TOPIC ONE:Classical and modern management theories in the field of education: the evolution of managerial thought
主题一：教育领域的古典与现代管理理论：管理思想的演变

In our time, the role of management has increased significantly. Any production process implies the presence of control over it. The management of educational systems has its own characteristics and, at the same time, is based on general knowledge and management principles. The first educational institutions appeared in the era of antiquity. Since then, the process of managing educational institutions has undergone significant changes, as have the educational institutions themselves. And the development of scientific management in education shows that in the very end remained only the most valuable experience, proven by time and practice knowledge. Radical changes in modern society have changed the goals and content of education. As a result, sharp contradictions were revealed in the management system of educational institutions. The search for a new model of the content of managerial activity is fixed in a new term - "pedagogical management". Thus, having studied the socio-historical experience of management, we will consider examples of the use and manifestation of management concepts in the present educational systems.
在我们这个时代，管理的作用已经大大增加。任何生产过程都意味着对它的控制。教育系统的管理有其自身的特点，同时又基于常识和管理原则。最早的教育机构出现在古代。从那时起，管理教育机构的过程发生了重大变化，教育机构本身也是如此。而教育科学管理的发展表明，到头来，只有时间和实践知识证明的最有价值的经验。现代社会的根本变化改变了教育的目标和内容。结果，教育机构的管理制度暴露了尖锐的矛盾。寻找管理活动内容的新模式固定在一个新术语中 - “教学管理”。因此，在研究了管理的社会历史经验之后，我们将考虑管理概念在当前教育系统中的使用和表现的例子。

History really does matter and therefore, it is essential to develop better understanding about the present-day emerging trends and stages in the management since 19th century so that general or holistic view could be
历史确实很重要，因此，必须更好地了解自 19 世纪以来当今新兴的趋势和管理阶段，以便获得一般或整体的观点

attained. To larger extent, there is an agreement that the management practices and approaches have altered with the passage of time. However, different school of thoughts have accredited it to several factors namely; globalization, intense competition/survival of the fittest, multiplicity, socially constructed realities and so on. Having said that, the roots of management lies in the earlier management theories and therefore remains vital for tackling the contemporary management challenges.
达到。在更大程度上，人们一致认为，随着时间的推移，管理实践和方法发生了变化。然而，不同的思想流派将其归因于几个因素，即;全球化、激烈的竞争/适者生存、多样性、社会构建的现实等等。话虽如此，管理的根源在于早期的管理理论，因此对于应对当代管理挑战仍然至关重要。

The twentieth century witnessed tremendous management activity. Efforts were taking place for the development of a comprehensive management theory. Traditional or classical management school of theory is a result of such efforts. To begin with we are going to critically evaluate the management school of thoughts.
20 世纪见证了巨大的管理活动。人们正在努力发展综合管理理论。传统或古典管理理论流派就是这种努力的结果。首先，我们将批判性地评估管理学派的思想。

And starting with the ‘classical management theory’ that includes notable work such as scientific management theory, administrative management and bureaucratic organizations. It envisages a pyramid hierarchical structure, autocratic management, clear chain of command and short spans of control. We have to explore that the core thought of this school emphasized on the management as ‘scientific’ way to attain economic efficiency by motivating employees via monetary rewards.
从“经典管理理论”开始，其中包括科学管理理论、行政管理和官僚组织等著名著作。它设想了一个金字塔式的等级结构、专制的管理、清晰的指挥链和短暂的控制。我们必须探索这所学校的核心思想强调管理是通过金钱奖励激励员工来实现经济效率的“科学”方式。

In simple terms, management is defined as the product of effectiveness and efficiency where “doing things right” is regarded as ‘efficiency’ while “doing the right things” is considered as ‘effectiveness’.
简单来说，管理被定义为有效性和效率的产物，其中“做正确的事”被视为“效率”，而“做正确的事”被视为“有效性”。

Scientific Management
科学管理

American mechanical engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) is known as the "father of scientific management". Taylor began work at the age of 18 as a machinist apprentice to a pattern-maker. He later joined the Midvale Steel Company as a laborer and became chief engineer. During his period at the steel mill Taylor performed comprehensive experiments on worker productivity and tested what he called the "task system," later developed into the Taylor System and eventually progressed into scientific management.
美国机械工程师弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒 （1856-1915） 被称为“科学管理之父”。泰勒 18 岁开始工作，担任制版师的机械师学徒。后来，他加入了 Midvale 钢铁公司，成为一名工人，并成为总工程师。在钢厂工作期间，泰勒对工人的生产力进行了全面的实验，并测试了他所谓的“任务系统”，后来发展为泰勒系统，并最终发展为科学管理。

The core ideas of the theory were developed by Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s, and were first published in his monographs, Shop Management (1905) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). Taylor believed that decisions based upon tradition and rules of thumb should be replaced by precise procedures developed after careful study of an individual at work.
该理论的核心思想由泰勒在 1880 年代和 1890 年代提出，并首次发表在他的专著《商店管理》（1905 年）和《科学管理原理》（1911 年）中。泰勒认为，基于传统和经验法则的决定应该被在仔细研究工作中的个人后制定的精确程序所取代。

Taylor’s scientific management theory analyzes and synthesizes workflow processes and improving labor productivity. His experiments included determining the best way of performing each work operation, the time it required, materials needed and the work sequence. He wanted to establish a clear division of labor between management and employees.
泰勒的科学管理理论分析和综合工作流程和提高劳动生产率。他的实验包括确定执行每项工作操作的最佳方式、所需的时间、所需的材料和工作顺序。他想在管理层和员工之间建立明确的分工。

Following are the four basic principles of Scientific management theory:
以下是科学管理理论的四项基本原则：

-Study the ways jobs are performed now and determine new ways to do them.
- 研究现在执行工作的方式并确定新的完成方法。

-Codify the new methods into rules.
- 将新方法编纂成规则。

-Select workers whose skills match the rules.
- 选择技能符合规则的工人。

- Establish fair levels of performance and pay
- 建立公平的绩效和薪酬水平

incentive for higher performance.
激励更高的绩效。

The scientific management is a 'manager centric' approach. The most fundamental aspect of scientific management is that the manager is primarily responsible for increasing an organization's productivity. Scientific management principles are to be applied by managers in a very specific fashion.
科学管理是一种“以管理者为中心”的方法。科学管理最基本的方面是管理者主要负责提高组织的生产力。管理者应以非常具体的方式应用科学的管理原则。

Taylor is known for proposing 'one best way to do things' or scientific management/Taylorism. Time and motion were a scientific analysis of task for examining the physical movements and requirements for the completion of task. The idea of Taylorism is found to be consistent with the concerns of Adam Smith that emphasized division of labour bringing specialization, which leads to enhanced productivity.
泰勒以提出“一种最好的做事方式”或科学管理/泰勒主义而闻名。时间和运动是对任务的科学分析，用于检查身体运动和完成任务的要求。泰勒主义的思想与亚当·斯密 （Adam Smith） 的关注点一致，亚当·斯密强调分工带来专业化，从而提高生产力。

In doing so the humans are treated as machines while ignoring the demoralizing and inhuman effects of tasks on the workers. In addition to that, Taylor also commenced another study “science of shovelling” for determining the optimal weight to be lifted by the workers, thus, the optimal shovels were introduced to increase productivity while reward as increase in the pay was motivator.
在此过程中，人类被视为机器，而忽视了任务对工人的士气低落和非人道的影响。除此之外，泰勒还开始了另一项研究“铲子科学”，以确定工人要举起的最佳重量，因此，引入了最佳铲子来提高生产力，同时随着工资的增加而获得奖励是动力。

American mechanical engineer and management consultant Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919), and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, American names which will forever be associated with engineering and process improvement, decoded the principles of management as the scientific management theory in which much concentration was put on the methods that can improve the productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of workers along with their performance. To be precise, this theory concentrated much on the division of work, training of workers, and specialization in addition to tangible incentives. America's pioneer in industrial engineering and management Harrington Emerson (1853-1931) stated twelve principles of efficiency that enables manager in defining objectives, developing scientific methods for evaluation, forming standardized procedures and rewarding employees.
美国机械工程师和管理顾问亨利·甘特 （Henry L. Gantt） （1861-1919） 以及弗兰克和莉莲·吉尔布雷斯 （Frank and Lillian Gilbreth） 这两个美国人的名字将永远与工程和流程改进联系在一起，他们将管理原则解码为科学的管理理论，其中非常关注可以提高工人的生产力、效率和有效性的方法以及他们的绩效。准确地说，除了有形的激励之外，该理论还主要集中在工作分工、工人培训和专业化上。美国工业工程和管理的先驱哈灵顿·爱默生（Harrington Emerson，1853-1931 年）提出了 12 项效率原则，使管理者能够定义目标、开发科学的评估方法、形成标准化程序和奖励员工。

The major notion of the motivation for employees under scientific management were seen as money. Money is an effective, powerful and simple motivator but it is not always motivator for everyone because at times it has power to demotivate. The major drawback of this school of thought is that it treats and views worker from only the lens of economics whereas workers’ behaviours are not always directed by financial needs as there are other needs such as social, security and esteem needs. Nevertheless, for lower
在科学管理下，员工动机的主要概念被视为金钱。金钱是一种有效、强大和简单的激励因素，但它并不总是每个人都的动力，因为有时它有能力使人失去动力。这种思想流派的主要缺点是它只从经济学的角度看待工人，而工人的行为并不总是由财务需求指导，因为还有其他需求，例如社会、安全和尊重需求。尽管如此，对于较低的

level jobs, still money is often use as a basic need (key motivator), reflecting that the scientific management is still applicable in the modern-day management.
水平工作，但金钱仍然经常被用作基本需求（关键动力），这反映了科学管理仍然适用于现代管理。

The shortcomings of the Scientific Theory had triggered the quest for more workable solutions and resulted in the formulation of bureaucratic management, and administrative management theories. The scientific method was also got refined further during the course of time.
科学理论的缺点引发了对更可行的解决方案的追求，并导致了官僚管理和行政管理理论的形成。随着时间的推移，科学方法也得到了进一步的完善。

Administrative management
行政管理

French mining engineer Henri Fayol (1841-1925) is the prominent advocate of administrative management. He spent his entire working career with a mining company, where he rose from an apprentice to General Manager. As a result of his long management career, Fayol developed fourteen management principles:
法国采矿工程师亨利·法约尔 （Henri Fayol） （1841-1925） 是行政管理的杰出倡导者。他的整个职业生涯都在一家矿业公司度过，在那里他从学徒晋升为总经理。在他漫长的管理生涯中，Fayol 制定了 14 项管理原则：

1.Division of Work. Division of work, specialization, produces more and better work with the same effort. It focuses effort while maximizing employee efforts. It is applicable to all work including technical applications. There are limitations to specialization which are determined by its application.
1.分工。分工、专业化，以同样的努力产生更多更好的工作。它集中精力，同时最大限度地发挥员工的努力。它适用于所有工作，包括技术应用。专业化存在限制，这些限制由其应用程序决定。

2.Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Distinction must be made between a manager's official authority deriving from office and personal authority created through individual personality, intelligence and experience. Authority creates responsibility.
2.权力和责任。权柄是发号施令的权利和严格服从的能力。必须区分来自职位的经理官方权威和通过个人个性、智力和经验产生的个人权威。权威创造责任。

3.Discipline. Obedience and respect between a firm and its employees based on clear and fair agreements is absolutely essential to the functioning of any organization. Good discipline requires managers to apply sanctions whenever violations become apparent.
3.纪律。公司与其员工之间基于明确和公平协议的服从和尊重对于任何组织的运作都是绝对必要的。良好的纪律要求管理者在违规行为变得明显时实施制裁。

4.Unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one superior. Employees cannot adapt to dual command.
4.指挥统一。员工只能接受一位上级的命令。员工无法适应双重命令。

5.Unity of direction. Organizational activities must have one central authority and one plan of action.
5.方向统一。组织活动必须有一个中央机构和一个行动计划。

6.Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest. The interests of one employee or group of employees are subordinate to the interests and goals of the organization and cannot prevail over it.
6.个人利益从属于一般利益。一个员工或一组员工的利益从属于组织的利益和目标，不能凌驾于组织的利益和目标之上。

7.Remuneration of Personnel. Salaries are the price of services rendered by employees. It should be fair and provide satisfaction both to the employee and employer. The rate of remuneration is dependent on the value of the services rendered as determined by the employment market.
7.人员报酬。薪水是员工提供的服务价格。它应该是公平的，并让雇员和雇主都满意。报酬率取决于就业市场所提供服务的价值。

8.Centralization. The optimum degree of centralization varies according to the dynamics of each organization. The objective of centralization is the best utilization of personnel.
8.集中化。最佳集中化程度根据每个组织的动态而变化。集中化的目标是人员的最佳利用。

9.Scalar chain. A chain of authority exists from the highest organizational authority to the lowest ranks. While needless departure from the chain of command should be discouraged, using the "gang plank" principle of direct communication between employees can be extremely expeditious and increase the effectiveness of organizational communication.
9.标量链。存在从最高组织权限到最低级别权限的权威链。虽然应该不鼓励不必要地离开指挥链，但使用员工之间直接沟通的“排木板”原则可以非常迅速，并提高组织沟通的有效性。

10.Order. Organizational order for materials and personnel is essential. The right materials and the right employees are necessary for each organizational function and activity.
10.订单。材料和人员的组织顺序至关重要。正确的材料和正确的员工对于每个组织职能和活动都是必需的。

11.Equity. In organizations equity is a combination of kindliness and justice. The desire for equity and equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with employees.
11.权益。在组织中，公平是善良和正义的结合。在与员工打交道时，对公平和平等待遇的渴望是要考虑的愿望。

12.Stability of Tenure of Personnel. In order to attain the maximum productivity of personnel, it is essential to maintain a stable work force. Management insecurity produces undesirable consequences. Generally the managerial personnel of prosperous concerns is stable, that of unsuccessful ones is unstable.
12.人员任期的稳定性。为了实现人员的最大生产力，必须保持稳定的员工队伍。管理不安全会产生不良后果。一般来说，繁荣企业的管理人员是稳定的，而不成功的企业的管理人员是不稳定的。

13.Initiative. Thinking out a plan and ensuring its success is an extremely strong motivator. At all levels of the organizational ladder zeal and energy on the part of employees are augmented by initiative.
13.主动性。思考计划并确保其成功是一个非常强大的动力。在组织阶梯的各个层面，员工的热情和活力都因主动性而得到增强。

14.Esprit de Corps. Teamwork is fundamentally important to an organization. Creating work teams and using extensive face-to-face verbal communication encourages this.
14.Esprit de Corps.团队合作对组织来说至关重要。创建工作团队并使用广泛的面对面口头交流可以鼓励这一点。

Fayol is heavily emphasized on rationality, logic
Fayol 非常强调理性、逻辑

and consistency. Fayol's 14 principles of management promoted efficiency through division of work,
和一致性。Fayol 的 14 项管理原则通过分工提高效率，

which are still recognised idea in the present day. However, it appears less applicable to some
这些在今天仍然是公认的理念。但是，它似乎不太适用于某些

extent in modern day work environments. Moreover, even in modern era, Fayol offers a good start for the managers and organisation to learn about approaches, structures and managerial functions such as planning, forecasting, organising, directing, coordinating and monitoring.
范围。此外，即使在现代，Fayol 也为管理者和组织提供了一个良好的开端，让他们了解方法、结构和管理职能，例如规划、预测、组织、指导、协调和监控。

Bureaucratic Management
官僚管理

Max Weber, (born April 21, 1864, Erfurt, Prussia [Germany]—died June 14, 1920, Munich, Germany), German sociologist and political economist best known for his ideas on bureaucracy.
马克斯·韦伯（Max Weber，1864 年 4 月 21 日生于德国普鲁士埃尔福特，1920 年 6 月 14 日卒于德国慕尼黑），德国社会学家和政治经济学家，以其官僚主义思想而闻名。

Нe was influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud, and Slavic cultural ideals, exemplified in the works of Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. In this setting Weber developed his political sociology, which makes the crucial distinction between charismatic, traditional, and legal forms of authority. Max Webber proposed a theory of bureaucracy for organisational efficiency based of organisational systems functioning on set of rules, policies and hierarchy of authority.
Нe 受到弗里德里希·尼采和西格蒙德·弗洛伊德以及斯拉夫文化理想的影响，列夫·托尔斯泰和费奥多尔·陀思妥耶夫斯基的作品中就是例证。在这种背景下，韦伯发展了他的政治社会学，该学对魅力、传统和法律形式的权威进行了关键区分。马克斯·韦伯 （Max Webber） 提出了一种官僚主义理论，其基础是组织系统根据一系列规则、政策和权力等级制度运作。

Max Weber is one of the strong advocates of bureaucracy. According to Weber the major characteristics of bureaucracy are:
Max Weber 是官僚主义的坚定倡导者之一。根据韦伯的说法，官僚主义的主要特征是：

A well defined hierarchy
定义明确的层次结构

All positions within a bureaucracy are structured in a way permitting the higher positions to supervise and control the lower positions. This provides a clear chain of command facilitating control and order throughout the organization.
官僚机构中的所有职位的结构都允许较高职位监督和控制较低职位。这提供了一个清晰的指挥链，促进了整个组织的控制和秩序。

Division of labor and specialization
分工和专业化

All responsibilities in an organization are streamlined in a way that each employee will have the necessary expertise to master a particular task. This necessitates granting each employee the requisite authority to complete all such tasks.
组织中的所有职责都经过简化，每个员工都将拥有掌握特定任务所需的专业知识。这需要授予每个员工完成所有此类任务所需的权限。

Rules and regulations
规则和规定

All organizational activities are streamlined in a way that standard operating procedures are developed to provide certainty and facilitate coordination.
所有组织活动都以制定标准操作程序的方式进行简化，以提供确定性并促进协调。

Impersonal relationships between managers and employees
经理和员工之间的非个人关系

Weber believed that managers should maintain an impersonal relationship with the employees so that the managers will be free to take rational decisions rather than one influenced by favoritism and personal prejudice. This organizational atmosphere would also facilitate rational evaluation of employee outcomes where personal prejudices shall not interfere.
Weber 认为，管理者应该与员工保持一种非个人的关系，这样管理者就可以自由地做出理性的决定，而不是受偏袒和个人偏见的影响。这种组织氛围也将有助于对员工结果进行理性评估，其中个人偏见不应干扰。

Competence
能力

Competence should be the basis for all decisions made in hiring, job assignments, and promotions. This would encourage ability and merit as the most important characteristics of a bureaucratic organization.
能力应该是招聘、工作分配和晋升中做出所有决定的基础。这将鼓励能力和优点作为官僚组织最重要的特征。

Records
记录

Weber felt it is absolutely essential for a bureaucracy to maintain complete files regarding all its activities. This ncessitates an accurate organizational "memory" where accurate and complete documents will be available concerning all bureaucratic actions and decisions.
Weber 认为，官僚机构维护有关其所有活动的完整文件是绝对必要的。这需要准确的组织“记忆”，其中将提供有关所有官僚行动和决策的准确和完整的文件。

Modern Management Theory:
现代管理理论：

As the classical theory focuses on the rational economic view, modern management theory is based on the complex employee view. Each organization is complex in its own way and consists of workers each with diverse needs, motives, aspirations and potential. According to this theory, an organization consists of manpower with different perspectives, aspirations, potentials and needs. So it is crucial that they are approached through custom-made principles rather than common which not only makes them fed up, but also lose their potentials. This theory firmly believes that no single managerial strategy can be applied to all people at all times. According to this theory, each employee has different views and many motives involved which varies between organizations. Further, they also gain new motives as they are exposed to experience. So there is a need for managers to apply different strategies at different times and for different persons.
正如古典理论侧重于理性的经济观一样，现代管理理论则基于复杂的员工观。每个组织都有自己的复杂性，由员工组成，每个员工都有不同的需求、动机、抱负和潜力。根据这一理论，一个组织由具有不同观点、抱负、潜力和需求的人力组成。因此，通过定制原则而不是普通原则来接近他们至关重要，这不仅让他们厌倦了，而且失去了潜力。该理论坚信，没有一种单一的管理策略可以始终适用于所有人。根据这一理论，每个员工都有不同的看法和涉及的许多动机，这些动机因组织而异。此外，当他们接触到经验时，他们也会获得新的动机。因此，管理者需要在不同的时间和不同的人身上应用不同的策略。

Human Relation School
人际关系学院

George Elton Mayo (26 December 1880 – 7 September 1949), an Australian born psychologist, industrial researcher, and organizational theorist, is the main champion of human relations movement that later transformed into organisational behaviour. He argued that inter-relationships within the group members are vital aspect at the organisational settings. The study known as “Hawthorne experiment” proved as paradigm shifter in the management studies.
乔治·埃尔顿·梅奥（George Elton Mayo，1880 年 12 月 26 日 - 1949 年 9 月 7 日）是一位出生于澳大利亚的心理学家、工业研究员和组织理论家，是人际关系运动的主要倡导者，后来转变为组织行为。他认为，在组织环境中，团队成员内部的相互关系至关重要。这项被称为“霍桑实验”的研究被证明是管理研究的范式转变者。

In actual, “Hawthorne Effect” is a term explaining the phenomenon of individuals work and demonstrate better performance when they are observed. Since the experiment took place at Western Electric's Hawthorne
实际上，“霍桑效应”是一个术语，解释了个人工作并在被观察时表现出更好的表现的现象。由于实验是在 Western Electric 的 Hawthorne 进行的

company therefore phenomenon is termed after the location. The experiment was conducted to assess whether there is a correlation between productivity and work environments (such as light, break duration and length of day work). It was evident that employee’s productivity tends to enhance due to change during the experiment however, it declines when experiments ends. The experiment proved vital in establishing the key notion that increased attention from the
因此，公司现象以位置命名。进行该实验是为了评估生产力与工作环境（例如光线、休息时间和一天的工作长度）之间是否存在相关性。很明显，由于实验期间的变化，员工的生产力往往会提高，但是，当实验结束时，生产力会下降。事实证明，该实验对于建立增加

head/supervisor is reason for improved performance. Follow up interviews with the workers revealed that individuals do not leave their attitude, emotions and feelings back home as they do not only work for economic gain. Their motivation to work was not only confined to economic benefits but a good treatment, healthy work environment and autonomy to do things in their own way motivates them to do better at work.
主管/主管是提高性能的原因。对工人的后续采访显示，个人不会将他们的态度、情绪和感受留在家里，因为他们不仅仅是为了经济利益而工作。他们工作的动力不仅局限于经济利益，而且良好的待遇、健康的工作环境和以自己的方式做事的自主权激励他们在工作中做得更好。

Behavioural Schools
行为学校

The Hawthorne experiment led to the inclined interest in behavioural science within the management,
霍桑实验导致管理层对行为科学产生了浓厚的兴趣。

leading to transform human relations approach into modern behaviourism. Interestingly, behavioural schools could also be taken into consideration under
导致将人际关系方法转变为现代行为主义。有趣的是，行为学校也可以考虑在

the modern organisational humanism within modern management theory. Thus, this indicates that most of the aspects of behavioural schools are relevant in the modern-day management theories. There are number of scholars such as, Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg, Mary Parker Follet and so on who had contributed to behavioural school.
现代管理理论中的现代组织人文主义。因此，这表明行为学派的大部分方面都与现代管理理论相关。有许多学者，如亚伯拉罕·马斯洛、道格拉斯·麦格雷戈、弗雷德里克·赫茨伯格、玛丽·帕克·福莱特等，他们都为行为学派做出了贡献。

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
马斯洛需求层次理论

Abraham Harold Maslow (Brooklyn, 1 april 1908 – Menlo Park, 8 june 1970) was an American psychologist who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Abraham Maslow categorized the total five types of employee needs. The pyramid of needs had the
亚伯拉罕·哈罗德·马斯洛（布鲁克林，1908 年 4 月 1 日 - 门洛帕克，1970 年 6 月 8 日）是一位美国心理学家，他创建了马斯洛需求层次理论。Abraham Maslow 将员工需求分为五种类型。需求金字塔具有

most basic needs at the bottom and term them as “physiological needs” such as, sleep, eat, water, sex, breathing. With the attainment of these needs, second need arise namely, “safety needs” as the previous needs do not remain motivators. The basic safety, protection, stability and no fear remain the concerns of the individual. If a person's safety needs are not satisfied then they work as motivators. This
最基本的需求，并将它们称为“生理需求”，例如睡眠、饮食、水、性、呼吸。随着这些需求的实现，第二个需求出现了，即“安全需求”，因为前一个需求不再是动力。基本的安全、保护、稳定和无所畏惧仍然是个人关心的问题。如果一个人的安全需求没有得到满足，那么他们就会成为激励因素。这

is a need of an individual that he/she wants a social support and acceptance, love, and friendship in the society. It is also considered as the prime motivator for the individual after physical and security needs remain
是个人的需求，他/她希望在社会上得到社会支持和接受、爱和友谊。在身体和安全需求仍然存在之后，它也被认为是个人的主要动力

no longer motivator, and therefore, he/she develops a meaningful relationship with others. Maslow argued that after the satisfaction of one need, individuals inclined to another level of need while only one type of need work at a time. Some scholars criticized the work of Maslow by stating that multiple needs can work together rather than one need at a time. For instance, physiological and security needs can both work at a
不再是激励因素，因此，他/她与他人建立了有意义的关系。马斯洛认为，在满足一种需求后，个人倾向于另一个层次的需求，而一次只有一种类型的需求起作用。一些学者批评马斯洛的工作，指出多种需求可以协同工作，而不是一次一个需求。例如，生理和安全需求都可以在

time on individuals. In addition to that, Maslow ignored the environmental factors by considering the needs occurring in static manner whereas in actual, environmental factors tend to vary due to constantly change in the dynamics.
时间在个人。除此之外，马斯洛忽略了环境因素，通过考虑以静态方式发生的需求，而实际上，环境因素往往会由于动态的不断变化而变化。

Theory X and Theory Y
理论 X 和理论 Y

Douglas Murray McGregor (September 6, 1906 – October 1, 1964), an American management professor at the MIT Sloan School, in his book, “human side of enterprises” published in 1960 argued that there are two types of individual in the organisation, respectively X and Y type. Theory X managers have a negative view of workers and perceived them as untrustworthy, lazy, and lacking the initiative to take responsibility. The Y type managers are participative and democratic in their style and thus motivates employees by involving them actively in their routine tasks. In the 21st century still the theory is practically visible as there is higher focus on self-managed workers and as a result they are involved in such programs so that they
麻省理工学院斯隆学院的美国管理学教授道格拉斯·默里·麦格雷戈（Douglas Murray McGregor，1906 年 9 月 6 日 - 1964 年 10 月 1 日）在他 1960 年出版的《企业的人性方面》一书中指出，组织中有两种类型的个人，分别是 X 型和 Y 型。理论 X 的管理者对工人持负面看法，认为他们不值得信赖、懒惰且缺乏承担责任的主动性。Y 型经理的风格是参与式和民主的，因此通过让员工积极参与日常任务来激励员工。在 21 世纪，该理论仍然几乎可见，因为人们更加关注自我管理的工人，因此他们参与此类计划，以便他们

are more creative and willing to take initiatives, which are aligned with the aspects of Theory Y.
更有创造力并愿意采取与 Y 理论的各个方面一致的主动性。

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
赫茨伯格的双因素理论

Two factor theory is regarded as motivation theory and dual-factor theory proposed by Frederick Herzberg
双因素理论被认为是 Frederick Herzberg 提出的动机理论和双因素理论

in 195. Frederick Irving Herzberg (April 18, 1923 – January 19, 2000) was an American psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management. The main notion of the theory is that there is an association between intrinsic factors
在 195 年。弗雷德里克·欧文·赫茨伯格（Frederick Irving Herzberg，1923 年 4 月 18 日 - 2000 年 1 月 19 日）是一位美国心理学家，后来成为企业管理领域最有影响力的人物之一。该理论的主要概念是内在因素之间存在关联

and job satisfaction while linkage is between extrinsic factors and job dissatisfaction. Traditionally, it was viewed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the two ends of one node, but Herzberg altered this by proposing that “satisfaction” and “dissatisfaction” are the two different ends of two distinctive
和工作满意度，而联系则介于外在因素和工作不满之间。传统上，人们认为满意和不满意是一个节点的两端，但赫茨伯格改变了这一点，提出“满意”和“不满意”是两个独特节点的两个不同端

nodes. This means that it is not necessarily right that a person who is not satisfied is always dissatisfied and vice versa. In other words, Herzberg argued that an elimination of dissatisfying attributes related to job would not always make job further satisfying and vice versa. Thus, to motivate employees, there should be motivators (such as, achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth) because other factors (supervision, company policy, relationship with supervisor, salary, working conditions, relationship with subordinates, status
节点。这意味着不满意的人总是不满意不一定是对的，反之亦然。换句话说，赫茨伯格认为，消除与工作相关的不满意属性并不总是使工作更加令人满意，反之亦然。因此，要激励员工，应该有激励因素（例如，成就、认可、工作本身、责任、进步和成长），因为其他因素（监督、公司政策、与主管的关系、工资、工作条件、与下属的关系、地位

and security) would only help in removing dissatisfaction while motivators would alter the behavioural aspect of employees to be more committed and satisfied, that would eventually improve the organisational productivity. It could be said that this theory is still relevant in the 21st century of
和安全性）只会帮助消除不满，而激励因素会改变员工的行为方面，使其更加投入和满意，最终会提高组织的生产力。可以说，这个理论在 21 世纪仍然适用

management of employees at workplace. However, this theory also has its lacking and one of the major criticisms this theory has received is that is rather simplistic in its procedures and methodology.
工作场所的员工管理。然而，这个理论也有它的不足，这个理论受到的主要批评之一是它的程序和方法相当简单。

The Management Theory of Lateral Process Within Hierarchy
层次结构内横向过程的管理理论

Mary Parker Follett (3 September 1868 – 18 December 1933) was an American management consultant, social worker, philosopher and pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior. Along with Lillian Gilbreth, she was one of two great women management experts in the early days of classical management theory. Follett is regarded as the “Mother of Modern Management” because of her contribution to the management field. The epicentre of her theory is that “management is the art of getting things done through people”. Direct contact, early stages, reciprocal relationships, and continuous process were the practices of coordination that enabled Follett’s management theory to have lateral movement within the organisational hierarchy. According to Follett’s theory, it is essential to have a direct contact between the managers and workers in order to have smooth relationship while avoiding the misunderstandings and conflicts that hinder the organizational process as well as efficiency. Follett argued that instead of personal power, there should be group power because organisations are not existing to benefit one person, but to be beneficial for all workers. Due to this thought process, there is higher team work rather than competition among workers.
玛丽·帕克·福莱特（Mary Parker Follett，1868 年 9 月 3 日 - 1933 年 12 月 18 日）是美国管理顾问、社会工作者、哲学家，也是组织理论和组织行为学领域的先驱。她与 Lillian Gilbreth 一起是古典管理理论早期两位伟大的女性管理专家之一。Follett 因其对管理领域的贡献而被视为“现代管理之母”。她的理论中心是“管理是通过人完成事情的艺术”。直接接触、早期阶段、互惠关系和持续过程是协调的实践，使福莱特的管理理论能够在组织层次结构内横向移动。根据福莱特的理论，管理者和工人之间必须有直接的接触，这样才能建立顺畅的关系，同时避免阻碍组织过程和效率的误解和冲突。福莱特认为，应该有群体权力，而不是个人权力，因为组织的存在不是为了使一个人受益，而是为了让所有工人受益。由于这种思维过程，员工之间有更高的团队合作而不是竞争。

Follett’s theory is applicable in the present day too because there are evidences of organisations being successful due to higher integration and power sharing. For instance, Walt Disney Company uses horizontal
福莱特的理论也适用于当今时代，因为有证据表明，由于更高的整合和权力分享，组织取得了成功。例如，华特迪士尼公司使用水平

integration by buying distinctive sources of creative things such as Lucasfilm, Marvel Comics and Jin Henson Studios, which helped the company in creating successful and iconic characters. This happened due to integration within the different units of the organisation.
通过购买卢卡斯影业、漫威漫画和 Jin Henson Studios 等独特的创意来源进行整合，这有助于公司创造成功的标志性角色。这是由于组织不同部门内部的整合而发生的。

TOPIC TWO Organizational forms and management structures
主题二 组织形式和管理结构

What Is Organizational Structure?
什么是组织结构？

Organizational structure provides a framework for vertical control and horizontal coordination of the organization.
组织结构为组织的垂直控制和水平协调提供了一个框架。

There are seven key elements that educational administrators need to address when they design their organization’s structure: job specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, authority and responsibility, centralization/decentralization, line and staff authority, and span of control. Let’s present each of these key elements as an answer to an important structural question:
教育管理者在设计组织结构时需要解决七个关键要素：工作专业化、部门化、指挥链、权威和责任、集中/分散、直线和员工权限以及控制范围。让我们介绍这些关键要素中的每一个，作为对一个重要结构问题的答案：

Key Design Question The Answer Is Provided
关键设计问题 答案已提供

1. To what degree are activities subdivided into separate jobs? Job specialization
1. 活动在多大程度上被细分为单独的工作？工作专业化

2. On what basis will jobs be grouped together? Departmentalization
2. 工作将根据什么进行分组？部门化

3. To whom do individuals and groups report? Chain of command
3. 个人和团体向谁报告？指挥链

4. What is the framework for providing direction and control? Authority and responsibility
4. 提供指导和控制的框架是什么？权限和责任

5. Where does decision-making authority lie? Centralization/decentralization
5. 决策权在哪里？集中化/去中心化

6. What type of authority flows in a direct line in the chain of command, and what type
6. 什么类型的授权在指挥链中直接流动，以及什么类型

flows to line personnel in the form of advice? Line and staff authority
以建议的形式流向一线人员？直线和员工权限

7. How many people can an administrator efficiently and effectively direct? Span of control
7. 管理员可以有效地指导多少人？控制范围

Job Specialization
工作专业化

A basic concept of organizational structure is to divide the work to be accomplished into specialized tasks and to organize them into distinct units. Examples of job specialization are the division of the school into elementary, middle, and high school units; the distinction between administrative and teaching functions; and the variety of position certificates required by departments of education, including superintendent, business manager, principal, supervisor, teaching specialties, and many other support staff, including secretaries, food service personnel, maintenance workers, bus drivers, and the like.
组织结构的一个基本概念是将要完成的工作划分为专门的任务，并将它们组织成不同的单元。工作专业化的例子是将学校分为小学、初中和高中单元;行政职能和教学职能之间的区别;以及教育部门要求的各种职位证书，包括学监、业务经理、校长、主管、教学专业和许多其他支持人员，包括秘书、食品服务人员、维修工人、公共汽车司机等。

Specialization is a key organizing concept. Job specialization allows a variety of tasks to be performed simultaneously. For example, in a school, budgeting, counseling, typing, preparing lunch, and teaching can be performed concurrently by different people.
专业化是一个关键的组织概念。工作专业化允许同时执行各种任务。例如，在一所学校，预算、咨询、打字、准备午餐和教学可以由不同的人同时进行。

The three most common alternatives to job specialization are job rotation, job enlargement, and job enrichment. Job rotation involves systematically moving employees from one job to another. In large school districts, principals are often rotated between schools every five years. Job enlargement adds breadth to a job by increasing the number and variety
工作专业化的三种最常见的替代方案是工作轮换、工作扩大和工作丰富化。工作轮换涉及系统地将员工从一份工作转移到另一份工作。在大型学区，校长通常每五年在学校之间轮换一次。Job 扩大通过增加工作的数量和种类来增加工作的广度

of activities performed by an employee. Job enrichment adds depth to a job by adding “administrative” activities (decision making, staffing, budgeting, reporting) to an employee’s responsibilities.
员工执行的活动。工作充实通过在员工的职责中增加“管理”活动（决策、人员配备、预算、报告）来增加工作的深度。

Departmentalization
部门化

Departmentalization, the organization-wide division of work, permits to coordinate the activities of the component parts. School districts may be broadly divided into divisions of instruction, business, personnel, and research and development. Further subdividing of a division may produce departments responsible for specific subjects, such as English, social studies, mathematics, and science. Departments—frequently labeled divisions, building units, departments, or teams—often indicate hierarchical relationships.
部门化，即组织范围内的工作分工，允许协调各组成部分的活动。学区大致可分为教学、商业、人事和研发部门。进一步细分一个部门可能会产生负责特定学科的部门，例如英语、社会研究、数学和科学。部门（通常标记为 division、building units、departments 或 teams）通常表示等级关系。

Generally, functional departmentalization has certain disadvantages. Personnel can develop overly narrow and technical viewpoints that lose sight of the total system perspective, communication and coordination across departments can be difficult, and conflicts often emerge as each department or unit attempts to protect its own area of authority and responsibility.
一般来说，职能部门化有一些缺点。人员可能会产生过于狭隘的技术观点，而忽视了整个系统的视角，跨部门的沟通和协调可能很困难，并且当每个部门或单位都试图保护自己的权力和责任领域时，经常会出现冲突。

Chain of Command
指挥链

Chain of command, concerned with the flow of authority and responsibility within an organization, is associated with two underlying principles. Unity of command means that a subordinate is accountable to only one person—the person from whom they receive authority and responsibility. The scalar principle means that authority and responsibility should flow in a direct line vertically from top management to the lowest level.
指挥链与组织内的权力和责任流动有关，与两个基本原则相关联。统一指挥意味着下属只对一个人负责——他们从那里获得权力和责任的人。标量原则意味着权力和责任应该垂直地从最高管理层到最低层直接流动。

All organizations differ in the degree of their vertical divisions of work. For example, in the university, there is a hierarchy within the professional ranks: instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor. In the school district organization, there are vertical differentiations of positions ranging from teachers to department heads, principals, directors, and superintendents. These levels are typically well defined, with differences in role and status for the various positions.
所有组织在其垂直工作分工的程度上都不同。例如，在大学中，专业等级中有一个层次结构：讲师、助理教授、副教授和正教授。在学区组织中，职位存在垂直差异，从教师到部门负责人、校长、主任和学监。这些级别通常是明确定义的，不同位置的角色和地位存在差异。

