Federation University Australia
澳大利亚联邦大学

Faculty of Science/School of Science, Information Technology & Engineering
理学院/科学、信息技术与工程学院

ENCIV2020 Introduction to Civil Engineering Construction Trevor Gourley
ENCIV2020 土木工程施工导论 Trevor Gourley

Study Questions – Buildings and Bridges (with answers)
学习问题 - 建筑物和桥梁（含答案）

Important: Many of these answers are abbreviated, intended to guide students on points which need to be addressed in their answers to questions in an exam. In an exam, responses should, in many cases, be more detailed, including definitions/explanations of terms and more extensive explanations and descriptions of points.
重要提示：其中许多答案都是缩写的，旨在指导学生在回答考试问题时需要解决的问题。在考试中，在许多情况下，回答应该更详细，包括术语的定义/解释以及更广泛的要点解释和描述。

A) FOUNDATIONS
A） 基础

A.1. Sketch the typical shape and reinforcement detailing of a pad footing which has been cast integrally with (though probably not the same time as) a reinforced concrete column.
A.1. 勾勒出与钢筋混凝土柱整体浇筑（尽管可能不是同时浇筑）的垫层基础的典型形状和钢筋细节。

See ‘Foundations’ PowerPoint, slide 5
请参阅“基础”PowerPoint，幻灯片 5

A.2. Explain the function of a pad footing under a column carrying substantial compression loads and describe the situations in which pad footing types of foundations are used.
A.2. 解释承载大量压缩荷载的柱子下的垫基的功能，并描述使用垫基脚类型的基础的情况。

Spreads the column’s compression load over a large-enough area to reduce the compression stress to a low-enough value that it can be supported by the soil without failure or excessive settlement
将柱子的压缩荷载分散到足够大的区域，以将压缩应力降低到足够低的值，使其可以由土壤支撑而不会失效或过度沉降

Used when the loads are small enough or the soil strong enough that a shallow founding level is possible.
当荷载足够小或土壤足够坚固，可以形成浅层时使用。

A.3. Occasionally pad footings need to be relied upon to maintain the stability of the building in certain circumstances. Explain this statement.
A.3. 在某些情况下，有时需要依靠垫基来维持建筑物的稳定性。解释这句话。

To hold the building down when uplift loads due to wind exceed the weight of the structure
当风引起的隆起荷载超过结构重量时，将建筑物压住

A.4. Concerning strip footings, explain the design considerations which influence the following dimensions:
A.4. 关于条形基础，请解释影响以下尺寸的设计注意事项：

the footing width ‘B’; (Ans: Selected to reduce the compression stress on the soil to a value which it can carry and ‘B’ also affects the footing stiffness.)
基础宽度“B”;（答：选择是为了将土壤上的压缩应力降低到它可以承受的值，并且“B”也会影响基础刚度。

the footing depth ‘D’. (Ans: Selected to get down to soil of adequate strength and minimal variation in moisture content, plus ‘D’ has a large effect on footing stiffness.)
立足深度“D”。（答：选择用于具有足够强度且含水量变化最小的土壤，加上“D”对基础刚度有很大影响。

A.5. Explain what a ‘pile’ is, in the context of bridge and building construction, and describe, in general terms, the circumstance which would lead to the consideration of piles as the appropriate type of foundation.
A.5. 在桥梁和建筑施工的背景下，解释什么是“桩”，并笼统地描述导致将桩视为适当基础类型的情况。

A column-like element which is placed vertically in the soil and transmits the vertical loads into the soil.
一种柱状元件，垂直放置在土壤中并将垂直载荷传递到土壤中。

Used when a shallow foundation is not possible due to the size of the loads or low strength of the shallow soil.
当由于荷载的大小或浅层土壤的低强度而无法进行浅层基础时使用。

A.6. In the context of foundation engineering, explain what a pile is and explain the distinction between bearing piles and friction piles.
A.6. 在基础工程的背景下，解释什么是桩，并解释承重桩和摩擦桩之间的区别。

See A.5
见A.5

A bearing pile transmits its compression load into the soil through its bottom end, whereas a friction pile transmits the load via friction along its entire length. (Diagrams would be expected here.)
承重桩通过其底端将其压缩荷载传递到土壤中，而摩擦桩通过沿其整个长度的摩擦传递荷载。（此处应提供图表。

A.7. Explain the distinction between displacement and non-displacement piles.
A.7. 解释位移桩和非位移桩之间的区别。

