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Biology: The Study of Life
生物學生命研究

1 The Scientific Method 1 科學方法

Definitions 定義

  • Hypothesis 假設
  • Theory 理論
  • Principle or law 原則或法律
  • Variables (fixed/controlled and manipulated)
    變數（固定/控制和操縱）
  • Control 控制
  • Experiment* 實驗*
  • Data* 數據*
  • Replicates* 副本*
  • Fair test* 公平測試*
  • Double blind testing* 雙盲測驗*
  • defined in the glossary 在術語表中定義

Outline 概要

  • Process of Scientific Method
    科學方法的過程
  • Limitations of Scientific Method
    科學方法的局限性
In general, a scientist develops a hypothesis to explain an observed event.
一般來說，科學家會提出一個假設來解釋觀察到的事件。
  • The steps of the scientific method are used to support or refute a hypothesis.
    科學方法的步驟用於支持或反駁假設。
  • It is essential, for the support of a hypothesis, that these steps can be repeated independently by any other scientist.
    為了支持一個假設，任何其他科學家都必須能夠獨立地重複這些步驟。
  • A hypothesis can become a theory over time if the same results can be achieved by independent, unbiased experiments carried out by a number of other scientists.
    如果其他一些科學家透過獨立、無偏見的實驗也能得出同樣的結果，那麼假說會隨著時間的推移就會成為理論。
  • A theory that has been confirmed repeatedly over a long period and is universally accepted may then become a principle or law.
    經過長期反覆證實並被普遍接受的理論可能會成為原則或法律。

Limitations of Scientific Method
科學方法的局限性

  1. Interpretation of results is limited by our present knowledge and abilities.
    結果的解釋受到我們現有知識和能力的限制。
  2. Living organisms are rarely predictable and unknown factors can affect outcomes.
    生物很少是可以預測的，未知因素也會影響結果。
  3. Scientists often have theories as to the outcomes of experimentation before the experiment is carried out. These can influence their interpretation of results.
    科學家往往在實驗之前就對實驗結果有自己的理論。這些理論會影響他們對結果的解釋。
  4. Scientific theories are tested to see if they can be proven false. Only one confirmed negative result is needed to disprove a theory, even if hundreds of experiments support it.
    科學理論要經過檢驗，看能否證偽。即使有數以百計的實驗支持某個理論，也只需要一個被證實的否定結果就能推翻理論。

Experimentation 實驗

In any biology experiment, conditions or factors (light intensity or temperature, for example) can be varied. These factors are known as variables.
在任何生物學實驗中，條件或因素（如光照強度或溫度）都可以改變。這些因素稱為變數。
During many experiments, when varying one factor, the other variables must be kept constant.
在許多實驗中，當改變一個因素時，其他變數必須保持不變。

Control 控制

Every experiment needs a control to compare results. A control is generally the same apparatus as the experiment but without the factor under test being varied.
每個實驗都需要一個對照來比較結果。對照組通常是與實驗相同的儀器，但不會改變被測因素。
Figure 1.1 Scientific Method
圖1.1 科學方法

2015 Q9 HIGHER LEVEL 2015 年第九季較高水平

  1. (a) (i) What is the purpose of a hypothesis in the scientific method?
    (a) (i) 在科學方法中，假設的目的為何？
(ii) Explain what is meant by double-blind testing in scientific experimentation.
(ii) 解釋科學實驗中雙盲測驗的意義。
(b) A scientist wished to investigate the effect of the concentration of iodine on the rate of growth of tadpoles (young frogs). He acquired 100 tadpoles of the same age, all of which had hatched from the fertilised eggs of one female. He used water from the pond in which the tadpoles had hatched, and a stock solution of iodine.
(b) 一位科學家希望研究碘的濃度對蝌蚪（幼蛙）生長速度的影響。他獲得了100 隻相同年齡的蝌蚪，這些蝌蚪都是從一隻雌蛙的受精卵中孵化出來的。他使用了蝌蚪孵化池塘的水和碘儲備溶液。
(i) Why do you think that it was important that all the tadpoles came from the same mother?
(i) 為什麼你認為所有蝌蚪都來自同一個母親很重要？
(ii) At the start of the investigation the scientist divided the tadpoles into four groups of 25 , one of which was to be the control.
(ii) 調查開始時，科學家將蝌蚪分成四組，每組25 只，其中一組為對照組。
  1. Why is a control essential in scientific experiments?
    為什麼科學實驗離不開對照？
  2. Suggest why he used 25 tadpoles in each group.
    說明他為什麼每組使用25 隻蝌蚪。
  3. Suggest how this investigation would have been carried out.
    建議如何進行這項調查。
(iii) Suggest two factors that the scientist would have kept constant during the investigation.
(iii) 提出科學家在調查過程中會維持不變的兩個因素。

LEAVING CERT MARKING SCHEME
畢業證書評分標準

  1. (a)  (a)
(a) (i) To form the basis of a prediction or to give a starting point for an experiment or (to attempt) to explain an observation
(a) (i) 作為預測的基礎，或作為實驗的起點，或（試圖）解釋觀察結果
(ii) Neither the experimenter nor the text group knows who gets what (or described)
(ii) 實驗者和文本組都不知道誰得到了什麼（或描述了什麼）； (iii) 實驗者和文本組都不知道誰得到了什麼（或描述了什麼）。
(b)  (b)
(b) (i) So they are genetically similar or they are likely to respond in the same way (to iodine)
(b) (i) 所以它們在基因上​​是相似的，或者它們可能以同樣的方式（對碘）作出反應
(ii) 1. To (provide a standard or baseline to) compare with the experiment
(ii) 1.（提供標準或基線）與實驗進行比較
  1. A larger sample makes allowance for illness (or death) or to make the results more statistically significant
    樣本越大，疾病（或死亡）的可能性就越大，或使結果更具統計意義
  2. Different concentrations of iodine (solution) / made up using pond water / 25 tadpoles in each (solution) / leave for a time / record changes in tadpoles / (control) no iodine
    不同濃度的碘（溶液）/用池塘水配製/每種（溶液）中放25 隻蝌蚪/靜置一段時間/記錄蝌蚪的變化/（對照組）不放碘
Any three 任三個
(iii) Temperature / amount of food / oxygen concentration / light (exposure) / volume of water / duration of exposure
(iii) 溫度/食物量/氧氣濃度/光照（曝曬）/水量/曝曬持續時間
Any two 任兩個

2 The Characteristics of Life
2 生命的特徵

Definitions 定義
  • Life 生活
  • Metabolism 新陳代謝
  • Continuity of life 生命的延續

Outline 概要

  • Characteristics of living things
    生物的特徵

Definition of life 生命的定義

It is difficult to define life, but all living things have two features in common:
很難為生命下定義，但所有生物都有兩個共同特徵：
  1. Metabolism: They carry out chemical reactions to live.
    新陳代謝：它們為了生存而進行化學反應。
  2. Reproduction: All organisms can produce offspring for continuity.
    繁殖：所有生物都能繁衍後代以延續生命。