Authority and Responsibility
权限和责任

Authority is the right to make decisions and direct the work of others. It is an important concept in organizational structure because administrators and other personnel must be authorized to carry out jobs to which they are assigned. Furthermore, authority and responsibility should be linked; that is, responsibility for the execution of work must be accompanied by the authority to accomplish the job. There is a general agreement that authority and responsibility provides the framework for legitimizing organizational hierarchy and provides the basis for direction and control.
权威是做出决定和指导他人工作的权利。这是组织结构中的一个重要概念，因为管理员和其他人员必须获得授权才能执行分配给他们的工作。此外，权力和责任应该联系起来;也就是说，执行工作的责任必须伴随着完成工作的权限。人们普遍认为，权力和责任为组织层次结构的合法化提供了框架，并为指导和控制提供了基础。

Centralization/Decentralization
集中化/去中心化

Delegation of authority between a superior and a subordinate is a way of sharing power. If administrators in a school district tend to delegate considerable authority and responsibility, more decisions are made at lower levels in the organization. In these cases, the organization follows an administrative philosophy of decentralization. On the other hand, when school administrators retain most of the authority, depending on subordinates to implement decisions only, the organization is practicing centralization. Centralization and decentralization represent opposite ends of a continuum. That is, authority is delegated to a relatively small or large degree in the organization.
上下级之间的权力下放是一种分享权力的方式。如果学区的管理人员倾向于委派相当大的权力和责任，那么更多的决策会在组织的较低级别做出。在这些情况下，组织遵循去中心化的管理理念。另一方面，当学校管理人员保留大部分权力，仅依靠下属执行决策时，该组织正在实行集中化。集中化和去中心化代表连续体的两端。也就是说，权限在组织中被委派到相对较小的或较大的程度。

Should organizations centralize or decentralize? In the United States and Canada, the trend has been toward greater decentralization of organizations. Decentralization is said to have the following advantages: It makes greater use of human resources, unburdens top-level administrators, ensures that decisions are made close to the firing line by personnel with technical knowledge, and permits more rapid response to external changes. These advantages are so compelling that it is tempting to think of decentralization as “good” and centralization as “bad.” But total decentralization, with no coordination from the top, would be undesirable. The very purpose of organization—efficient integration of subunits for the good of the whole—would be diminished without some centralized control. The question for school leaders is not whether a school or school district should be decentralized but to what extent it should be decentralized.
组织应该集中还是分散？在美国和加拿大，趋势是组织更加分散。据说权力下放具有以下优点：它更多地利用人力资源，减轻了高层管理人员的负担，确保具有技术知识的人员在火线附近做出决策，并允许对外部变化做出更快速的反应。这些优势是如此引人注目，以至于人们很容易认为去中心化是“好的”，而将中心化视为“坏的”。但是，没有高层协调的完全去中心化是不可取的。如果没有一些集中的控制，组织的真正目的——为了整体的利益而有效地整合子单位——就会被削弱。学校领导的问题不是学校或学区是否应该去中心化，而是应该在多大程度上去中心化。

Line and Staff Authority
直线和员工权限

Another way to view organizational structure is as line and staff authority. Line authority is that relationship in which a superior exercises direct supervision over a subordinate—an authority relationship in a direct line in the chain of command. Thus, the superintendent can order the assistant superintendent of instruction to implement a curriculum change, and the assistant superintendent in turn can order the directors of elementary and secondary education to do the same, and so on down the chain of command. Staff authority is advisory in nature. The function of personnel in a staff position is to create, develop, collect, and analyze information, which flows to line personnel in the form of advice. Staff personnel do not possess the legitimate authority to implement this advice. Familiar example of staff position is assistant to the superintendent. He might be involved in such activities as computer programming, preparing enrollment projections, or conducting special studies that flow to the superintendent requiring information or advice. But he is not expected to contribute to school district outcomes.
另一种看待组织结构的方式是直线和员工权限。直线权威是上级对下级进行直接监督的关系——在指挥链中直接直线上的权威关系。因此，学监可以命令助理教学总监实施课程更改，而助理学监反过来可以命令中小学教育主任也这样做，依此类推。员工权力本质上是咨询性的。员工职位人员的职能是创建、开发、收集和分析信息，这些信息以建议的形式流向一线人员。工作人员不具备实施此建议的合法权限。熟悉的职员职位示例是学监助理。他可能会参与计算机编程、准备入学预测或进行特殊研究等活动，这些活动会流向需要信息或建议的学监。但预计他不会为学区的成果做出贡献。

Span of Control
控制范围

Span of control refers to the number of subordinates reporting directly to a supervisor. Is there an ideal span of control? There is no agreement regarding what is the best span of control. The most widely used criteria on this point suggest that spans can be larger at lower levels in an organization than at higher levels. Subordinates can be effectively supervised at lower levels because they typically perform much more routine activities.
控制范围是指直接向主管报告的下属数量。是否有理想的控制范围？关于什么是最佳控制范围，没有达成一致。在这一点上，最广泛使用的标准表明，组织中较低级别的跨度可能比较高级别的跨度更大。下属可以在较低级别得到有效的监督，因为他们通常执行更多的日常活动。

The Bureaucratic Model
官僚模式

Today the term bureaucracy has a negative connotation. We tend to associate bureaucracy with rigidity, meaningless rules, red tape, paperwork, and inefficiency. In fact, there is almost no evil that has not, at some point, been attributed to bureaucracy. But the irony is that the concept of bureaucracy sometimes looks as an ideal form of organizational structure. According to the famous German sociologist Max Weber (1947), the ideal bureaucracy possesses the following characteristics:
今天，官僚主义一词具有负面含义。我们倾向于将官僚主义与僵化、毫无意义的规则、繁文缛节、文书工作和低效率联系起来。事实上，几乎没有什么罪恶在某个时候不被归咎于官僚主义。但具有讽刺意味的是，官僚主义的概念有时看起来是一种理想的组织结构形式。根据德国著名社会学家马克斯·韦伯 （Max Weber） （1947） 的说法，理想的官僚机构具有以下特征：

•• Division of Labor. Divide all tasks into highly specialized jobs. Give each jobholder the authority necessary to perform these duties.
•• 分工。将所有任务划分为高度专业化的工作。赋予每个 jobholder 履行这些职责所需的权力。

•• Rules. Perform each task according to a consistent system of abstract rules. This practice helps ensure that task performance is uniform.
••规则。根据一致的抽象规则系统执行每项任务。这种做法有助于确保任务执行是一致的。

•• Hierarchy of Authority. Arrange all positions according to the principle of hierarchy. Each lower office is under the control of a higher one, and there is a clear chain of command from the top of the organization to the bottom.
•• 权限层次结构。根据层次结构原则排列所有位置。每个下级职位都由上级办公室控制，从组织的顶部到底部都有明确的指挥链。

•• Impersonality. Maintain an impersonal attitude toward subordinates. This social distance between managers and subordinates helps ensure that rational considerations are the basis for decision making, rather than favoritism or prejudices.
••客观。对下属保持冷漠的态度。经理和下属之间的这种社交距离有助于确保理性的考虑是决策的基础，而不是偏袒或偏见。

•• Competence. Base employment on qualifications and give promotions based on job-related performance. Protect employees from arbitrary dismissal, which should result in a high level of loyalty.
••能力。根据资格就业，并根据与工作相关的绩效进行晋升。保护员工免受任意解雇，这应该会导致高水平的忠诚度。

Weber’s characteristics of bureaucracy apply to many
韦伯的官僚主义特征适用于许多

large-sized organizations today. General Motors, Xerox, the U.S. military system, the Vatican, most universities, and school boards are bureaucracies. However, not all characteristics outlined by Weber appear in practice as they were originally intended. Numerous misconceptions in the literature exist regarding Weber’s concept of the ideal bureaucracy. Although few “pure” bureaucracies exist today, almost all organizations have some elements of bureaucracy within their structure.
今天的大型组织。通用汽车、施乐、美国军事系统、梵蒂冈、大多数大学和学校董事会都是官僚机构。然而，并非 Weber 概述的所有特征都像它们最初预期的那样在实践中出现。文献中关于韦伯的理想官僚机构概念存在许多误解。尽管今天存在很少的“纯粹”官僚机构，但几乎所有组织的结构中都包含一些官僚主义元素。

Bureaucracy—the basic infrastructure of schools in the industrial world—may be ill-suited to the demands of our postindustrial, demographically diverse information-age society. Bureaucratic characteristics not only are being viewed as less than useful but also are considered to be harmful. Let’s talk of some built-in dysfunctions of bureaucracy. A high degree of division of labor can reduce staff initiative and impede the achievement of the overall goals of the school. For example, specialization may hinder communication between units. Moreover, overspecialization may result in boredom and routine for some staff, which can lead to dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover.
官僚主义——工业世界学校的基本基础设施——可能不适合我们这个后工业化、人口多样化的信息时代社会的需求。官僚主义特征不仅被认为无用，而且被认为是有害的。让我们谈谈官僚主义的一些内在功能障碍。高度的分工会降低员工的主动性，阻碍学校总体目标的实现。例如，专业化可能会阻碍单元之间的通信。此外，过度专业化可能会导致一些员工感到无聊和例行公事，从而导致不满、旷工和人员流动。

Weber claimed that the use of formal rules and procedures was adopted to help remove the uncertainty in attempting to coordinate a variety of activities in an
Weber 声称，采用正式规则和程序是为了帮助消除试图协调各种活动的不确定性

Organization. The use of rules and procedures is only a limited strategy in trying to achieve coordinated actions. The emphasis on rules and procedures can produce excessive red tape. Other strategies may be required but the problem is that once established, ineffectual rules or procedures in a bureaucracy are tremendously difficult to remove.
组织。使用规则和程序只是试图实现协调行动的一种有限策略。对规则和程序的强调会产生过多的繁文缛节。可能需要其他策略，但问题是，一旦建立起来，官僚机构中无效的规则或程序就很难消除。

What about the emphasis on Hierarchy of Authority? In theory, the hierarchy has both a downward and an upward communication flow. In practice, it usually has only a downward emphasis. Thus upward communication is impeded, and there is no formal recognition of horizontal communication. This kills individual initiative and participation in decision making.
对权威等级的强调呢？理论上，层次结构有向下和向上的通信流。在实践中，它通常只有向下的强调。因此，向上的交流受到阻碍，并且没有正式承认横向交流。这会扼杀个人的主动性和决策参与度。

Weber’s bureaucratic model stresses lifelong careers and evaluations based on merit. But because a high degree of specialization enables most employees to master their jobs quickly, there is a tendency to base promotions more on loyalty than on actual skill and performance. Thus the idea of having the most competent people in positions within the organization is not fully realized. Loyalty is obtained, but this loyalty is toward the protection of one’s position and not to the effectiveness of the organization.
韦伯的官僚模式强调终身职业和基于业绩的评估。但是，由于高度专业化使大多数员工能够快速掌握他们的工作，因此人们倾向于更多地根据忠诚度而不是实际技能和绩效来获得晋升。因此，让最有能力的人担任组织内职位的想法并没有完全实现。忠诚是获得的，但这种忠诚是为了保护自己的地位，而不是为了组织的有效性。

The impersonal nature of bureaucracy is probably its most serious shortcoming. Recent critics of bureaucracy attack it as emphasizing rigid, control-oriented structures over people.
官僚主义的非个人性质可能是它最严重的缺点。最近对官僚主义的批评者抨击它强调僵化的、以控制为导向的结构凌驾于人之上。

New viewpoints are leading to a decline in the use of bureaucratic structure in modern organizations. School administrators in the twenty-first century see a change in some of their duties. One change is a shift away from simply supervising the work of others to that of contributing directly to the school district’s objectives. Instead of shuffling papers and writing reports, the modern administrator may be practicing a craft. Not a lot of words but deeds.
新的观点导致现代组织中官僚结构的减少。21 世纪的学校管理人员看到他们的一些职责发生了变化。一个变化是从简单地监督他人的工作转变为直接为学区的目标做出贡献。现代管理员可能不是在整理论文和撰写报告，而是在练习一门手艺。不是很多言语，而是行动。

In recent years, popular writers have expressed increasing dissatisfaction with bureaucratic structures. This is reflected in the phenomenal appeal of numerous best-selling books such as: In Search of Excellence, Principle-Centered Leadership, Schools That Learn. Just pay attention to these book titles. The basic topic of these books is that there are viable alternatives to the bureaucratic model. There is a strong implication that warm, human, caring, trusting, challenging organizations produce higher productivity in people.
近年来，通俗作家对官僚结构表达了越来越不满。这反映在众多畅销书的非凡吸引力上，例如：《追求卓越》、《以原则为中心的领导力》、《学习的学校》。只需注意这些书名。这些书的基本主题是，官僚模式有可行的替代方案。这强烈意味着，温暖、人性化、有爱心、信任、具有挑战性的组织可以提高员工的生产力。

The Participatory Management Model
参与式管理模式

Participatory management represents an extension of the bureaucratic model. The excessive rigidity of the bureaucratic approach stimulated interest in participatory management. These new theories of organization place greater emphasis on employee morale and job satisfaction. Participatory management stresses the importance of motivating employees and building an organization for that purpose.
参与式管理代表了官僚模式的延伸。官僚主义方法的过度僵化激发了人们对参与式管理的兴趣。这些新的组织理论更加强调员工士气和工作满意度。参与式管理强调激励员工并为此目的建立组织的重要性。

In 1960 American management professor Douglas McGregor presented a convincing argument that most managerial actions flow directly from the assumptions managers hold about their subordinates. The idea is that management’s views of people control operating practices as well as organizational structure. McGregor referred to these contrasting sets of assumptions as Theory X and Theory Y.
1960 年，美国管理学教授道格拉斯·麦格雷戈 （Douglas McGregor） 提出了一个令人信服的论点，即大多数管理行为直接源于管理者对下属的假设。这个想法是，管理层对人的看法控制着运营实践和组织结构。麦格雷戈将这些对比鲜明的假设集称为 X 理论和 Y 理论。

Leaders with Theory X assumptions have the following views of people:
具有 X 理论假设的领导者对人们有以下看法：

•• The average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible.
•• 普通人不喜欢工作，如果可能的话会避免工作。

•• Because people dislike work, they must be controlled, directed, and threatened.
•• 因为人们不喜欢工作，所以他们必须被控制、指导和威胁。

•• The average person prefers to be directed and controlled by someone in authority.
•• 普通人更喜欢由权威人士指导和控制。

The opposite assumptions characterize the Theory Y manager:
理论 Y 经理的特征是相反的假设：

•• Work is as natural as play or rest.
•• 工作就像玩耍或休息一样自然。

•• Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards for achievement.
•• 对目标的承诺是成就奖励的功能。

•• Under proper conditions, people accept and seek responsibility.
• 在适当的条件下，人们接受并寻求责任。

McGregor considers Theory X to be incompatible with democratic or participatory organizations because it conflicts with individual need fulfillment on the job. Therefore, McGregor espouses Theory Y, because people’s behavior in modern organizations more nearly matches its set of assumptions. Theory Y argues that span of control would be wide, not narrow, in order to provide greater freedom and opportunities for growth and fulfillment of employees’ needs. Emphasis on hierarchy would be replaced by emphasis on decentralization and delegation of decisions.
麦格雷戈认为 X 理论与民主或参与式组织不兼容，因为它与工作中的个人需求实现相冲突。因此，McGregor 支持 Y 理论，因为人们在现代组织中的行为更接近于其假设。Y 理论认为，控制范围将是宽的，而不是窄的，以便为成长和满足员工的需求提供更大的自由和机会。强调等级制度将被强调权力下放和决策授权所取代。

Alternative Models of Organizational Structure
组织结构的替代模型

The bureaucratic and participatory management models laid the groundwork for more complex approaches to organizational structure. Top-level school administrators must consider the relative
官僚主义和参与式管理模式为更复杂的组织结构方法奠定了基础。学校高层管理人员必须考虑相对

suitability of alternative approaches to organizational structure, based on the problems they face and the environment in which they work. Let’s describe some alternative approaches to organizational structure. In structuring, for example, a professional-school orientation, school administrators must answer the following strategic questions:
根据他们面临的问题和他们工作的环境，对组织结构的替代方法的适用性。让我们描述一些组织结构的替代方法。例如，在构建专业学校迎新会时，学校管理人员必须回答以下战略问题：

• In which decisions will professional teachers become involved? There appears to be general agreement that teachers should be more involved in making decisions. However, we need to specify the areas in which teachers will play larger roles in decision making.
• 专业教师将参与哪些决策？人们似乎普遍认为教师应该更多地参与决策。但是，我们需要明确教师将在哪些领域发挥更大的决策作用。

• Who will make what decisions in the school? How much influence should teachers have with respect to decisions affecting other parties in the school—students, teachers, support staff, principals, central office administrators, school board members? The roles of these stakeholders may need to be clarified or redefined in a professional-school structure.
• 谁将在学校做出什么决定？教师应该对影响学校其他方（学生、教师、支持人员、校长、中央办公室管理员、学校董事会成员）的决策产生多大的影响力？这些利益相关者的角色可能需要在专业学校结构中澄清或重新定义。

• What are the basic tasks of administrators and teachers in the context of a professional-school structure? Put another way, what is the basis of teachers’ expertise and professional identity? The amount of participation in decision making probably should be contingent on whether the issue is relevant to teachers and whether teachers have the expertise to make the decision.
• 在专业学校结构中，管理人员和教师的基本任务是什么？换句话说，教师的专业知识和专业身份的基础是什么？参与决策的程度可能应该取决于问题是否与教师相关，以及教师是否具备做出决定的专业知识。

• What is the role of teacher unions in a professional-school structure? The answer is: the involvement of teacher unions is a key strategic issue in structuring a professional-school orientation.
• 教师工会在专业学校结构中的作用是什么？答案是：教师工会的参与是构建专业学校导向的一个关键战略问题。

Adhocracy
灵活型

The adhocracy has the support staff as its key part. The technostructure is small. The support staff is large to support the complex structure. Adhocracies engage in nonroutine tasks and use sophisticated technology. The primary goal is innovation and rapid adaptation to changing environments. Adhocracies typically are medium sized, must be adaptable, and use resources efficiently. Examples of adhocracies include aerospace and electronics industries, research and development companies, and very innovative school districts. No school districts are pure adhocracies, but medium-sized school districts in very wealthy communities may have some of the characteristics of an adhocracy.
灵活型将支持人员作为其关键部分。技术结构很小。支持人员人数众多，可以支持复杂的结构。灵活型机构从事非常规任务并使用复杂的技术。主要目标是创新和快速适应不断变化的环境。灵活型通常规模中等，必须具有适应性并有效利用资源。灵活型的例子包括航空航天和电子行业、研发公司以及非常创新的学区。没有学区是纯粹的灵活型，但非常富裕社区的中型学区可能具有灵活型的一些特征。

Question: Does school-based decision making enhance student learning?
问题：校本决策是否能促进学生的学习？

Arguments PRO
参数 PRO

1. Issues related to the curriculum, resource allocation, and personnel assignments impact classroom instruction. When teachers serve on school-based teams, they are in a position to make decisions that enable student learning.
1. 与课程、资源分配和人员分配相关的问题会影响课堂教学。当教师在校本团队中服务时，他们能够做出有利于学生学习的决策。

2. Teachers must be held more accountable. We are increasing teacher certification requirements and teacher salaries in order to secure a more professional workforce. Professionals need a wide sphere of influence. They must have the authority to change whatever needs to be changed to meet standards.
2. 教师必须承担更多责任。我们正在提高教师资格证要求和教师工资，以确保拥有更专业的劳动力。专业人士需要广泛的影响力。他们必须有权更改任何需要更改的内容以达到标准。

3. School-based teams ensure that everyone with a stake in a matter is consulted. Their decisions are likely to be more workable because all perspectives are considered.
3. 校本团队确保与某一事项有利害关系的每个人都得到咨询。他们的决定可能更可行，因为所有观点都被考虑在内。

Arguments CON
参数 CON

1. Teachers’ expertise is in teaching and learning, not managerial decision making. When teachers serve on school-based teams, their attention and energies are deflected away from ensuring increased student learning.
1. 教师的专长在于教学，而不是管理决策。当教师在校本团队中服务时，他们的注意力和精力会分散到确保提高学生学习水平上。

2. Teachers expect administrators to make school based decisions. If teachers wished to engage in a wider area of decision making, they would become administrators.
2. 教师希望管理人员根据学校做出决策。如果教师希望参与更广泛的决策，他们就会成为管理人员。

3. Most school-based teams have difficulty because so many different perspectives are on the table. Many points of view are mutually exclusive, so weak compromises are reached.
3. 大多数学校团队都遇到困难，因为有太多不同的观点摆在桌面上。许多观点是相互排斥的，因此达成了微弱的妥协。

SUMMARY
总结

1. Key elements of organizational structure provide
1. 组织结构的关键要素提供

a framework for vertical control and horizontal
垂直控制和水平框架

coordination of schools. These key elements include
学校的协调。这些关键要素包括

job specialization, departmentalization, chain of
工作专业化、部门化、连锁化

command, authority and responsibility, centralization/
命令、权威和责任、集中化/

decentralization, line and staff authority, and span of
权力下放、直线和员工权限以及

control.
控制。

2. According to this view, division of labor, abstract
2. 根据这种观点，分工，抽象

rules, vertical hierarchy of authority, impersonality in
规则， 垂直的权威等级， 非人格

interpersonal relations, and advancement based on
人际关系和基于进步

competence characterize the ideal bureaucratic
能力是理想官僚机构的特征

structure.
结构。

3. The participatory management model is the
3. 参与式管理模式是

antithesis of the ideal bureaucracy. Theory X and
与理想的官僚机构相反。理论 X 和

Theory Y, flexibility, and employee growth
Y 理论、灵活性和员工成长

and development are the keys to participatory
和发展是参与式的关键

management.
管理。

4. Professional-school structure, adhocracy and
4. 专业学校结构、灵活型和

strategy-structure typology are alternative approaches
策略-结构类型学是替代方法

to organizational structure. These approaches integrate
到组织结构。这些方法集成了

several ideas from the classical and participatory
来自古典和参与式的几个想法

management models and the fundamentals of
管理模型和基本原理

organizational structure.
组织结构。

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
问题讨论

1. What are the key elements of organizational structure, and how do they function in schools?
1. 组织结构的关键要素是什么，它们在学校中是如何运作的？

2. How does bureaucracy influence approaches to
2. 官僚主义如何影响

organizational structure, and why are many of the
组织结构，以及为什么许多

characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy still used
韦伯理想官僚制的特征仍在使用

in schools today? What are some dysfunctions of
在今天的学校里？有哪些功能障碍

bureaucracy?
官僚？

3. Compare and contrast the participatory management
3. 比较和对比参与式管理

Models, Theory X and Theory Y, the alternative models of organizational structure.
模型，理论 X 和理论 Y，组织结构的替代模型。

5. How can school administrators use social systems
5. 学校管理人员如何使用社交系统

theory to better understand how schools function?
理论以更好地理解学校的运作方式？

Topic THREE. Management decisions
主题 THREE.管理决策

The value of Decision-Making Strategies in Education Management has increased dramatically in recent decades. All people who are involved in the context of education have to rapidly react to changing environment focusing not only on the internal issues but also on a long-term strategy.
近几十年来，教育管理中的决策策略的价值急剧增加。所有参与教育背景的人都必须对不断变化的环境做出快速反应，不仅关注内部问题，而且关注长期战略。

First, it seems appropriate to identify the term of decision making. Decision making is a process of making a choice from a number of alternatives to achieve the desired result. Decision Making is the process of selecting the best alternatives. It helps to identify the advantage and disadvantage of the things and helps in choice of best. Without decision making, different managerial function of education like planning, organizing, directing, controlling, staffing cannot be conducted. It helps in evaluation of marginal performance of educational administrator. When decision is correct it is understood that the manager is qualified, able and efficient. When decision is wrong, it is understood that the manager is disqualified. Without making correct and appropriate decision no organization can exist. A right decision can make a life and a wrong decision can ruin a life. You will fumble in every step.
首先，确定决策的术语似乎是合适的。决策是从多种选择中进行选择以达到预期结果的过程。决策是选择最佳替代方案的过程。它有助于确定事物的优缺点，并有助于选择最佳。没有决策，就无法执行教育的不同管理职能，如规划、组织、指导、控制、人员配备。它有助于评估教育管理人员的边际表现。当决策正确时，人们就会明白经理是合格的、有能力的和高效的。当决定错误时，可以理解为经理被取消资格。没有做出正确和适当的决定，任何组织都无法存在。一个正确的决定可以成就一个生活，一个错误的决定可以毁掉一个生活。你会在每一步中摸索。

Quite literally, organizations operate by people making decisions. A manager plans, organizes, staffs, leads, and controls the team by executing decisions. The effectiveness and quality of those decisions determine how successful a manager will be.
从字面上看，组织是由人做出决策来运作的。经理通过执行决策来计划、组织、配备、领导和控制团队。这些决策的有效性和质量决定了管理者的成功程度。

Managers are constantly called upon to make decisions in order to solve problems. Decision making and problem solving are ongoing processes of evaluating situations or problems, considering alternatives, making choices, and following them up with the necessary actions. Sometimes the decision‐making process is extremely short, and mental reflection is essentially instantaneous. In other situations, the process can drag on for weeks or even months. The entire decision‐making process is dependent upon the right information being available to the right people at the right times.
管理者不断被要求做出决策以解决问题。决策和解决问题是评估情况或问题、考虑替代方案、做出选择并采取必要行动的持续过程。有时决策过程非常短暂，而心理反思基本上是瞬间的。在其他情况下，该过程可能会持续数周甚至数月。整个决策过程取决于在正确的时间向正确的人提供正确的信息。

All managers want to make the best decisions. To do so, managers need to have the ideal resources — information, time, personnel, equipment, and supplies — and identify any limiting factors. Realistically, managers operate in an environment that normally doesn't provide ideal resources. For example, they may lack the proper budget or may not have the most accurate information or any extra time. So, they must choose to make the best decision possible with the information, resources, and time available.
所有经理都希望做出最好的决策。为此，管理人员需要拥有理想的资源（信息、时间、人员、设备和用品），并确定任何限制因素。实际上，管理者在通常不提供理想资源的环境中工作。例如，他们可能缺乏适当的预算，或者可能没有最准确的信息或任何额外的时间。因此，他们必须选择利用可用的信息、资源和时间做出最佳决策。

Time pressures frequently cause a manager to move forward after considering only the first or most obvious answers. However, successful problem solving requires thorough examination of the challenge, and a quick answer may not result in a permanent solution. Thus, a manager should investigate several alternative solutions to a single problem before making a quick decision.
时间压力经常导致经理在只考虑第一个或最明显的答案后继续前进。然而，成功解决问题需要对挑战进行彻底的审视，而快速的回答可能不会带来永久的解决方案。因此，经理在做出快速决策之前，应该研究单个问题的几种替代解决方案。

One of the best known methods for developing alternatives is through brainstorming, where a group works together to generate ideas and alternative solutions. The assumption behind brainstorming is that the group dynamic stimulates thinking — one person's ideas, no matter how crazy they are, can generate ideas from the others in the group. Brainstorming usually requires 30 minutes to an hour.
开发替代方案最著名的方法之一是头脑风暴，在这个过程中，一个小组一起产生想法和替代解决方案。头脑风暴背后的假设是，团队动态会激发思考——一个人的想法，无论他们多么疯狂，都可以从团队中的其他人那里产生想法。头脑风暴通常需要 30 分钟到一个小时。

In fact, the more ideas that come up, the better. In other words, there are no bad ideas. Encouragement of the group to freely offer all thoughts on the subject is important. Participants should be encouraged to present ideas no matter how ridiculous they seem, because such ideas may spark a creative thought on the part of someone else.
事实上，提出的想法越多越好。换句话说，没有坏主意。鼓励小组自由地提供关于该主题的所有想法很重要。应该鼓励参与者提出想法，无论它们看起来多么荒谬，因为这些想法可能会激发其他人的创造性想法。

The managers and leaders who currently work in an educational leadership role, or used to work in one previously, always have to take decisions for almost all the activities that go on within an institute. Some of these decisions may be a bit more strategic and serve a long-term purpose, while some may be taken for meeting immediate requirements.
目前担任教育领导职务或以前担任教育领导职务的管理人员和领导者，总是必须为机构内进行的几乎所有活动做出决定。其中一些决策可能更具战略性并服务于长期目标，而另一些决策可能是为了满足即时需求而做出的。

Although decision making constitutes a major portion of an educational leader or manager’s role, it can sometimes prove to be a very demanding task. In fact, individuals who have just been promoted to leadership roles may find it harder to take decisions as their confidence level may be relatively lower than an experienced leader or manager. Often, when taking decisions, we are exposed to a variety of alternatives, and a thorough (I mean deep) cost-benefit analysis of all these options must be performed to reach the most impactful, the most effective conclusion. This is not as easy as it sounds.
尽管决策构成了教育领导者或管理者角色的主要部分，但有时它可能被证明是一项非常艰巨的任务。事实上，刚刚晋升为领导职务的人可能会发现更难做出决定，因为他们的信心水平可能相对低于经验丰富的领导者或经理。通常，在做出决策时，我们会接触到各种替代方案，必须对所有这些选项进行彻底（我的意思是深入的）成本效益分析，以得出最有影响力、最有效的结论。这并不像听起来那么容易。

The main traits or qualities of a good decision maker must be acquired by educational leaders and managers to achieve success on an operational and strategic level. There are various types of decisions the managers have to take in the day to day functioning of the firm. Now we are going to look into some of the main types of decision making that underlies a leader and manager’s roles.
教育领导者和管理者必须具备优秀决策者的主要特征或品质，才能在运营和战略层面取得成功。经理们在公司的日常运作中必须做出各种类型的决定。现在，我们将研究领导和管理者角色的一些主要决策类型。

Routine Decision Making: As the name suggests, routine decisions are those that the manager makes in the daily functioning of the organization, i.e. they are routine. These decisions are routinely or regularly taken in order to ensure the very existence of the educational institute on a day-to-day basis. Such decisions do not require a lot of evaluation, analysis or in-depth study. In fact, high-level managers usually delegate these decisions to their subordinates. For instance, daily decisions regarding who should organize the next sports event, handling problems with the ledger records, deciding upon frequent website changes, deciding how specific complaints can be handled. These issues arise very frequently, and leaders need to be prepared to make these decisions constantly. While they may appear fairly small, they add up to play a crucial role in the institute’s daily running.
例行决策：顾名思义，例行决策是经理在组织的日常运作中做出的决策，即它们是例行公事。这些决定是例行或定期做出的，以确保教育机构的日常存在。这样的决定不需要大量的评估、分析或深入研究。事实上，高级管理者通常会将这些决策委托给他们的下属。例如，关于谁应该组织下一场体育赛事的日常决定、处理分类账记录的问题、决定频繁的网站更改、决定如何处理具体的投诉。这些问题经常出现，领导者需要做好准备，不断做出这些决定。虽然它们可能看起来相当小，但它们加起来在研究所的日常运行中发挥着至关重要的作用。

Individual and Group Decision-Making: As a leader, you may notice that it is nearly impossible to handle everything and make all the decisions. For instance, some of the routine decisions may be too minute and it would make sense for you to delegate those decision-making responsibilities. When this is done, a specific group or individual can be asked to engage in the decision-making activities for issues that fall under their respective spectrum of duties.
个人和团体决策： 作为领导者，您可能会注意到几乎不可能处理所有事情并做出所有决定。例如，一些例行决策可能太微小，您将这些决策责任委托给您是有意义的。完成此操作后，可以要求特定团体或个人参与属于其各自职责范围的问题的决策活动。

Strategic Decision-Making: When leading and managing an institute, you will often be charged with the responsibility to expand its operations, enhance the quality of learning, attract more students, form credible academic partnerships, and also raise the institute’s profit margins. All of these elements require strategic decision making wherein the leader has to select any of the chosen long-term objectives, devise a plan that outlines how they can be attained and the decisions that needs to be made in terms of allocating funds, hiring manpower, and many more. These strategic decisions require a thorough analysis of alternative options and are not impulsive calls made in a rush. A lot of research, due diligence, collaborative discussions, and critical thinking to become a successful strategic decision maker.
战略决策：在领导和管理学院时，您通常会负责扩大其业务、提高学习质量、吸引更多学生、建立可靠的学术合作伙伴关系，以及提高学院的利润率。所有这些要素都需要战略决策，其中领导者必须选择任何选定的长期目标，制定一个计划，概述如何实现这些目标以及需要在分配资金、雇用人力等方面做出的决定。这些战略决策需要对替代选项进行彻底分析，而不是匆忙做出的冲动决定。大量的研究、尽职调查、协作讨论和批判性思维，以成为一名成功的战略决策者。

Unplanned Decision Making: Quite often, you may be pushed to face an unprecedented event such as an emergency wherein you have to make an unplanned decision in order to resolve the issue at hand. This is one of the trickiest types of decision making as you hardly get time to analyze the situation in depth, and the probability to making wrong decisions is much larger.
计划外的决策： 很多时候，您可能会被迫面对前所未有的事件，例如紧急情况，您必须做出计划外的决定才能解决手头的问题。这是最棘手的决策类型之一，因为您几乎没有时间深入分析情况，而且做出错误决策的可能性要大得多。

It is worth noting that one leader or manager usually has to engage in all of these types of decision-making because their application varies across different situations and timelines. Likewise, the methods chosen to approach each of these types of decision making will also vary amongst different leaders. Education management can be a potential solution to understand how each of these decision-making scenarios and types can be handled effectively.
值得注意的是，一位领导者或管理者通常必须参与所有这些类型的决策，因为它们的应用因情况和时间表而异。同样，选择处理每一种决策的方法也会因不同的领导者而异。教育管理可以成为了解如何有效处理这些决策场景和类型中的每一个的潜在解决方案。

It’s very important to exam the two decision-making strategies that might be utilized by principals including shared decision making and rational-analytical decision-making strategies.
检查校长可能使用的两种决策策略非常重要，包括共同决策和理性分析决策策略。

The shared decision making strategy assumes by its very definition a decision made by a particular group.
共同决策策略的定义假定了特定群体做出的决策。

This strategy is essential to perform one of the most significant tasks that are to be performed by principals. In particular, community engagement and democratic fundamentals follow shared decision making. It aims to enhance the educational process and achieve better outcomes in studying. Due to shared decisions, it is expected that principals will do their best to provide students with high-quality education and ensure their comfort and security.
此策略对于执行委托人要执行的最重要任务之一至关重要。特别是，社区参与和民主基础遵循共同决策。它旨在加强教育过程并取得更好的学习成果。由于共同决定，预计校长将尽最大努力为学生提供高质量的教育，并确保他们的舒适和安全。

It is necessary to emphasize that autocratic, joint, consultative, and delegation compose the shared decision-making strategy. An autocratic decision almost does not require any participatory actions of others except a principal himself. It might be applied in cases when confidentiality and security of students or staff are under the threat of violation. However, school-based management requires calling a special team that might consist of teachers, police, or other interested parties to resolve the situation.
有必要强调的是，专制、联合、协商和授权构成了共同的决策战略。专制决定几乎不需要除校长本人以外的其他人采取任何参与行动。它可能适用于学生或教职员工的机密性和安全性受到违规威胁的情况。但是，基于学校的管理需要召集一个可能由教师、警察或其他相关方组成的特殊团队来解决问题。

A consultative decision-making technique presumes several multilateral consultations, yet principals should make a final decision on their own. By asking ideas and opinions, principals receive necessary information promptly and can make relevant decisions. For instance, they might ask to complete a wish list of required resources so that budget money might be divided following the teachers’ needs. A joint decision is a collective way of decision making when all the members of a team discuss an issue until the final decision. This strategy helps principals to create positive behavioral support among the staff that is achieved by communication and mutual agreements. Some issues might be delegated from principals to staff, yet clear limits should be established to prevent any misunderstanding.
协商式决策技术假定多次多边磋商，但校长应自行做出最终决定。通过询问想法和意见，校长可以及时获得必要的信息并做出相关决定。例如，他们可能会要求完成所需资源的愿望清单，以便可以根据教师的需要分配预算资金。联合决策是团队的所有成员讨论一个问题直到最终决策的一种集体决策方式。这种策略帮助校长在员工中建立积极的行为支持，这是通过沟通和相互协议实现的。有些问题可能会从校长委托给员工，但应建立明确的限制以防止任何误解。

After delegation members made their decision, it is to be approved by the principal. Thus, the increased quality of decisions, staff satisfaction, and a clear vision of alternative ways would follow the shared decision strategy.
委托成员做出决定后，应由委托人批准。因此，决策质量的提高、员工满意度和对替代方法的清晰愿景将遵循共同决策策略。

Another strategy that might be applied by principals is the rational-analytical decision-making strategy. Principals should possess critical thinking and problem-solving techniques. To make appropriate evidence-based decisions, they are expected to identify goals and desired outcomes. It is of great importance to separate relevant information from the irrelevant ones.
校长可能采用的另一种策略是理性分析决策策略。校长应具备批判性思维和解决问题的技巧。为了做出适当的循证决策，他们应该确定目标和期望的结果。将相关信息与不相关的信息分开非常重要。

For example, the principal should learn all the peculiarities of teachers including both positive and negative traits. After that, the school leader should properly evaluate information and suggest possible improvements. At the same time, it is crucial to take into account alternatives choosing the best way out. In other words, rational-analytical decisions are justified by an objective analytical process not relying on experience.
例如，校长应该学习教师的所有特点，包括积极和消极的特质。之后，学校领导应适当评估信息并提出可能的改进建议。同时，考虑选择最佳出路的替代方案至关重要。换句话说，理性分析决策是由客观的分析过程证明的，而不是依赖经验。

Information about the situation under consideration should be accurate, complete, and sufficient. The analytical material should be prepared by experts having knowledge and experience in the corresponding area. In the process of development of administrative decisions, a focal role is played by an adequate assessment of the situation and various factors that affect its development. With this purpose, it is necessary to form an evaluation system, which should include the following aspects:
有关所考虑情况的信息应准确、完整且充分。分析材料应由具有相应领域知识和经验的专家准备。在行政决策的制定过程中，对情况和影响其发展的各种因素的充分评估起着关键作用。为此，有必要形成一个评价体系，其中应包括以下几个方面：

