Zhuo Rachel Han, Beijing Normal University, China 韓卓勰，北京師範大學，中國
Reviewed by: 評論者：
Dexin Shi, University of South Carolina, United States Ai Yue, Dexin Shi，美國南卡羅來納大學 Ai Yue、
Shaanxi Normal University, China 中國陝西師範大學
Yuyin Wang, Yuyin Wang、
Sun Yat-sen University, China 中國中山大學
This article was submitted to Developmental Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology 本文已提交至《心理學前沿》期刊的「發展心理學」（Developmental Psychology）部分。
Received: 12 January 2018 Accepted: 30 April 2018 收到：12 January 2018 Accepted：2018 年 4 月 30 日
Published: 06 June 2018 發佈日期：2018 年 6 月 06 日
Citation: 引用：
Roskam I, Brianda M-E and Mikolajczak M (2018) A Step Forward in the Conceptualization and Measurement of Parental Burnout: The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). Front. Psychol. 9:758. Roskam I, Brianda M-E and Mikolajczak M (2018) A Step Forward in the Conceptualization and Measurement of Parental Burnout：家長倦怠評估（PBA）。Front.Psychol.9:758.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00758
A Step Forward in the Conceptualization and Measurement of Parental Burnout: The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) 父母職業倦怠的概念化和測量向前邁進了一步：家長工作倦怠評估 (PBA)
Isabelle Roskam*, Maria-Elena Brianda and Moïra Mikolajczak Isabelle Roskam*、Maria-Elena Brianda 和 Moïra MikolajczakPsychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium 心理科學研究所，Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, 比利時
Abstract 摘要
So far, the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout have been deduced from those of job burnout. As a result, it is unclear whether current measures of parental burnout constitute the best representation of the parental burnout construct/syndrome: the possibility cannot be excluded that some dimensions ought to be added, which would change the structure and definition of parental burnout. In this study, the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout were approached using an inductive method, in which the parental burnout phenomenon was (re)constructed based solely on the testimonies of burned-out parents. Items extracted from their testimonies were presented to a sample of French-speaking and English-speaking parents ( N=901N=901 ) and submitted to factor analyses. An identifiable parental burnout syndrome including four dimensions was found (exhaustion in one’s parental role, contrast with previous parental self, feelings of being fed up with one’s parental role and emotional distancing from one’s children). The resulting instrument, the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) presents good validity. Factorial invariance across gender and languages was also found. Finally, the results of this study replicate previous findings that psychological traits of the parents, parenting factors, and family functioning account for more variance in parental burnout than sociodemographic factors. 到目前為止，父母職業倦怠的概念化和測量都是從工作職業倦怠推論出來的。因此，目前對父母職業倦怠的量測是否構成父母職業倦怠構造/症候群的最佳表徵並不清楚：不排除有可能需要增加某些維度，這將會改變父母職業倦怠的結構和定義。在本研究中，父母職業倦怠的概念化和測量使用了歸納法，其中父母職業倦怠現象僅基於職業倦怠父母的見證被(重新)建構。從他們的見證中萃取的項目被呈現在講法語和英語的家長樣本中( N=901N=901 )，並提交給因子分析。結果發現了一種可識別的父母倦怠綜合症，包括四個方面（父母角色的疲憊、與以往父母自我的對比、對父母角色的厭倦感以及與子女之間的情感疏離）。由此產生的工具「父母職業倦怠評估」(PBA) 具有良好的效度。此外，還發現了不同性別和語言的因子不變性。最後，本研究的結果複製了先前的發現，即父母的心理特質、養育因素和家庭功能比社會人口因素更能造成父母倦怠的變異。
In their 2014 article, “Is burnout solely job-related? A critical comment,” Bianchi et al. (2014) questioned the view of burnout as a work-related condition. They argued that because enduring chronic stress-the putative cause of burnout-is not limited to work, the burnout phenomenon cannot be confined to work. According to these authors, any activity that can elicit frequent and intense stress response could contribute to the development of burnout. This position, controversial at the time, nevertheless echoes that of Pines and Aronson (1988) for whom burnout “can occur in all spheres that give people a sense of meaning” (p.208). Because parenting has been shown to be a both complex and stressful activity (Abidin, 1990; Crnic and Low, 2002; Deater-deckard, 2014) and because children give meaning to their parents’ lives (ONS-UK, 2012), parenting should be a likely candidate to produce burnout-if burnout exists outside work. 在他們 2014 年的文章《倦怠僅與工作有關？的批判性評論中，Bianchi 等人（2014 年）質疑了將工作倦怠視為一種與工作相關的狀況的觀點。他們認為，由於持久的慢性壓力（倦怠的假定原因）並不僅限於工作，因此倦怠現象也不能僅限於工作。根據這些作者的觀點，任何能引起頻繁且強烈的壓力反應的活動都可能導致倦怠的產生。這一立場在當時頗具爭議性，但與 Pines 和 Aronson (1988) 的觀點不謀而合，對他們來說，倦怠「可能發生在給予人們意義的所有領域」(p.208)。因為養育子女已被證明是一種既複雜又有壓力的活動（Abidin, 1990; Crnic and Low, 2002; Deater-deckard, 2014），而且因為子女賦予父母生活的意義（ONS-UK, 2012），所以養育子女應該是產生倦怠的可能候選人 - 如果工作以外也存在倦怠的話。