Characteristics of living things (organisms)
生物（有機體）的特徵

There are six characteristics common to all living organisms:
所有生物體都有六個共同特徵：
  1. Respiration: The chemical release of energy from food which occurs at a cellular level.
    呼吸作用從食物中釋放能量的化學反應，發生在細胞層面。
  2. Nutrition: The means by which an organism obtains its energy to live, and the matter it needs to build its structures.
    營養：生物體獲取生存能量和建構結構所需物質的途徑。
  3. Excretion: The removal of the wastes produced in metabolism from the body.
    排泄：排泄：將新陳代謝產生的廢物排出體外。
  4. Movement: Animal movements are obvious, while plant movements are slow, involving only parts of the plant.
    運動：動物的運動很明顯，而植物的運動很緩慢，只涉及植物的一部分。
  5. Growth: An increase in size due to an increase in solid matter in the body. There is usually an associated increase in complexity of the organism as it grows.
    生長：由於體內固體物質的增加而導致體積增加。隨著生長，生物體的複雜性通常也會隨之增加。
  6. Reproduction: The ability to produce new individuals of the same species.
    繁殖：產生同一物種新個體的能力。

. 3 Nutrition .3 營養

Definitions 定義

  • Food 食品
  • Biomolecules 生物分子
  • Vitamin 維生素
  • Mineral 礦物

Outline 概要

  • Elements, forms, sources and functions of
    元素、形式、來源和功能
  • Carbohydrate 碳水化合物
  • Lipids 脂質
  • Protein 蛋白質
  • Source, function and deficiency disease of one fat-soluble and one water-soluble vitamin
    一種脂溶性維生素和一種水溶性維生素的來源、功能和缺乏症
  • Source, function and deficiency disease of two plant minerals and two animal minerals
    兩種植物礦物質和兩種動物礦物質的來源、功能和缺乏症
  • Importance of water for organisms
    水對生物的重要性

Practical Activity 實踐活動

  • Conduct a qualitative test for starch, lipid (fat), reducing sugar and protein
    對澱粉、脂質（脂肪）、還原糖和蛋白質進行定性檢測

Food 食品

Most types of food are in the form of large, complex biomolecules.
大多數類型的食物都是大型、複雜的生物分子。
The six most common elements in food biomolecules are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. There are four main types of food biomolecules:
食品生物大分子中最常見的六種元素是碳、氫、氮、氧、磷和硫。食物生物大分子主要有四種：

1. Carbohydrates 1.碳水化合物

Food is any substance used by living organisms to provide energy, materials for repair and maintenance or to control metabolism.
食物是生物體用來提供能量、修復和維護材料或控制新陳代謝的任何物質。

Biomolecules are complex molecules
生物分子是複雜的分子

made up of different elements. They are originally produced by plants from simple elements.
  1. Protein 蛋白質
  2. Vitamins 維生素

Carbohydrates 碳水化合物

Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In general, the ratio of H to O in any carbohydrate is 2:1. The chemical formula for glucose is .
碳水化合物含有碳、氫和氧元素。一般來說，任何碳水化合物中氫與氧的比例都是2:1。葡萄糖的化學式為 。
There are three forms of carbohydrates:
碳水化合物有三種形式：
  1. Monosaccharides (single units)
    單醣（單一單位）
  2. Disaccharides (double units)
    二糖（雙單位）
  3. Polysaccharides (many units)
    多醣（許多單位）
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are soluble in water.
單醣和雙醣可溶於水。
Sources of monosaccharides and disaccharides are found in foods such as apples, milk and sugar.
蘋果、牛奶和糖等食物都含有單醣和雙醣。
Polysaccharides are insoluble carbohydrates.
多醣體是不溶性碳水化合物。
Sources of polysaccharides in food are potatoes, rice and flour.
食物中多醣的來源有馬鈴薯、米和麵粉。
The main function of carbohydrates in the diet is to produce energy.
碳水化合物在飲食中的主要功能是產生能量。
Figure 1.2 Summary of carbohydrate forms
圖1.2 碳水化合物形式概述

Lipids 脂質

Lipids contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
脂質含有碳、氫和氧元素。
There are two types of lipid:
脂質有兩種：
  • oils, which are liquid at room temperature
    油類，在室溫下呈液態
  • fats, which are solid at room temperature.
    油脂，在室溫下呈固態。
The smallest unit of a lipid is called a triglyceride. This consists of one molecule of glycerol attached to three fatty acids.
脂質的最小單位稱為三酸甘油酯。它由一分子甘油和三個脂肪酸組成。
Sources of lipids are red meats, dairy products and vegetable oils.
脂質的來源是紅肉、乳製品和植物油。
Main function in diet: Provide energy and a source of fat-soluble vitamins.
飲食中的主要功能：提供能量和脂溶性維生素。
Structural functions: Phospholipids and lipoproteins form cell membranes. Lipids form a protective layer around some body organs, such as the kidneys.
結構功能：磷脂質和脂蛋白構成細胞膜。脂質在某些人體器官（如腎臟）周圍形成保護層。

Protein 蛋白質

Protein is made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and occasionally sulfur. The smallest units of proteins are amino acids. Most proteins are composed of various proportions of twenty common amino acids.
蛋白質由碳、氫、氧、氮等元素組成，有時還包括硫元素。蛋白質的最小單位是胺基酸。大多數蛋白質由二十種常見氨基酸按不同比例組成。
Main function in the diet: Provide materials for maintenance and repair and provide the building blocks for enzymes. Enzymes control chemical reactions in all organisms. Some hormones are made up of protein.
在飲食中的主要功能：提供維持和修復所需的材料，並為酵素的形成提供基礎。酶控制所有生物體內的化學反應。有些荷爾蒙由蛋白質組成。
Structural functions: The protein keratin forms hair and nails. The protein myosin forms part of muscle fibres.
結構功能：蛋白質角質蛋白形成頭髮和指甲。蛋白質肌球蛋白構成肌肉纖維的一部份。
Sources of protein include meat, fish, nuts and milk.
蛋白質的來源包括肉、魚、堅果和牛奶。

Vitamins 維生素

Vitamins are complex organic chemicals that must be taken in the diet. They are necessary only in tiny amounts and often used as coenzymes. Vitamins have no energy value and are classified according to their solubility.
維生素是複雜的有機化學物質，必須從飲食中攝取。它們只有極少量是必需的，通常用作輔酶。維生素沒有能量價值，根據其溶解度進行分類。
Vitamin C is an example of a water-soluble vitamin, while Vitamin D is fat soluble.
維生素C 屬於水溶性維生素，而維生素D 屬於脂溶性維生素。
Vitamin 維生素 Solubility 可溶性 Source 資料來源 Function 功能

Deficiency 疾病
Deficiency
Disease
C Water 水 Citrus fruits 柑橘類水果

Maintenance of 結締組織
Maintenance of
connective tissue

壞血病，出血 膠
Scurvy, bleeding
gums
D Fat 脂肪

魚肝油，魚肝油， butter
Fish liver oil,
butter

控制轉移 磷與 之間的鈣 骨肉
Control of transfer
of phosphorus and
calcium between the
blood and bones