-criteria characterizing evaluating issue;
-描述评估问题的标准;

-system of performance and scale, with which an issue is estimated for each of the criteria;
- 性能和规模系统，用于为每个标准估计问题;

-principles for comparative assessment of suggested options and solutions.
- 建议选项和解决方案的比较评估原则。

The rational-analytical decision making strategy might compose a centerpiece of school reforms concerning organizational changes. The utilization of this approach leads to effective solutions. It embraces the most important issues such as job satisfaction, educational programs, and others.
理性分析决策策略可能构成学校组织变革改革的核心。利用这种方法可以带来有效的解决方案。它包含最重要的问题，例如工作满意度、教育计划等。

Once a decision is made, the principal should implement it. However, the decision-making process depends not only on the principal but also on personnel. Therefore, to conduct a successful implementation, it is important to develop and maintain the problem solution support. Thereby, the rational-analytical decision making strategy focuses on evidence and rationality to provide appropriate solutions.
一旦做出决定，校长就应该实施它。然而，决策过程不仅取决于校长，还取决于人员。因此，要成功实施，开发和维护问题解决方案支持非常重要。因此，理性分析决策策略侧重于证据和理性，以提供适当的解决方案。

Decision making is a process that guides actions. Decisions are based on the beliefs, values and previous experiences of individuals. Leaders must know themselves, know why they choose particular ways, know whom to involve, and know which particular decision-making model to use. Today, researchers know that those at the top cannot accurately gather or predict all alternatives. They know that collaboration result in better decisions. The first decision is to decide what level of involvement is most effective.
决策是指导行动的过程。决策基于个人的信仰、价值观和以前的经验。领导者必须了解自己，知道他们为什么选择特定的方式，知道应该让谁参与进来，并知道使用哪种特定的决策模型。今天，研究人员知道，那些处于顶层的人无法准确地收集或预测所有替代方案。他们知道协作会带来更好的决策。第一个决定是决定哪种程度的参与最有效。

As I have already emphasized, leaders have at least four options of involvement in decisions: deciding alone, seeking participation and input, seeking collaboration, and letting others decide. These approaches are termed autocratic, participative, collaborative, and laissez fair (let it be), respectively. A wise leader uses participative and collaborative strategies for all important decisions. However, such an approach is not always possible, nor is it preferable in all situations. The leader must assess several factors to decide on the level of involvement:
正如我已经强调的，领导者至少有四种参与决策的选择：单独决定、寻求参与和投入、寻求合作以及让他人决定。这些方法分别被称为专制、参与、协作和自由公平（顺其自然）。明智的领导者会在所有重要决策中使用参与式和协作式策略。但是，这种方法并不总是可行的，也不是在所有情况下都可取。领导者必须评估几个因素来决定参与程度：

Time
时间

Urgency may require the leader to make his or her own decision without consulting others. Participative decisions, especially collaborative decisions, require more time than a decision made alone. If important decisions are at stake, the leader must schedule more time for involvement.
紧急情况可能需要领导者在不咨询他人的情况下做出自己的决定。参与式决策，尤其是协作决策，比单独做出的决策需要更多的时间。如果重要决策受到威胁，领导者必须安排更多时间参与其中。

Staff Interest in the Decision
员工对决策的兴趣

Individuals have a "zone of indifference" in which they simply accept the leader's decision. In these cases, the leader would not benefit from trying to gain participation or collaboration. At higher levels of interest, however, more participation or collaboration is appropriate. Leaders who desire more collaboration must generate interest in the decision.
个人有一个“冷漠区”，他们只是接受领导者的决定。在这些情况下，领导者不会从试图获得参与或协作中受益。但是，在更高的兴趣级别，更多的参与或协作是合适的。希望更多合作的领导者必须引起对决策的兴趣。

Staff Expertise
员工专业知识

Followers who have very low levels of expertise accept the decisions of leaders. Staff members who have higher levels of expertise require either participation or collaboration to arrive at successful decisions. The leader who desires collaboration must raise levels of expertise to successfully involve subordinates.
专业知识水平非常低的追随者接受领导者的决定。具有更高专业知识水平的员工需要参与或协作才能做出成功的决策。渴望合作的领导者必须提高专业知识水平，才能成功地让下属参与进来。

Importance or Need For a High-Quality Decision
高质量决策的重要性或需求

Some decisions are much more important and carry significant consequences. This is usually the case for instruction and learning, whether directly or indirectly. For important questions that demand high-quality decisions, collaboration is the best model. If the decision is relatively unimportant, then the leader should simply make the decision.
有些决定更重要，并会产生重大后果。这通常是教学和学习的情况，无论是直接的还是间接的。对于需要高质量决策的重要问题，协作是最好的模式。如果决定相对不重要，那么领导者应该简单地做出决定。

Degree of Need for Buy-In or Support for the Decision
需要支持或支持决策的程度

Many decisions in education need staff support for successful implementation and results. A collaborative model often increases buy-in and support.
教育领域的许多决策都需要工作人员的支持才能成功实施并取得成果。协作模式通常会增加支持和支持。

For school-based decision-making to work, four key resources need to be present to develop the capacity to create high performance organizations:
要使基于学校的决策发挥作用，需要提供四个关键资源来培养创建高绩效组织的能力：

*Knowledge and skills in new instructional strategies; interpersonal, problem-solving, and decision skills for working together as a team; business knowledge for managing the organization, including budgeting and fiscal planning; and assessment strategies for analyzing, interpreting, and acting on school performance data.
*新教学策略的知识和技能;团队合作的人际关系、解决问题和决策技能;管理组织的商业知识，包括预算和财务规划;以及分析、解释和处理学校绩效数据的评估策略。

*Information about the performance of the organization, including student performance data, budgets, and demographic-trend data.
*有关组织绩效的信息，包括学生绩效数据、预算和人口趋势数据。

*Power and authority to make decisions, especially in the areas of curriculum and instruction, staffing and personnel, and resource allocation and budgeting.
*做出决策的权力和权威，尤其是在课程和教学、人员配备和人员以及资源分配和预算方面。

*Rewards for high performance, including intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, such as salary adjustments, professional development opportunities, performance-based pay, group or team-based rewards, and public recognition for their accomplishments.
*对高绩效的奖励，包括内在和外在奖励，例如薪酬调整、专业发展机会、基于绩效的薪酬、基于团队的奖励以及对其成就的公众认可。

The uncertainty of recent years has presented difficult decision-making opportunities. Teachers, students, the entire school and university community are frequently impacted by these decisions. How can I make the best decision in the most challenging of situations? It is normal to feel overwhelmed by this, but it is critical to remember your mission and values in the face of decision-making. These 10 decision-making tips for school leaders can help tackle tough decisions.
近年来的不确定性带来了艰难的决策机会。教师、学生、整个学校和大学社区经常受到这些决定的影响。在最具挑战性的情况下，我如何做出最佳决定？对此感到不知所措是正常的，但在面对决策时牢记自己的使命和价值观至关重要。这 10 个给学校领导的决策技巧可以帮助应对艰难的决定。

1. Establish clear goals. However, know that flexibility and backup plans are key.
1. 建立明确的目标。但是，要知道灵活性和备份计划是关键。

Create shared goals among your staff. Clear goals give us clarity of thinking, leading to greater wisdom in how to best use one’s time to pursue clear goals. However, with the uncertainty that remains in the air, it is essential to be flexible and have a backup plan. Everything is subject to change, and no plan should be set in stone.
在您的员工之间建立共同目标。明确的目标让我们的思路清晰，从而在如何最好地利用自己的时间追求明确的目标方面产生更大的智慧。然而，由于不确定性仍然存在，因此必须保持灵活性并制定备用计划。一切都可能发生变化，任何计划都不应该一成不变。

2. Listen to your teachers, students, and parents. They know best.
2. 倾听你的老师、学生和家长的意见。他们最清楚。

Do not make the mistake of assuming that your solution is always the best. Take the time to listen to your instructors and students, as they are often more knowledgeable about the issues that arise in the classroom than you are.
不要错误地假设你的解决方案永远是最好的。花时间倾听您的教师和学生的意见，因为他们通常比您更了解课堂上出现的问题。

3. Send out survey questions to the entire school community regularly to better understand the needs of students and instructors.
3. 定期向整个学校社区发送调查问题，以更好地了解学生和教师的需求。

For example, during the pandemic, some principals have used Google Forms, Survey Monkey, or their own online survey platforms to get a better read on the needs of students and staff members. This allows school leaders to see what the school community believes is going well in the classroom and what needs improvement.
例如，在大流行期间，一些校长使用 Google Forms、Survey Monkey 或他们自己的在线调查平台来更好地了解学生和教职员工的需求。这使学校领导能够看到学校社区认为课堂上哪些方面进展顺利，哪些方面需要改进。

4. Concentrate on high-priority challenges such as curriculum and staffing.
4. 专注于高优先级挑战，例如课程和人员配备。

Things look and feel different this year than in prior years. Students are falling behind in class, and teacher shortages are a real challenge. Understand and concentrate on where teachers, instructors and students have the most needs.
今年的情况看起来和感觉都与往年不同。学生在课堂上落后，教师短缺是一个真正的挑战。了解并专注于教师、讲师和学生最需要的地方。

5. Always be prepared for unexpected situations to arise.
5. 始终为意外情况的出现做好准备。

Be prepared for the unexpected. It is crucial to be aware that unexpected events can occur, such as students switching to online learning, outbreaks, and so on. In order to keep everyone safe, quick, informed decision-making is critical.
为意外情况做好准备。重要的是要意识到可能会发生意外事件，例如学生转为在线学习、爆发等。为了确保每个人的安全，快速、明智的决策至关重要。

6. Accept guidance and feedback from others.
6. 接受他人的指导和反馈。

In the current decision-making environment, no one is going to have a perfectly correct answer. For example, many school leaders face the challenge of maintaining curriculum standards while not failing students due to the nature and challenges of online learning. That is why it is crucial to lean on colleagues and student support staff to help make these decisions.
在当前的决策环境中，没有人会有一个完全正确的答案。例如，由于在线学习的性质和挑战，许多学校领导面临着保持课程标准同时又不让学生失望的挑战。这就是为什么依靠同事和学生支持人员来帮助做出这些决定至关重要的原因。

7. Lead by example.
7. 以身作则。

School administrators are in charge of ensuring that school operations and education are effective: in other words, they are the bottom line. What makes some leaders more capable than others? Model the attributes you want your staff to have. The best method to influence conduct is to lead with your actions rather than your words. True leaders spend as little time as possible in their offices. They spend their days traveling through the corridors, from classroom to classroom, leading by their actions. They regard themselves first and foremost as instructional leaders, and they take the initiative in raising student accomplishment. Along the way, they set the tone for classroom behavior and guarantee that students can learn in learning-friendly environments.
学校管理人员负责确保学校运营和教育有效：换句话说，他们是底线。是什么让一些领导者比其他领导者更有能力？为您希望员工具备的属性建模。影响行为的最佳方法是用你的行动而不是你的言语来引导。真正的领导者尽可能少花时间在办公室里。他们整天在走廊里穿梭，从一个教室走到另一个教室，以自己的行动为导向。他们首先将自己视为教学领导者，并主动提高学生的成绩。在此过程中，他们为课堂行为定下了基调，并保证学生可以在学习友好的环境中学习。

8. Make meetings matter.
8. 让会议有意义。

Do not have a meeting for the sake of having a meeting. Meetings with school leaders and teachers are most effective when focusing on specific needs identified during the educational process. When your observations and thoughts are still fresh, planning ahead of time will ensure that every instance staff is out of their classrooms are productive. Ask them what they think they need while you examine your observations of their strengths and weaknesses. Please encourage them to consider not what talent or expertise they wish to gain but what skill or expertise their school requires. Also, think about the professional development you provided your leaders and teachers this year—did it have an impact, and how do you know?
不要为了开会而开会。与学校领导和教师的会议在关注教育过程中确定的特定需求时最为有效。当您的观察和想法仍然新鲜时，提前计划将确保每个员工走出教室的情况都是高效的。询问他们认为他们需要什么，同时您检查您对他们的长处和短处的观察。请鼓励他们考虑的不是他们希望获得什么才能或专业知识，而是他们的学校需要什么技能或专业知识。另外，想想你今年为领导和老师提供的专业发展——它有影响吗，你怎么知道的？

9. Provide feedback to your teachers and community.
9. 向您的老师和社区提供反馈。

The importance of providing instructors with feedback on what is going on in their classroom cannot be overstated. Feedback enables them to determine “How am I doing?” in attaining the learning objectives they have set for their pupils, allowing them to decide “Where to next?” for them. During a learning experience, timely feedback is received and reviewed to educate teachers and enable new learning plans. Principals and supervisors should collaborate with teachers on coaching, reflection, joint investigations, study groups, and problem-solving.
向教师提供有关课堂上发生的事情的反馈的重要性怎么强调都不为过。反馈使他们能够确定 “我做得如何 ”，以实现他们为学生设定的学习目标，让他们决定 “下一步该做什么 ”。在学习体验期间，我们会及时收到和审查反馈，以教育教师并制定新的学习计划。校长和主管应与教师合作，进行辅导、反思、联合调查、学习小组和解决问题。

10. You are going to make mistakes, and that is okay.
10. 你会犯错误，这没关系。

Learning from your failures is the most effective method to develop. You will not always make the best decisions. Accepting responsibility for your actions and learning how to do things better the next time is an important element of the learning process.
从失败中吸取教训是最有效的发展方法。您不会总是做出最好的决定。为自己的行为负责并学习如何下次做得更好是学习过程的一个重要元素。

Managerial decision making is synonymous with the whole process of management. It decides, what should be done? how should it be done? when and by whom should be done?
管理决策是管理全过程的代名词。它决定，应该做什么？应该怎么做呢？应该在何时以及由谁来做？

Decision making is the judgment of the process by which one can choose between a number of alternative courses of action for the purpose of achieving goals, so decision making is an intellectual activity.
决策是对过程的判断，通过该过程，一个人可以在许多替代行动方案中进行选择以实现目标，因此决策是一项智力活动。

To be exact this is always a choice between Yes and No. And always there are many types of decision making.
确切地说，这始终是 Yes （是） 和 No （否） 之间的选择。而且总是有很多类型的决策。

Let’s elaborate on each type of decision making-
让我们详细说明每种类型的决策 -

1. Programmed and non-programmed decision
1. 程序化和非程序化决策

Programmed decisions are those, which are in accordance with some habits, rules, or procedures. Programmed decisions relate to those functions that are repetitive in nature. These decisions are dealt with by following a specific standard procedure. These decisions are usually taken by lower management. Every organization has its own policies that simplify decision making.
程序化决策是那些符合某些习惯、规则或程序的决策。编程决策与那些本质上是重复的函数有关。这些决定通过遵循特定的标准程序来处理。这些决定通常由下级管理层做出。每个组织都有自己的策略来简化决策。

For example, granting leave to employees, purchasing spare parts etc are programmed decisions where a specific procedure is followed. We would not worry about deciding the salary of a new employee, the organization generally has established a salary scale for all positions.
例如，批准员工休假、购买备件等是遵循特定程序的程序化决策。我们不会担心决定新员工的薪水，组织通常已经为所有职位建立了薪资表。

Of course, programmed decisions are limiting our freedom to some extent, because organization rather than an individual decides what to do.
当然，程序化的决定在一定程度上限制了我们的自由，因为决定做什么的是组织而不是个人。

However, the policies, rules, and procedures by which we make decisions free us to think about other new solutions, thus help us to devote attention to other, and more important activities.
然而，我们做出决策所依据的政策、规则和程序让我们可以自由地思考其他新的解决方案，从而帮助我们将注意力投入到其他更重要的活动上。

Non-programmed decisions are those that deal with unusual problems. If the problem is so important that needs special treatment, it is taken care of by non-programmed decision. Non-programmed decisions arise out of unstructured problems, i.e. these are not routine or daily occurrences. So there is no standard procedure or process to deal with such issues.
非程序化决策是那些处理不寻常问题的决策。如果问题如此重要以至于需要特殊处理，则由非程序化决策来处理。非程序化决策源于非结构化问题，即这些不是例行公事或日常事件。因此，没有处理此类问题的标准程序或流程。

Usually, these decisions are important to the organization. Such decisions are left to upper management.
通常，这些决策对组织很重要。此类决定留给高层管理人员。

Some of the non-programmed decisions are –
一些非编程决策是 -

How to allocate an organization’s resources?
如何分配组织的资源？

Is it high time to open a new branch?
现在是开设新分行的时候了吗？

What to do about failing educational process?
失败的教育过程该怎么办？

How community relations should be improved will usually require non-programmed decisions.
如何改善社区关系通常需要非程序化的决定。

2. Major and minor decision
2. 大大小小的决定

Making the decision to purchase expensive equipment is considered a major decision.
做出购买昂贵设备的决定被认为是一个重大决定。

The purchase of cheap equipment like a few reams of typing paper is a minor decision.
购买几令打字纸等廉价设备是一个小决定。

3. Routine and strategic decisions
3. 常规和战略决策

Routine decisions are slightly similar to programmed decision making. Routine decisions are repetitive in nature, do not need any analysis and evaluation, are in the context of day to day operations of the enterprise, and can be made by middle management level.
常规决策与程序化决策略有不同。例行决策本质上是重复的，不需要任何分析和评估，是在企业日常运营的背景下做出的，可以由中层管理人员做出。

Example: Sending a sample to a government investigation center.
示例：将样本发送到政府调查中心。

A strategic decision is related to the policy of the organization, is taken by high levels of management, it involves a large expenditure of fund. A slight mistake in decision making is injurious to the enterprise.
战略决策与组织的政策有关，由高层管理人员做出，它涉及大量的资金支出。决策中的一个小错误对企业有害。

Example: capital expenditure decision, decision-related to pricing, etc.
示例：资本支出决策、与定价相关的决策等。

4. Organizational and Personal decision
4. 组织和个人决策

When an executive takes a decision in an official capacity, on behalf of the organization, this is an organizational decision. Such decisions can be delegated to subordinates. A manager makes organizational decisions on behalf of a company’s officer. This type of decision reflects the policy of the organization.
当高管代表组织以官方身份做出决策时，这是组织决策。这样的决定可以委托给下属。经理代表公司的官员做出组织决策。这种类型的决策反映了组织的策略。

However, if the executive takes a decision in a personal capacity, that does not relate to the organization in any way this is a personal decision. Obviously, these decisions cannot be delegated. Personal decisions are the manager’s individual decision, and not as a member of the organization.
但是，如果高管以个人身份做出决定，这与组织没有任何关系，这是个人决定。显然，这些决定不能委托。个人决策是经理的个人决策，而不是作为组织成员的决定。

5. Individual and group decision
5. 个人和团体决策

Any decision taken by an individual in an official capacity it is an individual decision. Organizations that are smaller and have an autocratic style of management rely on such decisions. Individual decisions are taken by a single individual in the context of routine decisions according to the guideline of the organization.
个人以官方身份做出的任何决定都是个人决定。规模较小且具有专制管理风格的组织依赖于此类决策。个人决策由单个个体根据组织的指导方针在日常决策的背景下做出。

Group decisions are taken by a group or a collective of the firm’s employees and management. Group decisions are taken by conducting committee meetings for any specific purpose. Such decisions are very important for the organization. For example, decisions taken by the board of directors are a group decision.
团体决策由公司员工和管理层的团体或集体做出。小组决策是通过为任何特定目的召开委员会会议来做出的。这样的决定对组织来说非常重要。例如，董事会做出的决定是集体决定。

6. Policy and operative decisions
6. 政策和实施决策

Policy decisions are critical, so they are taken by top management, it makes a long term impact, and mostly related to basic policies. The operative decision related to day to day operations of the enterprise and taken by low-level management.
政策决策至关重要，因此它们由最高管理层做出，它会产生长期影响，并且主要与基本政策有关。运营决策与企业的日常运营相关，由低级管理人员做出。

7. Long term, departmental and non-economic decision
7. 长期、部门和非经济决策

Long term decisions are taken for a longer time period and the risk involves is high.
长期决策的制定时间较长，所涉及的风险很高。

Departmental decisions are taken by the departmental head, related to a particular department.
部门决策由部门负责人做出，与特定部门相关。

The non-economic decision is related to factors such as technical values, moral behavior, etc.
非经济决策与技术价值、道德行为等因素有关。

Importance of decision making
决策的重要性

Decisions are generally made to fulfil the objectives of the organization.
决策通常是为了实现组织的目标而做出的。

In business, whatever the business is small or big, changes in condition take place, shifts in personal occur, unforeseen contingencies arise. Moreover, just to get started, and keep them moving, decisions must be made.
在商业中，无论企业大小，都会发生条件的变化，个人的变化，出现不可预见的意外事件。此外，要开始并让他们继续前进，就必须做出决定。

Every aspect of the management (planning, organizing, control, etc.) determines by decision making.
管理的各个方面（计划、组织、控制等）都由决策决定。

Decision making is important for all management activities. It helps to set objectives, prepare plans of action, determine the organizational structure, motivate employees to be more productive, and introduce innovations.
决策对所有管理活动都很重要。它有助于设定目标、准备行动计划、确定组织结构、激励员工提高工作效率并引入创新。

Decision Making Process
决策过程

Using a step by step process for any decision making within an organization can help to make a more deliberate and effective decision. So steps of effective decision making are discussed below.
在组织内的任何决策中使用分步过程有助于做出更深思熟虑和有效的决策。因此，下面将讨论有效决策的步骤。

Step 1: Identify the Decision
第 1 步：确定决策

When you realize that you have to make a decision try to identify and clearly define the nature of decision you are going to make. It will help you to make effective decision.
当您意识到您必须做出决定时，请尝试识别并明确定义您将要做出的决定的性质。它将帮助您做出有效的决定。

Step 2: Gather relevant information
第 2 步：收集相关信息

Before decision making, it is important to gather all information relevant to your decision making. The source of information can be two types, First one is the internal source- you seek internal information through self-assessment. Another source is external, where you get information from books, the internet, word of mouth, etc.
在做出决策之前，收集与您的决策相关的所有信息非常重要。信息来源可以有两种类型，第一种是内部来源——你通过自我评估来寻求内部信息。另一个来源是外部的，您可以从书籍、互联网、口耳相传等中获取信息。

Step 3: Identify the alternatives
第 3 步：确定备选方案

During collecting the information, you will probably find some alternative way, or you can use your imagination to construct new alternatives. You have to list all possible alternatives in order to make a correct and effective decision.
在收集信息的过程中，你可能会找到一些替代方法，或者你可以利用你的想象力来构建新的替代方案。您必须列出所有可能的替代方案，以便做出正确有效的决定。

Step 4: Weigh the evidence
第 4 步：权衡证据

In this step use your knowledge and emotion to imagine what it would be like if you carried out each of the alternatives to the end. As you go through this process you will begin to favor certain alternatives, those you think have higher potential to achieve your goal.
在这一步中，利用你的知识和情感来想象如果你把每一个选择都执行到最后会是什么样子。当您完成此过程时，您将开始偏爱某些替代方案，即您认为更有可能实现目标的替代方案。

After analyzing the alternatives, you can choose one or combination of alternative, you think best for you.
在分析了替代方案后，您可以选择一个或您认为最适合您的替代方案的组合。

Step 5: Take action
第 5 步：采取行动

In this step you are ready to take some positive action. You will perform the alternative you have chosen in step 4.
在此步骤中，您已准备好采取一些积极的行动。您将执行在步骤 4 中选择的备选方案。

Step 6: Review your decision
第 6 步：审查您的决定

After the decision making, consider the result of your decision and evaluate whether they meet your desired goal or not. If it has not met your target, you need to repeat those of the decision-making process.
做出决策后，考虑您的决定结果并评估它们是否达到您的预期目标。如果它没有达到您的目标，您需要重复决策过程的那些。

Skills needed for Decision-making
决策所需的技能

Decision-making is such an important skill since it requires many other vital skills in order to be a good decision-maker. Let’s take a look on those skills-
决策是一项非常重要的技能，因为它需要许多其他重要技能才能成为一名优秀的决策者。让我们来看看这些技能——

Problem-solving skill
解决问题的能力

Decision making is a type of problem where you have to decide which option is best for your goal, a good problem-solving ability will be an asset in decision making. You have to approach a decision from a logical mindset, and the solutions you come up with and your final decision must be stronger.
决策是一种你必须决定哪个选项最适合你的目标的问题，良好的解决问题的能力将是决策中的一大资产。你必须从逻辑思维方式来做决定，你提出的解决方案和你的最终决定必须更有力。

Collaboration skill
协作技能

Decisions can’t always be made perfectly by one person. You need to have a good collaboration and compromise skills to make the best decision when it involves a group decision. Even when you’re making a decision on your own, getting extra input from friends or co-workers can help you to get the best outcome.
决策并不总是由一个人完美地做出。您需要具备良好的协作和妥协技能，以便在涉及团队决策时做出最佳决策。即使您自己做出决定，从朋友或同事那里获得额外的意见也可以帮助您获得最佳结果。

Emotional intelligence
情商

Emotional intelligence is the ability to observe and understand your own emotions and the emotions of your collaboration partner. Being able to take emotional intelligence into account will make you a better decision-maker.
情商是观察和理解自己和合作伙伴情绪的能力。能够考虑情商将使您成为更好的决策者。

Logical reasoning
逻辑推理

This skill is key for the middle steps of the decision-making process when you have to analyze and evaluate all information and available option by logic. This skill is closely related to reasoning, the side of decision-making that relies on facts and figures instead of using emotions.
当您必须通过逻辑分析和评估所有信息和可用选项时，这项技能对于决策过程的中间步骤至关重要。这项技能与推理密切相关，推理是决策依赖于事实和数据而不是使用情感的一面。

Time management
时间管理

To make your decisions in a timely manner is not just about making a quick decision. Managing your time to properly work through the consecutive steps is a skill, and that will put you above everyone else.
及时做出决定不仅仅是快速做出决定。管理你的时间以正确完成连续的步骤是一种技能，这将使你高于其他人。

Leadership skill
领导技能

When collaborating or making a group decision, someone needs to take charge of that outcome and make sure the decision is implemented, where a good leadership skill is required.
在合作或做出团队决策时，需要有人负责该结果并确保决策得到实施，这需要良好的领导技能。

Ethics
伦理学

During the decision making make sure your decision should not have a bad effect to any one or on the environment. Making ethical decisions is a necessary skill to have.
在决策过程中，请确保您的决定不会对任何人或环境产生不良影响。做出道德决定是一项必要的技能。

Research and analysis
研究和分析

Through better research, you can gather more information about the decision. Having strong analytical skills will help you ensure that your decisions are logical and reasonable for your desired goals.
通过更好的研究，您可以收集有关该决定的更多信息。拥有强大的分析技能将帮助您确保您的决定对您的预期目标是合乎逻辑且合理的。

Flexibility
灵活性

Flexibility is an important skill to have to be a better decision maker, because sometime you have to compromise or adjust your decision whenever a better decision pop up.
灵活性是成为更好的决策者的一项重要技能，因为有时每当出现更好的决定时，您都必须妥协或调整您的决定。

Decision Making Examples
决策示例

Let’s take some real world examples of decision making.
让我们看一些现实世界的决策示例。

Choosing a name for a new product. In this case, you have to analyze all offers and choose which one is meeting your expectations. You need to discuss with your team and decide a name most suited for the product.
为新产品选择名称。在这种情况下，您必须分析所有优惠并选择符合您期望的优惠。您需要与您的团队讨论并决定最适合该产品的名称。

Comparing different candidates for a job opening or promotion. Evaluation and analytical skills will help you to find out the best candidate depending on the job description and the qualifications of the candidate.
比较职位空缺或晋升的不同候选人。评估和分析技能将帮助您根据职位描述和候选人的资格找到最佳候选人。

Deciding how much bonuses will be given for the year. Strong analytical, financial, and reasoning skills are necessary to make a decision like this.
决定当年将发放多少奖金。做出这样的决定需要强大的分析、财务和推理技能。

Q: Strategic decisions need analysis and in-depth study. True or False?
Q： 战略决策需要分析和深入研究。对还是错？

Ans: This statement is True. A strategic decision is taken by top-level managers after a lot of analysis, study, and fact-finding. This is because such decisions will affect the entire functioning of the organization and are very crucial and significant in nature.
答： 这种说法是真的。战略决策是由高层管理人员在经过大量分析、研究和事实调查后做出的。这是因为此类决策将影响组织的整个运作，并且在本质上非常关键和重要。

Topic 4. Strategic management
主题 4.战略管理

What Is Strategic Management?
什么是战略管理？

Strategic management is the management of an organization’s resources to achieve its goals and objectives. Strategic management is the process of setting specific goals, procedures, and objectives in order to make a company or organization more competitive. In fact, this is the ongoing process of setting an organization's high-level goals, developing plans of action, and effectively allocating resources to execute those plans. Typically, strategic management looks at effectively deploying staff and resources to achieve these goals. Often, strategic management includes strategy evaluation, internal organization analysis, and strategy execution throughout the company.
战略管理是对组织资源进行管理以实现其目标和目的。战略管理是设定特定目标、程序和目的以使公司或组织更具竞争力的过程。事实上，这是设定组织的高层次目标、制定行动计划以及有效分配资源以执行这些计划的持续过程。通常，战略管理着眼于有效地部署员工和资源以实现这些目标。通常，战略管理包括整个公司的战略评估、内部组织分析和战略执行。

Strategic management involves setting objectives, analyzing the competitive environment, analyzing the internal organization, evaluating strategies, and ensuring that management rolls out the strategies across the organization.
战略管理涉及设定目标、分析竞争环境、分析内部组织、评估战略以及确保管理层在整个组织中推出战略。

Changes in business environments will require organizations to constantly assess their strategies for success. The strategic management process helps organizations take stock of their present situation, deploy new strategies and analyze the effectiveness of the implemented management strategies.
商业环境的变化将要求组织不断评估其成功战略。战略管理流程帮助组织评估其现状，部署新战略并分析已实施的管理战略的有效性。

KEY TAKEAWAYS
关键要点

Companies, universities, nonprofits, and other organizations can use strategic management as a way to make goals and meet objectives.
公司、大学、非营利组织和其他组织可以使用战略管理作为制定目标和实现目标的一种方式。

Flexible companies may find it easier to make changes to their structure and plans, while inflexible companies may irritate at a changing environment.
灵活的公司可能会发现更容易改变他们的结构和计划，而不灵活的公司可能会对不断变化的环境感到恼火。

A strategic manager may oversee strategic management plans and devise ways for organizations to meet their benchmark goals.
战略经理可以监督战略管理计划并为组织设计实现其基准目标的方法。

What are the benefits of strategic management?
战略管理有什么好处？

Strategic management is generally thought to have financial and nonfinancial benefits. A strategic management process helps an organization and its leadership to think about and plan for its future existence, fulfilling a chief responsibility of a board of directors. Strategic management sets a direction for the organization and its employees. Unlike once-and-done strategic plans, effective strategic management continuously plans, monitors and tests an organization's activities, resulting in greater operational efficiency, market share and profitability.
战略管理通常被认为具有财务和非财务利益。战略管理流程帮助组织及其领导层思考和规划其未来存在，履行董事会的主要职责。战略管理为组织及其员工设定了方向。与一劳永逸的战略计划不同，有效的战略管理会持续规划、监控和测试组织的活动，从而提高运营效率、市场份额和盈利能力。

Strategic management concepts
战略管理理念

Strategic management is based around an organization's clear understanding of its mission; its vision for where it wants to be in the future; and the values that will guide its actions. The process requires a commitment to strategic planning, a subset of business management that involves an organization's ability to set both short- and long-term goals. Strategic planning also includes the planning of strategic decisions, activities and resource allocation needed to achieve those goals.
战略管理基于组织对其使命的清晰理解;它对未来的愿景;以及将指导其行动的价值观。该过程需要致力于战略规划，战略规划是业务管理的一个子集，涉及组织设定短期和长期目标的能力。战略规划还包括实现这些目标所需的战略决策、活动和资源分配的规划。

Having a defined process for managing an institution's strategies will help organizations make logical decisions and develop new goals quickly in order to keep pace with evolving technology, market and business conditions. Strategic management can help an organization gain competitive advantage, improve market share and plan for its future.
拥有明确的机构战略管理流程将有助于组织做出合乎逻辑的决策并快速制定新目标，以跟上不断发展的技术、市场和商业条件。战略管理可以帮助组织获得竞争优势、提高市场份额并规划其未来。

Understanding Strategic Management
了解战略管理

Strategic management is divided into several schools of thought. A prescriptive approach to strategic management outlines how strategies should be developed, while a descriptive approach focuses on how strategies should be put into practice. These schools differ on whether strategies are developed through an analytic process, in which all threats and opportunities are accounted for, or are more like general guiding principles to be applied.
战略管理分为几个思想流派。战略管理的规定性方法概述了应如何制定战略，而描述性方法侧重于应如何将战略付诸实践。这些学派在战略是通过分析过程制定的方面存在分歧，在这个过程中，所有威胁和机会都被考虑在内，或者更像是要应用的一般指导原则。

Business culture, the skills and cOmpetencies of employees, and organizational structure are all important factors that influence how an organization can achieve its stated objectives. Inflexible companies may find it difficult to succeed in a changing business environment. Creating a barrier between the development of strategies and their implementation can make it difficult for managers to determine whether objectives have been efficiently met.
企业文化、员工的技能和能力以及组织结构都是影响组织如何实现其既定目标的重要因素。不灵活的公司可能会发现在不断变化的商业环境中很难取得成功。在战略制定和实施之间设置障碍会使管理人员难以确定目标是否已有效实现。

While an organization’s upper management is ultimately responsible for its strategy, the strategies are often sparked by actions and ideas from lower-level managers and employees. An organization may have several employees devoted to strategy, rather than relying on the chief executive officer (CEO) for guidance.
虽然组织的高层管理人员最终对其战略负责，但这些战略通常是由较低级别的经理和员工的行动和想法引发的。一个组织可能有几名员工致力于战略，而不是依赖首席执行官 （CEO） 的指导。

Because of this reality, organizational leaders focus on learning from past strategies and examining the environment at large. The collective knowledge is then used to develop future strategies and to guide the behavior of employees to ensure that the entire organization is moving forward. For these reasons, effective strategic management requires both an inward and outward perspective.
由于这一现实，组织领导者专注于从过去的策略中学习并检查整个环境。然后，集体知识用于制定未来战略并指导员工的行为，以确保整个组织向前发展。由于这些原因，有效的战略管理需要内向和外向的视角。

IMPORTANT: Strategic management extends to internal and external communication practices as well as to tracking, which ensures that the company meets goals as defined in its strategic management plan.
重要提示：战略管理延伸到内部和外部沟通实践以及跟踪，这可确保公司实现其战略管理计划中定义的目标。

The Advantages of Strategic Management
战略管理的优势

Discharges Board Responsibility.
履行董事会责任。

Forces an Objective Assessment.
强制进行客观评估。

Provides a Framework for Decision-Making.
提供决策框架。

Supports Understanding & Buy-In.
支持理解和认同。

Enables Measurement of Progress.
启用进度测量。

Provides an Organizational Perspective.
提供组织视角。

The Disadvantages of Strategic Management
战略管理的缺点

The Future Doesn't Unfold as Anticipated.
未来并不像预期的那样展开。

It Can Be Expensive.
它可能很昂贵。

Long Term Benefit vs. Immediate Results
长期效益与立竿见影的效果

Impedes Flexibility
阻碍灵活性

Like any process or tool, there are both advantages and disadvantages to a strategic management process. Unfortunately, many of the disadvantages are because of inappropriate application (often by poor consultants) as opposed to inherent limitations. As with any tool or process, the client has the final responsibility to ensure that the strategic management process is appropriate for specific needs.
与任何流程或工具一样，战略管理流程既有优点也有缺点。不幸的是，许多缺点是由于不适当的应用（通常由糟糕的顾问提供），而不是固有的限制。与任何工具或流程一样，客户最终有责任确保战略管理流程适合特定需求。

Stages of Strategic Management
战略管理阶段

The strategic-management process consists of three stages: strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and strategy evaluation. Strategy formulation includes developing a vision and a mission, identifying an organization’s external opportunities and threats, determining internal strengths and weaknesses, establishing long-term objectives, generating alternative strategies, and choosing particular strategies to pursue. Strategy-formulation issues include deciding what new businesses to enter, what businesses to abandon, whether to expand operations or diversify, whether to enter international markets, whether to merge or form a joint venture, and how to avoid a hostile takeover.
战略管理过程包括三个阶段：战略制定、战略实施和战略评估。战略制定包括制定愿景和使命、识别组织的外部机会和威胁、确定内部优势和劣势、建立长期目标、制定替代战略以及选择要追求的特定战略。战略制定问题包括决定进入哪些新业务、放弃哪些业务、是否扩大业务或多元化、是否进入国际市场、是否合并或组建合资企业，以及如何避免敌意收购。

The 5 Phases of Strategic Management
战略管理的 5 个阶段

There are many schools of thought on how to do strategic management, and academics and managers have developed numerous frameworks to guide the strategic management process. In general, strategic management involves managing an organization's resources, analyzing internal and external forces, and developing strategies to realize goals and objectives. There are five key phases that can help businesses execute their strategies:
关于如何进行战略管理，有许多思想流派，学者和管理者已经开发了许多框架来指导战略管理过程。一般来说，战略管理涉及管理组织的资源、分析内部和外部力量以及制定实现目标和目的的战略。有五个关键阶段可以帮助企业执行其战略：

1. Assessing the organization's current strategic direction.
1. 评估组织当前的战略方向。

An organization must first establish clear, realistic goals. Its goals should answer what the company wants to achieve and why. Once set, the company can then identify the objectives, or how the goals will be reached. During this phase, the company can articulate its vision and long and short-term goals.
组织必须首先建立清晰、现实的目标。它的目标应该回答公司想要实现的目标和原因。一旦设定，公司就可以确定目标或如何实现目标。在此阶段，公司可以阐明其愿景以及长期和短期目标。