In 2017, Roskam, Raes and Mikolajczak provided preliminary evidence in favor of the existence of parental burnout. They first adapted the items of the Maslach Burnout Inventory® (MBI, Maslach et al., 1986) so that all items referred unambiguously to the parental context and then entered the 22 original workrelated items together with 22 new parenting-related items in an exploratory factor analysis (Roskam et al., 2017). The results showed that professional and parental items loaded on separate components (i.e., three for professional and three others for parental burnout). Because the “depersonalization” subscale was weaker in the parental context, the authors replaced this subscale with an emotional distancing subscale. The validation study that followed resulted in the Parental Burnout Inventory (PBI), a measure of parental burnout encompassing three factors: exhaustion in one’s parental role, emotional distancing from one’s children, and loss of parental efficacy and accomplishment. 2017年，Roskam、Raes和Mikolajczak提供了支持父母倦怠存在的初步證據。他們首先改編了 Maslach 職業倦怠量表® (MBI, Maslach 等人，1986) 的項目，使所有項目都能明確地指向父母情境，然後將 22 個與工作相關的原始項目與 22 個與養育子女相關的新項目一起輸入探索性因子分析 (Roskam 等人，2017)。結果顯示，職業倦怠和家長倦怠的項目分別負載在不同的成分上（即職業倦怠負載三個成分，家長倦怠負載另外三個成分）。由於「人格解体」子量表在父母的情境中較弱，作者以情感疏離子量表取代此子量表。接下來的驗證研究得出了「家長工作倦怠量表」(PBI)，這是一種衡量家長工作倦怠的量表，包含三個因素：家長角色的疲憊、與子女之間的情感疏離，以及家長效能與成就感的喪失。
Therefore, the aim of the current study was to go deeper into the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout using a totally different method. So far, studies have relied on a deductive approach (i.e., parental burnout items and dimensions were deduced from those of job burnout). An inductive approach was therefore used: we reconstructed the parental burnout phenomenon based solely on the experience of burned-out parents. Items were extracted from testimonies of burned-out parents, and were then presented to a large sample of parents and submitted to exploratory factor analysis. If the dimensions emerging from the inductive method had little in common with those deduced from the MBI, this would call into question the existence of parental burnout as a specific and identifiable syndrome. By contrast, if the dimensions resulting from the inductive method are close to those deduced from the MBI, this would provide additional evidence in favor of the existence of parental burnout. These possibilities did not preclude the emergence of additional dimensions that would make it possible to capture the experience of burn-out even better and refine the construct and its measurement. 因此，本研究的目的是使用完全不同的方法，深入探討家長倦怠的概念化與量測。到目前為止，研究都是依賴演繹法（即從工作倦怠中推斷出家長倦怠的項目和維度）。因此，我們採用了歸納法：我們僅根據倦怠父母的經驗來重新建構父母倦怠現象。我們從倦怠家長的證詞中萃取項目，然後展示給大量的家長樣本，並進行探索性因子分析。如果歸納法得出的維度與MBI推論出的維度幾乎沒有共通點，這就會令人質疑家長倦怠是否是一種特定且可辨識的症候群。相反，如果歸納法得出的維度與MBI推論出的維度接近，這將提供更多的證據支持家長倦怠的存在。這些可能性並不排除其他維度的出現，這將有可能更好地捕捉倦怠的體驗，並完善該構造及其測量。
If the foregoing step were to confirm the existence of an identifiable parental burnout syndrome, the instrument resulting from the inductive approach would then be expected to show 如果前述步驟證實存在可辨識的父母職業倦怠症候群，則歸納法所產生的工具可望顯示
internal validity, high convergence with the Parental Burnout Inventory (PBI) and a highly similar pattern of correlations with correlates. Based on the results of a large study of the correlates of parental burnout using the PBI (Le Vigouroux et al., 2017; Mikolajczak et al., 2017), both measures of parental burnout would be expected to show few if any correlations with demographic variables, but moderate to large correlations with coparenting disagreement, family disorganization, neuroticism. If these hypotheses were corroborated, the instrument stemming from the inductive approach would constitute a free alternative to the Parental Burnout Inventory. 內在效度、與家長工作倦怠量表 (PBI) 的高度銜接，以及與相關因素高度相似的相關模式。根據使用 PBI 對家長倦怠相關因素進行的大型研究結果（Le Vigouroux 等人，2017；Mikolajczak 等人，2017），預計家長倦怠的兩種量測項目與人口變項幾乎不存在任何相關性，但與共育分歧、家庭組織涣散、神經主義存在中等至較大的相關性。如果這些假設得到證實，歸納法所產生的工具將構成家長倦怠量表的自由替代品。
METHODS 方法
Sample 樣品
Data were collected from a sample of 901 English-speaking (71.8%) and French-speaking (28.2%) parents. The sample comprised 79.57%79.57 \% women. Participants were aged 20 to 59 (mean age =36.71;SD=6.84=36.71 ; S D=6.84 ). 53.38%53.38 \% parents came from England, 26.41% from Belgium, 9.65% from the United States. The remaining 10.56%10.56 \% were from France, Canada, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and other European countries. The mean number of siblings was 2.10 ( SD=0.70S D=0.70 ), ranging from 1 to 7 . Their children’s ages ranged from 0 to 39 years, and 41%41 \% of the parents had at least one child younger than 5 years. Among the parents, 3.7%3.7 \% reported having one child suffering from a chronic or severe disease, 6.4%6.4 \% from a disability, and 16%16 \% from a behavioral, emotional, or learning disorder. The educational level of the parents was calculated as the number of years of education they had completed from first grade onward. Of the participants, 42.7% were educated to secondary level, 33.7%33.7 \% had a first degree from university