A displacement pile is forced (driven) into the ground, pushing the soil aside as it goes, whereas a non-displacement pile is placed (normally cast insitu concrete) in a hole which has been bored in advance. Hence, the pile doesn’t have to push aside (displace) the soil as it is installed.
置换桩被强制（打入）地下，将土壤推到一边，而非位移桩（通常为现浇混凝土）被放置在预先钻孔的孔中。因此，桩在安装时不必推开（移位）土壤。

A.8. Precast concrete piles are normally reinforced with steel bars, to carry tensile stresses which would otherwise crack and fail the concrete. Give three (3) reasons why such tensile stresses can occur.
A.8. 预制混凝土桩通常用钢筋加固，以承受拉应力，否则会使混凝土开裂和失效。给出三 （3） 个可能发生这种拉应力的原因。

See lecture notes, p. 5
见讲义，第5页

A.9. Give two advantages and two disadvantages of driven steel piles, compared to concrete piles, as a foundation type.
A.9.与混凝土桩相比，给出打入钢桩作为基础类型的两个优点和两个缺点。

See lecture notes, p. 6
见讲义，第6页

A.10. In the context of urban building construction, give two possible disadvantages of using driven piles as the form of foundation.
A.10. 在城市建筑施工的背景下，请给出使用打桩作为基础形式的两个可能的缺点。

Noise and vibration during driving
驾驶过程中的噪音和振动

They require substantial overhead clearance, which could be a problem if there are overhead wires
它们需要大量的架空间隙，如果有架空电线，这可能是一个问题

A.11. Explain the circumstance in which a bored pier foundation may be selected for a building instead of a pad footing.
A.11. 解释在什么情况下，建筑物可以选择钻孔桥墩基础而不是垫基。

When the shallow soil is of inadequate strength to support the loads, but there is suitable soil several metres below the surface.
当浅层土壤的强度不足以支撑荷载，但在地表以下几米处有合适的土壤时。

A. 12. Discuss bored piers, covering what they are, how they are constructed and situations in which they are normally used.
答 12.讨论无聊的桥墩，包括它们是什么，它们是如何建造的以及它们通常使用的情况。

Basically just a short bored pile, constructed by boring a hole in the soil and filling it with unreinforced or reinforced concrete.
基本上只是一个短的钻孔桩，通过在土壤中钻一个洞并用未加固或加固的混凝土填充它来建造。

See also A.11
另见A.11

A.13. Why might a bored pile be constructed with a steel casing?
A.13. 为什么钻孔桩可以用钢套管建造？

When there is concern about the likelihood of the soil falling back into the bored hole before it can be filled with concrete.
当人们担心土壤在用混凝土填充之前可能会落回钻孔中时。

B) FLOOR SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS
B） 建筑物的地板系统

B.1. Explain the two ways in which prestressing is able to reduce the excessive deflections which can be a problem with long span reinforced concrete floor slabs.
B.1. 解释预应力能够减少过度挠度的两种方式，这可能是大跨度钢筋混凝土楼板的一个问题。

Compressing the concrete eliminates the tension caused by bending. This eliminates cracking, which maximizes the stiffness (‘I’ value) of the floor and hence minimizes deflections
压缩混凝土消除了弯曲引起的张力。这样可以消除开裂，从而最大限度地提高地板的刚度（“I”值），从而最大限度地减少挠度

A draped cable can exert an upwards UDL on the floor, which opposes the downwards loading and hence further reduces deflections.
悬垂电缆可以在地板上施加向上的 UDL，从而抵消向下的负载，从而进一步减少挠度。

B.2. Bondeck and Condek are two similar products which are quite commonly used in cast-insitu reinforced concrete construction. Describe, in general terms (i.e. there is no need to distinguish between the two), what these products are and give two (2) advantages which they offer.
B.2. Bondeck 和 Condek 是两种类似的产品，在现浇钢筋混凝土建筑中非常常用。笼统地描述（即没有必要区分两者）这些产品是什么，并给出它们提供的两 （2） 个优势。

Thin, cold-rolled, profiled steel sheeting which spans between beams and upon which the concrete floor slab is cast.
薄的、冷轧的、异型的钢板，横跨横梁之间，混凝土楼板浇筑在上面。

Advantages: Acts as the slab formwork, with greater strength and stiffness than conventional plywood formwork, hence requiring less support from falsework and no need for removal. Also acts as the bottom face tensile reinforcement in the slab, replacing the steel bars.
优点：作为板模板，比传统的胶合板模板具有更高的强度和刚度，因此需要更少的支架支撑，无需拆除。还充当板的底面拉伸加固，取代钢筋。