2. Identifying and analyzing internal and external strengths and weaknesses.
2. 识别和分析内部和外部的优势和劣势。

Organizations must then be able to examine, understand, and codify what internal and external forces affect their business and goals, as well as what it needs to remain competitive. Analytical tools, such as SWOT analysis, are helpful during this phase. (SWOT analysis (or SWOT matrix) is a strategic planning and strategic management technique used to help a person or organization identify Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats related to business competition or project planning. It is sometimes called situational assessment or situational analysis).
然后，组织必须能够检查、理解和编纂影响其业务和目标的内部和外部力量，以及保持竞争力所需的因素。在此阶段，SWOT 分析等分析工具会有所帮助。（SWOT 分析（或 SWOT 矩阵）是一种战略规划和战略管理技术，用于帮助个人或组织识别与商业竞争或项目规划相关的优势、劣势、机会、威胁。它有时被称为情境评估或情境分析）。

3. Formulating action plans.
3. 制定行动计划。

Based on the results of the analysis, the company can then develop its strategy, outlining how the company will achieve its goals and how. In this phase, the company will identify the needed people, technology, and other resources; how these resources will be allocated to fulfill tasks, and what performance metrics are needed to measure success. It is also critical to gain buy-in from stakeholders and business leaders.
根据分析结果，公司可以制定其战略，概述公司将如何实现其目标以及如何实现。在此阶段，公司将确定所需的人员、技术和其他资源;如何分配这些资源来完成任务，以及需要哪些性能指标来衡量成功。获得利益相关者和商业领袖的支持也很重要。

4. Executing action plans.
4. 执行行动计划。

Once the strategies are defined, it is time for execution. The strategy is taken from planning to implementation. During this phase, the allocated resources are placed into action based on their roles and responsibilities.
一旦定义了策略，就该执行了。该策略从规划到实施。在此阶段，分配的资源将根据其角色和职责投入使用。

5. Evaluating to what degree action plans have been successful and making changes when desired results are not being produced.
5. 评估行动计划的成功程度，并在没有产生预期结果时做出改变。

The final stage of strategic management is to evaluate the effectiveness of implemented strategies using defined metrics. The company will also visit whether ineffective strategies should be replaced with more viable ones. The company should continue to monitor the business landscape and internal operations, as well as maintain strategies that have proven effective.
战略管理的最后阶段是使用定义的指标评估已实施战略的有效性。该公司还将研究是否应该用更可行的策略来取代无效的策略。公司应继续监控业务环境和内部运营，并维护已被证明有效的策略。

Effective communication, data collection and organizational culture also play an important part in the strategic management process -- especially at large, complex companies. Lack of communication and a negative corporate culture can result in a misalignment of the organization's strategic management plan and the activities undertaken by its various business units and departments. Thus, strategy management includes analyzing cross-functional business decisions prior to implementing them to ensure they are aligned with strategic plans.
有效的沟通、数据收集和组织文化在战略管理过程中也起着重要作用，尤其是在大型复杂公司中。缺乏沟通和消极的企业文化会导致组织的战略管理计划与其各个业务部门和部门所开展的活动不一致。因此，战略管理包括在实施跨职能业务决策之前对其进行分析，以确保它们与战略计划保持一致。

Types of strategic management strategies
战略管理战略的类型

The types of strategic management strategies have changed over time. The modern discipline of strategic management traces its roots to the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent thinkers in the field include Peter Drucker, sometimes referred to as the founding father of management studies. Among his contributions was the idea that the purpose of a business is to create a customer, and what the customer wants determines what a business is. Management's main job is marshalling the resources and enabling employees to efficiently address customers' needs and preferences.
战略管理战略的类型随着时间的推移而变化。现代战略管理学科可以追溯到 1950 年代和 1960 年代。该领域的杰出思想家包括彼得·德鲁克，有时被称为管理学之父。他的贡献之一是这样一个想法，即企业的目的是创造客户，而客户想要什么决定了企业是什么。管理层的主要工作是整合资源，使员工能够有效地满足客户的需求和偏好。

In the 1980s, a Harvard Business School professor called Theodore Levitt, developed a different strategy with a focus on the customer. This strategy was different from the previous emphasis on production - that's, creating a product of high quality ensured success.
在 1980 年代，哈佛商学院的一位名叫 Theodore Levitt 的教授开发了一种以客户为中心的不同策略。这种策略与以前强调生产不同 - 也就是说，创造高质量的产品可以确保成功。

Distinctive competence, a term introduced in 1957 by sociology and law scholar Philip Selznick, focused on the idea of core competencies and competitive advantage in strategic management theory. This enabled the creation of frameworks for assessing the strengths and weaknesses of an organization in relation to the threats and opportunities in its external environment.
独特能力是社会学和法学者菲利普·塞尔兹尼克 （Philip Selznick） 于 1957 年提出的一个术语，侧重于战略管理理论中的核心竞争力和竞争优势的概念。这使得能够创建框架来评估组织与其外部环境中的威胁和机遇相关的优势和劣势。

What Are the Key Elements of Strategic Management?
战略管理的关键要素是什么？

Strategic management is not a one-size-fits-all strategy. However, there are key elements that are found to be critical. These include goal setting, industry and organizational analyses, strategy formation, strategy implementation; and the measurement, monitoring, and controlling of strategies. The strategic management process can be seen as:
战略管理不是一个放之四海而皆准的策略。但是，有一些关键要素被发现是关键的。这些包括目标设定、行业和组织分析、战略制定、战略实施;以及策略的测量、监控和控制。战略管理流程可以看作是：

1.Basic goals, values, mission, vision
1.基本目标、价值观、使命、愿景

2.Strategic analysis
2.战略分析

3.Development of strategic plan
3.制定战略规划

4.Support by operative Instruments
4.手术器械支持

5.Strategy controlling
5.策略控制

Feedbacks of the strategic management process: 1 = directive or guiding principles; 2 = vision placed in a context of a SWOT analysis;3 = specific objectives and plans for achieving them; 4 = activities in aid of implementation; 5 = indicators of success. The process is cyclical and allows for continuous evaluation.
战略管理过程的反馈： 1 = 指导性或指导原则;2 = 将愿景置于 SWOT 分析的上下文中;3 = 实现这些目标的具体目标和计划;4 = 协助实施的活动;5 = 成功的指标。该过程是周期性的，允许持续评估。

Why Is Strategic Management Important?
为什么战略管理很重要？

Helping their company find ways to be more competitive is the purpose of strategic management. To that end, putting strategic management plans into practice is the most important aspect of the planning itself. Plans in practice involve identifying benchmarks, realigning resources—financial and human—and putting leadership resources in place to oversee the creation, sale, and deployment of products and services.
帮助他们的公司找到更具竞争力的方法，是战略管理的目的。为此，将战略管理计划付诸实践是规划本身最重要的方面。实践中的计划包括确定基准、重新调整资源（财务和人力）以及将领导资源部署到位，以监督产品和服务的创建、销售和部署。

In business, strategic management is important because it allows a company to analyze areas for operational improvement. In many cases, they can follow either an analytical process, which identifies potential threats and opportunities, or simply follow general guidelines. Given the structure of the organization, a company may choose to follow either a prescriptive or descriptive approach to strategic management. Under a prescriptive model, strategies are outlined for development and execution. By contrast, a descriptive approach describes how a company can develop these strategies.
在商业中，战略管理很重要，因为它允许公司分析运营改进的领域。在许多情况下，他们可以遵循识别潜在威胁和机会的分析过程，或者只遵循一般准则。鉴于组织的结构，公司可以选择遵循规范性或描述性的战略管理方法。在规范性模型下，概述了开发和执行的策略。相比之下，描述性方法描述了公司如何制定这些战略。

Value of organizational culture
组织文化的价值

Organizational culture can determine the success and failure of a business and is a key component that strategic leaders must consider in the strategic management process. Culture is a major factor in the way people and organizations outline objectives, Execute tasks and organize resources. A strong organizational culture will make it easier for leaders and managers to motivate employees to execute their tasks in alignment with the outlined strategies. At organizations where lower-level managers and employees are expected to be involved in the decision-making and strategy, the strategic management process should enable them to do so.
组织文化可以决定企业的成败，是战略领导者在战略管理过程中必须考虑的关键组成部分。文化是人们和组织概述目标、执行任务和组织资源方式的主要因素。强大的组织文化将使领导者和管理者更容易激励员工按照概述的战略执行他们的任务。在希望较低级别的经理和员工参与决策和战略的组织中，战略管理流程应该使他们能够这样做。

It is important to create strategies that are suitable for the organization's culture. If a particular strategy does not match the organization's culture, it will hinder the ability to accomplish the strategy's intended outcomes.
制定适合组织文化的策略很重要。如果特定策略与组织的文化不匹配，它将阻碍实现策略预期结果的能力。

What Is an Example of Strategic Management?
战略管理的例子是什么？

Consider a large company that wants to achieve more ambitious online sales rates. To meet these goals, the company will develop a strategy, communicate this strategy, apply it across various units and departments in the organization, integrate this with employee goals, and execute accordingly. If an effective strategy is applied, ideally, it will help the company achieve its targets through a single, coordinated process.
考虑一家希望实现更雄心勃勃的在线销售率的大公司。为了实现这些目标，公司将制定战略，传达该战略，将其应用于组织的各个部门和部门，将其与员工目标相结合，并相应地执行。理想情况下，如果采用有效的策略，它将帮助公司通过单一、协调的流程实现其目标。

The Bottom Line
底线

Strategic management is the assembling and management of resources to achieve a company's goals and objectives. Although it is often segmented into either prescriptive or descriptive schools of thought, many businesses subscribe to a combined philosophy, defining how a strategy should be developed and how the strategies will be employed. Strategic management helps companies set goals, gain a competitive edge, better manage their resources, and more. There is not one prescription for all. Companies must create and adapt a strategic management process that works best for their company and those they serve. Strategic management does not end with the successful implementation of strategies; it continues for the life of the business.
战略管理是为了实现公司的目标和目的而聚集和管理资源。尽管它通常分为规定性或描述性思想流派，但许多企业都信奉一种组合哲学，定义应该如何制定战略以及如何采用这些战略。战略管理可帮助公司设定目标、获得竞争优势、更好地管理资源等。没有一种药方可以解决所有问题。公司必须制定和调整最适合其公司及其服务对象的战略管理流程。战略管理并不以战略的成功实施而结束;它会在业务的整个生命周期内持续存在。

Strategic Management of Educational Institutions
教育机构的战略管理

Looking at today’s environment, universities must realize, that the old days are gone and never will come back. They now live in a completely different world with different requirements.
看看今天的环境，大学必须意识到，过去的日子已经一去不复返了，永远不会回来。他们现在生活在一个完全不同的世界里，有着不同的要求。

A first predominant observation is that, almost everywhere in the world, governments are increasingly unable to take up the full bill for Higher Education: in relation to other priorities, modern universities have indeed become too expensive to be funded only with public money. Moreover, governments are not only unable but also unwilling to do so for the simple reason that in the knowledge society of today, a broad range of university products carry considerable benefits for those who have acquired them. Who profits from it, should pay at least part of the cost. As a consequence, universities have become “hybrid” institutions: semi-public and semi-private.
第一个主要观察结果是，几乎在世界任何地方，政府都越来越无法承担高等教育的全部账单：就其他优先事项而言，现代大学确实变得太昂贵了，无法仅靠公共资金来资助。此外，政府不仅不能而且不愿意这样做，原因很简单，在当今的知识社会中，各种各样的大学产品为获得它们的人带来了相当大的好处。谁从中获利，至少应该支付部分成本。因此，大学已经变成了“混合”机构：半公立和半私立。

Universities face the challenge of a real science explosion. Today, knowledge is simply too vast to master. For their teaching approach it means a compelling switch from teaching to individual learning and, from knowledge accumulation to acquiring skills in handling information. More important, it also means that any single university, be it Harvard or Oxford, is too small to do everything on its own. They either have to be selective in what to do and what not. Because knowledge has become so important for society, governments, business and individuals, all these “stakeholders” keep a critical eye on what universities do and how they do it. They require accountability not only about the use of their resources, but also and even more about the quality of their products and the relevance of their activities.
大学面临着真正的科学爆炸的挑战。今天，知识实在是太庞大了，无法掌握。对于他们的教学方法来说，这意味着从教学到个人学习，从知识积累到获得处理信息的技能。更重要的是，这也意味着任何一所大学，无论是哈佛还是牛津，都太小了，无法独自完成所有事情。他们要么必须有选择性地选择做什么，不做什么。由于知识对社会、政府、企业和个人来说已经变得如此重要，所有这些“利益相关者”都对大学做什么以及如何做都持批判性的关注。他们不仅需要对资源的使用负责，而且更需要对产品质量和活动的相关性负责。

As for management in education it is worth to investigate methodological approaches of strategic management in higher education system of such the authors as Peter Drucker, Igor Ansoff, Karel Tavernier, Barbara Sporn.
至于教育管理，值得研究彼得·德鲁克、伊戈尔·安索夫、卡雷尔·塔维尼耶、芭芭拉·斯波恩等作者的高等教育系统战略管理方法。

Since the institutions of higher education have their own specifics, their strategic management mechanism should be based on its own methodOlogy and should differ from the methodology of strategic management of commercial organization. Conclusion noted that the strategic management is a risky management, and in the case of its implementation at the university level, the risk of social consequences of the risks, associated with the employment of personnel, is increasing.
由于高等教育机构有自己的特点，其战略管理机制应基于自己的方法论，并应不同于商业组织的战略管理方法。结论指出，战略管理是一种风险管理，在大学层面实施的情况下，与人员雇用相关的风险的社会后果风险正在增加。

Strategic management is becoming the one of the most promising management mechanisms of higher education development in conditions, where universities are faced with new opportunities and new risks, arising due to globalization, the increasing role of human factor. Today, many universities, both large and small, begun to prepare their own development strategies, reflecting the vision of the university development prospects.
战略管理正在成为高等教育发展最有前途的管理机制之一，因为全球化、人为因素的作用越来越大，大学面临着新的机遇和新的风险。今天，许多大大小小的大学都开始准备自己的发展战略，反映了大学发展前景的愿景。

The management of higher education becomes the independent field of studies, and strategic management is a separate and completely independent direction. There are an increasing number of works in the West, the authors of which try to comprehend the classical heritage of strategic management in relation to specific area of university management. However, despite the active discussion, many theoretical and methodological aspects of the problem are still waiting for their solutions.
高等教育的管理成为独立的研究领域，战略管理是一个独立且完全独立的方向。西方有越来越多的著作，其作者试图理解与大学管理的特定领域相关的战略管理的经典遗产。然而，尽管进行了积极的讨论，但该问题的许多理论和方法论方面仍在等待他们的解决方案。

There are several lessons about strategic management:
关于战略管理，有几点经验教训：

-The astonishing power of networking.
- 网络的惊人力量。

-The importance of a widely shared mission statement, firmly imbedded in the attitudes and culture of the university.
- 广泛分享的使命宣言的重要性，深深植根于大学的态度和文化中。

-The importance for a university to delegate initiative and a large part of decision making to the lower levels in the hierarchy.
- 大学将主动权和大部分决策权委托给层次结构中的较低级别的重要性。

-The need to combine this delegation with a stronger steering core, be it of a certain type.
- 需要将这种授权与更强大的转向核心相结合，无论是某种类型的。

-The importance of choosing the most appropriate model or framework for strategic management.
– 选择最合适的战略管理模型或框架的重要性。

Strategic management is difficult to describe in the framework of a single concept or paradigm. Consider some of the approaches to strategic management.
战略管理很难用单一概念或范式的框架来描述。考虑一些战略管理方法。

The guru of American management A. Chandler was among the first to give the idea of strategy to the management theory. In 1962 he formulated the following principle: "The strategy defines the structure", and this means the priority of the strategy before the structure.
美国管理大师 A. Chandler 是最早将战略思想纳入管理理论的人之一。1962 年，他制定了以下原则：“战略决定结构”，这意味着战略的优先权优先于结构。

For developing universities strategy, the ideas of I. Ansoff have exceptional value, because he formulated the main principle of the strategy: it is focused on the external environment of the organization; the analysis and interpretation of the organizational environment is the key to its strategic success.
对于发展大学战略，I. Ansoff 的思想具有非凡的价值，因为他制定了该战略的主要原则：它侧重于组织的外部环境;对组织环境的分析和解释是其战略成功的关键。

K. Tavernier ideas had a great influence on the development of strategic management mechanism in higher education, because he offered the most popular approach to the management of strategic changes at the Universities, associated with the SWOT-analysis. (I hope you remember this abbreviation - Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats related to business competition or project planning). He shows that there is a real possibility to explore the university and its environment in the framework of SWOT-analysis in terms of the business world: the university produces its own product, has certain resources, competes on a certain market.
K. Tavernier 的思想对高等教育战略管理机制的发展产生了很大影响，因为他提供了与 SWOT 分析相关的大学战略变革管理最流行的方法。（我希望您记得这个缩写 - 与商业竞争或项目规划相关的优势、劣势、机会、威胁）。他表明，在商业世界的 SWOT 分析框架内探索大学及其环境确实存在可能性：大学生产自己的产品，拥有一定的资源，在一定的市场上竞争。

The most important mechanism of strategic university management is a mission – this conclusion was reached by B. Sporn, the founder of the open systems theory in management science and conductor of a systematic approach to strategic management in higher education sphere. On the basis of qualitative empirical researches, B. Sporn showed that the effectiveness of strategic management depends on the ability of the University to define precisely its mission.
大学战略管理最重要的机制是使命——这一结论是由 B. Sporn 得出的，他是管理科学开放系统理论的创始人，也是高等教育领域战略管理系统方法的指挥者。在定性实证研究的基础上，B. Sporn 表明，战略管理的有效性取决于大学准确定义其使命的能力。

Successful implementation of the strategy depends on radical changes in all components of the university, concentrated work of the entire team for coordination of these changes, and focus the efforts on the achievement settled strategic goals.
该战略的成功实施取决于大学所有组成部分的根本性变革，整个团队集中精力协调这些变革，并将精力集中在实现既定的战略目标上。

Strategic management of educational institutions enables the transformation of institutions to practice educational innovations. Strategic Management in a complex knowledge is a challenging task in all perspectives, as it is essential for educational institutions success. Education is the most powerful weapon we can use to change the world.
教育机构的战略管理使机构能够转型为实践教育创新。从各个角度来看，复杂知识中的战略管理都是一项具有挑战性的任务，因为它对教育机构的成功至关重要。教育是我们可以用来改变世界的最有力武器。

Students demand instant knowledge like instant food. They prefer shortcuts to hard work and sacrifice. This puts tremendous pressure on the teacher whose role is to be collaborator rather than a boss.
学生需要即时知识，就像速食一样。他们更喜欢走捷径，而不是努力工作和牺牲。这给老师带来了巨大的压力，他们的角色是合作者而不是老板。

When strategic management is being formulated the following questions are to be thought about.
在制定战略管理时，需要考虑以下问题。

1. Where are we now?
1. 我们现在在哪里？

2. Where do we want to go?
2. 我们想去哪里？

3. How do we get there?
3. 我们如何实现？

Once the answers to these questions are brainstormed, the pattern for strategic management process involves organization analysis as in its strength and weakness, analysis of opportunity and threats. The other factors involving strategic management will be the use of strategic options arising due to strategic decisions, operationalization and implementation, these will aid for smooth strategic controlling of the issues which are to be considered in solutions required. Strategic decisions are the important decisions. These are usually taken by upper and middle-level management. They usually relate to the policies of the educational organizations or the strategic plan for the future. Hence such decisions require analysis and careful study. Because strategic decisions taken at this level will affect the routine decisions taken daily.
一旦集思广益了这些问题的答案，战略管理过程的模式就涉及组织分析及其优势和劣势、机会和威胁分析。涉及战略管理的其他因素将是因战略决策、实施和实施而产生的战略选项的使用，这些将有助于对所需解决方案中要考虑的问题进行顺利的战略控制。战略决策是重要的决策。这些通常由上层和中层管理人员担任。它们通常与教育组织的政策或未来的战略计划有关。因此，这样的决定需要分析和仔细研究。因为在这个级别做出的战略决策会影响每天做出的日常决策。

DEVELOPING A STRATEGIC VISION
制定战略愿景

First Task of Strategic Management: This involves thinking strategically about:
战略管理的首要任务： 这涉及战略性思考：

1. Institute’s future plans
1. 研究所的未来计划

2. Where to “go” to acquire ACHIEVEMENT
2. 从哪里“去”获得成就

The tasks include: 1. Creating a roadmap of the future and laying out groundwork for fixed outcome 2. Deciding future position to stake out and having a broader perspective 3. Providing long-term direction 4. Giving the institute a strong identity by means of modern and social media projection.
任务包括： 1. 制定未来路线图并为固定结果奠定基础 2.决定未来的放样位置并拥有更广阔的视野 3.提供长期方向 4.通过现代和社交媒体投射赋予研究所强大的身份。

Second Task of Strategic Management Strategic Objectives:
战略管理战略目标的第二项任务：

● When formulating strategic objectives outcomes focused on improving long-term, competitive position in terms of education innovation are considered.
● 在制定战略目标时，要考虑侧重于提高教育创新方面的长期竞争地位的结果。

Financial Objectives:
财务目标：

● This objective is an important outcome focused on improving financial performance providing freedom to pursue education innovation.
● 这一目标是一项重要的成果，侧重于改善财务业绩，为追求教育创新提供自由。

Third Task of Strategic Management:
战略管理的第三项任务：

The task of strategy involves determining whether to concentrate on a single program or several programs (diversification). This aids to cater to a wider range of students or focus on a particular niche (local students). The decision is whether to develop a wide or narrow program line. It is ideal to pursue a competitive advantage- based on low fees, scholarships, program superiority. The task of crafting unique organizational capabilities will further help in shedding light to various aspects of the institution’s progress.
战略的任务包括确定是专注于单个项目还是多个项目（多元化）。这有助于迎合更广泛的学生或专注于特定的细分市场（本地学生）。决定是开发宽节目线还是窄节目线。追求竞争优势是理想的——基于低费用、奖学金、项目优势。打造独特组织能力的任务将进一步有助于阐明该机构进步的各个方面。

Fourth Task of Strategic Management:
战略管理的第四项任务：

Management decisions regarding implementing actions to put a freshly-chosen strategy into place and supervising the ongoing pursuit of that strategy. Executing of the new strategy to improve the competence and efficiency in implementation of decisions, meanwhile showing measurable progress in achieving the targeted results and objectives are essential. This process includes monitoring, evaluating and taking corrective actions as needed.
关于实施行动以实施新选择的战略并监督该战略的持续追求的管理决策。执行新战略以提高执行决策的能力和效率，同时在实现目标和目标方面取得可衡量的进展至关重要。此过程包括监控、评估和根据需要采取纠正措施。

Fifth Task of Strategic Management:
战略管理第五项任务：

The tasks of crafting, implementing, and executing a strategy are not a one-time exercise. This has to be a consistent and involves constant effort in bringing out the desired outcome. The factors to be considered are as follows:
制定、实施和执行策略的任务不是一次性的练习。这必须是一致的，并且需要不断努力以达到预期的结果。需要考虑的因素如下：

1. Student expectations change with time, so strategy needs to be flexible.
1. 学生的期望会随着时间的推移而变化，因此策略需要灵活。

2. New management team with different ideas take over and that will produce new and efficient outcomes.
2. 具有不同想法的新管理团队接管，这将产生新的高效结果。

3. Strategy to deal with International environment changes towards global educational and employment opportunities.
3. 应对国际环境变化的战略，以实现全球教育和就业机会。

4. Approaches to solve Government bodies’ policies change overtime for smooth and efficient running of the institute in a global context. The personnel involved in performing these five strategic management tasks are as follows: The top Management, Principal/Director, Departmental heads.
4. 解决政府机构政策的方法会随着时间的推移而变化，以便研究所在全球范围内顺利高效地运行。参与执行这五项战略管理任务的人员如下：最高管理层、校长/总监、部门负责人。

Careful policy making and planning strategic management of educational institutions are required to enable the establishment of new centers and TEACHER WORKROOMS.
需要仔细制定政策并规划教育机构的战略管理，以便建立新的中心和教师工作室。

Convenient places must be provided for teacher’s research, collaborative work, and student meetings that treat teachers like the professionals with online information access facilities.
必须为教师的研究、协作工作和学生会议提供便利的场所，将教师视为具有在线信息访问设施的专业人士。

A Place to Think - Students have to be provided places and facilities where they can enjoy a moment of solitude, where they will be alone.
思考的地方 - 必须为学生提供可以享受片刻独处的地方和设施，在那里他们将独处。

Student profiling - Profiling is like unraveling knots, in which the student's personality is studied and ideal courses are suggested at the time of entry into higher education: define strengths and weaknesses to improve in.
学生分析 - 分析就像解开结，在其中研究学生的个性，并在进入高等教育时建议理想的课程：定义要改进的优势和劣势。

Strategic management is to improve teaching learning and student’s performance and thereby careers of students will be built step by step. Even Rousseau in the era of Enlightenment derived the notion of a NATURE education, an education based on the development of the student’s natural abilities. Such education system in which the teacher follows the student where his activity is primarily to educate is essential. Only such an education can enable transformation into a full-fledged personality.
战略管理是为了改善教学学习和学生的表现，从而逐步建立学生的职业生涯。即使是启蒙时代的卢梭也衍生出自然教育的概念，一种基于学生自然能力发展的教育。这种教师跟随学生的教育系统是必不可少的，他的活动主要是教育。只有这样的教育才能使人蜕变成一个成熟的人格。

Strategic management of universities should be oriented not only on the implementation of their cultural and economic goals, but also on fulfilling its social obligations towards the population and employees, on creation for them conditions of desired level and quality of life. Strategic management orientations are teaching and learning. It is therefore not a tool for converting universities, for instance, from sites of educating for knowledge to sites of training for occupations. From the perspective of students, they have to be aware of: what they know, how they know it, what they should know, what they do not know; to be able to connect what they know to broader social issues.
大学的战略管理不仅应着眼于实现其文化和经济目标，还应着眼于履行其对人口和员工的社会义务，为他们创造理想的生活条件和生活质量。战略管理取向是教与学。因此，它不是将大学从知识教育场所转变为职业培训场所的工具。从学生的角度来看，他们必须意识到：他们知道什么，他们如何知道，他们应该知道什么，他们不知道什么;能够将他们所知道的与更广泛的社会问题联系起来。

Institutional administrators who develop operating plans and policies for a range of aspects of institutional life have, in some cases, not been forthcoming with comparable initiatives in teaching, with the consequence that teaching and learning easily become the Achilles’ heel of institutional performance. In fact, a strategic management is an effective tool that entraps students in a teacher-spun web of learning.
在某些情况下，为机构生活的一系列方面制定运营计划和政策的机构管理人员在教学方面没有采取类似的举措，其结果是教与学很容易成为机构绩效的致命弱点。事实上，战略管理是一种有效的工具，可以将学生困在教师编织的学习网络中。

Topic FIVE. Quality and efficiency of management
话题五.管理质量和效率

Efficiency vs Effectiveness Explained
效率与有效性解释

What is the difference between effectiveness and efficiency? They are two buzzwords that are popularly used by CEOs in charting the course of their organizations. Yet, they are also commonly misused and misinterpreted, not just in the lexicon of business-speak but also in daily use. Let’s begin by defining efficiency and effectiveness in general terms, borrowing from Dictionary.com:
有效性和效率有什么区别？它们是 CEO 在规划组织发展方向时广泛使用的两个流行语。然而，它们也经常被误用和误解，不仅在商业用语的词典中，而且在日常使用中也是如此。让我们从一般性地定义效率和有效性开始，借用 Dictionary.com：

Effective (adj.) – Adequate to accomplish a purpose; producing the intended or expected result.
Effective （adj.） – 足以实现某个目的;产生预期或预期的结果。

Efficient (adj.) – Performing or functioning in the best possible manner with the least waste of time and effort.
Efficient （adj.） – 以最少的时间和精力以最佳方式执行或运作。

The difference between effectiveness and efficiency can be summed up shortly and sweetly – Being effective is about doing the right things, while being efficient is about doing things right.
有效性和效率之间的区别可以用简短而甜蜜的方法来总结——有效是做正确的事情，而高效是做正确的事情。

Doing Things Right
正确地做事

Companies usually seek to increase and improve the efficiency of their operations. After all, when working with limited resources, they would prefer to maximize the use of each of these resources. However, by pursuing efficiency at all costs, some of these companies are missing a valuable chance to take a step back and look at their overall effectiveness from a big picture perspective.
公司通常寻求提高和提高其运营效率。毕竟，当使用有限的资源时，他们更愿意最大限度地利用这些资源。然而，如果不惜一切代价追求效率，其中一些公司错过了退后一步，从大局角度看待其整体效率的宝贵机会。

The best situation for every company is to always pursue the top right box – pursuing the right goals and being efficient, by making use of technological advances, not wasting time, and having better alignment and collaboration between employees. Many companies have their hearts in the right place – they know what goals they want to achieve, but are inefficient in achieving those goals. Other companies are tightly run ships, with all employees working together, humming along and focused on the task at hand…but what if the task at hand is the wrong goal?
每家公司的最佳情况是始终追求最上面的框——追求正确的目标并提高效率，利用技术进步，不浪费时间，并在员工之间建立更好的协调和协作。许多公司都心怀揣 – 他们知道自己想要实现的目标，但在实现这些目标方面效率低下。其他公司是紧密运作的船只，所有员工一起工作，一起哼唱并专注于手头的任务......但是，如果手头的任务是错误的目标怎么办？

Is it more important for your organization to pursue effectiveness or efficiency? If you’re trying to grow aggressively and have resources to burn, optimizing effectiveness might be the way to go. However, if a smaller company has very limited resources to work with, they might be more interested in pursuing efficient operations in order to maximize their capabilities. Finding the sweet spot between effectiveness and efficiency is truly that ultimate goal for all companies.
您的组织追求有效性还是效率更重要？如果您试图积极发展并有资源可供消耗，那么优化有效性可能是要走的路。但是，如果一家较小的公司可以使用的资源非常有限，他们可能对追求高效运营以最大限度地发挥其能力更感兴趣。在有效性和效率之间找到最佳平衡点确实是所有公司的最终目标。

Efficiency and effectiveness in Quality Management System
质量管理体系的效率和有效性

When it comes to quality management, it's imperative to understand the difference between efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency — performing in the best possible way with minimal waste of time and effort. Effectiveness — performing adequately to accomplish a certain goal.
在质量管理方面，必须了解效率和有效性之间的区别。效率 — 以最佳方式执行，同时最大限度地减少时间和精力的浪费。有效性 — 为实现特定目标而表现充分。

An effective quality management system (QMS) is a system that enables a company to consistently provide products and services that meet customer and regulatory requirements. Technically speaking, a QMS is a set of coordinated activities to direct and control an organization in order to continually improve the effectiveness and efficiency of its performance. Think of it as a road map to managing your processes and activities, or a systematic way of doing business.
有效的质量管理体系 （QMS） 是使公司能够始终如一地提供满足客户和法规要求的产品和服务的体系。从技术上讲，质量管理体系是一组协调一致的活动，用于指导和控制组织，以不断提高其绩效的有效性和效率。将其视为管理流程和活动的路线图，或系统化的经营方式。

When developing a quality management system, the first (and most important) step is to define what quality means to your organization. This decision will ultimately have a great impact on the direction your QMS takes.
在制定质量管理体系时，第一步（也是最重要的）是定义质量对您的组织意味着什么。这一决定最终将对您的质量管理体系的发展方向产生重大影响。

A common method of defining quality is in the form of a quality policy statement and objectives. A quality policy statement includes an organization’s philosophy regarding the quality of its products and processes. For instance, an organization may state that customer satisfaction and timely services are its top priorities. Specific quality objectives, or goals, can then be formulated from this statement, such as achieving 100% customer satisfaction or providing services within 24 hours of a request. Measuring and tracking these goals is a great way to ensure that the organization’s QMS is effective.
定义质量的常用方法是以质量政策声明和目标的形式。质量政策声明包括组织对其产品和流程质量的理念。例如，一个组织可能会声明客户满意度和及时的服务是其首要任务。然后可以根据此声明制定具体的质量目标或目标，例如实现 100% 的客户满意度或在提出请求后 24 小时内提供服务。衡量和跟踪这些目标是确保组织 QMS 有效的好方法。

Effective quality management has become a necessity in all industries. A comprehensive QMS can often mean the difference between a company’s success and failure.
有效的质量管理已成为所有行业的必需品。全面的质量管理体系通常意味着公司成功与失败之间的区别。

The idea behind the term quality management system works very much along the lines of "what doesn't shine on the inside can't sparkle on the outside". Only if your company functions smoothly internally can you meet the requirements of your customers and other important interested parties (stakeholders). High levels of quality require that you not only correct errors in every case, but also prevent their recurrence. A consistently practiced quality management system can help you do just that.
质量管理体系一词背后的理念与“内部不光彩的东西在外表上不闪耀”非常相似。只有您的公司内部运作顺畅，您才能满足客户和其他重要利益相关方（利益相关者）的要求。高水平的质量要求您不仅要纠正每种情况下的错误，还要防止错误再次发生。始终如一的质量管理体系可以帮助您做到这一点。

A quality management system starts at different corners. Your organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources –all of these are necessary to meet the individual quality requirements in your company. By precisely defining the organizational structure and processes as well as the fulfillment of all quality tasks, you ensure that your resources and measures relating to quality can be better coordinated, planned and measured.
质量管理体系从不同的角落开始。您的组织结构、程序、流程和资源——所有这些都是满足公司个性化质量要求所必需的。通过精确定义组织结构和流程以及所有质量任务的完成，您可以确保与质量相关的资源和措施可以得到更好的协调、规划和衡量。

A professional quality management system consists of several sub-aspects:
专业的质量管理体系由几个子方面组成：

1.All activities and decisions related to quality objectives,
1.与质量目标相关的所有活动和决策，

2.All processes and resources for achieving the objectives, and
2.实现目标的所有流程和资源，以及

3.All elements and persons for controlling and managing the quality work.
3.控制和管理质量工作的所有要素和人员。

Quality management system: requirements of the standard
质量管理体系：标准的要求

The standard sets universal requirements for the quality management system:
该标准为质量管理体系设定了普遍要求：

1.Entrepreneurial success is based on the principle of continuous improvement.
1.创业的成功是基于持续改进的原则。

2.The organization needs clear quality objectives and strategies.
2.组织需要明确的质量目标和战略。

3.Processes must be transparent and efficient.
3.流程必须透明和高效。

4.Results must be measurable and documented.
4.结果必须是可衡量的并记录在案。

5.The management level is responsible for quality.
5.管理层对质量负责。

6.The entire company and its environment are the focus of attention.
6.整个公司及其环境是关注的焦点。

Quality management effectiveness is about placing the right people in the right positions of influence – at the right time, with the right equipment, tools, materials, expectations, capabilities and motivation.
质量管理的有效性是指在正确的时间，使用正确的设备、工具、材料、期望、能力和动力，将正确的人员放在正确的影响位置。

The basic steps to implementing a quality management system are as follows:
实施质量管理体系的基本步骤如下：

Design
设计

Build
建

Deploy
部署

Control
控制

Measure
量

Review
回顾

Improve
提高

Design and Build
设计和建造

The design and build portions serve to develop the structure of a QMS, its processes, and plans for implementation. Senior management should oversee this portion to ensure the needs of the organization and the needs of its customers.
设计和建造部分用于开发 QMS 的结构、流程和实施计划。高级管理层应监督这部分，以确保组织的需求及其客户的需求。

Deploy
部署

Deployment is best served in a fashion by breaking each process down into educating staff on documentation, training tools, and metrics.
部署的最佳方式是将每个流程分解为对员工进行文档、培训工具和指标方面的培训。

Control and Measure
控制和测量

Control and measurement are two areas of establishing a QMS that are largely accomplished through routine, systematic audits of the quality management system. The specifics vary greatly from organization to organization depending on size, potential risk, and environmental impact.
控制和测量是建立质量管理体系的两个领域，主要通过对质量管理体系进行例行、系统的审核来实现。具体情况因组织而异，具体取决于规模、潜在风险和环境影响。

Review and Improve
审查和改进

Review and improve detail how the results of an audit are handled. The goals are to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of each process toward its objectives, to communicate these findings to the employees, and to develop new best practices and processes based on the data collected during the audit.
查看和改进审核结果的处理方式的详细信息。目标是确定每个流程实现其目标的有效性和效率，将这些发现传达给员工，并根据审计期间收集的数据开发新的最佳实践和流程。

Although not specifically required by all quality management system standards, a quality policy statement can be thought of as the backbone of QMS. An organization should strive to ensure that its key processes are always in alignment with the quality policy and objectives.
虽然并非所有质量管理体系标准都明确要求，但质量政策声明可以被视为质量管理体系的支柱。组织应努力确保其关键流程始终与质量政策和目标保持一致。

Once defined, an effective quality management system must be maintained. The steps to maintain a quality management system include three main components:
一旦定义，就必须维护有效的质量管理体系。维护质量管理体系的步骤包括三个主要组成部分：

1.Say what you do – document key procedures, keeping the quality policy and objectives in mind.
1.说出你的工作 - 记录关键程序，牢记质量政策和目标。

2.Do what you say – perform processes in accordance with written procedures.
2.Do 你说的 – 按照书面程序执行流程。

3.Prove it – maintain records to document activities.
3.证明它 – 维护记录以记录活动。

Quality Management System in Education
教育质量管理体系

Quality management in education is a process that involves using principles and techniques to improve the quality of educational services. Quality management focuses on improving processes, products, and practices to ensure they meet or exceed customer expectations. It also seeks to create an environment where excellence is rewarded, stakeholders are engaged, and resources are used efficiently.
教育质量管理是一个涉及使用原则和技术来提高教育服务质量的过程。质量管理侧重于改进流程、产品和实践，以确保它们满足或超过客户期望。它还寻求创造一个环境，让卓越得到奖励，利益相关者参与进来，资源得到有效利用。