佝僂病，失敗 骨骼生長至 校準
Rickets, failure of
growing bones to
calcify

Minerals 礦物

Minerals are not biomolecules. They are inorganic chemicals (simple atoms and ions) necessary in tiny amounts. They must be taken in the diet. Minerals have no energy value. Two examples of plant and animal minerals are provided below.
礦物質不是生物分子。它們是微量的無機化學物質（簡單的原子和離子）。它們必須從飲食中攝取。礦物質沒有能量價值。下面舉出兩個植物和動物礦物質的例子。
Plant Minerals 植物礦物質 Source 資料來源 Function 功能 Deficiency 不足之處
Phosphate  磷酸鹽 Soil 土壤 Part of nucleic acids 核酸的一部分 Poor root growth 根系生長不良
Magnesium  鎂 Soil 土壤 Part of chlorophyll 葉綠素的一部分 Lack of chlorophyll 缺乏葉綠素
Animal Minerals 動物礦物質 Source 資料來源 Function 功能 Deficiency 不足之處
Iron  鐵 Liver, meat 肝、肉

部分血紅素和部分血紅素和 許多酵素
Part of haemoglobin and
many enzymes

低紅血球 count
Low red blood cell
count
Calcium  鈣 Milk, cheese 牛奶、乳酪 Bones, nerve transmission
骨骼、神經傳輸		 Weak bones 骨骼脆弱

Water 水

Water has no energy value but is essential for life. Over 70 per cent of our body is water. Water loss occurs through excretion, breathing and sweating. The average person loses between two and three litres of water per day, which must be replaced in the diet.
水沒有能量價值，卻是生命的必需品。我們身體的70% 以上都是水。水分透過排泄、呼吸和出汗流失。平均每人每天流失2 到3 公升水，這些水必須透過飲食來補充。

Functions of water 水的功能

  • A liquid medium for enzymes to function
    讓酵素發揮作用的液體介質
  • An excellent solvent 極佳的溶劑
  • Minerals required in relatively large amounts are called Macronutrients. These include Sodium ( Na ), Magnesium (Mg), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K) and Calcium (Ca).
    需要量相對較大的礦物質稱為巨量營養素。它們包括鈉（Na）、鎂（Mg）、氯（Cl）、鉀（K）和鈣（Ca）。
  • Trace elements are minerals required at lower concentrations. Examples are Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu) and Zinc .
    微量元素是所需濃度較低的礦物質。例如鐵（Fe）、銅（Cu）和鋅 。
  • Medium of transport in blood
    血液中的運送媒介

Mandatory activity 強制性活動

Food tests 食品測試

Test for protein 檢測蛋白質

  1. Place a small volume of the sample in a test tube.
    將少量樣本放入試管中。
  2. Add an equal volume of 10 per cent sodium hydroxide.
    加入等體積的10%氫氧化鈉。
  3. Add a few drops of 1 per cent copper sulfate and mix.
    加入幾滴1% 的硫酸銅並混合。
Positive result purple OR violet colour.
陽性結果 紫色或紫色。
Negative result light blue colour.
陰性結果 淡藍色。
Control: Use an equal volume of water as the sample.
對照組：使用等體積的水作為樣本。

Test for reducing sugar, e.g. glucose
檢測還原糖，如葡萄糖

  1. Place a small volume of the sample in a test tube.
    將少量樣本放入試管中。
  2. Add an equal volume of Benedict's reagent and mix.
    加入等體積的本尼迪特試劑混合。
  3. Place in a hot water bath for ten minutes (do not boil).
    放入熱水中浸泡十分鐘（不要煮沸）。
Positive result brick red OR orange colour. A green colour indicates slight positive result.
陽性結果 磚紅色或橙色。綠色表示輕微陽性結果。
Negative result = blue colour.
陰性結果= 藍色。
Control: Use an equal volume of water as the sample.
對照組：使用等體積的水作為樣本。

Test for starch 澱粉檢測

  1. Place a small volume of the sample in a test tube.
    將少量樣本放入試管中。
  2. Add a few drops of dilute iodine and mix.
    加入幾滴稀釋碘酒並混合。
Positive result blue colour.
陽性結果 藍色 顏色。
Negative result = yellow colour.
陰性結果= 黃色。
Control: Use an equal volume of water as the sample.
對照組：使用等體積的水作為樣本。

Test for lipids 血脂檢測

  1. Heat the sample gently to or body temperature.
    輕輕加熱樣品至 或體溫。
  2. Add the sample to brown paper.
    將樣本放入牛皮紙中。
  3. Dry the paper with gentle heat.
    用文火烘乾紙張。
  4. Hold the paper up to the light.
    將紙張對著光線。
Positive result a translucent grease spot is formed.
陽性結果 形成半透明的油斑。
Negative result no translucent spot.
陰性結果 無半透明斑點。
Control: Use an equal volume of water as the sample.
對照組：使用等體積的水作為樣本。

2015 Q1 HIGHER LEVEL 2015 年第一季較高水平

  1. Answer any five of the following parts (a) to ( ):
    請回答下列(a)至( )部分中的任五個問題：
(a) What name is given to the simplest units of carbohydrates?
(a) 碳水化合物最簡單的單位叫什麼名字？
(b) Name a catabolic process that produces these simplest units.
(b) 舉出產生這些最簡單單位的分解代謝過程的名稱。
(c) The general formula of carbohydrates is . What is the most common value of in the carbohydrates used for energy by human cells?
(c) 碳水化合物的通式為 。在人體細胞用作能量的碳水化合物中， 最常見的值是多少？
(d) Name a structural polysaccharide found in plants.
(d) 舉出植物中一種結構多醣的名稱。
(e) Name a polysaccharide, other than the one referred to in part (d), commonly found in plants.
(e) 除(d)部分提到的多醣外，請說出常見於植物中的多醣。
(f) Which carbohydrate is always found in DNA?
(f) 哪一種碳水化合物總是存在於DNA 中？

LEAVING CERT MARKING SCHEME
畢業證書評分標準

  1. i.e. best five answers from (a)
    即（a）中的五個最佳答案
    (a) Monosaccharides (a) 單醣
    (d) Cellulose (d) 纖維素
    (b) Digestion (b) 消化
    (e) Starch (e) 澱粉
    (c) 6
    (f) Deoxyribose (f) 脫氧核糖

2014 Q2 (b) HIGHER LEVEL
2014 年第二季(b) 高等教育

2.(b) (i) How does a phospholipid differ from a fat?
2.(b) (i) 磷脂質與脂肪有何不同？
(ii) Name a fat-soluble vitamin.
(ii) 舉出一種脂溶性維生素的名稱。
(iii) State a disorder due to a dietary deficiency of the vitamin referred to in (b) (ii).
(iii) 說明因飲食中缺乏(b)(ii)中提及的維生素而導致的疾病。
(iv) Give any two functions of minerals in organisms.
(iv) 請舉出礦物質在生物體中的兩種功能。

LEAVING CERT MARKING SCHEME
畢業證書評分標準


  1. (b) (i) (A phospholipid) has a
    (b) (i) （一種磷脂質）具有
    (iv) Formation of rigid structure phosphate or (a phospholipid) (or named) / formation of soft has two fatty acids (A fat) has three fatty acids tissue (or named) / formation of fluid (or named) / formation of pigment (or named) / biochemical
    (iv) 形成剛性結構的磷酸鹽或（一種磷脂質）（或命名）/形成柔軟的具有兩種脂肪酸（一種脂肪）的具有三種脂肪酸的組織（或命名）/形成液體（或命名） /形成色素（或命名）/生物化學
    (ii) or
    (ii) 或
    (iii) Matching disorder function of a named mineral / any other specific function(s) of named mineral(s)
    (iii) 指定礦物的無序功能/指定礦物的任何其他特定功能的匹配