B.3. If you walk onto a construction site for a building which comprises steel beams supporting reinforced concrete slabs, you might see that the beams have steel pieces, which appear a bit like threadlesss bolts, welded to their top flange at regular spaces along their length. Explain, in detail, what this tells you about the type of construction and explain the function of these welded steel fitments.
B.3. 如果你走到一个由钢梁支撑钢筋混凝土板的建筑物的建筑工地上，你可能会看到梁上有钢片，看起来有点像无螺纹螺栓，沿着它们的长度以规则的空间焊接到它们的顶部法兰上。详细解释这告诉您有关结构类型的信息，并解释这些焊接钢配件的功能。

It is composite construction, in which the steel shear connectors lock the slab and steel beam together, transferring shear stresses between them and causing the slab to act as part of the beam. Much stiffer and stronger than the steel beam acting alone.
它是一种复合结构，其中钢剪接头将板和钢梁锁定在一起，在它们之间传递剪应力并使板充当梁的一部分。比单独作用的钢梁更坚硬、更坚固。

B.4. Give two advantages of using precast concrete floor systems instead of fully cast-insitu construction.
B.4. 给出使用预制混凝土楼板系统而不是完全现浇施工的两个优点。

Reduced or no need for slab formwork and falsework
减少或不需要板模板和支架

Speeds up the construction process.
加快施工过程。

B.5. Explain in detail, with the aid of a diagram, what Hollowcore slabs are and how they are used in a building. If these slab units are to be used in a building in which the columns and beams are also to be precast, sketch a typical detail of the way the slabs are typically supported.
B.5. 借助图表详细解释什么是空心板以及它们如何在建筑物中使用。如果这些楼板单元要用于柱子和梁也要预制的建筑物中，请勾勒出楼板通常支撑方式的典型细节。

See Notes, p. 14 and ‘Floor Systems’ PowerPoint, slides 26 – 28
参见注释，第 14 页和“地板系统”PowerPoint，幻灯片 26 – 28

Also see the ‘Framing Systems’ PowerPoint, slide 22.
另请参阅“框架系统”PowerPoint，幻灯片 22。

B.6. Hollowcore slabs do not have flat vertical side faces, but instead the faces are profiled to a particular shape. Explain in detail the reason for this shape.
B.6. 空心板没有平坦的垂直侧面，而是将面轮廓化为特定形状。详细解释这种形状的原因。

When the insitu topping slab is cast, the gap created by these profiled edges is filled with concrete, creating a shear key which allows transfer of shear between adjacent Hollowcore units, and hence load-sharing.
当浇筑原位顶板时，这些异型边产生的间隙被混凝土填充，形成一个剪力键，允许在相邻的空心单元之间传递剪力，从而分担荷载。

B.7. With the aid of a diagram, explain what a Transfloor panel is and how it is used in reinforced concrete floor construction.
B.7. 借助图表，解释什么是Transfloor面板以及它如何在钢筋混凝土地板施工中使用。

See ‘Floor Systems’ PowerPoint’ slides 23-25
请参阅“地板系统”PowerPoint“幻灯片 23-25

Used as formwork for the insitu slab but also combines with the insitu concrete to provide the structural strength.
用作原位板的模板，但也与原位混凝土结合以提供结构强度。

B.8. Define the function of bearers and joists in a typical timber floor system, clearly identifying the difference between them.
B.8. 定义典型木地板系统中支座和托梁的功能，明确区分它们之间的区别。

The bearers and joists are both beams which support the flooring and allow it to span between supports. The joists are the smaller, fairly closely-spaced, upper members which directly support the thin flooring material. They sit on the more widely-spaced bearers, which span between the piers.
承重和托梁都是支撑地板的横梁，并允许它在支撑之间跨越。托梁是较小的、相当紧密的上部构件，直接支撑薄地板材料。他们坐在更宽的承载物上，这些承载物横跨在码头之间。

B.9. We are gradually seeing increased usage of engineered timber products such as laminated veneer lumber and glued laminated timber. Why is this?
B.9. 我们逐渐看到工程木材产品的使用增加，例如层压单板木材和胶合层压木材。为什么会这样？

Because of reduced availability of large trees from which large-cross-section structural members can be cut.
由于大树的可用性降低，可以从中切割大截面结构构件。

C) BUILDING FRAMING SYSTEMS
C） 建筑框架系统

C.1. Steel portal frame buildings normally resist horizontal loads due to wind in two quite different ways, depending upon the wind direction. Explain this fully, with the aid of diagrams.
C.1. 钢门式框架建筑通常以两种截然不同的方式抵抗风引起的水平荷载，具体取决于风向。借助图表充分解释这一点。