By having a better understanding of what quality means in education and how best to achieve it, educators can more effectively use quality management in their work as well as provide strategies for implementing it within their own organizations. As a result, they can become more successful leaders in their fields.
通过更好地了解质量在教育中的含义以及如何最好地实现它，教育工作者可以更有效地在工作中使用质量管理，并提供在自己的组织内实施质量管理的策略。因此，他们可以成为各自领域更成功的领导者。

What Is Quality Management?
什么是质量管理？

Quality is a very important element. Although cost and schedule are crucial, quality is the final thing that matters. Every project and organization has its own quality requirements. It is important for the project management principles to ensure that all the processes lead to the quality requirement of the client.
质量是一个非常重要的因素。尽管成本和进度至关重要，但质量是最后重要的事情。每个项目和组织都有自己的质量要求。项目管理原则确保所有过程都满足客户的质量要求非常重要。

Quality Management is the systematic way of monitoring and delivering a project with the expected quality requirements. It sets standards, responsibilities, procedures, and techniques that must be applied in a project in order to achieve the required quality.
质量管理是监控和交付具有预期质量要求的项目的系统方法。它设定了必须在项目中应用的标准、责任、程序和技术，以实现所需的质量。

Quality Management Strategy
质量管理战略

A Quality management strategy is prepared at the time of project initiation. It undergoes approvals in subsequent stages of the project. This is necessary to record and approve the quality expectations of a project and a plan for confirming those quality standards and techniques.
质量管理策略在项目开始时准备。它在项目的后续阶段接受批准。这对于记录和批准项目的质量期望以及确认这些质量标准和技术的计划是必要的。

An efficient quality management strategy must cover all aspects including quality assurance, independent audits, key responsibilities, and quality parameters. Everything has to be properly documented by the quality control and project management team after getting approvals.
有效的质量管理策略必须涵盖所有方面，包括质量保证、独立审计、关键责任和质量参数。获得批准后，质量控制和项目管理团队必须正确记录所有内容。

Accordingly, the following items must be present in a quality management strategy −
因此，质量管理策略中必须包含以下项目 -

Introduction − The introduction must state the purpose of the quality management strategy, the scopes, and objectives, project details, key quality parameters to be followed, roles and responsibilities, etc.
引言 − 引言必须说明质量管理策略的目的、范围和目标、项目细节、要遵循的关键质量参数、角色和职责等。

Procedure for Quality Management − This section of the quality management document must discuss in detail the ways a project will ensure quality. All the processes and techniques that will be used to ensure the desired quality of the end product must be defined. In addition, the quality planning and quality assurance approaches, quality standards for the project, key metrics for assessing the quality against scope, measurement methods, quality audits, and feedback must be included.
质量管理程序 − 质量管理文档的这一部分必须详细讨论项目确保质量的方式。必须定义用于确保最终产品所需质量的所有流程和技术。此外，还必须包括质量规划和质量保证方法、项目的质量标准、根据范围评估质量的关键指标、测量方法、质量审计和反馈。

Tools and Techniques − All the tools and techniques that will be used in the project to ensure quality must be discussed in detail. Also, information on how to use those tools, the limitations associated with using them, license status, and procedures must be included.
工具和技术 − 必须详细讨论项目中将用于确保质量的所有工具和技术。此外，还必须包括有关如何使用这些工具、与使用它们相关的限制、许可证状态和过程的信息。

Records − This section of the report must deal with the storage of records and the persons responsible for handling, updating, and getting them approved. Usually, the following records are used from a quality management perspective: quality register, measurements for quality control, quality standards, and quality audits.
记录 − 报告的这一部分必须处理记录的存储以及负责处理、更新和获得批准的人员。通常，从质量管理的角度来看，使用以下记录：质量登记簿、质量控制度量、质量标准和质量审计。

Reporting − This section of the report must mention the frequency of quality reporting and the persons responsible for reporting and checking.
报告 − 报告的这一部分必须提及质量报告的频率以及负责报告和检查的人员。

Time − The schedule for quality control, audits, analysis, reporting, and recording must be discussed clearly.
时间 − 必须清楚地讨论质量控制、审计、分析、报告和记录的时间表。

Roles and Responsibilities − The persons responsible for each task and process in a quality management action plan must be mentioned.
角色和职责 − 必须提及质量管理行动计划中每项任务和流程的负责人。

Quality Criteria for Evaluating the Quality Management Approach
评估质量管理方法的质量标准

There are six criteria to evaluate the status of the established quality management strategies or approaches −
有六个标准可以评估已建立的质量管理战略或方法的状态 -

-Customer’s expectation of quality
-客户对质量的期望

-Adequacy of the established approaches to meet customer expectations
-满足客户期望的既定方法是否足够

-Level of independency in the roles and responsibilities
- 角色和职责的独立性

-Compliance with the approach to the customer’s and supplier’s quality management systems
-遵守客户和供应商的质量管理体系

-Compliance of the project with the corporate quality policy
- 项目符合公司质量政策

-Appropriate measures that suit the requirements.
- 适合要求的适当措施。

Importance of Quality Management in Education
质量管理在教育中的重要性

Quality management is essential in education to ensure that students receive the best possible learning experience and outcomes. Quality assurance systems focus on monitoring, evaluating, and improving operations to provide consistency and improve results for learners. Quality management can help teachers by providing them with tools to assess student performance, identify areas of improvement and develop strategies for teaching.
质量管理在教育中至关重要，以确保学生获得最佳的学习体验和成果。质量保证系统侧重于监控、评估和改进运营，以提供一致性并为学习者改善结果。质量管理可以通过为教师提供工具来评估学生的表现、确定需要改进的领域并制定教学策略，从而帮助教师。

It also encourages collaboration among school administrators, faculty members, parents, and students in order to better serve the needs of all learners. Quality management promotes continuous assessment of educational programs so that problems are identified early on before they become more serious or costly issues.
它还鼓励学校管理人员、教职员工、家长和学生之间的合作，以更好地满足所有学习者的需求。质量管理促进对教育计划的持续评估，以便在问题变得更严重或代价高昂的问题之前及早发现问题。

Additionally, it provides a framework for evaluating new initiatives such as technology-based learning programs so that schools can determine if they will be effective investments in terms of student achievement. Ultimately quality management helps educators create an environment where all students have access to top-notch educational opportunities.
此外，它还提供了一个框架来评估新举措，例如基于技术的学习计划，以便学校可以确定它们是否会在学生成绩方面进行有效投资。最终，质量管理有助于教育工作者创造一个让所有学生都能获得一流教育机会的环境。

Developing a Quality Management System (QMS)
制定质量管理体系 （QMS）

Developing a Quality Management System (QMS) is an important practical step for quality management in education. It provides a structured framework that enables educational organizations to achieve their goals and objectives, as well as to ensure that the services provided meet the expectations of students, staff, parents, and other stakeholders. A QMS can provide guidance on how best to deliver quality improvements through processes such as monitoring performance against standards, measuring customer satisfaction levels, or implementing corrective measures when needed.
制定质量管理体系 （QMS） 是教育质量管理的重要实践步骤。它提供了一个结构化的框架，使教育组织能够实现其目标，并确保所提供的服务满足学生、教职员工、家长和其他利益相关者的期望。质量管理体系可以就如何通过各种流程最好地实现质量改进提供指导，例如根据标准监控绩效、衡量客户满意度水平或在需要时实施纠正措施。

Additionally, it helps identify areas where resources are needed or where improvement activities need to be implemented. By developing a QMS, education providers can ensure they are providing quality services by consistently meeting their requirements and those of external customers.
此外，它还有助于确定需要资源或需要实施改进活动的领域。通过开发质量管理体系，教育机构可以确保他们通过始终如一地满足自己和外部客户的要求来提供优质服务。

This will help them gain long-term sustainability through delivering reliable outcomes that lead to improved student achievement and higher overall satisfaction rates with educational offerings.
这将帮助他们通过提供可靠的结果来提高学生成绩和对教育产品的总体满意度，从而获得长期可持续性。

Engaging Stakeholders
吸引利益相关者

Engaging stakeholders in quality management is an essential step for any educational institution. Stakeholders include parents, teachers, students, and administrators, as well as external partners such as employers or funding agencies. To ensure a successful system of quality management in education, it is important to involve all parties in the process.
让利益相关者参与质量管理是任何教育机构必不可少的一步。利益相关者包括家长、教师、学生和管理人员，以及雇主或资助机构等外部合作伙伴。为了确保教育质量管理系统的成功，让各方参与该过程非常重要。

This allows each stakeholder to provide valuable input on how best to improve the institution’s quality standards. Furthermore, engaging stakeholders helps build trust and understanding between the different organizations involved in a school's education system.
这使每个利益相关者都可以就如何最好地提高机构的质量标准提供有价值的意见。此外，让利益相关者参与有助于在学校教育系统所涉及的不同组织之间建立信任和理解。

By working together towards common goals and objectives, institutions can develop programs that are tailored to meet their specific needs while maintaining high-quality standards across the board. Quality management should be seen not only as managing resources but also as involving people who have vested interests in achieving excellence in education outcomes.
通过共同努力实现共同的目标，机构可以制定量身定制的计划，以满足其特定需求，同时全面保持高质量标准。质量管理不仅应被视为管理资源，还应被视为让那些在实现卓越教育成果方面拥有既得利益的人参与进来。

Training and Development
培训与发展

Training and development can be a powerful tool for quality management in education. It can help to identify areas of improvement for staff, students, and administrators. Through training programs tailored to the specific needs of a school or college, educators can become more efficient in their duties and increase organizational efficiency overall.
培训和发展可以成为教育质量管理的有力工具。它可以帮助确定教职员工、学生和管理人员需要改进的领域。通过针对学校或学院的特定需求量身定制的培训计划，教育工作者可以提高他们的职责效率并提高整体组织效率。

Training sessions on how to use technology effectively will also provide employees with the skills necessary to better serve students in digital classrooms. Finally, providing teachers with professional development opportunities increases job satisfaction which leads to improved morale among faculty members who are more likely to stay at their current institutions longer.
有关如何有效使用技术的培训课程还将为员工提供必要的技能，以便在数字教室中更好地为学生服务。最后，为教师提供专业发展机会可以提高工作满意度，从而提高教职员工的士气，他们更有可能在目前的机构呆得更久。

These benefits ultimately lead to higher student achievement rates as well as increased retention rates among faculty members who are engaged in quality management initiatives within educational institutions.
这些好处最终会提高学生成绩率，并提高在教育机构内参与质量管理计划的教职员工的保留率。

Benefits of Practical Quality Management in Education
教育实用质量管理的好处

Quality management in education is essential for providing students with the best possible learning experience. It ensures that educational institutions meet their standards and objectives, while also ensuring a safe and productive learning environment for all involved.
教育质量管理对于为学生提供最佳的学习体验至关重要。它确保教育机构达到其标准和目标，同时也确保为所有参与者提供安全和高效的学习环境。

Quality management can help improve student outcomes by increasing accountability, providing better training opportunities, and creating a culture of continuous improvement. It can also reduce costs associated with poor quality or inefficient processes.
质量管理可以通过增加问责制、提供更好的培训机会和创造持续改进的文化来帮助提高学生的成绩。它还可以降低与质量差或流程效率低下相关的成本。

By emphasizing the importance of quality assurance in teaching, faculty are more likely to take ownership of their courses and be actively engaged in improving their quality over time. Additionally, it encourages collaboration among departments as well as between teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders to ensure that everyone is working toward the same goal: delivering excellent education to students.
通过强调质量保证在教学中的重要性，教师更有可能对自己的课程负责，并随着时间的推移积极参与提高他们的质量。此外，它还鼓励部门之间以及教师、管理人员和其他利益相关者之间的合作，以确保每个人都朝着同一个目标努力：为学生提供优质的教育。

Challenges in Practical Quality Management in Education
教育质量管理实践中的挑战

The challenge of implementing practical quality management programs in educational institutions is significant. Quality assurance and improvement efforts need to be tailored to the unique context of an institution, while also being based on general principles of continuous improvement.
在教育机构中实施实用的质量管理计划是一项艰巨的挑战。质量保证和改进工作需要根据机构的独特环境进行定制，同时也要基于持续改进的一般原则。

Additionally, educational organizations often have limited resources that must be allocated strategically. Developing a comprehensive plan for quality management can require significant up-front costs and time commitment from staff, faculty, and administrators alike.
此外，教育组织的资源通常有限，必须进行战略性分配。制定全面的质量管理计划可能需要员工、教职员工和管理人员投入大量的前期成本和时间投入。

Furthermore, measuring the impact of any changes or initiatives over time requires rigorous data collection and analysis methods that may not always be available or feasible in a school setting. Finally, effective communication strategies are essential for successful implementation; educators must ensure that stakeholders understand why they are investing in quality assurance activities and how these investments will benefit the organization as a whole.
此外，衡量任何变化或举措随时间推移的影响需要严格的数据收集和分析方法，而这些方法在学校环境中可能并不总是可用或可行的。最后，有效的沟通策略对于成功实施至关重要;教育工作者必须确保利益相关者了解他们为什么投资于质量保证活动，以及这些投资将如何使整个组织受益。

Today we are facing the great challenges of adopting education to the changing needs of the society. The transmission in information and explosion of knowledge is very fast and it is very urgent to take immediate steps to make the education more useful and relevant. Education quality effect all the system of education and the whole system. Therefore, the quality management of education is very important. Quality has been the timeless goal through the corridors of human history. It has been the driving force for all human endeavors. Quality is the inspiration for self-evaluation and the source for new challenges.
今天，我们面临着采用教育来应对社会不断变化的需求的巨大挑战。信息传播和知识爆炸式增长非常迅速，迫切需要立即采取措施使教育更加有用和切合实际。教育质量影响着所有的教育系统和整个系统。因此，教育的质量管理非常重要。质量一直是人类历史长廊中永恒的目标。它一直是所有人类努力的驱动力。质量是自我评估的灵感来源，也是新挑战的源泉。

Nowadays, higher-education institutions operate in a competitive market, where the best institutions are those with the best students, teachers and employees, and also the ones that manage to obtain the highest subsidies, whether private or public. Thus, higher-education institutions need to show stakeholders evidence of the accomplishment of their objectives, mission and strategies.
如今，高等教育机构在竞争激烈的市场中运作，最好的机构是那些拥有最好的学生、教师和员工的机构，也是那些设法获得最高补贴的机构，无论是私立还是公立。因此，高等教育机构需要向利益相关者展示其目标、使命和战略实现的证据。

In managing its activities, the university enforces the following principles:
在管理其活动时，该大学执行以下原则：

To promote open access to all forms of study, including the application of the principle of equal opportunities for all those interested in studying.
促进对所有形式的学习的开放获取，包括为所有有兴趣学习的人应用机会均等的原则。

To ensure students’ satisfaction by understanding their current and future needs.
通过了解学生当前和未来的需求来确保学生的满意度。

To strengthen the pride of students and future school graduates.
增强学生和未来学校毕业生的自豪感。

To maintain the motivational environment for employees, and create conditions for personnel and professional growth.
为员工维护激励环境，并为员工和专业发展创造条件。

To strengthen employee loyalty and use their skills for the benefit of the university.
提高员工忠诚度并利用他们的技能为大学造福。

To internationalize educational, scientific and research activities.
使教育、科学和研究活动国际化。

To strengthen and develop partnerships with other universities and educational organizations.
加强和发展与其他大学和教育组织的合作伙伴关系。

To promote the school by improving marketing activities and by constantly planning, evaluating and improving the quality of all processes.
通过改进营销活动以及不断规划、评估和改进所有流程的质量来推广学校。

From the perspective of university management, effective and efficient application of these principles in school management and the efficient quality management system are contributed to the systematic improvement in the quality of education and to the improvement in scientific, research and other creative activities.
从大学管理的角度来看，在学校管理和有效的质量管理体系中有效和高效地应用这些原则有助于系统地提高教育质量以及提高科学、研究和其他创造性活动。

It is believed that students’ achievement is likely to be more vital where principal, teachers, administrators and stake holders’ work together to identify sources of student success. Moreover, the administrator must communicate freely with staff and stake holders. He should share achievement data, communicates vision, mission, goal and ongoing process towards attainment of goal to staff, parents, students and community.
人们认为，如果校长、教师、管理人员和利益相关者共同努力确定学生成功的来源，学生的成绩可能更为重要。此外，管理员必须与员工和利益相关者自由沟通。他应该分享成就数据，向员工、家长、学生和社区传达愿景、使命、目标和实现目标的持续过程。

Self-evaluation
自我评估

The process of self-evaluation should generate key management information which results in an evaluation of overall quality and improvement. This evaluation can then be used to create a set of agreed, targeted action points which, in turn, drive further
自我评估的过程应生成关键的管理信息，从而对整体质量和改进进行评估。然后，该评估可用于创建一组商定的、有针对性的行动点，从而进一步推动

improvement. The process of self-evaluation is central to the maintenance of quality and the pursuit of excellence. It has become firmly established as the basis on which improvement planning and public reporting on standards and quality are founded. Self-evaluation is complementary to external inspection. Indeed, the latter now is built on the results and evidence of self-evaluation across the organization. Self-evaluation, to be fully effective, is not designed to be a single or periodic event, but rather is an ongoing process which strives to maintain and enhance the quality of provision. It is a well-focused means to an end rather than an end in itself.
起色。自我评估的过程是保持质量和追求卓越的核心。它已成为改进计划以及标准和质量公开报告的基础。自我评估是对外部检查的补充。事实上，后者现在是建立在整个组织自我评估的结果和证据之上的。要充分有效，自我评价不是为了成为单一或周期性的事件，而是一个努力维持和提高教育质量的持续过程。它是达到目的的重点明确的手段，而不是目的本身。

In the best examples, it leads to the identification of main strengths and areas in which performance needs to be improved in the pursuit of excellence. The evaluations derived through the self-evaluation process should enable the authority to establish how it is performing against its education improvement objectives, and to plan the next steps in development, in order to maintain quality, secure continuous improvement and aspire to excellence.
在最好的例子中，它可以确定主要优势和需要改进绩效的领域，以追求卓越。通过自我评估过程得出的评估应使当局能够确定其如何实现其教育改进目标，并规划下一步的发展步骤，以保持质量、确保持续改进并追求卓越。

There are four main sources of evidence, from which evaluations can be made. These are:
有四个主要的证据来源，可以从中进行评估。这些是：

• Performance data;
• 性能数据;

• Relevant documentation;
• 相关文件;

• Stakeholders’ views and feedback; and
• 利益相关者的意见和反馈;和

• Direct observation of practice.
• 直接观察实践。

These sources of evidence complement each other. No single source can meaningfully provide sufficient evidence on its own to enable a reliable evaluation to be made.
这些证据来源相辅相成。没有一个单一的来源能够有意义地提供足够的证据来做出可靠的评估。

There is one good habit of highly educated people: before beginning with the end in mind start with a clear understanding. It means if you know where you are going you know where you are now. Be sure that your steps are always in right direction. By analyzing data, the administrator identifies strengths and weaknesses.
受过高等教育的人有一个好习惯：先以终为始，先有清晰的理解。这意味着如果你知道你要去哪里，你就知道你现在在哪里。确保您的步骤始终朝着正确的方向前进。通过分析数据，管理员可以确定优势和劣势。

Implementation is the most important factor for improving institution achievement. Collaborative efforts should be made for effective implementation of planning. The administrator must assign the work to the staff members and educationists and must monitor all the activities and help the staff members when they needed. For example: ensure the process towards satisfactory attainment of the targeted goal.
实施是提高机构成就的最重要因素。应共同努力以有效实施规划。管理员必须将工作分配给工作人员和教育工作者，并且必须监控所有活动并在工作人员需要时提供帮助。例如：确保圆满实现目标的过程。

Making the whole System thinking on Educational Achievement
让整个系统思考教育成果

It is said that if one part of the system is not working the whole system cannot work properly. All parts of educational activities must be interconnected. Successful quality administrators keep the focus on the institution improvement, time, money and staff development. An administrator must align all courses with institution improvement priority. He should ensure that the institution goals are aligned with state government goals. The quality management is the main basis of the institution which can get the things done by the team, parents and stake holders. Their support could be gained not by force, but it should come from within the heart and they have to work continuously keeping in mind collaboration, collection, analysis, implementation and student achievements. Moreover, the quality management must have such qualities like
据说，如果系统的一个部分不工作，整个系统就无法正常工作。教育活动的所有部分都必须相互关联。成功的质量管理人员将重点放在机构改进、时间、金钱和员工发展上。管理员必须使所有课程与机构改进优先级保持一致。他应该确保机构目标与州政府的目标保持一致。质量管理是机构的主要基础，它可以让团队、家长和利益相关者完成工作。他们的支持不是靠武力获得的，而是发自内心的，他们必须不断努力，牢记合作、收集、分析、实施和学生成就。此外，质量管理必须具备以下品质：

communication skill, thinking outside the box, complete honesty, willingness to work long hours, diversity in decision, dealing with touch situations, flexibility, confidence, skill to appreciate co-workers and listen to others, clear vision, sincerity and dedication towards work.
沟通技巧、跳出框框思考、完全诚实、愿意长时间工作、决策多样性、处理接触情况、灵活性、自信、欣赏同事和倾听他人的技能、清晰的视野、真诚和对工作的奉献精神。

Most educators are willing to take care of students individually. The analysis shows that the flexibility and ability of students to deal with specific situations is at a very high level. The university should continue to seek and record recommendations and proposals for improvement from all stakeholders. These proposals should be reconsidered in the future. It would be appropriate to provide training on effective communication and training in innovative ways of dealing with students, especially in the field of information services.
大多数教育工作者都愿意单独照顾学生。分析表明，学生处理特定情况的灵活性和能力处于非常高的水平。大学应继续寻求并记录所有利益相关者的建议和改进提案。这些提案将来应该重新考虑。提供有效沟通的培训以及以创新方式与学生打交道的培训是适当的，尤其是在信息服务领域。

Implementing Effective Assessment Practices
实施有效的评估实践

Assessment is one of the most important aspects of quality management in education. By implementing effective assessment practices, educational institutions can ensure that their students are receiving high-quality instruction and learning experiences.
评估是教育质量管理最重要的方面之一。通过实施有效的评估实践，教育机构可以确保其学生获得高质量的教学和学习体验。

Effective assessment provides an opportunity to measure student performance against established standards and objectives, identify areas for improvement, and give timely feedback to inform instructional practice. These assessments also enable educators to ensure adequate progress toward academic goals as well as monitor achievement over time.
有效的评估提供了一个机会，可以根据既定的标准和目标来衡量学生的表现，确定需要改进的领域，并及时提供反馈以告知教学实践。这些评估还使教育工作者能够确保实现学术目标的充分进展，并随着时间的推移监控成就。

Implementing a comprehensive system of assessment allows for data-driven decision-making when it comes to assessing student needs, curriculum alignment, and teaching strategies.
实施全面的评估系统允许在评估学生需求、课程调整和教学策略时做出数据驱动的决策。

The results of the self-assessment help to find the most problematic areas, to identify the most significant deficiencies and then propose several corrective actions. Based on the assessment, the following priorities have been identified:
自我评估的结果有助于找到最有问题的领域，识别最严重的缺陷，然后提出一些纠正措施。根据评估，确定了以下优先事项：

+To ensure that key processes support strategic objectives;
+确保关键流程支持战略目标;

+Clearly define levels of management, responsibilities and autonomy at all levels;
+明确定义各级管理、责任和自主权;

+To implement an active information policy towards employees;
+对员工实施积极的信息政策;

+Encourage employee participation in improvement activities;
+鼓励员工参与改进活动;

+Include monitoring and evaluation of results and partnerships in regular monitoring and evaluation of processes.
+在定期监测和评估流程中包括对结果的监测和评估以及合作伙伴关系。

It is logical that in seeking to manage quality, institutional members, at all cost, work from institutional contexts otherwise the strategies will not respond to the institution’s quality necessities. In this stage, special emphasis is brought on assessing the environment to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges; identifying and framing strategic issues; formulating strategies to manage the strategic issues; reviewing and adopting the Strategy Plan. Different institutions adopt different strategies of doing strategic planning. The strategy focus wheel is supported by seven BPPs (Best Practice Principles):
合乎逻辑的是，在寻求质量管理时，机构成员不惜一切代价从机构环境中工作，否则策略将无法满足机构的质量需求。在这个阶段，特别强调评估环境以确定优势、劣势、机会和挑战;识别和制定战略问题;制定策略以管理策略问题;审查和通过战略计划。不同的机构采用不同的策略进行战略规划。策略焦点轮盘由七个 BPP（最佳实践原则）提供支持：

a. Being disciplined: this refers to the application of a strong systems perspective in all structural, functional and behavioral aspects of the institution.
一个。纪律严明：这是指在机构的所有结构、功能和行为方面应用强大的系统视角。

b. Being up-front: that expresses employees’ high moral probity in their valuing of honesty, humility and sincerity in all their interactions and relations.
b.坦率：这体现了员工在所有互动和关系中对诚实、谦逊和真诚的高度道德正直。

c. Embracing change: this defines the institution’s disposition to evolve and generate new ideas and built resources for continually pursuing customer satisfaction performance. The implication is that individuals, teams and roles need to be open, vulnerable and compliant in order to change from within their hearts and souls.
c. 拥抱变化：这定义了机构发展和产生新想法和构建资源的倾向，以不断追求客户满意度。这意味着个人、团队和角色需要开放、脆弱和顺从，以便从内心和灵魂中做出改变。

d. Ensuring integration of effort: expressing the institution’s focus on value creation, management and delivery over functional needs and hierarchies.
d. 确保工作整合：表达机构对价值创造、管理和交付的关注，而不是功能需求和层次结构。

e. Establishing a learning culture: this expresses the robustness of the institution’s developmental orientation as focusing on knowledge and skills updating through a shared customer satisfaction performance-driven knowledge management infrastructure.
e.建立学习文化：这表达了机构发展导向的稳健性，即通过共享的客户满意度绩效驱动的知识管理基础设施来关注知识和技能的更新。

f. Measuring, reporting and learning: that encourage institutional sectors to measure, report on performance so that teams learn and better perceive the institution’s atlas of improvement.
f.衡量、报告和学习：鼓励机构部门衡量、报告绩效，以便团队学习并更好地理解机构的改进地图。

g. Supporting distributed leadership: employees take up roles with commitments to make careful decisions that prolific their own and others operational effectiveness and efficiency.
g.支持分布式领导：员工在担任角色时承诺做出谨慎的决策，以提高自己和他人的运营效率和效率。

Good as they are, these quality excellence principles must help in creating a context for optimization of policies, procedures and standards used to deliver high quality education in institutions. If done well, the main gains to the QMS would be an effective implementation process, and the establishing of an effective organizational vision for the future.
尽管这些质量卓越原则很好，但必须有助于为优化用于在机构中提供高质量教育的政策、程序和标准创造环境。如果做得好，QMS 的主要收益将是有效的实施过程，以及为未来建立有效的组织愿景。

Conclusion
结论

In conclusion, to implement quality management in education, Educators and administrators should work together to ensure that the highest standards are met for students’ learning experiences.
总之，为了在教育中实施质量管理，教育工作者和管理人员应共同努力，确保学生的学习体验达到最高标准。

Quality management principles such as continuous improvement, process optimization, customer satisfaction, and risk assessment can all be used to help schools strive for success. By implementing the principles of quality management into leadership practices and organizational structures, schools will have an opportunity to increase student performance and create a more positive learning environment.
持续改进、流程优化、客户满意度和风险评估等质量管理原则都可用于帮助学校争取成功。通过将质量管理原则实施到领导实践和组织结构中，学校将有机会提高学生的表现并创造更积极的学习环境。

Ultimately, it is up to educators and administrators alike to take necessary steps towards ensuring that their school system meets the needs of its stakeholders: parents, teachers, staff members, and most importantly - students.
最终，教育工作者和管理人员都有责任采取必要措施，确保他们的学校系统满足其利益相关者的需求：家长、教师、工作人员，最重要的是 - 学生。

Topic Six. Power and leadership in management
话题六.管理中的权力和领导力

What comes to mind when you think of the term “power”? Does it evoke positive or negative feelings? In both research and practice, power has been described as a dirty word. Certainly it is easy to think of leaders who have used power for unethical or immoral purposes. That said, people who have power, deny it; people who want power, try not to look like they are seeking it; and those who are good at acquiring it are secretive about how they got it.
当您想到“权力”这个词时，您会想到什么？它会唤起积极还是消极的情绪？在研究和实践中，权力都被描述为一个肮脏的词。当然，很容易想到那些将权力用于不道德或不道德目的的领导人。也就是说，拥有权力的人否认它;想要权力的人，尽量不要看起来像是在寻求权力;而那些擅长获得它的人对他们是如何得到它的保密。

Great leaders have the following in common: they have a vision to achieve largescale ideas that they dream of accomplishing, and they have the personal power to enact it. For example, such business leaders as the late Steve Jobs of Apple Computer, Bill Gates of Microsoft, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook, Jeff Bezos of Amazon.com, Phil Knight of Nike, and Sam Walton of Wal-Mart had strong visions of the future. They were able to transform their visions into reality, because they had acquired and used the necessary power to do so. Great leaders make things happen by utilizing personal power.
伟大的领导者有以下共同点：他们有一个实现他们梦想实现的大规模想法的愿景，并且他们拥有实现这些想法的个人力量。例如，已故的苹果电脑公司（Apple Computer）的史蒂夫·乔布斯（Steve Jobs）、Microsoft的比尔·盖茨（Bill Gates）、脸书（Facebook）的马克·扎克伯格（Mark Zuckerberg）、Amazon.com 的杰夫·贝佐斯（Jeff Bezos）、耐克的菲尔·奈特（Phil Knight）和沃尔玛（Wal-Mart）的山姆·沃尔顿（Sam Walton）等商业领袖都对未来有着强烈的愿景。他们能够将自己的愿景变为现实，因为他们已经获得并使用了必要的力量来做到这一点。伟大的领导者通过利用个人力量来使事情发生。

Power is a natural process in the fabric of organizational life. Getting things done requires power. Every day, managers in public and private organizations acquire and use power to accomplish organizational goals. Given that, you need to understand how power is acquired, know how and when to use it, and be able to anticipate its probable effects. The concepts of power and leadership are closely linked. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. By learning how power operates in organizations, you will be better able to use that knowledge to become a more effective leader. In its simplest terms, power is the ability to influence someone else.
权力是组织生活结构中的自然过程。完成工作需要动力。每天，公共和私营组织中的管理者都会获取并使用权力来实现组织目标。鉴于此，您需要了解权力是如何获得的，知道如何以及何时使用它，并能够预测其可能的影响。权力和领导力的概念密切相关。领导者将权力作为实现团队目标的手段。通过了解权力在组织中是如何运作的，您将能够更好地利用这些知识成为更有效的领导者。用最简单的话来说，权力就是影响他人的能力。

Sources of Power in Organizations
组织中的权力来源

Where does power come from? What gives a person or group influence over others? More than 60 years ago social scientists John French and Bertrand Raven <reiven>(1959) proposed five sources of power within organizations: legitimate, reward, coercive (compulsory), expert, and referent. Many researchers have studied these five sources of power and searched for others. For the most part, French and Raven’s power sources remain intact.
电力从何而来？是什么让一个人或一个团体对他人产生影响？60 多年前，社会科学家约翰·弗兰奇 （John French） 和伯特兰·雷文 （Bertrand Raven） <reiven>（1959） 提出了组织内部的五种权力来源：合法的、奖励的、强制性的、专家的和指涉的。许多研究人员研究了这五种动力来源并寻找其他来源。在大多数情况下，French 和 Raven 的电源保持不变。

Legitimate Power
合法权力

Legitimate power is a person’s ability to influence others’ behavior because of the position that person holds within the organization. Legitimate or position power, as it is sometimes called, is derived from a position of authority inside the organization, often referred to as “formal authority.” That is, the organization has given to an individual occupying a particular position the right to influence—direct—certain other individuals.
合法权力是一个人由于在组织中担任的职位而影响他人行为的能力。合法权力或地位权力，有时被称为合法权力或地位权力，源自组织内部的权威地位，通常被称为“正式权威”。也就是说，该组织已授予占据特定职位的个人影响（直接）某些其他个人的权利。

Those with legitimate power have the understood right to ask others to do things that are considered within the scope of their authority. When a manager asks an employee to work late to complete a project or to work on one task instead of another, he or she is exercising legitimate power. Managers can enhance their position power by formulating policies and procedures. For example, a manager might establish a requirement that all new hires must be approved by said manager, thus exercising authority over hiring.
那些拥有合法权力的人有被理解的权利，可以要求别人做他们认为在他们权限范围内的事情。当经理要求员工加班以完成项目或完成一项任务而不是另一项任务时，他或她正在行使合法权力。经理可以通过制定政策和程序来增强他们的职位权力。例如，经理可能会要求所有新员工都必须得到该经理的批准，从而行使招聘权。

Subordinates play a major role in the exercise of legitimate power. If subordinates view the use of power as legitimate, they comply. That is, legitimate power covers a relatively narrow range of influence and, therefore, it may be inappropriate to overstep these bounds. For example, a boss may require his secretary to type a company document. However, it would be an abuse of power to ask that secretary to type his doctoral dissertation. The secretary may decide to complete the task, but doing so would not be within the scope of the boss’s formal authority. Legitimate authority is a person’s authority to make discretionary (optional) decisions as long as followers accept this discretion.
下属在行使合法权力方面发挥着重要作用。如果下属认为使用权力是合法的，他们就会服从。也就是说，合法权力涵盖的影响力范围相对较窄，因此，超越这些界限可能是不合适的。例如，老板可能会要求他的秘书键入公司文档。然而，要求该秘书打字他的博士论文将是一种滥用权力。秘书可以决定完成任务，但这样做不在老板的正式权限范围内。合法权威是一个人做出自由裁量权（可选）决定的权力，只要追随者接受这种自由裁量权。

Reward Power
奖励力

Reward power is a person’s ability to influence others’ behavior by providing them with things they want to receive. These rewards can be either financial, such as pay raises or bonuses or nonfinancial, including promotions, favorable work assignments, more responsibility, new equipment, praise, and recognition. A manager can use reward power to influence and control employees’ behavior, as long as employees value the rewards. For example, if managers offer employees what they think are rewards (a promotion with more responsibility), but the employees do not value them (i.e., they are insecure or have family obligations that are more important to them than a promotion), then managers really do not have reward power.
奖励力是一个人通过向他人提供他们想要的东西来影响他人行为的能力。这些奖励可以是财务奖励，例如加薪或奖金，也可以是非财务奖励，包括晋升、有利的工作分配、更多责任、新设备、表扬和认可。只要员工重视奖励，管理者就可以利用奖励权力来影响和控制员工的行为。例如，如果管理者向员工提供他们认为是奖励的东西（责任更大的晋升），但员工不重视他们（即，他们没有安全感或有比升职更重要的家庭义务），那么管理者就真的没有奖励权。

Reward power can lead to better performance, as long as the employee sees a clear link between performance and rewards. To use reward power effectively, therefore, the manager should be explicit about the behavior being rewarded and should make clear the connection between the behavior and the reward. Employees also have reward power over their managers through the use of 360-degree feedback systems. Employee feedback affects managers’ promotions and other rewards, so managers tend to behave differently toward employees after 360-degree feedback is introduced into the organization.
奖励力可以带来更好的绩效，只要员工看到绩效和奖励之间的明确联系。因此，为了有效地使用奖励力，管理者应该明确被奖励的行为，并应该明确行为与奖励之间的联系。员工还可以通过使用 360 度反馈系统对他们的经理拥有奖励权。员工反馈会影响经理的晋升和其他奖励，因此在将 360 度反馈引入组织后，经理们往往会对员工采取不同的行为。

Coercive Power
强制力

Coercive power is a person’s ability to influence others’ behavior by punishing them or by creating a perceived threat to do so. For example, employees may comply with a manager’s directive because of fear or threat of punishment. Typical organizational punishments include reprimands, undesirable work assignments, withholding key information, demotion, suspension, or dismissal. Coercive power has negative side effects and should be used with caution, because it tends to result in negative feelings toward those who use it.
强制力是一个人通过惩罚他人或制造感知威胁来影响他人行为的能力。例如，员工可能会因为害怕或威胁受到惩罚而遵守经理的指示。典型的组织处罚包括训诫、不良工作分配、隐瞒关键信息、降职、停职或解雇。强制力有负面的副作用，应谨慎使用，因为它往往会导致对使用它的人产生负面情绪。

The availability of coercive power varies from one organization and manager to another. Most organizations now have clearly defined policies on employee treatment.
强制力的可用性因组织和管理者而异。现在，大多数组织都有明确定义的员工待遇政策。

Clearly defined rules and procedures that govern how coercive power is used prevent superiors from using their legitimate power (formal authority) arbitrarily and unethically.
明确定义的规则和程序来管理如何使用强制权力，防止上级任意和不道德地使用他们的合法权力（正式权威）。

The presence of unions also can weaken coercive power considerably. One need not be in a position of authority, however, to possess coercive power. Employees also have coercive power, including the use of sarcasm and fear of rejection, to ensure that team members conform to group norms. Many organizations rely on the coercive power of team members to control employee behavior.
工会的存在也会大大削弱强制力。然而，一个人不需要处于权威地位才能拥有强制权力。员工也有强制力，包括使用讽刺和害怕被拒绝，以确保团队成员符合群体规范。许多组织依靠团队成员的强制力来控制员工行为。

Expert Power
专家力量

Expert power is a person’s ability to influence others’ behavior because of recognized knowledge, skills, or abilities. Physicians are acknowledged to have expertise, special skills, or knowledge and hence expert power. Most people follow their doctor’s advice. Computer specialists, tax accountants, and economists have power because of their expertise. Experts have power even when they rank low in the organization’s hierarchy. As organizations become increasingly more technologically complex and specialized, expert power of organization members at all levels in the hierarchy becomes more important. Some firms deliberately include lower-level staff members with expert power in top-level decision making. Knowledge is power in today’s high-tech workplaces.
专家能力是指一个人因为公认的知识、技能或能力而影响他人行为的能力。医生被公认为具有专业知识、特殊技能或知识，因此具有专家能力。大多数人都遵循医生的建议。计算机专家、税务会计师和经济学家因其专业知识而拥有权力。即使专家在组织的层次结构中排名较低，他们也有权力。随着组织在技术上变得越来越复杂和专业化，层次结构中各级组织成员的专家能力变得更加重要。一些公司故意让具有专家权力的低级员工参与高层决策。在当今的高科技工作场所，知识就是力量。