or college, 23.6%23.6 \% a master’s degree, a Ph.D., or MBA degree. With regard to their work arrangements, 31.4%31.4 \% worked part-time while 43.3%43.3 \% worked full time. The remaining 25.3%25.3 \% were unemployed, on unpaid leave, on parental leave, or working as housewives/househusbands (16%). Of the parents, 79% were living with the father/mother of their child(ren), 8.6%8.6 \% were living with a partner who was not the father/mother of their child(ren) (i.e., blended family), 3.3%3.3 \% were single parents because they chose to have and/or to raise their child(ren) without a partner (i.e., single parenthood by choice), and 9.1%9.1 \% were single parents following a divorce or the death of the partner (i.e., single parenthood by circumstance). 資料是從 901 位說英語 (71.8%) 和說法語 (28.2%) 的家長樣本中收集的。樣本包括 79.57%79.57 \% 女性。參與者年齡介於 20 到 59 歲之間 (平均年齡為 =36.71;SD=6.84=36.71 ; S D=6.84 )。 53.38%53.38 \% 父母來自英國，26.41%來自比利時，9.65%來自美國。其餘 10.56%10.56 \% 來自法國、加拿大、愛爾蘭、威爾斯、蘇格蘭和其他歐洲國家。兄弟姐妹的平均人數為 2.10 ( SD=0.70S D=0.70 )，從 1 到 7 不等。他們的孩子年齡從 0 到 39 歲不等， 41%41 \% 的父母至少有一個孩子小於 5 歲。在這些家長中， 3.7%3.7 \% 表示有一個孩子患有慢性或嚴重疾病， 6.4%6.4 \% 表示有一個孩子患有殘障， 16%16 \% 表示有一個孩子患有行為、情緒或學習障礙。家長的教育程度是以他們從一年級開始所完成的教育年數來計算。在受訪者中，42.7%的人接受過中學教育， 33.7%33.7 \% 擁有大學或學院第一學位， 23.6%23.6 \% 擁有碩士學位、博士學位或 MBA 學位。在工作安排方面， 31.4%31.4 \% 從事兼職工作，而 43.3%43.3 \% 則從事全職工作。其餘的 25.3%25.3 \% 則是失業、休無薪假、休育兒假或當家庭主婦/家庭主夫（16%）。在這些父母中，79%與孩子的父親/母親同住， 8.6%8.6 \% 與不是孩子父親/母親的伴侶同住（即混合家庭）， 3.3%3.3 \% 是單親父母，因為他們選擇在沒有伴侶的情況下生育和/或養育孩子（即因選擇而成為單親父母）， 9.1%9.1 \% 則是在離婚或伴侶去世後成為單親父母（即因情況而成為單親父母）。
Procedure 程序
The current study was approved by the Institutional Review Board. Data were collected from English-speaking parents on the Prolific platform (https://www.prolific.ac/) while Frenchspeaking parents were informed about the research program through social networks, websites, or by word of mouth. On the Prolific platform, parents were rewarded £3£ 3 for their participation. The French-speaking parents who completed the questionnaire had the opportunity to enter a lottery with a chance of winning undefined. Participants who wished to participate in the lottery had to provide their email address, but the latter was disconnected from their questionnaire. 目前的研究已獲得機構審查委員會的核准。資料是在 Prolific 平台 (https://www.prolific.ac/) 上向說英語的家長收集，而說法語的家長則是透過社交網路、網站或口耳相傳得知這項研究計畫。在 Prolific 平台上，家長的參與可獲得 £3£ 3 獎勵。填寫問卷的法語家長有機會參加抽獎，有機會贏得 undefined 。希望參加抽獎的參加者必須提供他們的電子郵件地址，但後者會從他們的問卷中斷開。
The participants completed an online survey which was presented as a study about “Parenting today/Être Parent Aujourd’hui.” Parents were eligible to participate in the studies only if they had (at least) one child still living at home. The informed consent they signed allowed participants to withdraw at any stage without having to justify their withdrawal. They were also assured that data would remain anonymous. The questionnaire was completed with a forced choice option, ensuring a dataset with no missing data. 參與者填寫了一份線上問卷調查，該問卷是以「現今的父母/Être Parent Aujourd'hui」為題的研究來呈現的。家長必須至少有一個孩子仍住在家中，才有資格參與研究。他們所簽署的知情同意書允許參與者在任何階段退出，而無需證明退出的理由。他們也得到保證，資料會保持匿名。問卷採用強制選擇方式填寫，以確保資料集不遺漏任何資料。
First of all, a potential measure of parental burnout was designed based on thorough testimonies from five Frenchspeaking exhausted parents. These testimonies were gathered by two collaborators of ours who were interested in going deeper into the experience of burned-out parents through interpretative phenomenological analysis (see in the current Research Topic Hubert and Isabelle, 2018). Parents participated in their qualitative research voluntarily in response to an advertisement displayed on social networks, websites and forums of parents, in particular a blog dedicated to maternal exhaustion, i.e., epuisement-maternel.com; this meant that they were already applying the term “parental burnout/exhaustion” to their feelings. Recruitment was made by means of this advertisement: “As part of a research study on parental burnout/exhaustion conducted in the Department of Psychology at the University of Louvain, we are looking for parents who are willing to give us their testimony during individual interviews, in order to get closer to their experience and perhaps gain a better understanding of parental exhaustion.” 首先，我們根據五位法語精疲力竭的父母的詳盡見証，設計了父母倦怠的潛在測量方法。這些見證是由我們的兩位合作者收集的，他們有興趣透過釋義現象學分析深入了解倦怠父母的經驗（請參閱目前的研究主題 Hubert and Isabelle, 2018）。家長們自願參與他們的定性研究，以回應在社交網路、網站和家長論壇上展示的廣告，尤其是一個專門談論母性疲累的部落格，即epuisement-maternel.com；這表示他們已經在使用「家長倦怠/疲累」一詞來形容自己的感受。招募是透過此廣告進行的：「作為盧萬大學心理學系進行的家長倦怠/疲憊研究的一部分，我們正在尋找願意在個人訪談中為我們提供見證的家長，以便更貼近他們的經驗，也許可以獲得對家長疲憊的更好理解」。