1.4
General Principles of Ecology
1.4
生態學的一般原理

Definitions 定義

  • Ecology 生態學
  • Ecosystem 生態系統
  • Biosphere 生物圈
  • Habitat 棲息地
  • Niche 小眾
  • Abiotic factors 非生物因素
  • Climatic factors 氣候因素
  • Edaphic factors 氣候因素
  • Biotic factors 生物因素
  • Food web 食物網
  • Food chain 食物鏈
  • Pyramid of numbers 數位金字塔
  • Population* 人口*
  • Community* 社區*
*defined in the glossary *在術語表中定義

Outline 概要

  • Energy flow from the sun through plants up food chains
    能量從太陽通過植物流向食物鏈
  • Construction of food chain and pyramids of numbers
    建構食物鏈和數位金字塔
  • Limitations of pyramid of numbers
    數位金字塔的局限性
  • Pyramid of biomass and its advantages over pyramid of numbers
    生物量金字塔及其與數位金字塔相比的優勢
  • Factors that control population numbers (competition, predation, parasitism and symbiosis/mutualism)
    控制族群數量的因素（競爭、捕食、寄生和共生/互助）
  • Factors that affect human population (war, famine, contraception and disease)
    影響人口的因素（戰爭、飢荒、避孕和疾病）

Practical Activity 實踐活動

  • Study of an ecosystem 生態系研究

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS 重要定義

Ecology is the scientific study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment.
生態學是一門研究生物如何與環境互動的科學。
An ecosystem is a definable area containing a self-sustained community of organisms interacting with their non-living environment.
生態系統是一個可定義的區域，其中包含與非生物環境相互作用的自我維持的生物群落。
Examples: Pond, woodland or seashore ecosystems.
例如：池塘、林地或海濱生態系：池塘、林地或海濱生態系。
The biosphere is the part of the earth occupied by organisms. It extends from the bottom of the oceans to the upper atmosphere. It is a relatively thin band compared with the total size of the earth and the atmosphere.
生物圈是地球上由生物佔據的部分。它從海洋底部一直延伸到大氣層上部。與地球和大氣層的總面積相比，生物圈是一個相對較薄的帶狀區域。
A habitat is the part of an ecosystem where individual organisms live.
棲息地是生態系中生物個體生活的地方。
A niche describes the role of an organism in an ecosystem. It shows how as well as where an organism lives.
生態位描述了生物在生態系中的作用。它顯示了生物的生活方式和生活地點。
Example: A caterpillar feeds and lives on the leaves of an oak tree in a woodland. The caterpillar is also a food source for blue tits in this habitat.
舉例說明：一隻毛毛蟲在林地的橡樹葉上覓食和生活。這種毛蟲也是這片棲息地中藍山雀的食物來源。

Environmental factors in an ecosystem
生態系中的環境因素

The distribution of organisms in any habitat will be affected by two groups of factors:
生物在任何生境中的分佈都會受到兩類因素的影響：
  • Abiotic factors 非生物因素
  • Biotic factors 生物因素

Abiotic factors 非生物因素

Abiotic factors are physical, non-living factors that influence living organisms.
非生物因素是影響生物體的物理、非生物因素。
Abiotic factors include the following:
非生物因素包括以下方面
  1. Climatic factors such as light, temperature, water availability and wind.
    氣候因素，如光照、溫度、水源和風。
  2. Edaphic factors (usually associated with soil) such as soil texture, pH and organic content.
    環境因素（通常與土壤有關），如土壤質地、酸鹼度和有機物含量。
  3. Topographic factors such as the angle or aspect of a slope.
    地形因素，如斜坡的角度或坡度。

Biotic factors 生物因素

Biotic factors are any factors in an organism's environment that are due to the presence of other organisms.
生物因素是指生物環境中由於其他生物的存在而產生的任何因素。
Two examples of biotic factors are provided below:
以下舉出兩個生物因素的例子：
  1. The effect of abundant seaweeds on a rocky seashore is to provide shelter and food for a large community of organisms.
    岩石海岸上豐富的海藻可以為大型生物群落提供庇護所和食物。
  2. In a terrestrial (land) ecosystem, biotic factors could include parasitism. Greenfly act as parasites on green plants. They feed on the sap in the phloem, causing harm to the plant.
    在陸地生態系中，生物因素可能包括寄生。綠蠅是綠色植物的寄生蟲。它們以韌皮部的汁液為食，對植物造成傷害。

key 金鑰

point 點
  • On the seashore, abiotic factors would include tides, water temperature and wave action.
    在海邊，非生物因素包括潮汐、水溫和海浪作用。
  • In a woodland ecosystem, abiotic factors would include light, temperature, air humidity, soil pH and wind.
    在林地生態系中，非生物因素包括光照、溫度、空氣濕度、土壤酸鹼度和風。

Energy flow in an ecosystem
生態系中的能量流動

The energy for all living organisms originally comes from the sun.
所有生物的能量最初都來自太陽。

Food web 食物網

A food web shows all the feeding (energy change) relationships in an ecosystem (see fig. 1.3).
食物網顯示了生態系中所有的攝食（能量變化）關係（見圖1.3）。
Figure 1.3 Food web (pond)
圖1.3 食物網（池塘）

Food chain 食物鏈

A food chain indicates the feeding (energy change) relationships between a number of organisms in an ecosystem.
食物鏈表示生態系中若干生物之間的進食（能量變化）關係。
A food chain from the pond food is shown in fig. 1.4.
圖1.4 顯示了從池塘食物開始的食物鏈。
Figure 1.4 Food chain 圖1.4 食物鏈

Pyramid of numbers 數位金字塔

A pyramid of numbers is produced when the number of organisms per unit area is counted at each trophic level in the food chain. The numbers of each organism are then represented by the width of a horizontal bar on the pyramid.
當計算食物鏈中每個營養級單位面積上的生物數量時，就會產生一個數字金字塔。每種生物的數量以金字塔上橫條的寬度表示。
  • A food chain or web always begins with a plant (primary producer).
    食物鏈或食物網總是從植物（初級生產者）開始。
  • A food chain or pyramid rarely has more than five stages. This is due to the enormous amounts of energy lost (over 90 per cent) when moving from one trophic level to the next. This energy loss is due to metabolism, excretion, movement or any other living activities.
    食物鏈或金字塔很少有超過五個階段的。這是因為從一個營養級到下一個營養級時會損失大量能量（超過90%）。這種能量損失是由於新陳代謝、排泄、運動或任何其他生命活動造成的。

(II) Limitations of a pyramid of numbers
(二）數字金字塔的局限性

  • It can be difficult to count the number of plants (example grasses or algae) accurately in a trophic level.
    要準確計算一個營養級中植物（例如草或藻類）的數量可能比較困難。
  • There is often more than one organism at any trophic level in a habitat.
    在一個棲息地的任何營養級上，往往都有不只一種生物。
  • The shape of a pyramid will vary according to the time of year.
    金字塔的形狀會隨著時間的變化而改變。
  • It does not take into account the relative size of the organisms at each level. In a woodland habitat, an example of a food chain and the associated pyramid of numbers is shown in fig. 1.5. This shape is called an inverted pyramid of numbers.
    它沒有考慮到每一層生物的相對大小。在林地生境中，食物鏈和相關數位金字塔的示例如圖1.5 所示。這種形狀稱為倒數金字塔。