See lecture notes p. 27 and ‘Framing Systems’ PowerPoint slides 11-14.
参见讲义第 27 页和“框架系统”PowerPoint 幻灯片 11-14。

For side wind, in the direction parallel to the plane of the portal frame, the frame resists the load by ‘frame action’, relying on the strength and stiffness of the columns and rafter and the rigid connections between them.
对于侧风，在平行于门式框架平面的方向上，框架通过“框架作用”抵抗荷载，依靠柱子和椽子的强度和刚度以及它们之间的刚性连接。

For wind parallel to the ridge, the loading is resisted by a bracing system comprising tension and compression members which act like trusses to transfer the end wall loads across the roof to the side walls, and then down the side walls to the ground.
对于平行于屋脊的风，荷载由受拉和受压构件组成的支撑系统抵抗，这些构件的作用类似于桁架，将端墙荷载穿过屋顶传递到侧墙，然后沿着侧墙传递到地面。

Diagrams important here.
图表在这里很重要。

C.2. Describe in detail how typical timber frames used in domestic construction are normally kept square and vertical during construction and under the action of wind loadings.
C.2. 详细描述家庭建筑中使用的典型木框架在施工期间和风荷载作用下通常如何保持方形和垂直。

Using bracing, either in the form of lightweight steel strap or angle sections arranged in a ‘X” configuration, or plywood sheeting, nailed to the face of the timber framing.
使用支撑，无论是轻质钢带或以“X”形配置排列的角截面，还是胶合板，钉在木框架的表面。

C.3. Reinforced concrete columns invariably contain horizontal loops of small diameter bars at regular centres up the column. There are also longitudinal bars, which are located inside these loops. Explain the function of these loops.
C.3. 钢筋混凝土柱总是在柱子上的规则中心包含小直径钢筋的水平环。还有纵向条，位于这些环内。解释这些循环的功能。

The loops are mainly there to confine the vertical longitudinal bars and restrain them against prematurely buckling outwards under compression loads as the column approaches compression failure. The bars also provide a means of securing the vertical bars in their correct positions.
环主要用于限制垂直纵向钢筋，并限制它们在柱子接近压缩破坏时在压缩载荷下过早向外屈曲。钢筋还提供了一种将垂直钢筋固定在其正确位置的方法。

C.4. How is a precast reinforced concrete column typically connected at its base to the reinforced concrete element (whether it be a lower storey column, supporting beam, footing, etc) upon which it sits. Explain this connection in detail, including a fully labelled diagram.
C.4. 预制钢筋混凝土柱的底部通常如何连接到它所在的钢筋混凝土构件（无论是下层柱、支撑梁、基础等）。详细解释这种联系，包括一个完全标记的图表。

See lecture notes p. 38 and ‘Framing Systems’ PowerPoint slide 24.
参见讲义第 38 页和“框架系统”PowerPoint 幻灯片 24。

Bars protrude up into holes cast into the bottom of the precast column. Importantly, grout is then poured down from above to fill the holes and when it hardens it gives a rigid connection.
钢筋向上伸出，形成铸造在预制柱底部的孔中。重要的是，然后从上方倾倒灌浆以填充孔，当它硬化时，它会形成刚性连接。

C.5. In the context of steel portal frame building construction, explain what fly bracing is, and its function.
C.5. 在钢门式框架建筑施工的背景下，解释什么是防蝇支撑及其功能。

Important: Provide a sketch
重要提示：提供草图

The fly bracing restrains the bottom flange of the rafter member from buckling sideways when it is in compression due to hogging moments caused by uplift of the roof due to wind. Normally light equal-angle section is used as fly bracing and located every 3^rd – 5^th purlin, if used.
防蝇支撑可防止椽构件的底部翼缘在受压时因风力提升顶板引起的弯矩而侧向屈曲。通常，轻等角截面用作苍蝇支撑，如果使用，则每 3 ^rd – 5 ^th 个檩条定位一次。

C.6. Sketch one typical detail of a flexible connection between a steel beam and column and one typical detail of a rigid connection. Explain the essential difference/s between these connections and why the configurations are the way they are.
C.6. 勾勒出钢梁和柱子之间柔性连接的一个典型细节和刚性连接的一个典型细节。解释这些连接之间的本质区别，以及为什么配置是这样的。

See lecture notes, p. 41. The ‘web side plate’ connection is the most commonly used ‘flexible connection’ and the ‘bolted moment end plate connection’ is the most common ‘rigid connection’.
见讲义，第41页。“腹板侧板”连接是最常用的“柔性连接”，“螺栓弯矩端板连接”是最常见的“刚性连接”。