In the end, only mothers responded to this advertisement. Parents of children aged 0 to 18 months were excluded in order to avoid confusion with post-partum depression. The mothers interviewed were between 30 and 42 years old and had two children (between 2 and 14 years old). Four of the five mothers lived with their children’s father. Two of these worked (one parttime and the other full-time), a third had chosen to stop working and a fourth was on sick leave. The fifth mother was separated from her partner and worked full-time. 最後，只有母親回應了這則廣告。為了避免與產後憂鬱症混淆，我們排除了 0 到 18 個月大孩子的父母。受訪的母親年齡在 30 到 42 歲之間，有兩個孩子（2 到 14 歲之間）。五位母親中有四位與孩子的父親同住。其中兩位在工作（一位是兼職，另一位是全職），第三位選擇停止工作，第四位則在休病假。第五位母親與伴侶分居，從事全職工作。
The collection of parents’ testimony was done through unstructured interviews which were recorded for the purpose of analysis. The interviews were conducted by a trained research assistant who met the mothers twice. The first interview lasted about 2 h . The second took place a few weeks later, after sending the transcript to the mother. It was aimed to ensure that the transcript matched what she wanted to say and reflected her experiences, and to allow her to provide extra detail or corrections where necessary. Interviews took the form of discussions favoring the sharing of an intimate story in connection with the parent’s experience. Four mothers chose to be interviewed at home, when they were alone. One mother preferred to be interviewed elsewhere. Before each interview, an informed consent and an agreement concerning the recording and anonymous utilization of interview excerpts were signed by the mothers. 家長證言的蒐集是透過非結構性的訪談進行，訪談內容會被記錄下來以供分析之用。訪談由受過訓練的研究助理進行，他與母親見了兩次面。第一次訪談持續了約 2 小時。第二次在幾個星期後進行，在將謄本寄給母親之後。這樣做的目的是要確保謄本符合她想要說的內容，並反映出她的經歷，同時允許她在必要時提供額外的細節或更正。訪談以討論的形式進行，傾向於分享與家長經歷有關的親密故事。四位母親選擇在家中接受訪談，當時她們是獨自一人。一位母親選擇在其他地方接受訪談。在每次訪談之前，母親們都簽署了知情同意書，以及一份關於訪談記錄和匿名使用訪談摘錄的協議。
Based on the thematic analysis done by Hubert and Isabelle (2018), words, phrases, and sentences most representative of burned-out parents’ feelings and thoughts were used to produce 52 items. These items aimed to reflect the 根據 Hubert 和 Isabelle（2018）所做的主題分析，使用最能代表倦怠父母感受和想法的詞、短語和句子來產生 52 個項目。這些項目旨在反映
regularities/communalities in burned-out parents’ inner experience. The list was submitted to a double-blind translation procedure to provide both an English and a French version. Two items were removed before distributing the survey for ethical reasons, i.e., I feel guilty about no longer having any desire to see my children; I think that my life might be better without my children. A final list of 50 items was finally included in the survey. Items were rated on 7 -point Likert scales: never ( 0 ), a few times a year or less (1), once a month or less (2), a few times a month (3), once a week (4), a few times a week (5), every day (6). Sociodemographic questions and validated measures of parental burnout (i.e., the PBI), neuroticism, coparenting, and family disorganization were added to the survey. An English version of the survey was provided to the English-speaking participants and a French version to the French-speaking participants. A measure of job burnout was also added to the survey distributed to English-speaking parents. 倦怠父母內心經驗的規律性/共通性。該清單經雙盲翻譯程序，以提供英文和法文版本。基於道德理由，在分發調查問卷前，我們刪除了兩個項目，即：我對於不再想見到我的孩子感到內疚；我認為沒有我的孩子，我的生活可能會更好。最後有 50 個項目被列入調查問卷中。項目以 7 點 Likert 量表評分：從不 (0)、一年或更少幾次 (1)、一個月或更少一次 (2)、一個月幾次 (3)、一週一次 (4)、一週幾次 (5)、每天 (6)。調查問卷中加入了社會人口學問題，以及家長倦怠感 (即 PBI)、神經質、共同養育和家庭組織失調的有效量測。調查問卷的英文版提供給說英語的受試者，法文版則提供給說法語的受試者。在分發給英語家長的調查中，也加入了工作倦怠的測量。
Measures 措施
Sociodemographic Factors 社會人口因素
Participants were asked about their age, gender, type of family (single parenthood by choice or by circumstance, living with the children’s father/mother, or blended family), level of education, work regimen, number of children, and for each child: gender, age, and whether the child suffered from a disease, disability, or behavioral/emotional/learning disorder (yes-no). If the parent answered “yes” for at least one child, he or she was asked to fill in a short questionnaire about the impact of having a child with special needs on his or her own life (see Gérain and Zech, 2018). 我們詢問參與者的年齡、性別、家庭類型 (選擇單親或因環境所迫、與孩子的父親/母親同住或混合家庭)、教育程度、工作方式、孩子數目，以及每個孩子的性別、年齡、是否患有疾病、殘障或行為/情緒/學習障礙 (是-否)。如果家長至少有一個孩子回答「是」，他或她會被要求填寫一份簡短的問卷，詢問有特殊需求的孩子對他或她自己生活的影響（見 Gérain and Zech, 2018）。
Parental Burnout 家長倦怠