Food Chain 食物鏈

Figure 1.5 Inverted pyramid of numbers
圖1.5 數字的倒金字塔

Pyramid of biomass 生物量金字塔

An alternative approach to a pyramid of numbers is a pyramid of biomass. This is produced by estimating the dry mass of organisms per unit area at each level of a food chain (units ). This is regarded as a better procedure because:
數位金字塔的另一種方法是生物量金字塔。這種方法是透過估算食物鏈每一級單位面積上的生物幹質量（單位 ）來得出的。這被認為是一種更好的方法，因為：
  • It usually produces the expected pyramid shape due to the inclusion of the factor of organism size into the calculations (see fig. 1.6).
    由於在計算中加入了生物體大小的因素，通常會產生預期的金字塔形狀（見圖1.6）。
  • It can allow for comparisons between ecosystems.
    它可以對不同生態系統進行比較。
Figure 1.6 Pyramid of biomass
圖1.6 生質金字塔

Factors that affect population numbers in an ecosystem
影響生態系中人口數的因素

There are four main factors that can influence population numbers in an ecosystem.
影響生態系中族群數量的主要因素有四。
  1. Competition 競賽
  2. Predation 捕食
  3. Parasitism 寄生蟲
  4. Symbiosis 共生

1. Competition 1.競爭

Competition is usually more intense between members of the same species, due to their requirements for the same
同一物種成員之間的競爭通常更為激烈，因為它們需要相同的
Competition is the struggle between two or more organisms for limited resources in an ecosystem. resources in the ecosystem.
競爭是指兩種或兩種以上生物為爭奪生態系中的有限資源而展開的鬥爭。
There are two types of competition:
競爭有兩種類型：
  • Contest competition 競賽比賽
  • Scramble competition 爭球比賽
Contest competition involves a physical contest, usually between members of the same species. Only one individual can win the resource.
競賽競爭涉及身體較量，通常是同一物種成員之間的較量。只有一個個體能贏得資源。
This form of competition controls population numbers and ensures that only the fittest and strongest reproduce.
這種形式的競爭控制著族群數量，確保只有最適者、最強壯者才能繁衍後代。
Example: Stags compete to reproduce with females in their herd.
舉例說明：雄鹿與群中的雌鹿競爭繁殖後代。
Scramble competition involves individuals struggling to get as much of a resource as possible. It usually results in all of the competitors getting some of the resource in the ecosystem.
爭奪競爭是指個體努力爭取盡可能多的資源。其結果通常是所有競爭者都能獲得生態系中的部分資源。
Scramble competition can lead to a serious decline in competing population numbers if the food source becomes scarce.
如果食物來源變得稀缺，爭奪競爭會導致競爭族群數量嚴重下降。
Example: Sheep, goats and rabbits competing for hillside vegetation.
例如綿羊、山羊和兔子爭搶山坡上的植被。

Adaptations to avoid competition
避免競爭的適應

The population of any species will increase if it can develop structural or behavioural adaptations to reduce competition with rivals in its ecosystem.
任何物種如果能在結構或行為上適應環境，減少與生態系中對手的競爭，其數量就會增加。

Plants 植物

Plant species can develop different root systems to avoid competition for minerals and water with others.
植物物種可以發展不同的根系，以避免與其他物種爭奪礦物質和水分。
Example: Grass roots absorb water and minerals from surface soil, while dandelion tap roots source their nutrients from lower layers.
舉例說明：草根從表層土壤中吸收水分和礦物質，而蒲公英的直根則從下層土壤中獲取養分。

Animals 動物

Animal species can adapt to different food sources in the same ecosystem.
動物物種可以適應同一生態系中的不同食物來源。
Example: Cormorants and swans both feed in the same estuary ecosystem. Swans are herbivores, feeding on plants. Cormorants are carnivores, feeding on eels and fish.
舉例說明：鸕鶿和天鵝都在同一個河口生態系中覓食。天鵝是草食性動物，以植物為食。鸕鶿是肉食動物，以鰻魚和魚類為食。

2. Predation 2.捕食

A predator is an organism that feeds on another species, usually killing it first. The other species is called the prey.
掠食者是一種以另一種生物為食的生物，通常會先殺死另一種生物。其他物種被稱為獵物。
The abundance of prey is a factor limiting the numbers of the predator. In a food chain, the predator-prey relationship causes both populations to oscillate (see fig. 1.7).
獵物的數量是限制捕食者數量的一個因素。在食物鏈中，捕食者與被捕食者的關係會導致兩個族群的數量波動（見圖1.7）。
In this laboratory experiment, the numbers of the predator (paramecium) increase when there is a large population of prey (yeast cells). The increase in predator numbers
在這個實驗室實驗中，當有大量獵物（酵母細胞）時，捕食者（副酵母菌）的數量就會增加。掠食者數量的增加
Figure 1.7 Graph of predator-prey relationship
圖1.7 捕食者與被捕食者關係圖
then causes a decrease in the prey population. At this point, predator numbers begin to fall, which allows for prey numbers to increase again.
然後導致獵物數量減少。此時，捕食者的數量開始下降，使獵物的數量再次增加。

Population dynamics 人口動態

In any predator-prey relationship it is likely that factors other than the direct feeding relationship cause variation in the population numbers.
在任何捕食者與被捕食者的關係中，除了直接的捕食關係外，其他因素也可能導致族群數量的變化。
Examples of such factors could include:
這些因素包括
  • availability of food for the prey
    為獵物提供食物
  • defence mechanisms developed by the prey
    獵物形成的防禦機制
  • improvement in techniques of capture by the predator
    改進捕食者的捕捉技術
  • competition from other animals in the food web
    食物網中其他動物的競爭
  • the possibility of migration by predator or prey
    捕食者或獵物遷徙的可能性
  • the introduction of disease into the predator or prey populations.
    將疾病引入捕食者或獵物族群。

Adaptations of predators and prey
捕食者和獵物的適應性

Adaptations of predators that improve their efficiency include:
捕食者提高效率的適應性包括
  • good vision in hawks to spot prey before being detected
    鷹有良好的視力，能在被發現前發現獵物
  • speed of terriers to capture small mammals
    獵犬捕捉小型哺乳動物的速度
  • stealth and agility of cats to capture mice and rats.
    貓捕捉老鼠的隱蔽性和敏捷性。
Adaptations of prey to avoid capture include:
獵物避免被捕獲的適應性包括
  • camouflage colouration in frogs
    蛙類的迷彩
  • bright colouration of ladybirds warns predators of their unpalatable taste
    瓢蟲鮮豔的顏色警告天敵它們的味道難吃
  • snails and slugs will only feed at night to avoid detection.
    蝸牛和蛞蝓只在夜間覓食，以免被發現。