The difference between them is whether or not the beam flanges are connected to the column.
它们之间的区别在于梁法兰是否连接到柱子上。

Flexible connections only transmit shear from the beam into the column. Since almost all shear in steel I-beams is carried in the web, it follows that in flexible connections only the beam’s web has to be connected to the column. However, rigid connections also have to transmit bending moment. This is mainly carried in a beam’s top and bottom flanges, so these also have to be connected to a column in a rigid connection.
柔性连接仅将剪切力从梁传递到柱子中。由于钢工字梁中几乎所有的剪力都是在腹板中承载的，因此在柔性连接中，只需要将梁的腹板连接到柱子上。然而，刚性连接也必须传递弯矩。这主要在梁的顶部和底部法兰中承载，因此这些法兰也必须以刚性连接连接到柱子上。

C.7. If a heavily loaded steel beam is sitting on a relatively narrow end support at which the reaction force is substantial, there are two possible modes of localised failure of the steel beam at his location. Explain what these possible failures are and, for each, detail the modification that may be necessary to in order to avoid the failure.
C.7. 如果一根重载的钢梁位于一个相对狭窄的端部支座上，而该支座的反作用力很大，则钢梁在其所在位置的局部失效有两种可能的模式。解释这些可能的故障是什么，并详细说明为避免故障而可能需要的修改。

Local crushing of the web above the support – increase the length of the support to spread the load over a greater length of web
在支撑上方对腹板进行局部破碎 – 增加支撑的长度，将负载分散到更大长度的腹板上

Buckling of the web above the support – provide a web stiffener – diagram needed here.
支撑上方的腹板屈曲 - 提供腹板加强筋 - 此处需要的图表。

D) WALL & ROOF CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS
D） 建筑物的墙壁和屋顶结构

D.1. What is a nogging in typical timber framed construction and what is its function?
D.1. 什么是典型木结构建筑中的凹槽，它的功能是什么？

See lecture notes p. 43. Horizontal pieces of timber nailed into the plane of the timber wall frame at its mid-height, to restrain in-plane buckling of the studs about their weaker axis.
见讲义，第43页。水平木块钉在木墙框架的中等高度的平面上，以限制螺柱围绕其较弱轴线的平面内屈曲。

D.2. Sketch the typical cross-section of an external wall in a house comprising conventional brick veneer construction. Label all components and give typical dimensions.
D.2. 勾勒出由传统砖贴面结构组成的房屋外墙的典型横截面。标记所有组件并给出典型尺寸。

See top of p. 44 of lecture notes
见讲义第44页顶部

D.3. Explain what is meant by tilt-up construction and describe how it is carried out.
D.3. 解释倾斜式建筑的含义，并描述它是如何进行的。

Refers to a method of construction of reinforced concrete walls in buildings. Instead of casting them in their final vertical orientation, they are cast horizontally, greatly making the setting up and casting process much easier. May be cast on site, or off-site, in a factory. Either way, they are lifted by crane into the final position and connected to the steel frame.
指在建筑物中建造钢筋混凝土墙的方法。它们不是在最终的垂直方向上铸造，而是水平铸造，大大简化了设置和铸造过程。可以在现场铸造，也可以在工厂外铸造。无论哪种方式，它们都被起重机吊到最终位置并连接到钢架上。

D.4. Tilt-up construction may utilise either load-bearing or non load-bearing panels. With the aid of sketches, explain the essential difference between the structural details of these two options.
D.4. 倾斜式结构可以使用承重板或非承重板。借助草图，解释这两个选项的结构细节之间的本质区别。

See lecture notes, p. 46.
见讲义，第46页。

The essential difference is that non load-bearing panels act simply as cladding and are attached to the outside of the columns of the steel portal frame, whereas load-bearing panels actually replace the columns and so act as part of the building frame, providing support to the roof.
本质区别在于，非承重板仅充当覆层并附着在钢门式框架的柱子外侧，而承重板实际上取代了柱子，因此充当建筑框架的一部分，为屋顶提供支撑。

D.5. Most commonly, the exterior walls of a commercial building comprise glass windows with either masonry or reinforced concrete cladding. Reinforced concrete walls are rarely cast-insitu these days, instead normally being manufactured as tilt-up panels.
D.5. 最常见的是，商业建筑的外墙包括带有砖石或钢筋混凝土覆层的玻璃窗。如今，钢筋混凝土墙很少现浇，而是通常作为倾斜板制造。

a) What are the advantages of tilt-up wall construction over the cast-insitu approach?
a） 与现浇方法相比，倾斜墙结构有什么优势？