Parental burnout was assessed for comparative purposes with the Parental Burnout Inventory ^(1){ }^{1} (PBI, Roskam et al., 2017), a 22item self-report questionnaire which has been created based on a deductive approach starting from the tridimensional model of professional burnout (Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Maslach et al., 2001). The PBI consists of three subscales: Emotional Exhaustion (8 items) (e.g., I feel emotionally drained by my parental role), Emotional Distancing ( 8 items) (e.g., I sometimes feel as though I am taking care of my children on autopilot), and Loss of Parental Accomplishment (6 items) [e.g., I accomplish many worthwhile things as a parent (reversed)]. Items are rated on 7-point Likert scales: never (0), a few times a year or less (1), once a month or less (2), a few times a month (3), once a week (4), a few times a week (5), every day (6). In the current sample, Cronbach’s alphas were 0.92,0.89,0.850.92,0.89,0.85 for the three subscales and 0.91 for the global score (i.e., the sum score of all PBI items). Alphas were similar in the French and English versions of the questionnaire with respectively 0.94 and 0.92 for Emotional Exhaustion, 0.87 and 0.90 for Emotional Distancing, 0.85 and 0.85 for Loss of Parental Accomplishment, and 0.92 and 0.91 for the global score. 為了比較的目的，使用家長倦怠量表 ^(1){ }^{1} （PBI，Roskam等人，2017年）來評估家長的倦怠，這是一個22項自我報告問卷，是根據專業倦怠的三維模型（Maslach和Jackson，1981年；Maslach等人，2001年）的演繹方法創建的。PBI 由三個分量表組成：情緒枯竭（8 個項目）（例如：我覺得我的父母角色讓我的情緒枯竭）、情緒疏離（8 個項目）（例如：我有時覺得我好像是在自動駕駛照顧我的孩子），以及失去父母成就（6 個項目）[例如：我作為父母完成了許多有價值的事情（反向）]。項目以 7 點 Likert 量表評分：從不 (0)、一年或更少 (1)、一個月或更少 (2)、一個月數次 (3)、一週一次 (4)、一週數次 (5)、每天 (6)。在目前的樣本中，三個分量表的 Cronbach 系數為 0.92,0.89,0.850.92,0.89,0.85 ，總分（即所有 PBI 項目的總分）為 0.91。法文版和英文版問卷的等值相似，分別為情感枯竭 0.94 和 0.92、情感疏離 0.87 和 0.90、失去父母成就感 0.85 和 0.85，總分 0.92 和 0.91。
Neuroticism 神經質
Neuroticism was assessed with the Neuroticism subscale of the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John et al., 1991; Plaisant et al., 2010). The Neuroticism subscale includes 8 items rated on a fivepoint Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Example of items are “is temperamental, gets emotional easily” or “is emotionally stable, not easily upset” (Reversed). In order to minimize shared variance with the current state of the parent, the instructions asked the parent to indicate whether each description reflected what they were like in general (i.e., their nature, rather than how they had felt over the last few weeks or months). In the current sample, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.85 in the current sample, and 0.83 and 0.87 in the French and English versions of the questionnaire respectively. 神經質以大五項量表 (Big Five Inventory, BFI; John et al., 1991; Plaisant et al., 2010) 的神經質子量表來評估。神經性子量表包含 8 個項目，以五分 Likert 式量表從 1（非常不同意）到 5（非常同意）評分。例如「脾氣暴躁，容易情緒化」或「情緒穩定，不容易傷心」（反向）。為了盡量減少與家長當前狀態的共用變異，說明要求家長指出每項描述是否反映了他們的一般狀況（即他們的天性，而非他們在過去幾週或幾個月的感受）。在目前的樣本中，Cronbach「s alpha 為 0.85，法文版和英文版問卷的 Cronbach」s alpha 分別為 0.83 和 0.87。
Coparenting Disagreement 處理父母間的分歧
Coparenting disagreement was assessed by means of the Agreement subscale of the revised Co-Parenting Scale (CPS, Feinberg et al., 2012), which consists of 4 items [e.g., “My partner and I have the same goals for our child(ren)”]. Items are rated on a seven-point Likert-scale from 1 (not at all true for us) to 7 (absolutely true for us). The items were reversed so that higher scores meant coparenting disagreement. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82 in the current sample, and 0.75 and 0.84 in the French and English versions of the questionnaire respectively. 共同養育分歧是透過修訂的共同養育量表 (Co-Parenting Scale, CPS, Feinberg 等人, 2012) 的「同意」分量表來評估，該量表包含 4 個項目 [例如：「我和我的伴侶對於我們的孩子有相同的目標」]。項目以七分 Likert 量表評分，從 1（對我們來說完全不真實）到 7（對我們來說絕對真實）。這些項目是反向的，因此分數越高表示我們在共同養育子女方面意見不一致。目前樣本的 Cronbach「s alpha 為 0.82，法文版和英文版問卷的 Cronbach」s alpha 分別為 0.75 和 0.84。
Family Disorganization 家庭組織涣散
Family disorganization was assessed with the CHAOS (Confusion Hubbub And Order Scale), a 15-item measure of “environmental confusion and disorganization in the family,” i.e., high levels of noise, crowding, and home traffic, in children’s development (Matheny et al., 1995). Example of items are: “We can usually find things when we need them” or “The atmosphere in our home is calm.” Based on current usage, a single score was derived from the CHAOS questionnaire to represent the parent’s report of home characteristics, corresponding to the simple sum of responses for the 15 items. The true or false responses were scored so that a higher score represented more chaotic, disorganized, and time-pressured homes. In the current study, reliability was 0.80,0.750.80,0.75, and 0.82 in the French and English versions of the questionnaire respectively. 家庭雜亂以 CHAOS（Confusion Hubbub And Order Scale）來評估，該量表共有 15 個項目，測量兒童成長過程中的「家庭環境雜亂與無序」，也就是高噪音、擁擠和家庭交通（Matheny 等人，1995 年）。例如項目有「當我們需要東西時，通常都能找到 」或 「我們家的氣氛很平靜」。根據目前的使用方式，從 CHAOS 問卷中得出單一分數，代表家長對於家庭特徵的報告，相對應於 15 個項目的簡單回應總和。對於真實或錯誤的回答進行評分，因此分數越高，代表家庭越混亂、無條理和時間壓力越大。在目前的研究中，法文版和英文版問卷的信賴度分別為 0.80,0.750.80,0.75 和0.82。
Job Burnout 工作倦怠