Expert power is based on the extent to which followers attribute knowledge and expertise to the power holder. Experts are perceived to have expertise in well-defined functional areas but not outside them. To be granted expert power, followers must perceive the power holder to be credible, trustworthy, and relevant.
专家能力取决于追随者将知识和专业知识归于权力持有者的程度。专家被认为在明确的职能领域拥有专业知识，但在这些职能领域之外没有专业知识。要获得专家级权力，追随者必须认为权力拥有者是可信的、值得信赖的和相关的。

Credibility is acquired by having the appropriate credentials. For example, physicians, computer specialists, and tax accountants, who have shown tangible evidence of their expertise, will be listened to closely and thereby granted expert power. These specialists may not be granted expert power in other functional areas. The person seeking expert power also must be trustworthy, that is, have a reputation for being honest. In addition to credibility and trustworthiness, a person must have relevance. For example, if physicians gave advice on political issues, it would not be relevant, and therefore the physician would not have expert power in this area.
信誉是通过拥有适当的证书获得的。例如，医生、计算机专家和税务会计师，他们已经展示了他们专业知识的有形证据，他们将被仔细倾听，从而被授予专家权力。这些专家可能无法获得其他职能领域的专家权力。寻求专家力量的人也必须值得信赖，即有诚实的声誉。除了可信度和可信度之外，一个人还必须具有相关性。例如，如果医生就政治问题提供建议，那就无关紧要，因此医生在这一领域没有专家权力。

Referent Power

Referent power is a person’s ability to influence others’ behavior because they like, admire, and respect the individual. For example, suppose you are friends with your boss. One day, she asks you to take on a special project that you do not like. To anyone else, you would likely decline the request, but because of your special relationship with this individual, you may do it as a favor. In this instance, your boss has power over you because of your positive relationship.
指涉权力是一个人因为喜欢、钦佩和尊重他人而影响他人行为的能力。例如，假设您是老板的朋友。有一天，她让你接一个你不喜欢的特殊项目。对于其他任何人，您都可能会拒绝该请求，但由于您与此人的特殊关系，您可以帮个忙。在这种情况下，由于你们的积极关系，你的老板对你有权力。

Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. This helps to explain why celebrities are paid millions of dollars in endorsements.
指涉权力源于对他人的钦佩和想要成为那个人的愿望。这有助于解释为什么名人会获得数百万美元的代言费。

Marketing research shows that people such as Michael Jordan and Serena Williams have the power to influence your choice of athletic shoes and tennis products. The same could be said of leaders in business firms who have a good reputation, attractive personal characteristics, or a certain level of charisma. A charismatic leader can ignite an entire organization.
市场研究表明，迈克尔·乔丹 （Michael Jordan） 和塞雷娜·威廉姆斯 （Serena Williams） 等人有能力影响您对运动鞋和网球产品的选择。拥有良好声誉、有吸引力的个人特征或一定程度的魅力的商业公司的领导者也是如此。一个有魅力的领导者可以点燃整个组织。

Power, Influence, and Leadership
权力、影响力和领导力

A great deal of power people has in organizations comes from the specific jobs or titles they hold. In other words, they are able to influence others because of the formal power associated with their positions. For example, there are certain powers that the president of the United States has because of the office (e.g., signing bills into law, making treaties, declaring war, etc.). These remain vested in the position and are available to anyone who holds it. When the president’s term expires, they transfer to the new office-holder.
人们在组织中拥有的很大权力来自他们所拥有的特定工作或头衔。换句话说，他们之所以能够影响他人，是因为与他们的地位相关的正式权力。例如，由于职位，美国总统拥有某些权力（例如，签署法案成为法律、制定条约、宣战等）。这些仍然归属于该职位，并且可供任何持有它的人使用。当总统的任期届满时，他们将转移给新的官员。

A true leader is able to influence others and modify behavior via legitimate and referent power. President Carter had a noble vision about the United States, as well as the world, but he could not unite groups or people to achieve his goals; the whole country suffered. Presidents Truman and Johnson used their position (or office or power) effectively and were much better able to manipulate groups and people to achieve their ends. Presidents Kennedy, Reagan, and Clinton relied on personal persuasion and were able to sway the nation as a whole, as well as Congress, business, and labor, by charisma and communication. President Roosevelt effectively used both position and personality.
真正的领导者能够通过合法和有参考力的权力来影响他人并改变行为。卡特总统对美国和世界有着崇高的愿景，但他无法团结团体或人民来实现他的目标;整个国家都受苦了。杜鲁门总统和约翰逊总统有效地利用了他们的地位（或职位或权力），并且能够更好地操纵团体和人民来实现他们的目的。肯尼迪总统、里根总统和克林顿总统依靠个人说服，能够通过魅力和沟通影响整个国家，以及国会、企业和劳工。罗斯福总统有效地利用了地位和人格。

Presidents Bush (senior and junior) 41 and 43 and Obama’s leadership tends to coincide with the Truman-Johnson model.
41 岁和 43 岁的布什总统（老总统和小总统）以及奥巴马的领导层往往与杜鲁门-约翰逊模式一致。

Sources of power usually are divided into organizational and personal. Legitimate, reward, and coercive powers are organizational and are part of the leader’s job. Policies and procedures prescribe them. Expert and referent powers are personal and emanate from a leader’s personality.
权力来源通常分为组织和个人。合法、奖励和强制权力是组织性的，是领导者工作的一部分。政策和程序规定了它们。专家和指涉权力是个人的，源于领导者的个性。

If we summarize the relationship between power, influence, and leadership we’ll have the framework where organizational and personal powers result into such subordinate’s outcomes as behavior, performance, task, completion, job satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover. The key to this framework is that leadership as an influence process is a function of the elements of the leader’s sources of power and the degree of acceptance with the interests and needs of the subordinates.
如果我们总结权力、影响力和领导力之间的关系，我们将拥有一个框架，在这个框架中，组织和个人权力会导致下属的结果，如行为、绩效、任务、完成、工作满意度、旷工和离职率。这个框架的关键是，领导力作为一种影响过程，是领导者的权力来源要素以及对下属的利益和需求的接受程度的函数。

Research on Sources of Power
电力来源研究

One review of several studies that examined the sources of power concluded the following:
一项对几项检查权力来源的研究的回顾得出以下结论：

1. Legitimate power can be depended on initially, but continued reliance on it may create dissatisfaction, resistance, and frustration among employees; if legitimate power does not coincide with expert power, there may be negative effects on productivity; and dependence on legitimate power may lead to only minimum compliance while increasing resistance.
1. 最初可以依赖合法权力，但继续依赖它可能会在员工中引起不满、抵制和挫败感;如果合法权力与专家权力不一致，可能会对生产力产生负面影响;对合法权力的依赖可能只导致最低限度的服从，同时增加阻力。

2. Reward power can directly influence the frequency of employee-performance behaviors in the short run. Prolonged use of reward power can lead to a dependent relationship in which subordinates feel manipulated and become dissatisfied.
2. 奖励力在短期内可以直接影响员工绩效行为的频率。长期使用奖励权力会导致一种依赖关系，在这种关系中，下属感到纵并变得不满。

3. Although coercive power may lead to temporary compliance by subordinates, it produces the undesirable side effects of frustration, fear, revenge, and alienation.
3. 虽然强制力可能会导致下属暂时服从，但它会产生挫折、恐惧、报复和疏远等不良副作用。

This in turn may lead to poor performance, dissatisfaction, and turnover.
这反过来可能会导致绩效不佳、不满和人员流动。

4. Expert power is closely related to a climate of trust. A leader’s influence can be adopted by subordinates; that is, when a leader uses expert power, attitudinal conformity and assimilated motivation on the part of subordinates. This in turn requires less surveillance of employees by the leader than does reward or coercive power.
4. 专家权力与信任氛围密切相关。领导者的影响力可以被下属采用;也就是说，当领导者使用专家力量、态度一致性和下属的同化动机时。这反过来又要求领导者对员工的监督比奖励或强制权力更少。

5. Referent power can lead to enthusiastic and unquestioning trust, compliance, loyalty, and commitment from subordinates. Like expert power, considerably less surveillance of employees is required.
5. 指涉力可以导致下属热情和不容置疑的信任、服从、忠诚和承诺。与专家权力一样，对员工的监控需要要少得多。

It is possible for a person to possess all of the sources of power at the same time. In fact, the most powerful leaders—like those mentioned previously—have sources of power that include all five forms. Of the three sources of organizational power (legitimate, reward, coercive) and two sources of personal power (expert, referent), which are the most effective? Generally, the personal sources of power are more strongly related to employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and performance than are the organizational power sources. One source of organizational power—coercive power—is negatively related to employee satisfaction, commitment, and job performance.
一个人有可能同时拥有所有的力量来源。事实上，最有权势的领导者——就像前面提到的那些人——拥有包括所有五种形式的权力来源。在组织权力的三个来源（合法、奖励、胁迫）和个人权力的两个来源（专家、指涉）中，哪个最有效？一般来说，个人权力来源与员工的工作满意度、组织承诺和绩效的关系比组织权力来源更紧密。组织权力的一个来源——强制力——与员工满意度、承诺和工作绩效呈负相关。

Furthermore, the various sources of power are interrelated. For example, the use of coercive power by managers may reduce their referent power, and the use coercive and reward power may lead to reduced expert power. However, managers with expert power are likely to have legitimate power because people accept their expertise as a basis for their authority. In addition, the higher a person’s rank in the organization, the more legitimate power that individual possesses.
此外，各种动力来源是相互关联的。例如，管理者使用强制权力可能会降低他们的指涉权力，而使用强制权力和奖励权力可能会导致专家权力降低。然而，具有专家权力的管理者可能拥有合法权力，因为人们接受他们的专业知识作为他们权威的基础。此外，一个人在组织中的级别越高，他拥有的合法权力就越多。

This, in turn, tends to be accompanied by greater opportunities to use reward and coercive power. Thus, depending on the situation, leaders may use the various sources of power together in varying combinations.
反过来，这往往伴随着使用奖励和强制力的更多机会。因此，根据情况，领导者可能会以不同的方式同时使用各种权力来源。

One interesting finding is about the role that procedural justice may play in the sources of power used by leaders. Although the sources of power are interrelated as well as related to work outcomes, they are also mediated by employees’ perceptions of social justice. What does this mean? It means that employees evaluate their perceptions concerning the justice with which leaders use the sources of power and respond accordingly. Specifically, when employees perceive that the way leaders use the various sources of power seem fair, they respond more favorably. This research leads to a new concept of power: empowerment of organization members.
一个有趣的发现是关于程序正义在领导人使用的权力来源中可能发挥的作用。尽管权力来源是相互关联的，也与工作成果相关，但它们也受到员工对社会正义的看法的中介作用。这是什么意思？这意味着员工会评估他们对领导者使用权力来源的正义的看法，并做出相应的回应。具体来说，当员工认为领导者使用各种权力来源的方式似乎是公平的时，他们会做出更有利的反应。这项研究引出了一个新的权力概念：赋予组织成员权力。

Empowerment of Organization Members
赋予组织成员权力

Diane Tracy, a New York management consultant, suggests a new concept of power in her bestselling book, The Power Pyramid: How to Get Power by Giving It Away (1990). The concept has been referred to in the literature as “empowerment.” The new advice is that you can achieve ultimate power by giving it to the people who work for you. Tracy says that power operates under the same principle as love: The more you give to others, the more you receive in return. Also, she suggests that leaders can maximize their own power and their opportunities for success by enabling the employees they supervise also to achieve their own sense of power and success.
纽约管理顾问黛安·特雷西 （Diane Tracy） 在她的畅销书《权力金字塔：如何通过赠送权力来获得权力》（1990 年）中提出了一种新的权力概念。这个概念在文献中被称为 “赋权”。新的建议是，你可以通过将终极权力交给为你工作的人来获得它。特雷西说，权力的运作原则与爱相同：你给别人的越多，你得到的回报就越多。此外，她还建议领导者可以通过让他们监督的员工也能获得自己的权力和成功感，从而最大限度地利用自己的权力和成功的机会。

Today, many organizations are recommending a flattening of the pyramid. These leaders are beginning to see the need to involve organization members at all levels in making decisions and solving problems. Real power, according to Tracy, flows from the bottom up, rather than from the top down “… If you are successful in giving your people power, they will surely lift you on their shoulders to heights of power and success you
今天，许多组织都建议将金字塔扁平化。这些领导者开始看到让各级组织成员参与决策和解决问题的必要性。根据 Tracy 的说法，真正的权力是自下而上流动的，而不是自上而下的“......如果你成功地给你的人民权力，他们肯定会把你提升到权力的高度，让你成功

never dreamed possible…” (Tracy, 1990, 2).
做梦也想不到......”（特雷西，1990,2）。

Diane Tracy follows up her view of empowerment with practical suggestions on how to achieve a redistribution of power. She recommends ten steps to empowerment
黛安·特雷西 （Diane Tracy） 跟进了她的赋权观点，提出了有关如何实现权力再分配的实用建议。她建议了赋权的十个步骤

(Tracy, 1991):
（特雷西，1991 年）：

1. Tell people what their responsibilities are.
1. 告诉人们他们的责任是什么。

2. Give them authority equal to the responsibility assigned them.
2. 赋予他们与被赋予的责任相等的权力。

3. Set standards of excellence.
3. 设定卓越标准。

4. Provide them with the needed training.
4. 为他们提供所需的培训。

5. Give them knowledge and information.
5. 给他们知识和信息。

6. Provide them with feedback on their performance.
6. 向他们提供有关他们表现的反馈。

7. Recognize them for their achievements.
7. 认可他们的成就。

8. Trust them.
8. 相信他们。

9. Give them permission to fail.
9. 允许他们失败。

10. Treat them with dignity and respect
10. 以尊严和尊重对待他们

The Power of Leadership in Education
教育领导力的力量

We are in an era of great reform in public schools. We are all called to do more, to be more, and to reach for more to create great schools for every learner, whoever he or she may be and regardless of their defining characteristics.
我们正处于公立学校大改革的时代。我们都被召唤去做更多的事情，成为更多的人，并努力争取更多，为每一位学习者创造优秀的学校，无论他或她是谁，也无论他们的定义特征如何。

We need great leaders in schools who understand the demands of the day for education that prepares all diverse learners for higher and higher levels of schooling, for college going and completion, and for life success. We need great teachers and we need powerful principals who know how to lead a school to academic excellence and high student performance.
我们需要学校的伟大领导者，他们了解当今的教育需求，让所有不同的学习者为越来越高水平的学校教育、大学升学和完成以及人生成功做好准备。我们需要优秀的教师，我们需要强大的校长，他们知道如何带领学校取得卓越的学术成就和出色的学生成绩。

There is always the need for dynamic principals who can exercise powerful leadership on school campuses to move all students to high academic outcomes, college completion and successful lives.
总是需要充满活力的校长，他们可以在校园内发挥强大的领导作用，使所有学生取得优异的学业成绩、大学毕业和成功的生活。

What kind of leadership is required to do this?
要做到这一点，需要什么样的领导能力呢？

Scholars offer five lessons about what makes for effective principals. Effective principals…
学者们提供了关于什么是有效校长的五个教训。有效的委托人...

Shape a vision of academic success for all students;
为所有学生塑造学业成功的愿景;

Create a climate hospitable to education;
创造一个适合教育的环境;

Cultivate leadership in others;
培养他人的领导力;

Elevate and improve instruction; and
提升和改进教学;和

Manage people, data and processes to foster school improvement.
管理人员、数据和流程，以促进学校改进。

Good principals…
好校长......

Attract, support and retain a high-quality teaching staff;
吸引、支持和留住高素质的教师队伍;

Manage their personal time and priorities to focus on the right “stuff”;
管理他们的个人时间和优先事项，专注于正确的“东西”;

Spend considerable time and energy becoming instructional leaders; and
花费大量时间和精力成为教学领导者;和

Provide a stable, predictable and supportive foundation for a high performing school.
为高绩效学校提供稳定、可预测和支持性的基础。

The leadership must be fearless rather than fearful to transform schools to high performance. All of the right leadership qualities do not exist in one person – although that one person (the principal leader) is absolutely necessary.
领导层必须无所畏惧，而不是无所畏惧，才能将学校转变为高绩效学校。并非所有正确的领导品质都存在于一个人身上——尽管这个人（主要领导者）是绝对必要的。

It’s very important to identify main drivers to build a blueprint for a learning system:
确定构建学习系统蓝图的主要驱动因素非常重要：

Build trust;
建立信任;

Collaborate in all directions to build teamwork;
全方位协作，建立团队合作;

Provide capacity-building for all educators; and
为所有教育工作者提供能力建设;和

Create leaders at all levels.
创建各级领导者。

Everything we create and produce is the result of successful teamwork. In each team, there are different kinds of skills and only the right combination of them makes the best product possible. That means that team leaders should always value the skillsets of their team and consider the opinion of each team member.
我们创造和生产的一切都是成功团队合作的结果。在每个团队中，都有不同种类的技能，只有将它们的正确组合才能创造出最好的产品。这意味着团队领导应该始终重视他们团队的技能组合并考虑每个团队成员的意见。

Slowly but surely, you'll see that having great people is only half of the equation. The other half is getting them to work well together.
慢慢地，但肯定的是，你会发现拥有优秀的人才只是等式的一半。另一半是让他们很好地合作。

There is a set of qualities, characteristics and capacities to describe powerful leadership.
有一系列的品质、特征和能力来描述强大的领导能力。

These leaders are:
这些领导者是：

Ready
准备

Deliberate
故意

Persuasive
有说服力的

Competent
主管

Current
当前

Connected
连接

Exemplary
模范

Inclusive
包容

Demanding
苛求

Deeply committed
坚定不移

Clear
清楚

Uncompromising
毫不 妥协

Of high integrity
高度诚信

Courageous
勇敢

Focused
集中

Culturally responsive
文化响应

Disciplined
纪律

Visionary
远见

Resourceful
足智多谋

They must reflect these characteristics in their leadership practice.
他们必须在领导实践中反映这些特征。

Leadership comes from lower down (in the hierarchy) and goes towards the top: one is 'made' or recognized a leader by one's group. Power, on the other hand, is a force that comes from on high, (from the hierarchy) and goes toward the bottom (top-down), from the strong to the weak.
领导力来自下层（在等级制度中）并走向高层：一个人被自己的团队“塑造”或认可为领导者。另一方面，权力是一种来自高处（来自等级制度）并走向底层（自上而下）的力量，从强者到弱者。

Good leadership in schools helps to foster both a positive and motivating culture for staff and a high-quality experience for learners. Leaders at all levels in schools can contribute to this by developing the top skills needed by school leaders.
学校的良好领导有助于为员工培养积极和激励的文化，并为学习者提供高质量的体验。学校各级领导可以通过培养学校领导所需的顶级技能来为此做出贡献。

Power is the ability to get something done despite resistance. In other words, a powerful person can get what they want. The assumption in education is that the teacher is the primary source of power in the classroom. However, a powerful person may not necessarily be in a leadership position.
权力是在阻力下完成某事的能力。换句话说，一个有权势的人可以得到他们想要的。教育中的假设是教师是课堂上的主要权力来源。然而，一个有权势的人不一定处于领导地位。

Power leadership uses sources of power instead of influence to motivate others to act. With power leadership, you can influence how others act, but it won't necessarily change what people believe and how committed they are. Power leadership also tends to centralize power and decision-making to one person.
权力领导使用权力来源而不是影响力来激励他人采取行动。通过权力领导，您可以影响他人的行为方式，但这不一定会改变人们的信仰和承诺。权力领导也倾向于将权力和决策权集中在一个人身上。

What is an example of power and leadership? For example, a manager might have power over subordinates because of the manager's position in the organization. In other cases, leaders might have power because they have expertise or knowledge that others do not have. For example, a doctor might have power over her patients because of the doctor's medical knowledge.
什么是权力和领导力的例子？例如，由于经理在组织中的职位，经理可能对下属具有权力。在其他情况下，领导者可能拥有权力，因为他们拥有其他人所没有的专业知识或知识。例如，医生可能因为医生的医学知识而对她的病人有权力。

Positive leaders know that positive energy unlocks human potential and, therefore, engagement at work. Positive leaders challenge their educators in their areas of expertise. They do not merely fill gaps revealed by a competency model. Positive leaders find a way to maximize educators' strengths.
积极的领导者知道，正能量可以释放人类的潜力，从而激发工作中的参与度。积极的领导者在他们的专业领域挑战他们的教育者。它们不仅仅填补了能力模型所揭示的空白。积极的领导者会找到一种方法来最大限度地发挥教育工作者的优势。

The study of leadership teaches how to recognize different personalities, identify situations, understand relationships and strategize objectives. Studying leadership is also a time for personal introspection and growth.
领导力研究教授如何识别不同的性格、识别情况、理解人际关系和制定目标战略。学习领导力也是个人反省和成长的时期。

Academic leadership is when a teacher, professor, or other members of faculty at some academic institution lead students to success. They may help students develop the skills and knowledge they need in their future careers and provide challenging opportunities to test and improve this knowledge.
学术领导力是指某个学术机构的教师、教授或其他教职员工带领学生走向成功。他们可以帮助学生发展他们未来职业生涯所需的技能和知识，并提供具有挑战性的机会来测试和提高这些知识。

What is the best leadership style in education? The authoritative leadership style is one of the most effective in education. These leaders are fair and consistent. They also have high expectations for their students and expect them to meet those expectations. They also provide feedback to their students so they can improve their performance.
教育领域最好的领导风格是什么？权威的领导风格是教育中最有效的风格之一。这些领导者是公平和一致的。他们对学生也有很高的期望，并希望他们达到这些期望。他们还向学生提供反馈，以便他们提高成绩。

Upon entering any graduate program for school leadership, one of the first things you will learn is about different leadership styles. Leadership styles for education cannot be considered the same as leadership styles for businesses and corporations, though some of the styles could apply to both. School leadership is much more about people than a bottom line.
进入任何学校领导研究生课程后，您首先要学习的一件事就是了解不同的领导风格。教育领导风格不能被视为与企业和公司的领导风格相同，尽管某些风格可以同时适用于两者。学校领导更多的是关于人，而不是一条底线。

Although there are many more leadership styles than what is listed below, these are some of the most commonly found styles in school leadership.
尽管领导风格比下面列出的要多得多，但这些是学校领导中最常见的一些风格。

4 Major Types of Educational Leadership:
教育领导的 4 种主要类型：

Servant Leadership.
仆人式领导。

Transactional Leadership.
交易型领导。

Emotional Leadership.
情感领导力。

Transformational Leadership.
变革型领导。

1. Servant Leadership
1. 仆人式领导

Servant Leadership takes the focus from the end goal to the people who are being led. There is no sense of self-interest on the part of the leader, who steps back and supports only the interests of the followers. Guidance, empowerment and a culture of trust are hallmarks of this style of leadership. A servant leader puts complete trust in the process and in his or her followers, assuming that those within the organization will align with its goal.
仆人式领导将重点从最终目标转移到被领导的人身上。领导者没有自私自利的感觉，他退后一步，只支持追随者的利益。指导、授权和信任文化是这种领导风格的标志。仆人式领导者完全信任流程和他或她的追随者，假设组织内的人会与其目标保持一致。

2. Transactional Leadership
2. 交易型领导

Give and take is the hallmark of transactional leadership – it is indeed modelled just like a business transaction. Of course the employer/employee relationship is largely transactional as is.
让步是交易型领导的标志——它确实像商业交易一样被建模。当然，雇主/雇员关系在很大程度上是交易性的。

Employers need work done and employees do that work in exchange for money. That “quid pro quo” (“something for something”) is the heart of the workplace, and everyone is generally happy with this arrangement, but it only works if everyone involved sees it that way.
雇主需要完成工作，而员工做这些工作是为了换取金钱。“交换条件”（“有物换有”）是工作场所的核心，每个人通常都对这种安排感到满意，但只有当参与其中的每个人都这样看待它时，它才会奏效。

In education, there is often more at stake for employees who quite often understand their jobs to be more than just a simple exchange of services for money, but rather see their higher purpose. Money is therefore not the motivating factor.
在教育领域，员工往往面临更大的风险，他们通常认为自己的工作不仅仅是简单的服务换取金钱，而是看到他们更高的目标。因此，金钱不是激励因素。

3. Emotional Leadership
3. 情感领导

Where transactional leadership was concerned primarily with the exchange of goods and services, emotional leadership is concerned with the feelings and motivations of followers. It takes the focus completely to the other side of the spectrum – demanding that leaders be emotionally intelligent themselves and then to motivate through the use of that emotional intelligence.
交易型领导主要关注商品和服务的交换，而情感型领导则关注追随者的感受和动机。它把重点完全放在了光谱的另一端——要求领导者自己要有情商，然后通过使用这种情商来激励。

4. Transformational Leadership
4. 变革型领导

Transformational leadership takes from each of the other kinds of leadership its best qualities and then uses those, along with a deep sense of shared purpose, to motivate subordinates.
变革型领导从其他类型的领导中汲取其最佳品质，然后利用这些品质以及深刻的共同目标感来激励下属。

While the other forms of leadership focus on one singular aspect or another, transformational leadership takes a broad view of the issues surrounding leadership and then uses those as a driving force for meeting the overall goals of the organization. For education in particular, transformational leadership offers the best of everything – from tapping into the emotions of workers to offering the compensatory core that is the case for all forms of business, to guiding from a place of support.
虽然其他形式的领导力侧重于一个或另一个方面，但变革型领导对围绕领导力的问题有广泛的视野，然后将这些问题作为实现组织总体目标的驱动力。特别是对于教育，变革型领导提供了最好的一切——从挖掘员工的情绪到提供所有形式业务都存在的补偿性核心，再到从支持的地方进行指导。

What is teacher leadership? It is a set of roles bundled with the motivation to inspire educational change and move beyond the status quo in collaborative ways. Teacher leaders lead alongside others, not from the front. They have their feet firmly planted in the classroom and their eyes on what is possible for all.
什么是教师领导力？这是一组与激发教育变革和以协作方式超越现状的动机捆绑在一起的角色。教师领导者与他人一起领导，而不是从前面领导。他们牢牢地站在课堂上，着眼于所有人的可能性。

How Does Leadership Impact a School?
领导力如何影响学校？

Leadership has a significant impact on the school because the style sets the tone for the entire building. For example, the democratic style of leadership is certainly conducive to educational leadership because it is a style in which the leader emphasizes collaboration. Collaboration is crucial in the education realm.
领导力对学校有重大影响，因为风格为整个建筑定下了基调。例如，民主的领导风格当然有利于教育领导，因为它是领导者强调合作的一种风格。合作在教育领域至关重要。

On the other hand, a transformational leader is one that inspires those they lead to grasp the vision for the organization, in this case, a school, and feel empowered to seek to bring that vision to fruition. Administration who implement this style of leadership infuse their school with energy and enthusiasm.
另一方面，变革型领导者能够激励他们领导的人掌握组织的愿景，在这种情况下是一所学校，并感到有能力寻求实现该愿景。实施这种领导风格的管理人员为他们的学校注入了活力和热情。

Finally, there is perhaps no greater call to servanthood than that of a servant school leader. School leaders serve the students, parents, and teachers of their school community by constantly seeking ways to improve the educational experience for all. An effective educational leader gives selflessly of their time and resources to do what is best for the students. If done well, it is a job that demands much of the person blessed with the responsibility to lead.
最后，也许没有比仆人式学校领导更伟大的仆人使命了。学校领导通过不断寻求改善所有人的教育体验的方法，为学校社区的学生、家长和教师服务。一个有效的教育领导者无私地付出他们的时间和资源，为学生做最好的事情。如果做得好，这项工作需要很多有幸承担领导责任的人。

Because of the considerable impact of leadership has on a school, it is critically important to determine what effective school leadership is and how to implement it. Trying to pin down what makes a school leader effective can be challenging. However, by studying the characteristics and behaviors of consistently effective school leaders, one can observe certain commonalities that reveal effective characteristics.
由于领导力对学校有相当大的影响，因此确定什么是有效的学校领导以及如何实施它至关重要。试图确定是什么使学校领导有效可能具有挑战性。然而，通过研究始终有效的学校领导的特征和行为，人们可以观察到揭示有效特征的某些共同点。

Some of the most common characteristics among influential school leaders include:
有影响力的学校领导的一些最常见的特征包括：

High Expectations
高期望

Regardless of disadvantage, economic or otherwise, or disability, effective school leaders resist any barriers to success by having high expectations for every student. These high expectations also apply to the teachers in the building.
无论不利条件、经济或其他方面，还是残疾，有效的学校领导都会通过对每个学生抱有很高的期望来抵制任何通往成功的障碍。这些高期望也适用于大楼里的老师。

Ways to Improve
改进方法

Whether through self-evaluation for self-improvement or through a search for more significant student progress, great school leaders are constantly searching for ways to improve. That does not only apply to their staff and students, but also to themselves.
无论是通过自我评估以实现自我提升，还是通过寻求更显着的学生进步，优秀的学校领导都在不断寻找改进的方法。这不仅适用于他们的员工和学生，也适用于他们自己。

Expertise in Analyzing Data
分析数据的专业知识

Influential school leaders are avid interpreters of data. They use this data to seek news ways to help students achieve constantly.
有影响力的学校领导热衷于解释数据。他们使用这些数据来寻找帮助学生不断取得成就的新方法。

Collaboration
协作

There is strength in numbers. When educators collaborate, research shows us that great things happen. Leaders can also collaborate with the teachers in the building to develop ways to solve problems and most effectively serve the school’s student population.
人多力量大。研究表明，当教育工作者合作时，伟大的事情就会发生。领导者还可以与大楼内的教师合作，开发解决问题的方法，并最有效地为学校的学生群体服务。

Conclusion
结论

Power is the ability to influence others. One of the most influential theories of power comes from the work of French and Raven, who attempted to determine the sources of power leaders use to influence others. French and Raven identified five sources of power that can be grouped into two categories: organizational power (legitimate, reward, coercive) and personal power (expert and referent). Generally, the personal sources of power are more strongly related to employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance than are the organizational power sources. One source of organizational power—coercive power—is negatively related to work outcomes. However, the various sources of power should not be thought of as completely separate from each other. Sometimes leaders use them together in varying combinations depending on the situation. A new concept of power, referred to as “empowerment,” has become a major strategy for improving work outcomes.
权力是影响他人的能力。最有影响力的权力理论之一来自 French 和 Raven 的工作，他们试图确定领导者用来影响他人的权力来源。French 和 Raven 确定了五种权力来源，可以分为两类：组织权力（合法、奖励、胁迫）和个人权力（专家和参照）。一般来说，个人权力来源与员工的工作满意度、组织承诺和工作绩效的关系比组织权力来源更紧密。组织权力的一个来源——强制力——与工作结果呈负相关。然而，不应认为各种动力来源彼此完全独立。有时，领导者会根据情况以不同的组合将它们一起使用。一种新的权力概念，称为“赋权”，已成为改善工作成果的主要策略。

Each leadership style has strengths and weaknesses and is more applicable to one area of leadership than another. Educational leadership cannot be lumped into the same molds as leadership styles appropriate for businesses and governments. Educational leadership is a unique entity with a specific set of skills that must be viewed differently from other leadership types.
每种领导风格都有优点和缺点，并且比另一个更适用于领导的一个领域。教育型领导不能与适合企业和政府的领导风格归为一类。教育领导是一个独特的实体，具有一组特定的技能，必须与其他领导类型不同地看待这些技能。

It stands to reason that there will be certain leadership styles that are better suited to that of a principal than others. All school leaders share the common goal of seeking what is best educationally for the students they serve, and effective school leaders share common characteristics or behaviors. Using those common characteristics of successful school leaders, it is clear that those characteristics align with certain leadership styles, and perhaps more importantly, do not align with others.
按理说，某些领导风格会比其他风格更适合校长的领导风格。所有学校领导都有一个共同的目标，即为他们所服务的学生寻求最好的教育，有效的学校领导具有共同的特征或行为。利用成功学校领导的这些共同特征，很明显这些特征与某些领导风格一致，也许更重要的是，与其他领导风格不一致。

Educators never stop learning; it’s useful and tremendously important to hone your skills and promote lifelong learning and academic excellence.
教育工作者从未停止学习;磨练您的技能并促进终身学习和学术卓越是有用且极其重要的。

Topic SEVEN. Management system of an educational institution
话题七.教育机构的管理系统

DEFINITION
定义

An education management information system (EMIS) is a data system that collects, monitors, manages, analyzes, and disseminates information about education inputs, processes, and outcomes—in particular, student learning. A successful EMIS depends on the interplay of appropriate policies, budget, human resources, organizational structure, and institutions to produce valid education data. It should empower all data users to benefit from the data and foster data-driven decision making, transparency, and accountability. Data users can include central and local authorities, schools, teachers, parents, and the broader community, including media, researchers, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). A smart system requires (1) a high degree of reliability, efficiency, and sustainability—of both the structure and the system; (2) full integration of all functions of the system; (3) high security of the infrastructure, particularly when subjected to extreme and unconventional conditions; (4) continuous health and integrity monitoring; (5) damage detection and self-recovery; and (6) an intelligent operational and management system.
教育管理信息系统 （EMIS） 是一种数据系统，用于收集、监控、管理、分析和传播有关教育投入、流程和结果（尤其是学生学习）的信息。成功的教育管理信息系统取决于适当的政策、预算、人力资源、组织结构和机构的相互作用，以产生有效的教育数据。它应该使所有数据使用者都能从数据中受益，并促进数据驱动的决策、透明度和问责制。数据用户可以包括中央和地方当局、学校、教师、家长和更广泛的社区，包括媒体、研究人员和非政府组织 （NGO）。智能系统需要 （1） 结构和系统的高度可靠性、效率和可持续性;（2） 完全集成系统的所有功能;（3） 基础设施的高安全性，尤其是在极端和非常规条件下;（4） 持续的健康和完整性监测;（5） 损坏检测和自我恢复;（6） 智能运营和管理系统。

An EMIS can be defined as ‘a system for the collection, integration, processing, maintenance and dissemination of data and information to support decision-making, policy-analysis and formulation, planning, monitoring and management at all levels of an education system. It is a system of people, technology, models, methods, processes, procedures, rules and regulations that function together to provide education leaders, decision-makers and managers at all levels with a comprehensive, integrated set of relevant, reliable, unambiguous and timely data and information to support them in completion of their responsibilities’ (UNESCO, 2008).
教育管理信息系统可定义为“用于收集、整合、处理、维护和传播数据和信息的系统，以支持教育系统各级的决策、政策分析和制定、规划、监测和管理。它是一个由人员、技术、模型、方法、流程、程序、规则和条例组成的系统，它们共同发挥作用，为各级教育领导者、决策者和管理者提供一整套 全面、综合的相关、可靠、明确和及时的数据和信息，以支持他们履行职责“（UNESCO，2008 年）。

The development of an effective EMIS is a complex and expensive undertaking under the best of circumstances. During emergencies, it is even more challenging because multiple organizations are generally involved in the provision of education, making it difficult to establish common data requirements and to coordinate data collection from the various organizations. In designing EMIS, therefore, it is important to consider the needs of all the groups that will rely on the information, including central ministry planners, officials of other national ministries (for example, finance), regional and district education officials, donors, and NGOs. Ultimately, for EMIS to be effective as a planning and management tool, national needs, not donor requirements, must be the primary force behind the development of the system. Despite the difficulties associated with the development of an EMIS, emergencies may provide an opportunity for establishing a better functioning EMIS than was in place before the crisis.
在最好的情况下，开发有效的 EMIS 是一项复杂且昂贵的工作。在紧急情况下，这更具挑战性，因为教育的提供通常涉及多个组织，因此很难建立通用数据要求和协调各个组织的数据收集。因此，在设计 EMIS 时，重要的是要考虑所有依赖这些信息的群体的需求，包括中央部委规划者、其他国家部委（例如财政部）的官员、地区和地区教育官员、捐助者和非政府组织。归根结底，要使教育管理信息系统有效地作为一种规划和管理工具，国家需求，而不是捐助者的要求，必须成为系统发展的主要力量。尽管 EMIS 的开发存在困难，但紧急情况可能为建立比危机前功能更好的 EMIS 提供机会。

Managing an entire school is quite hard. And it becomes even harder when you need to switch to multiple apps (applications) and tools to access education data.
管理整个学校是相当困难的。当您需要切换到多个应用程序（应用程序）和工具来访问教育数据时，它会变得更加困难。

Solution? A centralized system that holds all the data in one place. And this is where the Education Management Information System (EMIS) comes into the picture.
溶液？将所有数据保存在一个地方的集中式系统。这就是教育管理信息系统 （EMIS） 的用武之地。

But what is Education Management System, and how can it help with education management?
但什么是教育管理系统，它如何帮助教育管理？

An EMIS is a software/platform that you can use to collect, process, integrate, and manage data and information. It’s a centralized tool that holds every bit of information in an intuitive and innovative manner.
EMIS 是一种软件/平台，可用于收集、处理、集成和管理数据和信息。它是一个集中式工具，以直观和创新的方式保存每一点信息。

Using an EMIS, you can view and monitor your school’s education programs and allocate resources for the same.
使用 EMIS，您可以查看和监控学校的教育计划并为此分配资源。

Basically, an EMIS offers you a hawk-eyed view of your school so that you can manage it better.
基本上，EMIS为您提供了对学校的鹰眼视图，以便您可以更好地管理它。

Let’s talk about its advantages.
让我们谈谈它的优势。

What are the benefits of a centralized education management information system?
集中式教育管理信息系统有哪些好处？