Much easier and faster to set up the reinforcement and cast and compact the concrete with the wall lying horizontally compared to doing this vertically, as is the case with insitu construction
与垂直施工相比，设置钢筋以及浇筑和压实混凝土，墙水平放置要容易得多，速度要快得多

Because formwork is not required on site, the walls can be located right on a property boundary without requiring access to the adjacent property.
由于现场不需要模板，因此墙壁可以位于物业边界上，而无需进入相邻物业。

b) List as many advantages as you can of tilt-up concrete construction over masonry construction.
b） 尽可能多地列出倾斜式混凝土结构相对于砖石结构的优势。

None of the mess associated with masonry construction – piles of sand and unused mortar, discarded pallets used for delivery of the bricks, and the steel bands which hold the brick stacks together during transportation, etc.
没有与砖石结构相关的混乱——成堆的沙子和未使用的砂浆、用于运送砖块的废弃托盘，以及在运输过程中将砖堆固定在一起的钢带等。

No scaffolding required
无需脚手架

Far quicker method of construction of a wall
建造墙的更快方法

D.6. Sketch and fully label a typical base connection detail used at the bottom of a tilt-up reinforced concrete panel.
D.6. 绘制并完整标记用于向上倾斜钢筋混凝土面板底部的典型基础连接细节。

See bottom of p. 46 of lecture notes
见讲义第46页底部

D.7. In the context of typical steel portal framed construction, what is bridging and what is its function?
D.7. 在典型的钢门式框架结构中，什么是桥接，它的功能是什么？

Bridging refers to lightweight steel members which are screwed in between the purlins and are provided to stop the purlins from twisting. The purlins act like beams, supporting the roof sheeting. Under sagging moments, the top flanges of the purlins are in compression and possible lateral buckling is restrained by the roof sheeting, screwed to the top flanges. However, uplift due to wind can cause hogging bending moments, causing the bottom flanges of the purlins to go into compression. This can cause them to buckle laterally, but this would have to be accompanied by twisting of the purlin. Thus, by restraining the purlin twist, the bridging at least partially restrains the bottom flange against this lateral buckling.
桥接是指轻质钢构件，拧在檩条之间，用于防止檩条扭曲。檩条就像横梁一样，支撑着屋顶板。在下垂力矩下，檩条的顶部法兰处于压缩状态，可能的横向屈曲受到屋顶板的限制，并拧到顶部法兰上。然而，风引起的隆起会导致弯矩，导致檩条的底部法兰受到压缩。这可能会导致它们横向弯曲，但这必须伴随着檩条的扭曲。因此，通过限制檩条扭曲，桥接至少部分地限制了底部法兰对这种横向屈曲的抵抗。

E) BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
E） 桥梁建设

E.1. In the context of bridge construction, what is meant by a pile cap?
E.1. 在桥梁建设中，桩帽是什么意思？

A pile cap is a large, deep, reinforced concrete beam or slab that sits on top of the piles and upon which the pier (column) sits. Therefore it is at the interface between the foundations and the pier.
桩帽是一种大而深的钢筋混凝土梁或板，位于桩的顶部，桥墩（柱）位于其上。因此，它位于地基和桥墩之间的界面。

E.2. Describe what a bearing is, in the context of bridge construction, and explain its function.
E.2. 在桥梁建设的背景下，描述什么是轴承，并解释其功能。

A bearing is the structural element that is located at the interface between the superstructure of the bridge and the substructure. It is located at the top of the pier or cross-head or, at the ends of the bridge, on the bearing shelf.
支座是位于桥梁上部结构和下部结构之间交界处的结构元件。它位于桥墩或十字头的顶部，或者在桥的末端，位于承重架上。

It has to be capable of transferring loads down from the superstructure to the sub-structure, whilst at the same time being able to accommodate horizontal movement and rotation of the superstructure
它必须能够将荷载从上部结构向下传递到下部结构，同时能够适应上部结构的水平运动和旋转

See lecture notes p. 51 and the ‘Bridges’ PowerPoint, slide 11.
参见讲义第 51 页和“桥梁”PowerPoint，幻灯片 11。

E.4. Describe, with the aid of fully labelled sketches where appropriate, two (2) types of bearings typically used in bridge construction.
E.4. 在适当的情况下，借助完全标记的草图描述桥梁施工中通常使用的两 （2） 种轴承。

See lecture notes p. 51 – 53 and the ‘Bridges’ PowerPoint, slides 13 – 18.
参见讲义第 51 – 53 页和“桥梁”PowerPoint，幻灯片 13 – 18。