Job burnout was assessed with the Maslach Burnout InventoryGeneral Survey (MBI-GS; Schaufeliet et al., 1996). The MBI is a widely used 16-item questionnaire encompassing three factors: emotional exhaustion (5 items), cynicism (5 items), and professional efficacy (6 items). Items are in the form of “I feel emotionally drained from my work.” The instruction is as follows: “Please read each statement carefully and decide if you ever feel this way about your job.” Likert-type scales are in the form of “How often?”, with a 7-point scale of frequency, i.e., never (0), a few times a year or less (1), once a month or less (2), a few times a month (3), once a week (4), a few times a week (5), every day (6). The global score is computed after reversing the items of the professional efficacy factor, so that 工作倦怠以 Maslach 工作倦怠量表一般調查 (MBI-GS; Schaufeliet et al., 1996) 來評估。MBI 是一個廣泛使用的 16 題問卷，包含三個因素：情緒枯竭（5 題）、玩世不恭（5 題）和專業效能（6 題）。項目以 「我在工作中感到情緒枯竭 」的形式進行。指示如下「請仔細閱讀每項陳述，並判斷您是否曾對工作有這種感覺」。Likert 型量表的形式為 「多常發生？」，頻率分為 7 級，即從未發生 (0)、一年幾次或更少 (1)、一個月一次或更少 (2)、一個月幾次 (3)、一週一次 (4)、一週幾次 (5)、每天 (6)。將專業效能因子的項目反轉後計算整體分數，因此
higher scores indicate greater burnout. In the current sample, reliability was 0.82 . 分數越高，表示倦怠感越強。在目前的樣本中，信賴度為 0.82 。
Data Analyses 資料分析
We started by factor-analyzing the 50 items reflecting burnedout parents’ experience. We excluded unsatisfactory items and then analyzed the internal validity of the resulting instrument (hereafter named Parental Burnout Assessment; PBA). Afterwards, we examined its convergence with the Parental Burnout Inventory (PBI) and compared the two instruments’ pattern of correlations with other variables (demographic variables, coparenting disagreement, family disorganization and neuroticism, and job burnout). 我們首先對反映家長倦怠經驗的 50 個項目進行因子分析。我們排除了不滿意的題目，然後分析所得工具（以下稱為「家長工作倦怠評估」；PBA）的內在效度。之後，我們檢視其與家長倦怠量表 (PBI) 的一致性，並比較兩者與其他變項 (人口變項、共同養育分歧、家庭雜亂與神經質，以及工作倦怠) 的相關模式。
For the purpose of factor analyses, the sample was split into two subsamples of 450 and 451 participants respectively in order to compute Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) on two different samples. The 901 subjects were randomly assigned to one of the two subsamples. The comparability of the two subsamples was checked with crosstabs and chi^(2)\chi^{2} analyses for categorical variables (e.g., parent gender) and with one-way ANOVAs for continuous variables (e.g., parent age). They were found to be strictly similar with regard to sociodemographic characteristics. Further analyses were conducted on the entire sample ( N=901N=901 ). Statistical analyses were all computed using SPSS 25 (IBM, 2017) except for CFA, which was computed using Stata 16 software (StataCorp., 2016). 為了進行因子分析，樣本被分成兩個子樣本，分別有 450 位和 451 位受試 者，以便在兩個不同的樣本上計算探索性因子分析 (EFA) 和確定性因子分析 (CFA)。901 名受試者被隨機分配到兩個子樣本中的一個。對於分類變數（例如：父母的性別），我們使用交叉分析和 chi^(2)\chi^{2} 分析來檢查這兩個子樣本的可比性；對於連續變數（例如：父母的年齡），我們使用單向方差分析來檢查這兩個子樣本的可比性。結果發現他們的社會人口特徵完全相似。進一步的分析在整個樣本中進行（ N=901N=901 ）。除 CFA 使用 Stata 16 軟體 (StataCorp., 2016) 進行計算外，其他統計分析均使用 SPSS 25 (IBM, 2017) 進行計算。
The 50 initial items were subjected to an EFA (using maximum likelihood estimation with Varimax rotation) computed on the first subsample ( N=451N=451 ). EFA permitted us to explore the number of meaningful underlying dimensions and to retain a pool of items. We applied parallel analysis to our dataset, a method that is currently considered the most reliable procedure to determine the correct number of factors (Hayton et al., 2004). These analyses were based on a comparison between eigenvalues from a factor analysis of the actual data and eigenvalues from a factor analysis of a random dataset. We obtained the eigenvalues and standard deviations generated from completely random data (and necessary to perform parallel analysis) through the “Marley Watkins Monte Carlo PCA for Parallel Analysis” program (Watkins, 2002a) using the following parameters: 50 variables, 451 participants, and 1,000 replications. The number of components to be retained was based on the number of actual data eigenvalues higher than the upper 95% confidence limit of random data eigenvalues. 我們對第一個子樣本( N=451N=451 )的50個初始項目進行了EFA(使用最大似然估計與Varimax旋轉)。EFA 允許我們探討有意義的基本維度的數量，並保留一批項目。我們對資料集應用平行分析，這種方法目前被認為是決定因子正確數量的最可靠程序（Hayton 等人，2004）。這些分析是基於實際資料的因子分析所得的特徵值與隨機資料集的因子分析所得的特徵值之間的比較。我們透過「Marley Watkins Monte Carlo PCA for Parallel Analysis」程式（Watkins, 2002a），使用下列參數，取得完全隨機資料所產生的特徵值和標準差（也是進行平行分析所必需的）：50 個變數、451 名參與者和 1,000 次重複。要保留的成分數量是根據實際資料特徵值高於隨機資料特徵值 95% 置信上限的數量來決定的。
A CFA was then performed on the second subsample ( N=450N=450 ). The measurement model included four latent variables representing the concepts of exhaustion, contrast with previous parental self, feelings of being fed up and emotional distancing, and their indicators consisting of 9 items for exhaustion, 6 for contrast with previous parental self, 5 for feelings of being fed up, and 3 for emotional distancing ^(2){ }^{2}. Analyses were conducted using the maximum 然後對第二個子樣本( N=450N=450 )進行 CFA。測量模型包括四個潛在變數，分別代表疲憊、與先前父母自我的對比、厭倦感和情感疏離的概念，其指標包括疲憊的9個項目、與先前父母自我的對比的6個項目、厭倦感的5個項目和情感疏離的3個項目 ^(2){ }^{2} 。分析使用最大