3. Parasitism 3.寄生生活

Parasitism is an association where one organism, the parasite, lives in or on another organism, the host. The parasite depends on the host for food and usually causes it harm.
寄生是指一種生物（寄生蟲）寄生在另一種生物（宿主）體內或寄生在宿主身上。寄生蟲依賴宿主為食，通常會對宿主造成傷害。
Parasitism can be a limiting factor for the population numbers of the host. This is particularly true when the parasite damages the tissues or causes the early death of the host.
寄生會限制宿主的族群數量。當寄生蟲損害宿主的組織或導致宿主過早死亡時，情況尤其如此。
Example: Liverfluke is a parasite in cattle and sheep. Infected animals lose weight and their condition deteriorates.
舉例說明：肝吸蟲是一種牛羊寄生蟲。受感染的動物體重減輕，體質變差。

4. Symbiosis 4.共生

This is a general term where two different organisms live in close association with one another. One form of symbiosis or mutualism is where two different organisms live in close association, which provides an advantage to both.
這是指兩種不同的生物彼此密切聯繫生活的總稱。共生或互生的一種形式是兩種不同的生物密切地生活在一起，從而為雙方帶來好處。
Example: Lichens consist of a fungus and an alga in a mutualistic (symbiotic) relationship. The alga provides food while the fungus provides anchorage and minerals in exchange.
舉例說明：地衣由真菌和藻類組成，兩者之間是互生（共生）關係。藻類提供食物，而真菌則提供錨地和礦物質作為交換。

Nutrient recycling 養分回收

Definitions 定義
  • Pollution 污染
  • Conservation 環境保護
  • Nutrient recycling* 養分回收*
  • Waste management* 廢棄物管理*
  • defined in the glossary 在術語表中定義

Outline 概要

  • Stages of carbon cycle 碳循環階段
  • Stages of nitrogen cycle 氮循環階段
  • One example of human pollution and its control
    人類污染及其控制的例子
  • One example of conservation
    保護的一個例子
  • Problems associated with waste disposal
    與廢棄物處理有關的問題
  • Role of micro-organisms in waste disposal
    微生物在廢棄物處理中的作用
There is almost a limitless supply of energy provided to the ecosystems by the sun. This is not the situation for nutrients, which must be constantly recycled in nature for the continuity of life.
太陽為生態系提供的能量幾乎是無限的。但營養物質的情況並非如此，為了生命的延續，營養物質必須在自然界中不斷循環利用。
There are two main nutrient cycles:
主要有兩種營養循環：
  1. The carbon cycle 碳循環
  2. The nitrogen cycle 氮循環

The carbon cycle 碳循環

This describes the changes in the forms of carbon that occur in nature. The cycle is essential for the survival of organisms.
它描述了自然界中碳的形態變化。碳循環對生物的生存至關重要。
Important points in the carbon cycle include:
碳循環的重要節點包括
  • carbon is a basic element of all living things
    碳是所有生物的基本元素
  • all organisms produce carbon dioxide gas as a waste product of respiration
    所有生物在呼吸過程中都會產生二氧化碳氣體作為廢物
  • plants absorb carbon dioxide gas from the air for use in photosynthesis
    植物吸收空氣中的二氧化碳氣體用於光合作用
  • photosynthesis produces carbohydrates that can be converted to other foods required by the plant
    光合作用產生的碳水化合物可轉化為植物所需的其他食物
  • animals gain their energy and carbon by feeding directly or indirectly on plants
    動物透過直接或間接捕食植物獲得能量和碳
  • combustion of fossil fuels is changing the balance of nature by releasing huge quantities of into the air.
    化石燃料的燃燒向空氣中釋放了大量的 ，從而改變了大自然的平衡。
Fig. 1.8 shows a summary of the changes in the forms of carbon that occur in nature.
圖1.8 概述了自然界中碳的形態變化。
Figure 1.8 Carbon cycle 圖1.8 碳循環

The nitrogen cycle 氮循環

Introduction 導言

The nitrogen cycle describes the changes in the forms of nitrogen that occur in nature. The cycle is essential for the survival of organisms.
氮循環描述了自然界中氮形態的變化。這個循環對生物的生存至關重要。
  • Nitrogen is a vital component of amino acids and proteins.
    氮是胺基酸和蛋白質的重要組成部分。
  • Proteins (in the form of enzymes) control metabolism in all living things.
    蛋白質（以酵素的形式）控制著所有生物的新陳代謝。
  • Almost 80 per cent of the atmosphere is made up of nitrogen gas . In this form it cannot be used by plants or animals.
    大氣中幾乎80% 的成分都是氮氣 。植物或動物無法利用這種形式的氮氣。
  • Bacteria in the nitrogen cycle convert nitrogen gas in the air to nitrate . This process is called nitrogen fixation. Nitrates can then be absorbed by the roots of plants and used to make protein.
    氮循環中的細菌將空氣中的氮氣轉化為硝酸鹽 。這一過程被稱為固氮作用。然後，硝酸鹽可被植物根部吸收並用來製造蛋白質。
  • Animals consume the plants, converting the nutrients to animal protein.
    動物食用植物，將營養轉化為動物蛋白質。
  • Nitrification is the addition of oxygen to nitrogen compounds.
    硝化是在氮化合物中加入氧氣。
  • Denitrification is the removal of oxygen from nitrogen compounds.
    脫氮是指從氮化合物中去除氧氣。
  • Bacteria play a large role in the nitrogen cycle (see fig. 1.9).
    細菌在氮循環中扮演重要角色（見圖1.9）。
Figure 1.9 Nitrogen cycle
圖1.9 氮循環

Nitrogen fixation 固氮作用

Nitrogen fixation is the term given to the conversion of nitrogen to nitrates. It is brought about by two processes.
固氮是將氮轉化為硝酸鹽的術語。它由兩個過程實現。
  • Lightning 閃電
  • Bacteria 細菌
One type of bacterium that carries out nitrogen fixation is found on the nodules of the roots of legumes (clover, pea and bean plants). It fixes nitrogen for the plant, while in return the plant supplies sugars to the bacterium. Such a relationship in nature where two different organisms live together is called symbiosis. When the association is beneficial to both, the relationship is known as mutualism.
在豆科植物（苜蓿、豌豆和豆類植物）根部的結核中發現了一種進行固氮作用的細菌。它為植物固氮，而植物則為細菌提供糖分。自然界中兩種不同生物共生的關係稱為共生。當這種關係對雙方都有益處時，這種關係被稱為互利關係。

Human population 人口

Since 1700 there has been a huge increase in human population. The main reasons for this huge increase are:
自1700 年以來，人類人口大幅增加。造成這一巨大增長的主要原因是
  • the large reduction in child mortality
    兒童死亡率大幅下降
  • an improvement in life expectancy.
    提高預期壽命。
Because of these factors, more of the population reach the reproductive age and produce offspring.
由於這些因素，更多的人口達到了生育年齡並繁衍後代。
The improved life expectancy is due to:
壽命延長的原因是

1. Reduction of disease 1.減少疾病

Several important scientific advances have reduced disease.
一些重要的科學進步減少了疾病的發生。
  • Immunisation, vaccination and antibiotics considerably improved the health of the population.
    免疫接種和抗生素大大改善了人們的健康狀況。
  • The improvement in sanitation and public health.
    改善環境衛生和公共衛生。
  • Water treatment and proper sewage disposal removed many sources of disease.
    水處理和適當的污水處理消除了許多疾病來源。