E.5. Precast, pre-tensioned Standard I-beams and Bulb-Tees are two types of beams which are in common use in longer-span bridges around Victoria. Sketch the typical shape of each of these beams. In recent times, the Bulb-Tees have gained in popularity over the Standard I-beams. Give one advantage which the bulb-tee beams have over the standard I-beams.
E.5. 预制、预紧标准工字梁和灯泡三通是维多利亚州周围跨度较长的桥梁中常用的两种梁。勾勒出每个梁的典型形状。最近，灯泡三通比标准工字梁更受欢迎。与标准工字梁相比，灯泡三通梁具有一个优势。

See lecture notes, p. 54
见讲义，第54页

The wider top flange reduces, or eliminates, the need for formwork for casting of the insitu top slab.
较宽的顶部法兰减少或消除了原位顶板浇注所需的模板。

E.6. Super T-Beams and T-Roff beams are amongst the most common form of superstructure used in Victorian bridges constructed in recent years. With regards to these beams:
E.6. 超级T型梁和T型梁是近年来建造的维多利亚式桥梁中最常见的上部结构形式之一。关于这些光束：

describe the main difference between these beams and explain why this is done;
描述这些光束之间的主要区别，并解释为什么这样做;

Similar cross-section, except that the top slab between the webs is omitted in the T-Roff beams – provide a sketch. This is done to reduce the weight of the beams, which is an important issue because they are precast and hence have to be transported to site and lifted into position by crane.
类似的横截面，除了在 T-Roff 梁中省略了腹板之间的顶板 - 提供草图。这样做是为了减轻梁的重量，这是一个重要问题，因为它们是预制的，因此必须运输到现场并由起重机吊装到位。

when you look along the soffit (underside) of these beams when they are first brought onto site, there is a very pronounced upwards deflection apparent along their length. Given that these beams are fairly heavy, a non-Engineer might expect some downwards deflection, not upwards. Explain why this upwards deflection occurs.
当您沿着这些梁的拱腹（底部）观察它们时，当它们第一次被带到现场时，沿着它们的长度有一个非常明显的向上偏转。鉴于这些光束相当重，非工程师可能会期望一些向下偏转，而不是向上偏转。解释为什么会发生这种向上偏转。

It occurs because the beams are prestressed, mainly with strands located close to their bottom face. Because the resultant compressing force is well below the centroidal axis of the section, it not only compresses the beam, but also creates a substantial upwards hogging bending moment on the section, which exceeds the sagging due to the beam’s self-weight.
发生这种情况是因为梁是预应力的，主要是靠近其底面的股线。由于合力远低于截面的质心轴，因此它不仅压缩了梁，而且在截面上产生了实质性的向上弯曲弯矩，超过了梁自重导致的下垂。

E.7. Explain the bridge construction technique known as precast, balanced cantilever construction.
E.7. 解释称为预制、平衡悬臂结构的桥梁施工技术。

Superstructure is precast in a series of short segments in a casting yard. Some months later, several segments are stressed together and lifted by crane onto the top of the pier, which has already been cast. They are seated on bearings and held stable by temporary props. The next two segments are lifted up and stressed onto the existing assemblage, one at each end. This process continues, with the cantilever extending in a balanced fashion on each side of the pier. Once the end of the cantilevers reach midspan, one of them is connected to the cantilever extending out from the pier for which this process has already been completed. Once this connection is made, this new section of the superstructure is stable, hence the temporary props can be removed, and the operation can jump on to the next pier. Thus, the sequence gradually moves across the valley/river/etc, from one side to the other.
上部结构在铸造场中以一系列短段预制。几个月后，几个部分被拉在一起，然后由起重机吊到已经铸好的桥墩顶部。它们坐在轴承上，并由临时支柱保持稳定。接下来的两段被抬起并受力到现有组合上，两端各一个。这个过程继续进行，悬臂以平衡的方式延伸到桥墩的每一侧。一旦悬臂的末端到达跨中，其中一个悬臂就连接到从桥墩延伸出来的悬臂上，该过程已经完成。一旦建立这种连接，上部结构的这个新部分就稳定了，因此可以拆除临时支柱，并且可以跳到下一个桥墩上。因此，序列逐渐穿过山谷/河流/等，从一侧移动到另一侧。

Diagrams would greatly assist this explanation.
图表将极大地帮助这种解释。

E.8. Whether it is using precast or cast-insitu concrete construction, balanced cantilever bridge construction is appropriate for a particular circumstance. Explain what this circumstance is.
E.8. 无论是使用预制结构还是现浇混凝土结构，平衡悬臂桥结构都适用于特定情况。解释这种情况是什么。