likelihood estimation. Several goodness-of-fit indices were used to determine the acceptability of the models. In addition to the chi-square model, which is highly sensitive to sample size and leads to model rejection even when the model misspecification is relatively minor (Hayduk, 1996; Byrne, 1998), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the standardized root mean square residual (SRMS), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) were used (Acock, 2013). For CFI and TLI, values close to 0.90 or greater are acceptable to good. RMSEA and SRMR should preferably be less than or equal to 0.08 (Hu and Bentler, 2009). Reliability was estimated with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ( alpha\alpha ). 似然估計。我們使用了幾個拟合度指數來決定模型的可接受性。除了對樣本大小高度敏感且即使模型錯配相對較小也會導致模型剔除的卡方模型（Hayduk, 1996; Byrne, 1998）外，還使用了近似均方根誤差 (RMSEA)、標準化均方根殘差 (SRMS)、比較適合指數 (CFI) 和 Tucker-Lewis 指數 (TLI)（Acock, 2013）。對於 CFI 和 TLI，接近 0.90 或更高的值為可接受至良好。RMSEA 和 SRMR 最好小於或等於 0.08 (Hu and Bentler, 2009)。可靠度則以 Cronbach's alpha 系數 ( alpha\alpha ) 來估計。
We compared the French-speaking and English-speaking parents’ factor structures, and mothers’ and fathers’ factor structures, using the Coefficient of Congruence Program of Watkins (2002b). The congruence coefficient (rc) is an index of factor similarity. It is typically used to determine the factorial invariance of solutions across samples or studies. The results were interpreted following the threshold points proposed by Lorenzo-Seva and Ferrando (2006). Values equal to or higher than 0.95 reveal that the two factors compared may be considered as equal, values between 0.85 and 0.94 indicate that they display fair similarity, and values lower than 0.85 that they do not display any similarity at all. 我們使用 Watkins (2002b) 的一致性係數計畫，比較說法語和說英語的父母的因子結構，以及母親和父親的因子結構。一致性係數 (rc) 是因子相似性的指標。它通常用來判斷不同樣本或研究中解決方案的因子不變性。我們依據 Lorenzo-Seva 和 Ferrando (2006) 提出的臨界點來詮釋結果。數值等於或高於 0.95 表示比較的兩個因子可被視為相等，數值介於 0.85 和 0.94 之間表示它們顯示出一般的相似性，而數值低於 0.85 則表示它們完全沒有顯示出任何相似性。
For convergent validity, we first computed correlations (Pearson and Kendall) between the sum scores of the PBA and the PBI, and between the mean scores of their subscales. Second, we appraised the frequency of parents in five categorical levels (corresponding to the levels of the response scale) according to whether they displayed at least 2//32 / 3 of the symptoms ( 66.6%66.6 \% ) never to a few times a year (category 1 ), once a month or less (category 2), a few times a month (category 3), a few times a week (category 4), or every day (category 5). For cross-validation purposes, this criterion was applied both in the PBI and in the PBA scores; we then compared the percentage of parents in the five burnout levels according to the two instruments. The frequencies were also computed across samples (French-speaking vs. Englishspeaking) and gender (mothers vs. fathers). To appraise the probability of being categorized in the highest category with the PBI according to the PBA category levels, a binary score, i.e., being in the highest category or not according to the PBI, was entered in a binary logistic regression as the dependent variable with the five category levels of the PBA as the predictor. 為了達到收斂效度，我們首先計算了 PBA 和 PBI 的總分之間，以及兩者子量表平均分之間的相關性（Pearson 和 Kendall）。其次，我們根據家長是否每年至少出現 2//32 / 3 症狀（ 66.6%66.6 \% ）從未到幾次（第 1 類）、每月一次或更少（第 2 類）、每月幾次（第 3 類）、每週幾次（第 4 類）或每天（第 5 類），將家長出現這些症狀的頻率分為五個分類等級（對應於回應量表的等級）進行評估。為了交叉驗證的目的，這個標準同時應用在 PBI 和 PBA 的分數中；然後，我們根據這兩種工具比較五個倦怠等級中家長的百分比。我們也計算了不同樣本 (法語與英語) 和不同性別 (母親與父親) 的頻率。為了評估根據 PBA 類別等級被歸類到 PBI 最高等級的可能性，我們將二項得分（即根據 PBI 是否歸類到最高等級）輸入二元邏輯迴歸（binary logistic regression）作為因變數，並以 PBA 的五個類別等級作為預測因子。
With regard to the relation between the PBA and other variables, we computed correlations between the sum score of the PBA and the mean scores of the ordinal/continuous variables, i.e., age, educational level, number of children, neuroticism, coparenting disagreement, family disorganization, and job 至於 PBA 與其他變項的關係，我們計算了 PBA 總分與序數/連續變項（即年齡、教育程度、子女數目、神經性、育兒分歧、家庭雜亂無章和工作）平均分之間的相關性。
burnout, aiming at replicating previously found associations with the PBI (Mikolajczak et al., 2017). To take the convergent validation process a step further, we compared the correlations found for the PBA and the PBI with these other variables. ANOVAs were computed to test the effect of categorical sociodemographic factors on PBA scores i.e., gender, family type (single parenthood by choice or by circumstance, living with the children’s father/mother, or blended family), working time (parttime vs. full-time), having at least one child with special needs and having at least one child younger than 5 years old. 倦怠，旨在複製先前發現的與 PBI 的關聯（Mikolajczak 等人，2017 年）。為了進一步進行收斂驗證，我們比較了 PBA 和 PBI 與這些其他變數的關聯性。我們計算了方差分析，以測試分類社會人口因素對 PBA 分數的影響，即性別、家庭類型（因選擇或情況而成為單親父母、與子女的父親/母親同住或混合家庭）、工作時間（兼職與全職）、至少有一名子女有特殊需求，以及至少有一名子女年齡小於 5 歲。
RESULTS 結果
Factor Analyses 因子分析
Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 50 Items 50 個項目的探索性因子分析