1. Improves Decision Making
1. 提高决策能力

When you have all the data in one place, you can monitor everything easily. This way, you don’t have to look around for information here and there.
当您将所有数据集中在一个地方时，您可以轻松监控所有内容。这样，您就不必四处寻找信息。

You can simply access the info, analyze the same and make quick decisions based on facts.
您可以简单地访问信息、分析信息并根据事实做出快速决策。

2. Enhanced Student Info Management
2. 增强学生信息管理

Tracking student info is one of the most chaotic tasks. And this is what an EMIS helps simplify.
跟踪学生信息是最混乱的任务之一。这就是 EMIS 有助于简化的地方。

With an effective EMIS, you can create a student dashboard that contains student:
使用有效的 EMIS，您可以创建包含以下 student 的学生仪表板：

Attendance Data
出勤数据

Exam Data
考试数据

General Performance Information
一般性能信息

Fee Data
费用数据

…and much more.
…以及更多。

This way you can track the student info in seconds. Also, you can offer access to student data to the teachers and to the parents.
这样，您可以在几秒钟内跟踪学生信息。此外，您还可以向教师和家长提供对学生数据的访问权限。

3. Enhanced Communication
3. 加强沟通

An EMIS helps you improve communication at all levels. You can reach out to teachers, parents, or even students both collectively and individually. Also, your teachers can do the same, saving you time.
EMIS 可帮助您改善各个层面的沟通。您可以集体或单独联系老师、家长甚至学生。此外，您的老师也可以这样做，从而节省您的时间。

4. Better Examination Management
4. 更好的考试管理

Using an EMIS, managing exams becomes a breeze. The teachers can schedule the exams and share the related info on the portal.
使用 EMIS，管理考试变得轻而易举。教师可以在门户上安排考试并共享相关信息。

Also, the same portal can be used for tracking the grades and notifying the parents. This will help lower some burdens off your teachers’ shoulders.
此外，同一个门户可用于跟踪成绩和通知家长。这将有助于减轻老师肩上的一些负担。

5. Enhances Teacher Productivity
5. 提高教师的工作效率

An EMIS manages several tasks such as attendance, fee management, student info, exams, etc. As a result, teachers can focus better on enhancing student learning.
EMIS 管理多项任务，例如出勤、费用管理、学生信息、考试等。因此，教师可以更好地专注于提高学生的学习能力。

This helps increase teacher productivity along with student academic performance.
这有助于提高教师的工作效率和学生的学习成绩。

What Is All About Educational Management?
什么是教育管理？

Education management is the administration that oversees an education system. This administration is responsible for designing, planning and implementing learning structures. Professionals in education management can specialize in human resources, student services, financial aid, testing and disability accommodations. These positions focus on various aspects of education and work toward the improvement and optimization of the educational system.
教育管理是监督教育系统的行政部门。该管理部门负责设计、规划和实施学习结构。教育管理专业人士可以专注于人力资源、学生服务、经济援助、测试和残疾住宿。这些职位专注于教育的各个方面，并致力于改进和优化教育系统。

Educational management, also sometimes known as educational administration, is commonly associated with elementary and secondary schools as well as institutes of higher learning like colleges and universities. Education management professionals can also be found working in governmental agencies, private companies, and not-for-profit organizations. Those working in educational management might develop education policy, conduct research, or consult to help evaluate and develop ways to enrich and enhance the educational system at all levels. Most educational management professionals have earned at least a master’s degree and many are licensed teachers or principals.
教育管理，有时也称为教育管理，通常与小学和中学以及学院和大学等高等教育机构有关。教育管理专业人士也可以在政府机构、私营公司和非营利组织工作。从事教育管理工作的人可能会制定教育政策、进行研究或咨询，以帮助评估和开发丰富和增强各级教育系统的方法。大多数教育管理专业人士至少获得了硕士学位，其中许多人是有执照的教师或校长。

Leadership skills are a must in this field. Professionals working in education management must also have good decision-making and problem-solving skills. They should also be good communicators and be comfortable working with teachers, parents, and children, as well as other community members.
领导技能是这个领域的必备条件。从事教育管理的专业人士还必须具有良好的决策和解决问题的能力。他们还应该是良好的沟通者，并乐于与老师、家长和孩子以及其他社区成员合作。

While Education is the provision of a series of learning experiences to students in order to impart knowledge, values, attitudes and skills with the ultimate aim of making them productive members of society, Educational Management is the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities of an institution by utilizing human and material resources so as to effectively and efficiently accomplish functions of teaching, extension work and research.
教育是向学生提供一系列学习经验，以传授知识、价值观、态度和技能，最终目的是使他们成为社会的生产力成员，而教育管理是通过利用人力和物力资源来规划、组织、指导和控制机构活动的过程，以便有效和高效地完成教学功能。 推广工作和研究。

Nature and Scope:
性质和范围：

The National Policies on Education seek to bring about a social, economic and cultural development in society by focusing on human resource development through education.
国家教育政策旨在通过教育关注人力资源开发，从而促进社会、经济和文化的发展。

Education, therefore, must have more relevant curricula, be dynamic, and empower students to bring about desirable social changes while preserving the desirable aspects of our existing culture.
因此，教育必须有更相关的课程，保持活力，并赋予学生权力，让他们在保留我们现有文化的理想方面的同时，带来理想的社会变革。

The national developmental goals require the professional management of education to bring about the effective and efficient functioning of educational institutions.
国家发展目标要求对教育进行专业管理，以实现教育机构的有效和高效运作。

The scope of Educational Management is wide and includes the history and theories of management science, roles and responsibilities of an educational manager along with the requisite managerial skills.
教育管理的范围很广，包括管理科学的历史和理论、教育管理者的角色和职责以及必要的管理技能。

Educational Management focuses on:
教育管理侧重于：

-the study of theories of management science which define and describe the roles and responsibilities of the educational manager and the development of managerial skills.
- 研究管理科学理论，定义和描述教育管理者的角色和责任以及管理技能的发展。

-the study of educational planning at macro levels, its goals, principles, approaches and processes and on institutional planning and educational administration at the micro level.
- 宏观层面的教育规划、目标、原则、方法和过程的研究，以及微观层面的机构规划和教育管理的研究。

-decision making, problem solving, communication, information management and effective team building.
- 决策、解决问题、沟通、信息管理和有效的团队建设。

-Planning of curricular and co-curricular activities, curriculum and academic calendar
- 规划课程和课外活动、课程和学术日历

-Maintenance of school records, evaluation of students‟ achievement
- 维护学校记录，评估学生成绩

-Effective allocation of financial resources and the planning of the budgets of institutions.
- 有效分配财务资源和规划机构预算。

Educational Management aims at:
教育管理的目标是：

Achieving an institution’s objectives
实现机构的目标

Improving the processes of planning, organizing and implementing within the institution
改进机构内部的规划、组织和实施流程

Creating, enhancing and maintaining a positive public image of the institution
建立、提升和维护该机构的积极公众形象

Optimal utilization of human resources (administrators, non-teaching staff, teaching staff and students)
人力资源（管理人员、非教学人员、教职员工和学生）的最佳利用

Enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of infrastructure
提高基础设施的效率和有效性

Enabling job satisfaction
提高工作满意度

Creating and maintaining a congenial and cohesive atmosphere
创造并保持融洽和有凝聚力的氛围

Managing interpersonal conflicts, stress
管理人际冲突、压力

Improving interpersonal communication.
改善人际沟通。

Building a relationship with the community.
与社区建立关系。

The functions of Educational Management are largely based on Henry Fayol‟s 14 Principles of Management, namely,
教育管理的功能主要基于亨利·法约尔 （Henry Fayol） 的 14 项管理原则，即：

1/Division of work
1/工作分工

2/Authority
2/权威

3/Discipline
3/学科

4/Unity of command
4/统一指挥

5/Unity of direction
5/方向统一

6/Subordination of individual interests
6/个人利益的从属关系

7/Remuneration
7/报酬

8/Centralization
8/集中化

9/Scalar chain
9/标量链

10/Material and social order
10/物质和社会秩序

11/Equity
11/赢率

12/Stability
12/稳定性

13/Initiative
13/主动

14/Esprit de corps
14/Esprit de corps 乐队

These functions can be encapsulated into the following 5 functions:
这些函数可以封装为以下 5 个函数：

1. Planning: is the process of setting objectives and determining the actions in order to achieve them. Planning is anticipatory in nature and sets priorities. It is proactive rather than passive.
1. 规划：是设定目标并确定实现目标的行动的过程。规划本质上是预期性的，并设定了优先事项。它是主动的，而不是被动的。

Planning asks the following questions: What? When? Where? By whom? How? while following a series of steps:
规划会提出以下问题：什么？什么时候？哪里？由谁提供？如何？同时执行一系列步骤：

Defining Objectives (setting objectives or goals)
定义目标 （设置目标或目标）

↓

Determining the current status with respect to the objectives (being aware of opportunities)
确定目标的当前状态（了解机会）

↓

Determining planning premises (analyzing the situation for external factors and forecasting future trends; generation of future scenarios)
确定规划前提（分析外部因素的情况并预测未来趋势、生成未来情景）

↓

Identifying alternative (best alternative to accomplish the objectives)
确定替代方案（实现目标的最佳替代方案）

↓

Choosing an alternative (selecting the course of action to be pursued)
选择替代方案（选择要采取的行动方案）

↓

Formulating support plans (arranging for human and material resources)
制定支持计划（安排人力和物力）

↓

Implementing the plan (action stage which also involves evaluation)
实施计划（行动阶段，也涉及评估）

2. Organizing: is the process of combining the work which individuals or groups have to perform with facilities necessary for its execution such that the duties performed provide the best channels for efficient, systematic, positive and coordinated application of available effort.
2. 组织：是将个人或团体必须执行的工作与执行其所需的设施相结合的过程，以便所履行的职责为有效、系统、积极和协调地应用可用努力提供最佳渠道。

Organizing is characterized by:
组织的特点是：

Division of work or specialization: Activities are assigned to different people who are specialists in that area, for specialization improves efficiency.
工作分工或专业化：将活动分配给该领域的专家，因为专业化可以提高效率。

Orientation towards goals: it harmonizes the individual goals of employees with the overall goals of the institution.
目标导向：它将员工的个人目标与机构的总体目标相协调。

Composition of individuals and groups: individuals are grouped into departments and their work is coordinated and directed towards organiational goals.
个人和团体的组成：个人被分组到部门中，他们的工作被协调并朝着组织目标的方向发展。

Differentiated functions: the entire work is divided and assigned to individuals so that the organization’s objectives are achieved. While each individual performs a different task, each one also coordinates with the tasks of others.
差异化功能：整个工作被划分并分配给个人，以实现组织的目标。虽然每个人都执行不同的任务，但每个人都会与他人的任务协调。

Continuous process: groups of people with defined relationships with each other work together to achieve the goals of the organization. These relationships do not end once the task is completed.
持续过程：彼此之间具有明确关系的一群人共同努力实现组织的目标。这些关系不会在任务完成后结束。

Delegation of authority: the levels of hierarchy are determined and the span of control is determined via formal relationships.
授权：层次结构的级别是通过正式关系确定的，控制范围是确定的。

Establishing a communication channel: for effective decision making, coordination, control, supervision and feedback, motivation and redressing problems or grievances encountered.
建立沟通渠道：进行有效的决策、协调、控制、监督和反馈、激励和纠正遇到的问题或不满。

3. Directing: is the art or process of influencing people such that they willingly strive to achieve group goals. It focuses on the development of willingness to work with zeal and confidence, provides adequate guidelines to complete the task, and motivates individuals to achieve goals in a coordinated manner. It also focuses on exercising leadership while determining responsibility and accountability.
3. 指导：是影响人们的艺术或过程，使他们愿意努力实现团队目标。它侧重于培养以热情和自信工作的能力，为完成任务提供足够的指导方针，并激励个人以协调的方式实现目标。它还侧重于在确定责任和问责制的同时行使领导力。

4. Controlling: involves measuring and monitoring performance in accordance with plans and taking corrective action when required. It establishes performance standards based on the objectives, measures and reports actual performance compares the two and takes corrective or preventive action as necessary.
4. 控制：包括根据计划衡量和监控绩效，并在需要时采取纠正措施。它根据目标建立绩效标准，衡量和报告实际绩效，对两者进行比较，并在必要时采取纠正或预防措施。

Thus controlling indicates the quantum of goals achieved, the extent of deviation from actual plans, generates accurate information and requisite feedback. Thus controlling focuses upon the difference between planned and actual performance.
因此，控制表明了实现的目标数量、与实际计划的偏差程度，从而产生准确的信息和必要的反馈。因此，控制侧重于计划绩效和实际绩效之间的差异。

Controlling is especially concerned with the areas of Institutional Budget (finance in terms of income and expenditure), Institutional Supplies (stationery and material equipment), Library (maintenance and up gradation), Teaching-learning Process, Accounts and School Records and Discipline (staff and students).
控制尤其关注机构预算（收入和支出方面的财务）、机构用品（文具和材料设备）、图书馆（维护和升级）、教与学过程、账目和学校记录以及纪律（教职员工和学生）等领域。

5. Evaluating: is the process of measuring and assessing the achievement of objectives while providing an insight into strengths and weaknesses and planning for future endeavors.
5. 评估：是衡量和评估目标实现情况的过程，同时提供对优势和劣势的洞察，并为未来的努力进行规划。

Evaluation helps determine the effectiveness of plans for both administrators and other stakeholders like teachers, staff, students and parents, as also the extended community. It seeks to document the objectives that have been met and to provide information to all concerned stakeholders regarding achievement, obstacles and corrective action or improvements.
评估有助于确定计划对管理人员和其他利益相关者（如教师、工作人员、学生和家长）以及扩展社区的有效性。它旨在记录已实现的目标，并向所有相关利益相关者提供有关成就、障碍和纠正措施或改进的信息。

Thus evaluation focuses upon Process (how is the plan being carried out), Outcome (achievement of objectives), and Impact (effect of the plans initiated).
因此，评估的重点是过程（计划是如何执行的）、结果（目标的实现）和影响（启动的计划的效果）。

In an educational setting, evaluation of the following areas is carried out, namely,
在教育环境中，对以下领域进行评估，即：

Goals and Objectives
目标和目的

Content: Selection, Validity, Relevance, Appropriateness
内容：选择、有效性、相关性、适当性

Processes: teacher activities, pupil activities, instructional material, teaching methods
流程：教师活动、学生活动、教学材料、教学方法

Outcome: Assessment and Feedback
结果：评估和反馈

Characteristics of Good Management
良好管理的特征

The characteristics of successful school management are given in the following points:
成功的学校管理的特点如下：

(1) Flexibility,
（1） 灵活性，

(2) Practicability,
（2） 实用性，

(3) Conformity to the social and political philosophy of the country.
（3） 符合该国的社会和政治哲学。

(4) Efficiency.
（4） 效率。

(5) Successful achievement of desired objectives.
（5） 成功实现预期目标。

(1) Flexibility: One of the essential characteristics of successful school management is its flexible character. The manager should be dynamic, not static; it should provide enough scope for additions and alternations. The rules and regulations should act as a means to end and not an end in themselves. Dead uniformity and mechanical efficiency is the very antithesis of good administration. The framework of administration should provide enough scope to the administrator to help the needy student, and the needy teacher, to change the time schedule to suit the weather and to meet any emergency. A word of caution here. Flexibility does not mean that the administration should be in a fluid condition without any specific norm or standard
（1） 灵活性：成功的学校管理的基本特征之一是其灵活的特性。经理应该是动态的，而不是静态的;它应该为添加和更改提供足够的空间。规则和条例应该是结束的手段，而不是目的本身。死的均匀性和机械效率是良好管理的对立面。管理框架应为管理人员提供足够的空间，以帮助有需要的学生和有需要的教师更改时间表以适应天气和应对任何紧急情况。这里要注意的是。灵活性并不意味着给药应该处于没有任何特定规范或标准的流体状态

rules and regulations, creating confusion and chaos at every step. What is meant, is a proper balance between rigidity and elasticity.
规章制度，每一步都造成混乱和混乱。这意味着刚度和弹性之间的适当平衡。

(2) Practicability: The school management must not be a bundle of theoretical principles, but must provide practical measure to achieve the desired objectives. Whatever objective is decided it must be achievable and practicable to avoid frustration.
（2） 实用性：学校管理不能是一堆理论原则，而必须提供实际措施以实现预期目标。无论决定什么目标，都必须是可实现和可行的，以避免挫折。

(3) Conformity to the Social and Political Philosophy of the Country: There must be close connection between school management and the social and political philosophy of a country. It must adjust itself to the impact of new ideals, new patterns and new moves of the society. In an autocratic country, educational theory and practice will have to be different form that of a democratic country because education is one of the means to achieve social and political objectives. American education is decentralized and democratized whereas Chinese education can be characterized by regimentation due to political philosophies of the respective countries.
（3） 符合该国的社会和政治哲学：学校管理与一个国家的社会和政治哲学之间必须有密切的联系。它必须适应社会新理想、新模式和新行动的影响。在一个专制国家，教育理论和实践必须与民主国家不同，因为教育是实现社会和政治目标的手段之一。美国教育是分散和民主化的，而中国教育由于各自国家的政治理念而具有条条框化的特点。

(4) Efficiency: Successful management is that which result in maximum efficiency. This will be possible only when human and material resources are properly utilized- right man at the right place; right work at the right time, every activity and project are well planned and well executed.
（4） 效率：成功的管理是导致最大效率的管理。只有当人力和物力资源得到适当利用时，这才有可能——正确的人在正确的地方;在正确的时间进行正确的工作，每项活动和项目都经过精心策划和执行。

(5) Successful Achievement of Desired Objectives: Successful management is one which leads to the successful achievement of desired objectives of education in a particular community e.g., healthy social living, development of good physical, social, moral, intellectual and aesthetic qualities and healthy democratic living.
（5） 成功实现预期目标：成功的管理是导致特定社区成功实现预期教育目标的目标，例如，健康的社会生活，良好的身体、社会、道德、智力和审美品质的发展以及健康的民主生活。

School management must facilitate education. It exists for the pupil and its efficiency has to be measured by the extent to which it contributes to teaching and learning.
学校管理必须促进教育。它为学生而存在，其效率必须通过它对教学的贡献程度来衡量。

Quality Management in Education
教育质量管理

Institutions must learn to work with fewer resources. Educational professionals must help students develop the skills they need to compete in a global economy. The quality of education will improve when administrators, teachers, staff, and school board members develop new attitudes that focus on leadership, teamwork, cooperation, accountability and recognition.
机构必须学会使用更少的资源。教育专业人士必须帮助学生培养在全球经济中竞争所需的技能。当管理人员、教师、工作人员和学校董事会成员培养注重领导力、团队合作、合作、问责制和认可的新态度时，教育质量将得到提高。

• In the changing context marked by expansion of education and globalization of economic activities, education has become a national concern with an international dimension. To cope with this changing context, countries have been pressurized to ensure and assure quality of education at a nationally comparable and internationally acceptable standard.
• 在以教育扩张和经济活动全球化为标志的不断变化的背景下，教育已成为具有国际意义的 国家关注问题。为了应对这种不断变化的环境，各国承受着压力，必须确保和保证教育质量达到国内可比和国际可接受的标准。

• Quality management framework of any institution is derived from its broad objectives. Therefore, the right objectives of education must be set, both at the national as well as institution levels, before implementing the total quality management.
• 任何机构的质量管理框架都源于其广泛的目标。因此，在实施全面质量管理之前，必须在国家和机构层面设定正确的教育目标。

(a) Social Excellence: Social norms are the foundation of a country’s culture and provide longevity to its social values.
（a） 社会卓越：社会规范是一个国家文化的基础，是其社会价值观的源泉。

(b) National Excellence: Unity and integrity among the countrymen cannot be taken for granted. It must be designed, developed and groomed through the educational processes. The irony is that it can easily be lost…
（b） 国家卓越：不能认为国人之间的团结和正直是理所当然的。它必须通过教育过程进行设计、开发和培养。具有讽刺意味的是，它很容易丢失......

(c) Academic Excellence: This focuses around academic outcome, results of academic learning. This is a creation of the right capabilities of engineering, medicine, chemistry etc. Its quality is usually measured by Industry Feedbacks, Employability, Career Progression, Accessibility, Affordability, and fulfil of National Economic and Defense Priorities, etc.
（c） 学术卓越：这侧重于学术成果，即学术学习的结果。这是工程、医学、化学等正确能力的创造。它的质量通常通过行业反馈、就业能力、职业发展、可及性、可负担性以及国家经济和国防优先事项的实现情况等来衡量。

• The vision of quality of education is very much a function of the mission of the education system, educational training, social insertion, preparation for work, and for citizenship. These are occurring in particular, historical, ideological and in political context.
• 教育质量的愿景在很大程度上取决于教育系统的使命、教育培训、社会融入、工作准备和公民身份。这些事件尤其发生在历史、意识形态和政治背景下。

• Globalization of societies will require a common share of an international system of values: account has to be taken of local and national cultural identities, as well as universal moral and ethical consideration of tolerance, solidarity and human rights.
• 社会全球化需要国际价值体系的共同份额：必须考虑到地方和国家的文化特性，以及对宽容、团结和人权的普遍道德和伦理考虑。

• The combination and parallelism of the fast evolution and progress of science and technology, and of the massive and universal development of information and communication, have numerous consequences on the vision of quality of education.
• 科学技术的快速发展和进步，以及信息和通信的大规模和普遍发展，对教育质量的愿景产生了许多影响。

• In addition to setting the right educational processes, it is equally important to build management capabilities and practices within universities, colleges and schools. There are four aspects of management, which affect the overall quality of institutions.
• 除了设置正确的教育流程外，在大学、学院和学校内建立管理能力和实践也同样重要。管理有四个方面，影响机构的整体质量。

(a) Institutional leadership: This includes the abilities of teacher and academicians to conceive the vision of quality. This aspect is not just for the principals and/or vice chancellors or deans to practice, but also needful for teachers in order to assume leadership in their classrooms.
（a） 机构领导：这包括教师和院士构想质量愿景的能力。这方面不仅适合校长和/或副校长或院长练习，而且也适合教师在课堂上发挥领导作用。

(b) Quality Administration: Administration function is important at two levels; i.e. institutional and classroom. The principals or registrars manage the institutional administration.
（b） 质量管理：管理职能在两个层面上都很重要;即机构和课堂。委托人或注册商管理机构管理。

Administration quality includes:
管理质量包括：

(c) Quality Assurance (QA) Framework: This revolves around three basic functions: Quality planning, measuring quality and quality control, and initiatives for improving quality. Main activities in educational institutions include: establishing indicators for performance measurement, collecting such data and analyzing it, collecting and analyzing the root-cause of quality problems.
（c） 质量保证 （QA） 框架：这围绕着三个基本功能：质量规划、衡量质量和质量控制，以及提高质量的举措。教育机构的主要活动包括：建立绩效衡量指标，收集和分析这些数据，收集和分析质量问题的根本原因。

A highly qualified teacher does not mean high quality teacher. Highly qualified refers to high level of degrees. Whereas, this quite seldom means he/she can teach the subject matter effectively. For a teacher to be a good one, he/she will have to build capabilities in many other fields, in addition to the subject matter.
高素质的教师并不意味着高素质的教师。高素质是指高水平的学位。然而，这很少意味着他/她可以有效地教授该主题。要成为一名优秀的教师，除了学科之外，他/她还必须在许多其他领域培养能力。

• The chief wealth of leading edge enterprises lies in the qualities of their human capital. This is all the more true for higher education establishment, so complex and demanding are the tasks (education, research and services) required of them. On the part of teachers and researcher they demand not only great ability but also involvement and ethical values meeting the requirements of quality directed at social relevance. The quality of the staff implies acceptable social and financial status, a will to reduce inequalities such as those relating to gender. A concern to manage staff in accordance with the merit principle and provide them with the in-service training they need, in order to fulfil their role in a changing society.
• 领先企业的主要财富在于其人力资本的质量。对于高等教育机构来说更是如此，他们所需的任务（教育、研究和服务）是如此复杂和苛刻。对于教师和研究人员来说，他们不仅需要出色的能力，还需要参与和道德价值观，满足针对社会相关性的质量要求。工作人员的素质意味着可接受的社会和经济地位，以及减少不平等（例如与性别有关的不平等）的意愿。关注根据任人唯贤原则管理员工，并为他们提供所需的在职培训，以便在不断变化的社会中发挥他们的作用。

• The quality of education and schooling is linked with the qualification of teachers, curriculum, and educational material, teaching methodologies, equipment and physical facilities. It is well understood that the real impact of these factors on quality of education can be determined through valid and reliable examination. The performance measure of the students and teacher is based on their examination results only.
• 教育和学校教育的质量与教师资格、课程和教育材料、教学方法、设备和物理设施有关。众所周知，这些因素对教育质量的真正影响可以通过有效和可靠的检查来确定。学生和教师的成绩衡量标准仅基于他们的考试成绩。

• There are four main aspects of exams, which affect their quality:
• 考试有四个主要方面，会影响其质量：

(i) Planning: ensure compatibility with the lesson plans, independence, language, confidentiality, etc.
（i） 规划：确保与课程计划的兼容性、独立性、语言、保密性等。

(ii) Reliability and validity, ensure that exams measure what they are supposed to measure keeping in view the bloom’s taxonomy
（ii） 可靠性和有效性，确保检查衡量他们应该衡量的东西，同时考虑到 Bloom 的分类法

(iii) Management, ensure that it is conducted effectively, and
（iii） 管理，确保其有效执行，以及

(iv) Analysis of results with appropriate statistical techniques and understanding.
（iv） 使用适当的统计技术和理解分析结果。

• If there is any desire to pull out their nations from marshes of decline, decay and degradation, education must be completely revamped and an important step in this direction is to introduce clean and honest entry examinations to all professional educational institutions at provincial and national levels.
• 如果有人想把他们的国家从衰落、腐朽和退化的沼泽中拉出来，就必须彻底改革教育，朝着这个方向迈出的重要一步是将廉洁和诚实的入学考试引入省级和国家级的所有专业教育机构。

• The quality of the students who constitute the raw material of higher education requires special attention to their problems of access in the light of criteria related to merit (abilities and motivation); proactive policies for the benefit of disadvantaged; exchanges with secondary education and with the bodies involved in the transition from secondary to higher education, to ensure that education is an unbroken chain.
• 构成高等教育原材料的学生的素质需要根据与成绩（能力和动机）相关的标准特别关注他们的入学问题;为弱势群体谋福利的积极政策;与中等教育以及参与从中等教育向高等教育过渡的机构进行交流，以确保教育是一个不间断的链条。

• Student capability is developed as much by learning experiences as by specific content of courses. If students are to develop justified confidence in their ability to take purposive and sensible action, and to develop the unseemly characteristics of confidence in their ability to learn, belief in their power to perform and proven power of judgment in unfamiliar situations, they need real experiment of being responsible and accountable for their own learning, with the rigorous, interactive, supportive and, for them, unfamiliar environment of higher education.
• 学生的能力既是通过学习经验来发展的，也是通过课程的具体内容来发展的。如果学生要对他们采取有目的和明智的行动的能力产生合理的信心，并培养对自己学习能力的信心、对自己执行能力的信念和在不熟悉的情况下经过验证的判断力的不体面特征，他们需要对自己的学习负责和负责的真正实验。 拥有严谨、互动、支持性，对他们来说，陌生的高等教育环境。

The quality of education and research assumes the existence of an adequate physical infrastructure that matches need. It also assumes, however, that such infrastructure is maintained and managed in the best possible way in the institution interests and not mainly for the convenience of the managers.
教育和研究的质量以存在满足需求的适当物理基础设施为前提。然而，它也假设这种基础设施的维护和管理符合机构的利益，而不仅仅是为了管理者的利益。

Evolution of Concept of Management in Education
教育管理理念的演变

Educational management as a field of study and practice was derived from management principles first applied to industry and commerce, mainly in the United States. Theory development largely involved the application of industrial models to educational settings. As the subject became established as an academic field in its own right, its theorists and practitioners began to develop alternative models based on their observation of, and experience in schools and colleges. By the 21st century the main theories, had either been developed in the educational context or had been adapted from industrial models to meet the specific requirements of schools and colleges. Educational management has progressed from being a new field dependent upon ideas developed in other settings to become an established field with its own theories and research.
教育管理作为一个研究和实践领域，源自最初应用于工商业的管理原则，主要在美国。理论发展主要涉及将工业模型应用于教育环境。随着该学科本身成为一个学术领域，其理论家和实践者开始根据他们对学校和学院的观察和经验开发替代模型。到 21 世纪，主要理论要么是在教育环境中发展起来的，要么是从工业模式改编而来的，以满足学校和学院的特定要求。教育管理已经从一个依赖于其他环境中发展的思想的新领域发展成为一个拥有自己的理论和研究的成熟领域。

There is no single all-embracing theory of educational management. In part this reflects the astonishing diversity of educational institutions, ranging from small rural elementary schools to very large universities and colleges. It relates also to the varied nature of the problems encountered in schools and colleges, which require different approaches and solutions. Above all, it reflects the multifaceted nature of theory in education and the social sciences: “Students of educational management who turn to organizational theory for guidance in their attempt to understand and manage educational institutions will not find a single, universally applicable theory but a multiplicity of theoretical approaches each jealously guarded by a particular epistemic community” – P.Ribbins
没有单一的包罗万象的教育管理理论。这在一定程度上反映了教育机构的惊人多样性，从小型农村小学到非常大型的大学和学院。它还与学校和学院遇到的问题的不同性质有关，这些问题需要不同的方法和解决方案。最重要的是，它反映了教育和社会科学理论的多面性：“在试图理解和管理教育机构的过程中，转向组织理论寻求指导的教育管理学生不会找到一个单一的、普遍适用的理论，而是多种理论方法，每种方法都受到特定认识社区的嫉妒保护” – P.Ribbins

Educational Administration:
教育管理：

Educational Management and Educational Administration are terms used interchangeably.
Educational Management 和 Educational Administration 是可以互换使用的术语。

However, Educational Administration is a specialized activity which runs the entire educational program composed of human and material resources in an organized manner towards a fruitful and constructive goal.
然而，教育管理是一项专门的活动，它以有组织的方式运行由人力和物力资源组成的整个教育计划，以实现富有成效和建设性的目标。

Educational institutions operate in a dynamic environment. They therefore must constantly identify and implement improvements in their own setup. Doing so requires the administrators, faculty, and staff to constantly access training and developmental opportunities.
教育机构在动态环境中运作。因此，他们必须不断在自己的设置中识别和实施改进。这样做需要管理人员、教职员工不断获得培训和发展机会。

The process of continuous improvement thrives when the mindset of the stakeholders is geared towards constant monitoring, problem identification and research.
当利益相关者的心态面向持续监控、问题识别和研究时，持续改进的过程就会蓬勃发展。

Educational Administration therefore performs a three-fold task to ensure efficient working, namely,
因此，教育管理部门执行三重任务来确保高效工作，即：

 Stating the specific purpose and mission of education in general and of institutions in particular.
• 说明教育的具体目的和使命，特别是机构的具体目的和使命。

 Ensuring that work is productive by nurturing human resources to be productive in their endeavors.
• 通过培养人力资源使其在工作中富有成效，确保工作富有成效。

 Designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals work together in groups efficiently to accomplish set goals.
• 设计和维护一个环境，让个人在团队中有效地合作以实现既定目标。

Thus, Educational Administration deals with the optimal functioning of the institution by developing the human personality in a balanced manner.
因此，教育管理通过以平衡的方式发展人类个性来处理机构的最佳运作。

Educational Administration is concerned with the efficiency and commitment that manpower expresses in the pursuit of goals. It reiterates practical measures adopted to ensure that the system of work assists the educational process and helps realize the set goals and objectives for the benefit of all stakeholders.
教育管理关注人力在追求目标时所表达的效率和承诺。它重申了为确保工作系统协助教育过程并帮助实现既定目标和目标而采取的实际措施，以造福所有利益相关者。

The main Functions of Educational Administration are:
教育管理的主要职能是：

Execution (plans)
执行（计划）

Direction (line of action)
方向（行动线）

Supervision (of work done in the field)
监督（在现场完成的工作）

Advice (methods of work)
建议（工作方法）

Stimulation (work efficiency)
刺激（工作效率）

Exploration (new vistas)
探索（新景观）

Leading (learners‟ programs)
领导（学习者计划）

Assistance (adopting feedback, diagnosing weaknesses)
协助（采纳反馈、诊断弱点）

Execution: In Execution lies the foundation of an institution. Execution not only points out what resources are needed but also the sources of procurement. These resources may include material resources like the building, furniture, library, laboratories, non-material resources like personnel, and other stakeholders like students and parents and abstract resources like vision, mission statement, ideology and values. The Administrative Executive Body systematically plans, arranges for and uses these resources in order to achieve its goals.
执行： 执行是一个机构的基础。执行不仅指出需要哪些资源，还指出采购的来源。这些资源可能包括建筑、家具、图书馆、实验室等物质资源，人员等非物质资源，以及学生和家长等其他利益相关者，以及愿景、使命宣言、意识形态和价值观等抽象资源。行政执行机构系统地规划、安排和使用这些资源，以实现其目标。

Direction: The vision and mission statement of the institution serves to direct the institution in its quest to achieve its goals. Educational Administration ensures that the directives are upheld during curriculum construction and academic planning.
方向： 机构的愿景和使命宣言用于指导机构实现其目标。教育管理部门确保在课程建设和学术规划期间遵守这些指令。

Supervision: Supervision ensures that the plans are being executed according to the directives.
监督：监督确保计划按照指令执行。

It thus enhances the quality of work done and the ensuing accomplishments.
因此，它提高了完成的工作质量和随之而来的成就。

Advice/ Stimulate: Educational Administration analyses the work and manner in which work is done. It weighs the pros and cons and then puts into action plans which help remove the weaknesses and serve to accomplish the set goals.
建议/刺激：教育管理分析工作和完成工作的方式。它权衡利弊，然后将行动计划付诸实施，以帮助消除弱点并有助于实现既定目标。

Explore: Educational Administration initiates research, adopts and adapts to new methods and techniques in order to enhance learning opportunities.
探索： 教育管理部门发起研究，采用和适应新的方法和技术，以增加学习机会。

Lead / Assist: Educational Administration not only lays down the directives but also provides the requisite support system to enable the efficient and effective fruition of the set objectives or goals.
领导/协助： 教育管理部门不仅制定指令，还提供必要的支持系统，以实现既定目标或目标的高效和有效实现。

The Scope of Educational Administration:
教育管理的范围：

Educational Administration involves the following aspects associated with an institution:
教育管理涉及与机构相关的以下方面：

Planning: Planning results in
规划：规划结果

1. Recognition of goals
1. 目标的认知

2. Optimal use of resources
2. 资源的最佳利用

3. Prevention of wastage, duplication of effort and unhealthy practices
3. 防止浪费、重复工作和不健康的做法

4. Orderly execution of plans
4. 有序执行计划

Educational planning is carried out at the central level, the state level, the local level and at the school level.
教育规划在中央、州、地方和学校层面进行。

Budgeting: Budgeting is an essential facet of a successful organization and administration. It calls for an estimated account of revenues and expenditure with scope to embrace contingencies when required.
预算： 预算是成功组织和管理的一个重要方面。它要求对收入和支出进行估计，并在需要时考虑突发事件。

Organizing: Organization focuses on two main aspects: material equipment (infrastructure) and human equipment (stakeholders) with the main aim of maintaining efficiency, productivity, effectiveness and utility in the teaching-learning environment.
组织：组织侧重于两个主要方面：物质设备（基础设施）和人力设备（利益相关者），其主要目的是保持教学环境中的效率、生产力、有效性和实用性。

Educational Administration further influences:
教育管理进一步影响：

 The preparation of curriculum for different classes according to their diverse abilities and aptitudes.
• 根据不同班级的不同能力和能力为他们准备课程。

 The time table and academic calendar
 时间表和校历

 The co-curricular programs
• 课外活动

 Organization and distribution of work
• 工作组织和分配

 Establishment and working of infrastructure
 基础设施的建立和运作

 The organization and conduct of examinations
• 考试的组织和实施

 The organization and functioning of guidance and counselling cells on the campus
• 校园内指导和咨询小组的组织和运作

 The organization of community reach programs
 组织社区推广计划

 The provision of auxiliary services like midday meals, school uniforms, books medical checkups etc.
• 提供辅助服务，如午餐、校服、书籍、体检等。

Conclusions:
结论：

Educational Administration has a vast area of operation ranging from Planning to Budgeting in an effort to make the educational process purposive and functional. An important tool it is effective, systematic and has a definite purpose. It focuses upon the attitude towards work and adopts practical measures to ensure that that the system of work functions efficiently and assists in the achievement of the aims of education thus benefiting the learners who are the main stakeholders in the educational system.
教育管理拥有广泛的业务领域，从规划到预算，以努力使教育过程有目的性和功能性。一个重要的工具，它是有效的、系统的，并且有明确的目的。它注重工作态度，并采取实际措施来确保工作系统有效运作并协助实现教育目标，从而使作为教育系统主要利益相关者的学习者受益。

An Education Management System is no longer an option. It has become a necessity if you want to survive in the school business.
教育管理系统不再是一种选择。如果您想在学校业务中生存，它已成为必需品。

Earlier, such systems were costly. However, with the advent of cloud management systems and the internet, you can easily afford an academic Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).
以前，此类系统成本高昂。但是，随着云管理系统和互联网的出现，您可以轻松负担得起学术企业资源规划 （ERP）。

With a powerful academic ERP for all-around school management you can manage students, faculty, parents, school finance, and almost everything with exceptional solutions.
借助用于全面学校管理的强大学术 ERP，您可以使用卓越的解决方案管理学生、教职员工、家长、学校财务以及几乎所有内容。

Quality Management in Education is creating an environment where educators, parents, government officials, community representatives and business leaders work together to provide students with the resources they need to meet current and future academic, business, and societal challenges.
教育质量管理正在创造一个环境，让教育工作者、家长、政府官员、社区代表和商业领袖共同努力，为学生提供应对当前和未来学术、商业和社会挑战所需的资源。

