文学传统和审美情趣,对翻译文学的发展具有重要的推动或制约作用。
The inherent literary tradition and aesthetic taste of the target culture play an important role in promoting or restricting the development of translated literature.

一方面,译入语文学传统和审美情趣影响着译作的选择。不同时期译入语文坛的主流文学样式和审美倾向,在一定程度上决定了译者对原作的选择倾向。如中国近代文坛对现实主义文学的推崇,推动了俄苏现实主义文学译介的高潮。
On the one hand, the literary tradition and aesthetic taste of the target language influence the choice of translation. The mainstream literary styles and aesthetic tendencies of the target literature in different periods determine, to some extent, the translator's choice of the original. For example, the praise of realism literature in modern Chinese literary circles pushed forward the climax of translation and introduction of realism literature in Russia and Soviet Union.

另一方面,译入语文学传统和审美情趣也影响着译者的翻译方法和译文风格。译者往往根据译入语读者的阅读习惯和审美情趣,对原作进行一定程度的改写和再创造,使译作更符合译入语文化的期待视野。如林纾的文学翻译,就是将域外小说改写成了雅致的古文,迎合了晚清文人的审美趣味。
On the other hand, the literary tradition and aesthetic taste of the target language also influence the translator's translation methods and style. Translators often rewrite and recreate the original to a certain extent according to the reading habits and aesthetic tastes of the target readers, so as to make the translation more in line with the expected vision of the target culture. For example, Lin Shu's literary translation is to rewrite foreign novels into elegant ancient Chinese, which caters to the aesthetic taste of literati in the late Qing Dynasty.

此外,成功的翻译文学作品进入译入语文坛后,也会反过来影响和革新译入语的文学传统,引领文学创作的新潮流。如新文化运动时期,西方现代主义文学的译介,冲击了中国传统的文学观念,引发了现代主义文学思潮,推动了中国新诗、新小说的繁荣与革新。
In addition, successful translated literary works will influence and reform the literary tradition of the target language and lead the new trend of literary creation when they enter the translation language circle. For example, during the New Culture Movement, the translation and introduction of Western modernist literature impacted Chinese traditional literary concepts, triggered modernist literary trends, and promoted the prosperity and innovation of Chinese new poetry and new novels.

因此,译入语的文学传统和审美情趣与翻译文学的发展相互影响、相互促进,译者需要在二者之间寻求平衡,既要尊重原作的风格特色,又要照顾译入语读者的接受心理,实现"化腐朽为神奇"的文学再创造。
Therefore, the literary tradition and aesthetic taste of the target language and the development of the translated literature influence and promote each other. The translator needs to seek a balance between the two, respecting the style and characteristics of the original, and taking care of the reception psychology of the target readers, so as to realize the literary re-creation of "turning decadence into magic."

4. 译入语的意识形态和文化价值观
4. Ideology and Cultural Values in the Target Language

译入语文化的意识形态和主流价值观,对翻译活动具有重要的导向和规范作用。
The ideology and mainstream values of the target culture play an important role in guiding and regulating translation activities.

一方面,主流意识形态影响着对译作的选择和评判。不同的意识形态语境下,译作的选题、内容、倾向等都会受到一定的导向和限制。如中国建国后的相当长一个时期,受意识形态的影响,文学翻译出现了"政治标准第一,艺术标准第二"的倾向,译作选题多集中于社会主义国家的现实主义作品。
On the one hand, mainstream ideology influences the choice and judgment of translation. In different ideological contexts, the topic selection, content and tendency of translation are subject to certain guidance and restrictions. For example, for a long time after the founding of the People's Republic of China, under the influence of ideology, literary translation showed a tendency of "political standard first, artistic standard second," and most of the translation topics focused on realistic works from socialist countries.

另一方面,主流价值观也影响着译者的翻译策略。译者在翻译过程中,往往会自觉或不自觉地根据主流价值观对原作进行取舍和改写,对不符合主流价值观的内容进行删改或淡化。如清末民初的林纾翻译,就对原作中有悖于传统伦理道德的内容进行了改写。
On the other hand, mainstream values also influence translators 'translation strategies. In the process of translation, translators often consciously or unconsciously choose and rewrite the original according to the mainstream values, and delete or dilute the contents that do not conform to the mainstream values. For example, Lin Shu's translation at the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of Republic of China rewrote the contents contrary to traditional ethics in the original work.

此外,翻译活动本身也可能对译入语文化的意识形态和价值观产生影响。译作引入新的思想观念和价值取向,可能冲击和改变译入语文化原有的意识形态和价值体系。如严复翻译的《天演论》,引入了进化论思想,动摇了中国传统的宇宙观和价值观,在思想界产生了广泛而深刻的影响。
Besides, translation itself may influence the ideology and values of the target culture. The introduction of new ideas and value orientations into translation may impact and change the original ideology and value system of the target culture. for example, yan fu's translation of "evolution of heaven" introduced the theory of evolution, shook china's traditional view of the universe and values, and exerted a wide and profound influence on the ideological circles.