2. Increase in food supply
2.增加糧食供應

Good agricultural practices improved the quality and quantity of produce.
良好的農業實踐提高了農產品的品質和數量。
  • High-yielding strains or breeds of plants and animals were developed.
    高產動植物品系或品種已開發。
  • The development and use of artificial fertilisers and herbicides further improved yields.
    人工肥料和除草劑的開發和使用進一步提高了產量。

Control of human population
控制人口

The world's population growth must begin to decline. Resources are limited. A lower level of population would ultimately allow for a better quality of life with sufficient resources for all.
世界人口成長必須開始下降。資源是有限的。較低的人口數量最終將提高生活質量，為所有人提供充足的資源。
It is thought that education and birth control in developed countries have largely stabilised populations. In developing countries problems with population include:
人們認為，已開發國家的教育和節育措施在很大程度上穩定了人口。發展中國家的人口問題包括
  • many people still wish to have traditionally large families
    許多人仍然希望擁有傳統上的大家庭
  • shortages of doctors and trained medical staff to explain family planning techniques
    缺乏醫生和訓練有素的醫務人員來解釋計劃生育技術
  • some cultures are suspicious of contraception.
    有些文化懷疑避孕。

Human impact on an ecosystem
人類對生態系的影響

Pollution 污染

A pollutant may be physical (noise, heat, radiation) or chemical (industrial or biological wastes) that can cause harm to organisms in the environment.
污染物可能是物理（噪音、熱、輻射）或化學（工業或生物廢棄物），會對環境中的生物造成傷害。
Pollution is the release of substances or energy into the environment in large quantities that harm the natural inhabitants.
污染是指將物質或能量大量釋放到環境中，對自然界的居民造成傷害。

Air pollution 空氣污染

One form of air pollution is caused by the industrial release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases reduce the ability of the earth to reflect heat radiation back into space. The greenhouse effect is causing a steady increase in the temperature of the earth and the atmosphere.
空氣污染的一種形式是由工業向大氣釋放溫室氣體所造成的。溫室氣體降低了地球將熱輻射反射回太空的能力。溫室效應導致地球和大氣溫度持續上升。

Causes 原因

The most important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
最重要的溫室氣體是二氧化碳、甲烷和氯氟化碳（CFCs）。
  • Carbon dioxide gas is released when fossil fuels are burned. Since the Industrial Revolution, the increasing use of fossil fuels for energy has produced a steady rise in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Many scientists link this increase to climate change.
    化石燃料燃燒時會釋放出二氧化碳氣體。自工業革命以來，由於越來越多地使用化石燃料作為能源，大氣中的二氧化碳含量持續上升。許多科學家將這種上升與氣候變遷連結在一起。
  • Methane is even more efficient than carbon dioxide at retaining heat in the atmosphere. Methane is released in large quantities from cattle and pigs. Landfill dumping is also a source of methane.
    甲烷比二氧化碳更有效地將熱量保留在大氣中。牛和豬會釋放出大量甲烷。垃圾掩埋也是甲烷的一個來源。
  • CFCs were used as a liquid coolant in refrigerators. CFCs destroy the protective ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
    氯氟化碳被用作冰箱的液體冷卻劑。 CFC 會破壞大氣層上層的臭氧保護層。

Effects 效果

The effects of global warming are thought to cause:
全球暖化的影響被認為會導致..：
  • The rise of sea levels
    海平面上升
  • The melting of polar ice
    極地冰雪消融
  • A change in weather patterns.
    天氣模式發生變化。

Control 控制

Efforts to reduce global warming include the following:
減少全球暖化的努力包括以下幾個方面：
  • Many countries have signed up to international agreements to limit the use of fossil fuels.
    許多國家都簽署了限制使用化石燃料的國際協議。
  • New sources of renewable energy are being developed and refined. Wind and solar energy are two examples.
    新的再生能源正在不斷開發和完善。風能和太陽能就是兩個例子。
  • New engines for transport are being developed. Hydrogen can be used to fuel car engines, with water being the only waste product.
    新的交通工具引擎正在研發中。氫可用於為汽車引擎提供燃料，水是唯一的廢品。
  • Policies to increase public awareness of the importance and the means of energy conservation are being developed.
    目前正在製定相關政策，以提高公眾對節能重要性和手段的認識。

Conservation 環境保護

Conservation is a series of measures designed to retain viable populations of species in their ecosystems.
保育是一系列旨在將物種族群保留在其生態系統中的措施。
Human activities such as agriculture, urbanisation and industrialisation can contribute to ecosystem damage.
農業、都市化和工業化等人類活動都會對生態系統造成破壞。

Conservation in the fishing industry
漁業保護

The scale of fishing around Britain and Ireland has seriously depleted stocks of many species. A ban on fishing for certain species has had some success in increasing population numbers.
在英國和愛爾蘭，大規模的捕魚已使許多物種的族群嚴重枯竭。禁止捕撈某些物種在增加族群數量方面取得了一些成效。
Legislation by the European Union to conserve stocks include:
歐洲聯盟保護魚類族群的立法包括
  • limiting the size of fishing fleets
    限制捕魚船隊的規模
  • reducing the number of days at sea by trawlers
    減少拖網漁船出海天數
  • increasing the mesh size of nets.
    增加漁網的網目尺寸。

Waste management 廢棄物管理

Urban communities produce huge quantities of household and commercial waste. The traditional method of waste disposal was by dumping the rubbish in landfill sites, such as disused quarries and gravel pits. This method leads to three main problems.
城市社區會產生大量的家庭和商業垃圾。傳統的垃圾處理方法是將垃圾傾倒在垃圾掩埋場，如廢棄的採石場和礫石坑。這種方法會導致三大問題。
  • There are insufficient sites to accommodate all the rubbish.
    沒有足夠的場地來容納所有垃圾。
  • When compacted and removed from air, carbon-based waste releases large amounts of the greenhouse gas methane.
    碳基廢棄物經過壓縮並脫離空氣後，會釋放大量溫室氣體甲烷。
  • Toxic substances can leach into groundwater, presenting a threat to human supplies.
    有毒物質會滲入地下水，對人類用水構成威脅。

Waste minimisation 盡量減少廢物

Many projects to minimise waste have been introduced.
已經推出了許多盡量減少廢棄物的項目。
Waste minimisation can be done by the following:
最大限度減少廢棄物可透過以下方式實現：
  • Separating household rubbish so that many materials can be recycled. Cardboard, paper, some plastic, aluminium cans and glass can be recycled.
    將家庭垃圾進行分類，使許多材料可以回收。紙板、紙張、部分塑膠、鋁罐和玻璃都可以回收。
  • Organic waste can be composted to produce natural organic fertiliser.
    有機廢棄物可以堆肥，生產天然有機肥料。
  • Most old electrical items such as TVs, fridges, cookers, etc. can all be stripped to recycle parts.
    大多數舊電器產品，如電視、冰箱、爐具等，都可以拆下來回收零件。
  • The remaining rubbish that cannot be recycled can be incinerated to reduce volume.
    無法回收的剩餘垃圾可以透過焚燒來減少體積。