Quality in education is a multidimensional concept, which includes all related function and activities that form the part of academic life in a university system. Therefore, any framework for assessment of quality should take into account the quality of students, teachers, infrastructure student support services, curricula assessment and resources.
教育质量是一个多维概念，包括构成大学系统学术生活一部分的所有相关职能和活动。因此，任何质量评估框架都应考虑学生、教师、基础设施、学生支持服务、课程评估和资源的质量。

Due to globalization of economies, the tasks for different skill development and the priorities attached to the different skills development significantly change the vision of educational quality.
由于经济全球化，不同技能发展的任务和不同技能发展的优先事项极大地改变了教育质量的愿景。

8-9

Topic 8. Methodology of management in education
主题 8.教育管理方法

Teaching is an art, and like every art, it demands creativity and innovation. The way we teach, the strategies we use, and the methodologies we apply can make a significant difference in the learning outcomes of our students. Thus, it is essential to know about Teaching Methodology- Different Types of Teaching Methods to make the teaching-learning process more effective and enjoyable.
教学是一门艺术，就像每门艺术一样，它需要创造力和创新。我们的教学方式、使用的策略和应用的方法都会对学生的学习成果产生重大影响。因此，了解教学方法 - 不同类型的教学方法以使教学过程更加有效和愉快至关重要。

Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will be based on beliefs about the nature of learning, known as 'Approach'. Teaching methodology refers to the approach that educators use to teach their students. It involves the combination of various techniques, strategies, and activities that aim to improve student learning outcomes.
方法论是教师用来教学的实践和程序系统。它将基于对学习本质的信念，称为“方法”。教学方法是指教育工作者用来教学生的方法。它涉及旨在提高学生学习成果的各种技术、策略和活动的组合。

Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding how to teach include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course objectives, expectations and resources.
许多教师将他们的课程建立在多种方法和方法的基础上，以满足学习者的不同需求以及课程或课程的不同目标。决定如何教学的因素包括学习者的年龄和经验、课程和课程目标、期望和资源。

Methodology is the scientific method and the basis for educational research. The scientific method uses directed questions and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process.
方法论是科学方法，也是教育研究的基础。科学方法使用定向问题和变量操作来系统地查找有关教学过程的信息。

What are the three methodology of teaching?
三种教学方法是什么？

In essence, the three teaching styles boil down to this:
从本质上讲，三种教学风格归结为：

Direct — Tell students what to do.
直接 — 告诉学生该怎么做。

Discuss — Ask questions and listen.
讨论 — 提出问题并倾听。

Delegate — Empower students.
委托 — 为学生赋能。

Methods are important in teaching because they help to facilitate learning and ensure that students are able to acquire knowledge and skills effectively. Effective teaching methods can enhance student engagement, improve their understanding of complex concepts, and promote retention and application of knowledge.
方法在教学中很重要，因为它们有助于促进学习并确保学生能够有效地获得知识和技能。有效的教学方法可以提高学生的参与度，提高他们对复杂概念的理解，并促进知识的保留和应用。

Experiential learning is a great teaching method because it encourages creativity, helps students learn from mistakes, fosters reflective thinking, and prepares students for future experiences.
体验式学习是一种很好的教学方法，因为它鼓励创造力，帮助学生从错误中学习，培养反思性思维，并为学生未来的经历做好准备。

What is the difference between method and methodology in education?
教育方法和方法有什么区别？

'Methodology' is not just a fancier-sounding term for 'methods' – it refers to the school of thought by which you conduct research. Method, on the other hand, is all about practicalities: surveys, experiments, observations and so on.
“方法论”不仅仅是“方法”的一个听起来更花哨的术语——它指的是你进行研究的思想流派。另一方面，方法完全是关于实用性的：调查、实验、观察等等。

Let’s explore the difference in more detail.
让我们更详细地探讨一下差异。

Methodology: Strategizing your approach
方法：制定您的方法

Your methodology will inform the methods that you use to answer a particular research question. Deciding on a methodology before you commence your research journey will guide which types of data collection and analysis methods you will use along the way. In short, your methodology underpins the theoretical rationale for the approach you take, as well as the prism through which you consider your analysis.
您的方法将告知您用来回答特定研究问题的方法。在开始研究之旅之前确定一种方法将指导您将在此过程中使用哪些类型的数据收集和分析方法。简而言之，您的方法论是您所采用的方法的理论基础，以及您考虑分析的棱镜。

Most broadly, examples of this could be quantitative research and qualitative research. Each of these includes a set of commonly used methods, yielding particular types of data, which will dictate how you analyze these data.
最广泛地说，这方面的例子可以是定量研究和定性研究。其中每个方法都包括一组常用的方法，产生特定类型的数据，这将决定您如何分析这些数据。

Method: Doing the work
方法：执行工作

Your method describes how you collect your data. When written up, your methods should contain enough information to allow other researchers to reproduce your work and results. The extent to which your methods are effective in enabling the reproducibility of your research is a testimony to the robustness of your work.
您的方法描述了您如何收集数据。编写完成后，您的方法应包含足够的信息，以便其他研究人员能够重现您的工作和结果。您的方法在实现研究可重复性方面的有效程度证明了您工作的稳健性。

Examples of methods would be interviews or specific experiments, all of which would essentially give you a guide as to how you can answer your research question. These will be underpinned by protocols, describing how you will practically carry out this work in a step-by-step fashion.
方法的示例是访谈或特定实验，所有这些基本上都会为您提供有关如何回答研究问题的指南。这些将以协议为基础，描述您将如何逐步实际执行这项工作。

Methodology vs. Method: How to write them up
方法论与方法论：如何编写它们

If you are publishing in a field where your methodology is not a given, then reporting your methodology is something to consider – the journal may even ask for it. In this case, report the methodology you are using, and make sure that you go into the rationale for choosing this.
如果你在一个研究方法不固定的领域发表文章，那么报告你的研究方法就是需要考虑的事情——期刊甚至可能会要求这样做。在这种情况下，请报告您正在使用的方法，并确保了解选择此方法的理由。

Your methods, on the other hand, should read almost like a step-by-step guide, and have to be detailed enough for others to recreate your process.
另一方面，您的方法应该读起来几乎像分步指南，并且必须足够详细，以便其他人可以重新创建您的过程。

If we sum up, we have to say the following:
如果我们总结一下，我们不得不说以下几点：

While methodology and method are sometimes used interchangeably, they certainly are not. Methodology shapes your methods, and will have profound impact on the types of questions you’re able to answer. A good amount of consideration should be given to which methodology to employ in order to ensure that you can answer your research question appropriately.
虽然方法论和方法有时可以互换使用，但它们肯定不是。方法论塑造了您的方法，并将对您能够回答的问题类型产生深远影响。应该充分考虑采用哪种方法，以确保你能适当地回答你的研究问题。

Which teaching methodology is commonly used for teaching?
教学常用哪种教学方法？

There are different types of teaching methods that can be categorized into four broad types.
有不同类型的教学方法可以分为四大类。

Teacher-centered methods,
以教师为中心的方法，

Student/Learner-centered methods,
以学生/学习者为中心的方法，

Content-focused methods; and
以内容为中心的方法;和

Interactive/participative methods.
互动/参与方法。

Instructor/Teacher-Centered Methods
教师/教师为中心的方法

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority. Learners, on the other hand, are presumed to be passive and copious recipients of knowledge from the teacher.
在这里，教师将自己置于主题大师的角色中。学习者将教师视为专家或权威。另一方面，学习者被假定为被动且丰富的教师知识接受者。

Learner/Student-Centered Methods
以学习者/学生为中心的方法

In learner-centered methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner at the same time. In the words, the teacher plays a dual role as a learner as well “so that in his classroom extends rather than constricts his intellectual horizons”.
在以学习者为中心的方法中，教师/讲师同时是教师和学习者。用这句话来说，教师也扮演着学习者的双重角色，“因此在他的课堂上，他的知识视野是延伸的，而不是局限的”。

The teacher also learns new things every day that he/she didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher “becomes a resource rather than an authority”. Examples of student-centered methods are the discussion method, the discovery or inquiry-based approach, the model of learning through discussion.
老师每天也会学习他/她在教学过程中不知道的新事物。教师“成为资源而不是权威”。以学生为中心的方法的例子有讨论法、发现或探究法、通过讨论学习的模式。

Content-Focused Methods
以内容为中心的方法

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to be taught are regarded as very important.
在这类方法中，教师和学习者都必须适应所教授的内容。一般来说，这意味着要教授的信息和技能被认为非常重要。

A lot of emphasis is laid on clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and the learners cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An example of a method that subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the content is the programmed learning approach.
非常重视内容的清晰度和仔细分析。教师和学习者都不能改变或批评与内容有关的任何事情。将教师和学习者的利益从属于内容的方法的一个例子是程序化学习方法。

Interactive/Participative Methods
互动/参与式方法

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without necessarily laying emphasis on either the learner, content, or teacher. These methods are driven by the situational analysis of what is the most appropriate thing for us to learn/do now given the situation of learners and the teacher.
第四类方法借鉴了其他三种方法，而不必强调学习者、内容或教师。这些方法是由情境分析驱动的，即根据学习者和老师的情况，我们现在学习/做什么最适合我们。

There is no “best” method of teaching. However, many researchers today agree that including more student-centered learning approaches in the classroom can improve learning. Using only a teacher-centered approach leaves out many skills and learning opportunities for students. Yet, there may still be space for teacher-centered learning for some specific topics and learning objectives. However, teacher-centered learning shouldn’t be the only strategy in your teacher toolbox.
没有“最佳”的教学方法。然而，今天许多研究人员都同意，在课堂上纳入更多以学生为中心的学习方法可以改善学习。仅使用以教师为中心的方法会为学生提供许多技能和学习机会。然而，对于某些特定主题和学习目标，可能仍有空间进行以教师为中心的学习。然而，以教师为中心的学习不应该是教师工具箱中的唯一策略。

The bottom line is that each teacher needs to find a teaching style that fits his or her personality. An effective teacher is a passionate teacher who is confident in what they’re doing! So, if any of the strategies on this list of teaching methods intrigues you, why not look into it a bit more? You might discover a new method that motivates your students and improves their learning and your teaching experience!
最重要的是，每位教师都需要找到适合他或她个性的教学风格。有效的老师是充满激情的老师，他对自己所做的事情充满信心！那么，如果这份教学方法列表中的任何策略引起了您的兴趣，为什么不多研究一下呢？您可能会发现一种新方法，可以激励您的学生并改善他们的学习和您的教学体验！

Details of Various Methods with Advantages & Disadvantages
各种方法的优点和缺点的详细信息

What are the Different Teaching Methodologies?
有哪些不同的教学方法？

There are several different teaching methodologies, including:
有几种不同的教学方法，包括：

Lecture-Based Teaching
讲座式教学

Discussion Teaching
讨论 教学

Demonstration Learning
示范学习

Project-Based/Assignment-Based Learning
基于项目/基于任务的学习

Self-instruction Learning
自学学习

Collaborative Learning
协作学习

Flipped Classroom
翻转课堂

Inquiry-Based Learning
探究式学习

Experiential Learning
体验式学习

Problem-Based Learning
基于问题的学习

Lecture Method
授课方式

The lecture method is one of the most traditional and widely used teaching methods. In this method, the teacher delivers the information to the students in a structured and organized manner. This method is suitable for large groups of students and is most effective when the material being presented is complex or theoretical.
讲座法是最传统和应用最广泛的教学方法之一。在这种方法中，教师以结构化和有组织的方式将信息传递给学生。这种方法适用于大批学生，当所介绍的材料是复杂的或理论性的时，这种方法最有效。

USES
使用

To orient students.
引导学生。

To introduce a subject.
介绍主题。

To give directions on procedures.
就程序提供指示。

To present basic material.
介绍基本材料。

To introduce a demonstration, discussion, or performance.
介绍演示、讨论或表演。

To illustrate the application of rules, principles, or concepts.
说明规则、原则或概念的应用。

To review, clarify, emphasize or summarize.
回顾、澄清、强调或总结。

A formal or semi-formal discourse in which the instructor presents a series of events, facts, or principles, explores a problem or explains relationships
教师介绍一系列事件、事实或原则，探讨问题或解释关系的正式或半正式话语

It creates new ideas.
它创造了新的想法。

It is good for a large class.
它适合大班。

The teacher is experienced and has mastery of the subject, explains all points, and can answer all questions raised by students.
老师经验丰富，精通该学科，解释所有要点，并能回答学生提出的所有问题。

Students can ask if they need any clarification.
学生可以询问是否需要任何澄清。

Learn through listening
通过倾听学习

The teacher explains all the points.
老师解释了所有要点。

Students give their input
学生提供他们的意见

The teacher discusses the whole topic in the class in an easy language so students can easily understand the topic.\
老师在课堂上用简单的语言讨论整个主题，以便学生能够轻松理解主题。

It is good for a large class.
它适合大班。

The teacher provides all knowledge related to the topic.
老师提供与主题相关的所有知识。

Time-saving as a teacher is supposed to finish the lecture on time.
节省时间，因为老师应该按时完成讲座。

Students give their views at the end of the lecture.
学生们在讲座结束时发表了他们的观点。

Students can ask the question if they have any problems understanding the lecture.
如果学生在理解讲座时遇到任何问题，可以提出这个问题。

Students attentively listen to a lecture and take notes as the teacher ask questions at the end of the lecture.
学生专心聆听讲座，并在讲座结束时老师提问时做笔记。

Students know and understand basic concepts.
学生了解并理解基本概念。

The teacher knows all the students so he/she can use suitable strategies for the class to make them understand.
老师了解所有学生，因此他/她可以为课堂使用合适的策略来让他们理解。

The teacher is experienced and has mastery of a subject and can answer all questions by students.
老师经验丰富，精通一门学科，可以回答学生的所有问题。

Teachers share information with students so it creates interest in students.
教师与学生共享信息，从而引起学生的兴趣。

Students are more involved and participate when the teacher asks questions.
当老师提问时，学生会更加参与并参与其中。

The teacher provides notes.
老师提供笔记。

Students easily understand every point.
学生很容易理解每一点。

Students share knowledge with the teacher.
学生与老师分享知识。

The teacher is a role model for students.
老师是学生的榜样。

ADVANTAGES  DISADVANTAGES
优点 缺点

Saves time. Involves one-way communication.
节省时间。涉及单向通信。

Permits flexibility. Poses problems in skill teaching.
允许灵活性。在技能教学中带来问题。

Requires less rigid Encourages student passiveness.
要求不那么僵化 鼓励学生被动。

space requirement. Poses difficulty in gauging student
空间要求。难以衡量学生

Permits adaptability. reaction.
允许适应性。反应。

Permits versatility. Require highly skilled instructors.
允许多功能性。需要高技能的教师。

Permits better center
允许更好的中心

over contact and sequence.
过接触和序列。 

Discussion Method
讨论方法

The discussion method involves encouraging students to share their ideas and opinions about a particular topic. This method is effective when the goal is to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
讨论方法包括鼓励学生分享他们对特定主题的想法和意见。当目标是促进批判性思维和解决问题的能力时，这种方法是有效的。

USES
使用

To develop imaginative solutions to problems.
为问题开发富有想象力的解决方案。

To stimulate thinking and interest and to secure student participation.
激发思考和兴趣，确保学生参与。

To emphasize main teaching points.
强调主要教学要点。

To supplement lectures, reading & laboratory exercises.
以补充讲座、阅读和实验室练习。

To determine how well the student understands concepts and principles.
确定学生对概念和原则的理解程度。

To prepare students for the application of the theory of procedure.
为学生应用程序理论做好准备。

To summarize, clarify points or review.
总结、澄清要点或回顾。

It also helps to promote collaboration and teamwork among students.
它还有助于促进学生之间的协作和团队合作。

A method in which group discussion techniques are used to reach instructional objectives.
一种使用小组讨论技术达到教学目标的方法。

Students listen to others’ opinions & express their opinion.
学生们听取他人的意见并表达他们的意见。

Discuss with teachers the points that were missed during the discussion.
与教师讨论讨论中遗漏的要点。

Students learn on their own & find out key points.
学生们自己学习并找出关键点。

Students exchange their ideas.
学生们交流他们的想法。

Students get point of view of all and not only those who always speak.
学生可以了解所有人的观点，而不仅仅是那些总是说话的人。

After discussion when students give their presentation, the teacher corrects their mistakes.
学生进行演示时，经过讨论后，教师会纠正他们的错误。

Students can make their own notes.
学生可以自己做笔记。

The learning is more effective.
学习更有效。

They don’t have to rely on rote learning.
他们不必依赖死记硬背。

Develops creativity among students.
培养学生的创造力。

It evokes thinking among students.
它唤起了学生的思考。

Students have time for the preparation of the topic.
学生有时间准备主题。

Students should have material and knowledge before the discussion. Suggestion
学生在讨论之前应该有材料和知识。建议

Only those students participate who have confidence rest do not participate.
只有那些有信心的学生才会参加。

Concepts become clear after discussion.
讨论后，概念变得清晰。

Every student gives his/ her opinion.
每个学生都给出他/她的观点。

ADVANTAGES
优势 

Increase students interest
提高学生的兴趣

Increases students’ acceptance and commitments.
提高学生的接受度和承诺。

Utilizes student knowledge and experience.
利用学生的知识和经验。

Results in more permanent learning because of the high degree of student participation.
由于学生参与度高，导致更持久的学习。 

DISADVANTAGES
弊

Require highly skilled instructors.
需要高技能的教师。

Requires preparation by the student.
需要学生准备。

Limits content.
限制内容。

Consumes time.
耗费时间。

Restricts the size of groups.
限制组的大小。

Demonstration Method
演示方法

The demonstration method involves showing the students how to do something rather than just telling them. This method is most effective when teaching practical skills or hands-on subjects such as science or engineering.
演示方法包括向学生展示如何做某事，而不仅仅是告诉他们。这种方法在教授实用技能或动手实践科目（如科学或工程）时最有效。

A method of instruction where the instructor by actually performing an operation or doing a job shows the students what to do, and how to do it, and through explanations brings out why, where, and when it is done.
一种教学方法，教师通过实际执行操作或做工作向学生展示该做什么和如何做，并通过解释说明完成的原因、地点和时间。

It helps:
它有助于：

To teach manipulative operations or procedures.
教授操作操作或程序。

To teach troubleshooting.
教授故障排除。

To illustrate principles.
为了说明原则。

To teach the operation or functioning of equipment.
教授设备的操作或功能。

To teach teamwork.
教授团队合作。

To set standards of workmanship.
设定工艺标准。

To teach safety procedures.
教授安全程序。

USES/ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
用途/优点缺点

Minimize damage and waste
最大限度地减少损坏和浪费

Saves time
节省时间

Can be presented to large groups.
可以呈现给大型团体。

Enable learning evaluation.
启用学习评估。 

DISADVANTAGES
弊

Require careful preparation and rehearsal.
需要仔细准备和排练。

Requires special classroom arrangements.
需要特殊的教室安排。

Requires tools and equipment.
需要工具和设备。

Requires more instructors.
需要更多的教师。

Project-Based/Assignment-Based Learning Method
项目为本/作业为本的学习方法

The project-based learning method involves students working on a project or assignment over an extended period of time. This method is effective when the goal is to promote creativity, problem-solving, and collaboration skills.
基于项目的学习方法涉及学生在较长时间内完成项目或作业。当目标是促进创造力、解决问题和协作技能时，此方法非常有效。

A method in which the instructor assigns reading to books, periodicals, project’s or research papers or exercises for the practice.
教师将阅读分配给书籍、期刊、项目或研究论文或练习的方法。

It helps:
它有助于：

To orient students to a topic prior to classroom or Laboratory work.
在课堂或实验室工作之前让学生了解某个主题。

To enhance the ability to research any topic as the student search for topics from different books, websites, etc.
在学生从不同的书籍、网站等中搜索主题时，增强研究任何主题的能力。

To activate learning
激活学习

To set the stage for a lecture demonstration or discussion.
为讲座、演示或讨论搭建舞台。

To provide for or capitalize on individual differences in ability, background, or experience through different assignments.
通过不同的任务来提供或利用能力、背景或经验的个体差异。

To provide for the review of material covered in class or to give practice.
提供对课堂上涵盖的材料进行复习或进行练习。

To provide enrichment material.
提供丰富的材料。

USES/ADVANTAGES
用途/优势 

Increase coverage of material.
增加材料的覆盖率。

Reduce classroom time.
减少课堂时间。

Permits individual attention.
允许个人关注。 

DISADVANTAGES
弊

Require careful planning and follow-up.
需要仔细规划和随访。

Poses an evaluation problem.
提出评估问题。

Produce non-standard results.
产生非标准结果。

Programmed Instruction Method
程序化指令法

A method of self-instruction
一种自我指导的方法

To provide remedial instruction.
提供补救指导。

To provide make-up instruction for late arrivals, absentees, or translations.
为迟到、缺席或翻译提供补课指导。

To maintain previously learned skills that are not performed frequently enough.
保持以前学到的技能，这些技能的执行频率不够高。

To provide retraining on equipment and procedures which have become obsolete.
提供对已过时的设备和程序的再培训。

To upgrade production.
升级生产。

To accelerate capable students.
加速有能力的学生。

To provide enough common background among students.
在学生中提供足够的共同背景。

To provide the review and practice of knowledge and skills.
提供知识和技能的复习和实践。

USES/ADVANTAGES
用途/优势 

Reduce failure rate.
降低故障率。

Improves end-of-course proficiency.
提高课程结束时的熟练程度。

Saves time.
节省时间。

Provides for self-instruction.
提供自我指导。 

DISADVANTAGES
弊

Require local or commercial preparation.
需要本地或商业预处理。

Requires lengthy programmer training.
需要长时间的程序员培训。

Increases expenses.
增加费用。

Requires considerable lead time.
需要相当长的交货时间。

Few Additional Types of Teaching Methods:
一些其他类型的教学方法：

Collaborative Learning Method: The collaborative learning method involves students working together in groups to solve problems or complete tasks. This method is effective when the goal is to promote teamwork, communication, and problem-solving skills.
协作学习方法： 协作学习方法涉及学生以小组形式一起解决问题或完成任务。当目标是促进团队合作、沟通和解决问题的能力时，这种方法是有效的。

Inquiry-Based Learning Method: The inquiry-based learning method involves students exploring a particular topic or question and developing their understanding through inquiry and investigation. This method is effective when the goal is to promote independent thinking, curiosity, and creativity.
探究式学习法： 探究式学习方法涉及学生探索特定主题或问题，并通过探究和调查发展他们的理解。当目标是促进独立思考、好奇心和创造力时，这种方法是有效的。

Flipped Classroom Method: The flipped classroom method involves students learning the material at home through videos, readings, or other resources, and then using class time to apply what they’ve learned through activities or discussions. This method is effective when the goal is to promote independent learning and self-directed study.
翻转课堂方法： 翻转课堂方法涉及学生在家中通过视频、阅读材料或其他资源学习材料，然后利用课堂时间通过活动或讨论应用他们所学的知识。当目标是促进独立学习和自主学习时，这种方法是有效的。

Off-line vs. On-line methods
离线方法与在线方法

Differences Between Online Learning and Offline Learning
在线学习和离线学习的区别

The main difference between online and offline learning is location. With offline learning, participants are required to travel to the training location, typically a lecture hall, college, or classroom. With online learning, on the other hand, the training can be conducted from practically anywhere in the world. Participants simply need to log on to the internet from their home, work or even their local coffee shop.
在线学习和离线学习之间的主要区别在于位置。通过离线学习，参与者需要前往培训地点，通常是演讲厅、学院或教室。另一方面，通过在线学习，培训几乎可以在世界任何地方进行。参与者只需在家中、工作场所甚至当地的咖啡店登录互联网即可。

Another difference is the flexibility offered. Online learning usually has a more flexible timescale. As a trainer, you can offer your support via email or through an online chat system. With offline learning, it is typically carried out between office hours and doesn’t offer as much flexibility to the learner or the trainer.
另一个区别是提供的灵活性。在线学习通常具有更灵活的时间尺度。作为培训师，您可以通过电子邮件或在线聊天系统提供支持。离线学习通常在办公时间之间进行，不会为学习者或培训师提供太多的灵活性。

What are the benefits of online vs offline learning?
在线学习与离线学习有什么好处？

Although online learning has become the preferred method for the majority of learners, it’s important not to dismiss the benefits of offline training too.
尽管在线学习已成为大多数学习者的首选方法，但重要的是不要忽视离线培训的好处。

With online training courses, you and the course attendees benefit from a more casual, flexible approach. Being unrestricted in regard to location and times means every learner can benefit from the courses.
通过在线培训课程，您和学员可以从更随意、更灵活的方法中受益。不受地点和时间的限制意味着每个学习者都可以从课程中受益。

With offline learning, it’s easier to ensure attendees are paying attention to the training. Some learners also find it easier to retain the knowledge and skills they’ve learned through offline training than they do with online training.
通过离线学习，可以更轻松地确保参与者关注培训。一些学习者还发现，与在线培训相比，他们通过离线培训更容易记住他们通过线下培训学到的知识和技能。

As there are benefits to both learning options, it makes sense to offer a combined online and offline learning approach as a trainer.
由于这两种学习选项都有好处，因此作为培训师提供在线和离线相结合的学习方法是有意义的。

What are the 4 classroom management styles?
4 种课堂管理风格是什么？

Classroom management can be done in four different ways: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and indulgent.
课堂管理可以通过四种不同的方式进行：专制、权威、宽容和放纵。

Authoritarian classroom management
专制课堂管理

In essence, the authoritarian classroom management approach involves the teacher having total authority over the class. Students are not participating or responding in class. It is very likely that a student who disobeys the rules will face punishment in this toughest kind of class management.
从本质上讲，专制的课堂管理方法涉及教师对课堂拥有完全的权力。学生没有在课堂上参与或回应。不遵守规则的学生很可能会在这种最严厉的班级管理中面临惩罚。

A teacher with complete control over the classroom is an authoritarian classroom management style. Students lack the freedom to participate actively and to respond. The instructor retains the center of attention and overall authority in the classroom. The emphasis is on submission. Rules must be followed without question. For breaking the rules, there are consequences.
完全控制课堂的教师是一种专制的课堂管理风格。学生缺乏积极参与和回应的自由。教师在课堂上保持注意力中心和整体权威。重点是服从。毫无疑问，必须遵守规则。违反规则是有后果的。

Authoritative Classroom Management
权威课堂管理

The authoritative classroom management approach seeks to balance student participation with teacher control. While always adhering to the regulations, students are encouraged to participate in class and work together with their peers.
权威的课堂管理方法寻求平衡学生参与与教师控制。在始终遵守规定的同时，鼓励学生参与课堂并与同龄人一起工作。

A balance between teacher control and student interaction characterizes the authoritative classroom management approach. Students are urged to participate and work together in this type of classroom while also adhering to the regulations. Although the structure is there, it does not supplant student liberty. The teacher values the opinions of the students, especially when it comes to suggestions for improving the learning environment.
教师控制和学生互动之间的平衡是权威课堂管理方法的特点。敦促学生在遵守规定的同时，在这种类型的课堂上参与并一起工作。尽管结构存在，但它并没有取代学生自由。老师重视学生的意见，尤其是在改善学习环境的建议方面。

A strong educator is concerned about their students both within and outside of the classroom. Positive student outcomes are achieved in this classroom. Students don’t hesitate to participate and take chances. As a result, pupils excel and progress in all areas. Rules are upheld by trustworthy connections. Everyone who is impacted by the rules is informed of their rationale. When rules are broken, there are repercussions.
一个强大的教育工作者在课堂内外都关心他们的学生。在这个教室里取得了积极的学生成果。学生们会毫不犹豫地参与并抓住机会。因此，学生在各个领域都表现出色并取得进步。规则由可信连接维护。每个受这些规则影响的人都会被告知其理由。当规则被打破时，就会产生影响。

Permissive Classroom Management Style
宽容的课堂管理风格

Low levels of control and student interaction are also characteristics of permissive classroom management. The pupils are essentially given free rein to do as they wish. This mostly results from the teachers and the administration’s lack of organization and planning. Rules are not upheld. Poor behavior is rarely addressed. Children are left unsupervised.
低水平的控制和学生互动也是宽容的课堂管理的特征。学生基本上可以自由地做他们想做的事。这主要是由于教师和行政部门缺乏组织和规划造成的。规则没有得到维护。不良行为很少得到解决。孩子们无人看管。

It’s common to perceive permissive discipline as being indulgent or lenient. Rarely does the adult become involved? Adults who adopt this technique occasionally prioritize friendship over discipline.
人们通常认为宽容的管教是宽容或宽大的。成年人很少参与其中？采用这种技术的成年人偶尔会优先考虑友谊而不是纪律。

Indulgent Classroom Management Style
放纵的课堂管理风格

High instructor interaction with pupils but little classroom discipline defines an indulgent management style. This teaching method creates a setting where there are minimal, if any, expectations placed on the pupils, and the teacher actively encourages them to pursue their own goals.
教师与学生的互动频繁，但课堂纪律很少，这定义了一种放纵的管理风格。这种教学方法创造了一个对学生的期望最低（如果有的话）的环境，老师积极鼓励他们追求自己的目标。

Indulgent teachers are much more involved with their students than permissive ones are. They tend to be overly pleasant despite having a genuine concern for their students and what is happening in their life.
放纵的老师比宽容的老师更多地参与他们的学生。尽管他们真诚地关心他们的学生和他们生活中发生的事情，但他们往往过于愉快。

Choosing the Best Classroom Management Style
选择最佳的课堂管理风格

The teacher must consider which of the four different classroom management approaches best suits his or her teaching philosophy and goals and select the one that is the best. The best teaching method depends on the subject matter, the goals of the lesson, and the learning styles of the students. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and the most effective teaching approach often involves a combination of methods. Using multiple teaching methods in one lesson can help to engage students with different learning styles and promote a deeper understanding of the material. It’s better to consider the following inquiries to aid in structuring the teacher’s thoughts:
教师必须考虑四种不同的课堂管理方法中的哪一种最适合他或她的教学理念和目标，并选择最好的一种。最好的教学方法取决于主题、课程目标和学生的学习风格。每种方法都有其优点和缺点，最有效的教学方法通常涉及多种方法的组合。在一节课中使用多种教学方法有助于吸引不同学习风格的学生，并促进对材料更深入的理解。最好考虑以下询问来帮助构建老师的想法：

Why do you want to achieve as a teacher?
你为什么想成为一名教师？

What motivates you to work with students?
是什么促使您与学生一起工作？

What takes place in a productive learning environment?
在富有成效的学习环境中会发生什么？

It takes some trial and error to determine the classroom management approach that will work for you. You understand what the pupils in your class need because you are the teacher. The success of a teacher is determined by the achievement of his or her pupils. The classroom environment must be structured and conducive to interactions for students to succeed. It’s crucial to strike a balance between control and involvement.
需要一些反复试验才能确定适合您的课堂管理方法。你了解班上学生需要什么，因为你是老师。教师的成功取决于他或她学生的成就。课堂环境必须结构化并有利于学生成功的互动。在控制和参与之间取得平衡至关重要。

It’s acceptable to take some time to figure things out if you’re a new teacher. It’s worth to begin with student results. At the end of the school year, where do you want your students to be? What should they understand and be able to do that they were unable to when they initially approached you?
如果你是一名新老师，花一些时间来弄清楚事情是可以接受的。值得从学生成绩开始。在学年结束时，您希望您的学生去哪里？他们应该理解并能够做到哪些他们最初接近您时无法做到的事情？

Create a map for each month and set smaller objectives as you go. Analyze the effort required to get them there. Your style will become more apparent to you once you’ve made that determination.
为每个月创建一张地图，并随着时间的推移设定较小的目标。分析实现目标所需的工作。一旦你做出了决定，你的风格就会变得更加明显。

FAQs
常见问题

What are 4 strategies for effective classroom management?
有效课堂管理的 4 种策略是什么？

4 Effective strategies for classroom management are listed below:
4 课堂管理的有效策略如下：

Let students help establish guidelines
让学生帮助制定指导方针

Avoid punishing class
避免惩罚阶级

Encourage initiative
鼓励主动性

Use non-verbal communication
使用非语言交流

Give tangible rewards
给予有形的奖励

Assign open-ended projects
分配开放式项目

What is the best classroom management style?
最好的课堂管理风格是什么？

The most effective kind of classroom management is the authoritative approach since it is most closely related to good student behavior.
最有效的课堂管理方式是权威方法，因为它与良好的学生行为最密切相关。

What are the 5 approaches to classroom management?
课堂管理的 5 种方法是什么？

5 approaches to classroom management are:
课堂管理的 5 种方法是：

Understand your students.
了解您的学生。

Set effective limits.
设置有效限制。

Let Students Help.
让学生帮忙。

Encourage Questioning.
鼓励提问。

Let Students Lead.
让学生领导。

Encourage Group Projects
鼓励小组项目

Keep to the schedule you set.
遵守您设定的时间表。

What is the key to effective classroom management?
有效课堂管理的关键是什么？

Strong relationships with students are essential for effective classroom management. Systems, procedures, and nonverbal cues.
与学生的牢固关系对于有效的课堂管理至关重要。系统、程序和非语言线索。

Teaching and learning are the two sides of a coin. The most accepted criterion for measuring good teaching is the amount of student learning that occurs. There are consistently high correlations between students’ ratings of the “amount learned” in the course and their overall ratings of the teacher and the course.
教与学是一枚硬币的两面。衡量良好教学的最可接受标准是学生的学习量。学生对课程中 “学习量 ”的评分与他们对教师和课程的总体评价之间始终存在高度相关性。

Those who learned more gave their teachers higher ratings: “Tell me, I forget. Show me, I remember. Involve me, I understand.”
那些学得更多的人给他们的老师打了更高的分：“告诉我，我忘了。让我看看，我记得。让我参与进来，我明白。

How to Choose the Best Teaching Methodology?
如何选择最佳的教学方法？

Choosing the best teaching methodology depends on several factors, including the learning objectives, the student’s learning style, the subject matter, and the resources available. Educators should choose the most appropriate methodology that aligns with their student’s needs and learning goals. Teachers have to consider the subject matter, the goals of the lesson, and the learning styles of the students. They should experiment with different methods and ask for feedback from their students to find the most effective teaching approach.
选择最佳教学方法取决于几个因素，包括学习目标、学生的学习风格、主题和可用资源。教育工作者应选择符合学生需求和学习目标的最合适的方法。教师必须考虑主题、课程目标和学生的学习风格。他们应该尝试不同的方法，并征求学生的反馈，以找到最有效的教学方法。

What is the Importance of Teaching Methodology?
教学方法的重要性是什么？

The teaching methodology is essential for effective teaching and learning. It helps educators to deliver their content in a way that is engaging, interactive, and meaningful to their students. It also enables them to personalize their teaching approach to cater to their student’s individual needs.
教学方法对于有效的教学和学习至关重要。它帮助教育工作者以对学生有吸引力、互动性和有意义的方式提供他们的内容。它还使他们能够个性化他们的教学方法以满足学生的个人需求。

What are the Advantages of Using Different Teaching Methodologies?
使用不同的教学方法有什么优势？

Using different teaching methodologies has several advantages, including:
使用不同的教学方法有几个优点，包括：

Enhanced student engagement
提高学生参与度

Improved student motivation
提高学生的积极性

Increased student participation
提高学生参与度

Greater retention of information
更好的信息保留期

Improved critical thinking skills
提高批判性思维能力

Increased collaboration and teamwork
增强协作和团队合作

What are the Disadvantages of Using Different Teaching Methodologies?
使用不同的教学方法有什么缺点？

Using different teaching methodologies also has some disadvantages, including:
使用不同的教学方法也有一些缺点，包括：

Time-consuming preparation and implementation
耗时的准备和实施

Possible resistance from students who prefer traditional teaching methods
喜欢传统教学方法的学生可能会产生阻力

Need for sufficient resources, such as technology and materials
需要足够的资源，例如技术和材料

Potential for ineffective implementation if not executed correctly
如果执行不正确，可能会导致无效的实施

How Can Teachers Implement Teaching Methodologies in Their Classrooms?
教师如何在课堂上实施教学方法？

Teachers can implement teaching methodologies in their classrooms by following these steps:
教师可以按照以下步骤在课堂上实施教学方法：

Identify the learning objectives and student needs
确定学习目标和学生需求

Choose the most appropriate methodology
选择最合适的方法

Prepare the necessary resources and materials
准备必要的资源和材料

Implement the methodology effectively
有效实施方法

Evaluate the effectiveness of the methodology
评估方法的有效性

What are the Key Elements of Effective Teaching Methodology?
有效教学方法的关键要素是什么？

Effective teaching methodology should include the following key elements:
有效的教学方法应包括以下关键要素：

1. Clear learning objectives
1. 明确的学习目标

2. Active student engagement
2. 积极的学生参与

3. Relevance to real-life situations
3. 与现实生活情况的相关性

4. Appropriate assessment and evaluation methods
4. 适当的评估和评价方法

5. Opportunities for feedback and reflection
5. 反馈和反思的机会

What is the Role of Technology in Teaching Methodology?
技术在教学方法中的作用是什么？

Technology plays a vital role in teaching methodology, allowing educators to deliver content more effectively and efficiently. It also enables them to personalize their approach to cater to their student’s individual needs, provide interactive and engaging learning experiences, and offer access to a vast range of online resources and tools.
技术在教学方法中起着至关重要的作用，使教育工作者能够更有效地提供内容。它还使他们能够个性化他们的方法以满足学生的个人需求，提供互动和引人入胜的学习体验，并提供对大量在线资源和工具的访问。

How to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Teaching Methodology?
如何评价教学方法的有效性？

Evaluating the effectiveness of teaching methodology is crucial to determine whether it is achieving the desired learning outcomes. It involves collecting data on student performance, engagement, and satisfaction, and analyzing this data to identify areas for improvement.
评估教学方法的有效性对于确定它是否达到预期的学习成果至关重要。它涉及收集有关学生表现、参与度和满意度的数据，并分析这些数据以确定需要改进的领域。

What is the Difference Between Teaching Methodology and Pedagogy?
教学法和教育学有什么区别？