When it is not possible/feasible to get access to the ground below for the purpose of setting up falsework to support formwork for casting of the superstructure; e.g when crossing a large river, or railway lines, busy highways/streets, etc.
当不可能/可行进入下面的地面以设置支架以支撑上部结构浇筑的模板时;例如，在穿越大河、铁路线、繁忙的高速公路/街道等时。

E.9. Describe the incremental launching method of bridge construction.
E.9. 描述桥梁建设的增量下水方法。

Piers are cast, then a portion of the superstructure is cast on the embankment behind the abutment. A steel frame is attached to the front of this section of superstructure and then the entire assemblage is pushed out over the abutment, cantilevering until the end of the steel frame reaches the first pier. This then provides support as the launching continues. Once a length of the superstructure has been launched, the pushing stops and another length of the superstructure is cast, continuous with the previously-cast section. This cycle continues: cast, push, cast, push, etc, until the front of the superstructure reaches the far abutment.
浇筑桥墩，然后将上部结构的一部分浇筑在桥台后面的路堤上。将钢框架连接到上部结构的这一部分的前部，然后将整个组件推到桥台上，悬臂直到钢框架的末端到达第一个桥墩。然后，随着启动的继续，这将提供支持。一旦上部结构的一段启动，推力停止，另一段上部结构被浇筑，与先前浇筑的部分连续。这个循环继续：浇筑、推、浇筑、推等，直到上部结构的前部到达远端桥台。

Again, diagrams would greatly assist in explaining this.
同样，图表将极大地有助于解释这一点。

E.10. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the truss form of bridge.
E.10. 给出桥梁桁架形式的一个优点和一个缺点。

Advantage: Good spanning capability, due to large stiffness
优点：刚度大，跨度好

Disadvantage: High fabrication costs and lack the slender lines of beam-type bridges
缺点：制造成本高，缺乏梁式桥梁的细线

E.11. Explain why longest-span bridges in the world are all designed and constructed as suspension bridges.
E.11. 解释为什么世界上跨度最长的桥梁都是作为悬索桥设计和建造的。

Because they primarily use tension members which can be very long and slender (because buckling is not an issue) and hence very light. (The only compression members used are at the supports themselves; i.e. the towers.)
因为它们主要使用张力构件，这些构件可以很长很细（因为屈曲不是问题），因此非常轻。（唯一使用的压缩构件位于支撑本身，即塔架上。

E.12. Explain what expansion joints are in bridges, and discuss why they are required.
E.12. 解释桥梁中的伸缩缝是什么，并讨论为什么需要伸缩缝。

Expansion joints represent the interface between the bridge superstructure and the abutment. They bridge the gap between the two, which needs to be provided because the bridge superstructure is continually changing length, due to thermal expansion and contraction and shrinkage. The expansion joint is needed to prevent objects, rubbish and, in some case, moisture, getting down into this gap and to provide support to traffic and pedestrians in cases where the gap becomes fairly large..
伸缩缝表示桥梁上部结构和桥台之间的界面。它们弥合了两者之间的间隙，需要提供这种间隙，因为桥梁上部结构由于热膨胀、收缩和收缩而不断改变长度。需要伸缩缝来防止物体、垃圾和在某些情况下的湿气进入该缝隙，并在缝隙变得相当大的情况下为交通和行人提供支撑。

E.13. Sketch and label one form of bridge expansion joint.
E.13. 绘制并标记一种形式的桥梁伸缩缝。

See lecture notes, p. 63
见讲义，第63页

E.14. Explain the function of the run-on, or approach, slab often located at the rear of a bridge abutment
E.14. 解释通常位于桥台后部的跑道或引桥板的功能

This slab is used when there is a substantial depth of embankment behind the abutment, which could experience significant long-term settlement, thereby causing a sudden and significant vertical step in the road surface coinciding with the rear face of the abutment. To minimize this effect, a reinforced concrete slab is placed a metre or two below the road surface, with one edge of it supported on a ledge cast into the rear face of the abutment. The opposite end of the slab can settle with the embankment, but the slab provides a transition between the settling embankment and the abutment, which won’t settle.
当桥台后面有相当深的路堤时，可能会经历显着的长期沉降，从而导致路面突然出现与桥台背面重合的显着垂直台阶。为了尽量减少这种影响，将钢筋混凝土板放置在路面以下一两米处，其一端支撑在浇筑到桥台后表面的壁架上。楼板的另一端可以与路堤一起沉降，但楼板在沉降路堤和桥台之间提供了一个过渡，不会沉降。

Again, a diagram would assist this explanation.
同样，图表将有助于这种解释。