Waste from farming 農業廢棄物

The overuse of chemical fertilisers on land can result in algal bloom pollution of waterways. Nutrient Management Planning can minimise risks by specifying correct usage of fertilisers in particular areas.
在土地上過度使用化學肥料會導致水道藻華污染。養分管理規劃可以透過規定特定區域正確使用化肥，將風險降至最低。

Waste from forestry 林業廢棄物

The planting of conifers close to streams and rivers can cause pollution. Falling needles (leaves) decrease the pH of water, causing harm to aquatic plants and animals. Planting of trees away from waterways can reduce potential pollution.
在溪流和河流附近種植針葉樹會造成污染。落針（葉）會降低水的pH 值，對水生植物和動物造成傷害。在遠離水道的地方種植樹木可以減少潛在的污染。

Sewage 污水

Sewage treatment is a process that uses micro-organisms to remove its harmful components. The main stages of sewage treatment are summarised in fig. 1.10.
污水處理是一個利用微生物去除有害成分的過程。圖1.10 概述了污水處理的主要階段。
Sewage is a liquid waste produced in large quantities in urban areas. The discharge of raw sewage into the environment could cause serious pollution problems.
污水是城市地區產生的大量液體廢棄物。將未處理的污水排放到環境中會造成嚴重的污染問題。
Figure 1.10 Stages in sewage treatment
圖1.10 污水處理階段

.5 Study of an Ecosystem Guidelines
.5 生態係指南研究

The following points are to be used merely as a checklist for the procedures and exercises that are required to be carried out in the Study of an Ecosystem. Each student, under the supervision of their teacher, should:
以下幾點僅作為"生態系統研究"中要求執行的程序和練習的核對錶。在老師的指導下，每個學生都應該
  • Select and visit one ecosystem.
    選擇並訪問一個生態系統。
  • Provide a broad overview of the ecosystem chosen.
    概括介紹所選擇的生態系。
  • Identify five plants and five animals in the ecosystem (Qualitative Survey).
    識別生態系中的五種植物和五種動物（定性調查）。
  • Locate and identify the different habitats present.
    找到並識別不同的棲息地。
  • Describe the use of various apparatus used to collect plants and animals.
    描述用於採集動植物的各種儀器的使用方法。
  • Conduct a quantitative study of plants using frequency and percentage cover techniques in a selected area of the ecosystem.
    使用頻率和百分比覆蓋率技術，在生態系統的選定區域對植物進行定量研究。
  • Conduct a quantitative study of animals in a selected area.
    對選定地區的動物進行定量研究。
  • Present results in the forms of graphs, tables, diagrams, etc.
    以圖表、表格、圖表等形式展示結果。
  • Identify possible sources of error in the surveys carried out.
    找出調查中可能存在的誤差來源。
  • Investigate three abiotic factors in the habitat and relate the findings to the distribution of organisms.
    調查棲息地中的三個非生物因素，並將調查結果與生物分佈聯繫起來。
  • Identify an adaptation of any organism to conditions in the habitat.
    確定任何生物對棲息地條件的適應。
  • Construct a food chain, food web and a pyramid of numbers in the habitat.
    在棲息地建造食物鏈、食物網和數位金字塔。
  • Prepare a report of conclusions drawn from the results of the study.
    根據研究結果撰寫一份結論報告。

2016 Q1 HIGHER LEVEL 2016 年第一季較高水平

  1. Explain five of the following terms.
    解釋以下五個術語。
    (a) Ecology. (a) 生態學。
    (d) Contest competition. (d) 競賽。
    (b) Symbiosis. (b) 共生。
    (e) Edaphic. (e) 地形。
    (c) Nutrient recycling. (c) 養分回收。
    (f) Biotic. (f) 生物。

LEAVING CERT MARKING SCHEME
畢業證書評分標準

  1. i.e. best five answers from
    即 中的五個最佳答案
(a) Ecology: The study of (the various interactions between) organisms and their environment
(a) 生態學：研究生物與其環境之間的各種交互作用
(b) Symbiosis: (A relationship) between species in which at least one benefits
(b) 共生：物種之間的（一種關係），其中至少有一個物種從中受益
(c) Nutrient recycling: Reuse (of nutrients)
(養分再循環：養分再利用
(d) Contest competition: A struggle for a resource in which only one wins
(d) 競賽競爭：對資源的爭奪，只有一方獲勝
(e) Edaphic. (Relating to) soil
(e) Edaphic。 (與）土壤有關
(f) Biotic. (Relating to) living (organisms)
(f) 生物。 (與）生物（有關）

2016 Q10 (c) HIGHER LEVEL
2016 年問題10 (c) 高等教育

  1. (c) A typical grazing food chain, consisting of four trophic levels, is shown below. Each letter represents a different species.
    (c) 下圖是一條典型的放牧食物鏈，由四個營養級組成。每個字母代表一個不同的物種。
(i) What is meant by the term 'trophic level'?
(i) 何謂"營養級"？
(ii) Explain why food chains are generally short.
(ii) 解釋為何食物鏈大致較短。
(iii) Which letter represents the secondary consumer?
(iii) 哪一個字母代表二級消費者？
(iv) Give a possible reason why the population of C may decline naturally.
(iv) 說明C 族群數量自然減少的可能原因。
(v) Suggest a possible consequence for the population of if the population of was significantly reduced. Explain your answer.
(v) 如果 的數量大幅減少，請提出對 的數量可能產生的影響。請解釋您的答案。
(vi) Suggest how members of species D might respond, if the population of C was significantly reduced.
(vi) 如果C 的族群數量大幅減少，建議物種D 的成員如何應對。
(vii) A food web is a series of interconnected food chains. Suggest how it may be possible for the secondary consumer, in the food chain above, to be a primary consumer in another food chain.
(vii) 食物網是一系列相互關聯的食物鏈。請說明上述食物鏈中的次級消費者如何可能成為另一條食物鏈中的初級消費者。

LEAVING CERT MARKING SCHEME
畢業證書評分標準

  1. (c) (i) Trophic level: Position on the food chain or feeding level or energy level or feeding stage
    (c) (i) 營養級：食物鏈上的位置或攝食水平或能量水平或攝食階段
(ii) Why chains short: Little (10%) energy passed on to next level or large amount ( ) of energy lost at each level
(ii) 為何鏈條短：傳遞到下一級的能量很少（10%），或每一級都損失大量能量( )
(iii) Secondary consumer: *C
(iii) 二級消費者：*C
(iv) Why C might decline: Predation or increase in D or disease or lack
(iv) C 可能減少的原因：捕食或D 的增加或疾病或缺乏
of food or lack of B or migration
缺乏食物或B 或遷移
(v) Consequence: (Population A) falls
(v) 後果：（人口A）下降
Explanation: Population of primary consumers increases or population of B increases (which eat large amount of produce A)
解釋：初級消費者的數量增加或B 的數量增加（它們吃大量的A 產品）
(vi) How D might respond: Migrate or switch prey.
(vi) D 如何應對：遷移或更換獵物。
(vii) How possible primary consumer in other food chain: It may be an omnivore or explained
(vii) 其他食物鏈中可能的主要消費者：可能是雜食動物，也可能解釋為