Parallel analyses conducted on the 50 items suggested a fourfactor structure. The first five eigenvalues from the actual data were 24.63, 3.04, 2.07, 1.61, and 1.39; the corresponding 95th percentile random data eigenvalues were 1.73,1.65,1.60,1.561.73,1.65,1.60,1.56, 1.52 , and 1.48. The four factors displayed in the EFA explained 54.48%54.48 \% of the variance. The first four dimensions were found to be meaningful, with the first one consisting mainly of feelings of being fed up, the second one of contrast with previous parental self, and the third and fourth ones of a mix of exhaustion feelings in parental role. The items and loadings of the EFA are presented in Supplemental Material Table S1. We then removed items with evident cross-loadings across three factors or more ( > 0.30>0.30; e.g., I feel frustrated in my role as a parent), as well as items with the highest loading on the fifth or sixth factor (e.g., I only half-listen to what my children tell me). In case of redundancy, we removed one of the two items (e.g., Thinking of everything I have to do as a mum/dad makes me feel like staying in bed, and I find it exhausting just thinking of everything I have to do for my children). We also removed items whose meaning could be interpreted outside the scope of parental burnout (e.g., My children are a source of anxiety). This resulted in a list of 23 items that we subjected to another EFA. The four-factor structure accounted for 66.59% of the variance. Based on items’ meaning, the first dimension was labeled “exhaustion in one’s parental role,” the second one “contrast with previous parental self,” the third one “feelings of being fed up,” and the fourth one “emotional distancing from one’s children.” The items, loadings, and reliability estimates of the four-factor structure of the PBA are presented in Table 1. The 23-item version of the PBA was then subjected to a CFA on the second subsample. 對 50 個項目進行的平行分析顯示有四因子結構。實際資料的前五個特徵值分別為 24.63、3.04、2.07、1.61 和 1.39；相對應的第 95 百分位數隨機資料特徵值分別為 1.73,1.65,1.60,1.561.73,1.65,1.60,1.56 、1.52 和 1.48。EFA 中顯示的四個因子解釋了 54.48%54.48 \% 的方差。前四個維度被發現是有意義的，第一個維度主要包含被厭倦的感覺，第二個維度包含與過去父母自我的對比，第三和第四個維度包含父母角色中疲憊感覺的混合。EFA 的項目和載荷列於補充材料表 S1。然後，我們剔除了在三個或更多因子上有明顯交叉負荷的項目（ > 0.30>0.30 ；例如：我在父母的角色上感到挫折），以及在第五或第六個因子上有最高負荷的項目（例如：我只聽一半孩子告訴我的話）。為了避免冗餘，我們刪除了兩個項目中的一個（例如：想到我身為媽媽/爸爸所要做的一切，我就想躺在床上，光是想到要為我的孩子做的一切，我就覺得很累）。我們也剔除了其涵義可被詮釋為家長倦怠範圍以外的項目（例如：我的孩子是焦慮的來源）。這樣我們就得到了一份包含 23 個項目的清單，並對其進行了另一次 EFA 分析。四因子結構佔有 66.59% 的變異。根據項目的意義，第一個維度被標示為「在父母角色中感到疲憊」，第二個維度被標示為「與以前為人父母的自己形成對比」，第三個維度被標示為「感到厭倦」，第四個維度被標示為「與孩子之間的情感疏離」。"表 1 列出了 PBA 四因子結構的項目、載荷和信度估計。之後，我們在第二個子樣本中對 23 個項目版本的 PBA 進行 CFA 分析。
Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Reliability of the PBA PBA 的確認因子分析與可靠度
All the estimated factor loadings found in the CFA were significant at p < 0.001p<0.001. Standardized factor loadings ranged between 0.69 and 0.88 , and reliability estimates were high. Standardized factor loadings are displayed in Table 1. Correlations between the four factors were 0.76 (exhaustioncontrast with previous parental self), 0.76 (exhaustion-feelings of being fed up), 0.66 (exhaustion-emotional distancing), 0.78 (contrast with previous parental self-feelings of being fed up), 0.76 (contrast with previous parental self-emotional distancing), 在 CFA 中找到的所有估計因子載荷在 p < 0.001p<0.001 時都是顯著的。標準化因子載荷介於 0.69 和 0.88 之間，信賴度估計值很高。表 1 顯示了標準化的因子載荷。四個因子之間的相關性分別為 0.76 (精疲力竭與先前父母自我感覺的對比)、0.76 (精疲力竭 - 受夠了的感覺)、0.66 (精疲力竭 - 情緒疏離)、0.78 (與先前父母自我感覺受夠了的對比)、0.76 (與先前父母自我情緒疏離的對比)、
TABLE 1 | Loading parameter estimates in EFA from the four-factor solution and reliability estimates for the 23-item version of the PBA in subsample 1 ( N=451N=451 ) and standardized regression weights from CFA and reliability estimates for the final 23-item version of the PBA in subsample 2 ( N=450N=450 ). 表 1 | 子樣本 1 中 23 項 PBA 版本（ N=451N=451 ）的四因素解 EFA 載入參數估計值和信賴度估計值，以及子樣本 2 中 23 項 PBA 版本（ N=450N=450 ）的 CFA 標準化回歸權重和信賴度估計值。
EFA
CFA
EP
SD
LA
ED
EP
SD
LA
ED
EX1
I feel completely run down by my role as a parent 我覺得自己完全被身為父母的角色所擊敗
0.824
0.254
0.291
-0.061-0.061
0.84
EX2
I have the sense that l'm really worn out as a parent 我覺得作為父母，我真的很累了
0.780
0.322
0.176
0.119
0.86
EX3
I'm so tired out by my role as a parent that sleeping doesn't seem like enough 身為家長，我累壞了，睡覺似乎都不夠
0.726
0.131
0.068
-0.031-0.031
0.70
EX4
When I get up in the morning and have to face another day with my child(ren), I feel exhausted before l've even started 當我早上起床，又要和孩子一起面對新的一天時，我還沒開始就已經感到筋疲力盡了。
0.718
0.226
0.206
0.287
0.82
EX5
I find it exhausting just thinking of everything I have to do for my child(ren) 想到要為孩子做的一切，我就覺得很累。
0.656
0.207
0.165
0.317
0.75
EX6
I have zero energy for looking after my child(ren) 我沒有精力照顧孩子
0.656
0.334
0.333
0.091
0.80
EX7
My role as a parent uses up all my resources 身為父母的角色耗盡了我所有的資源
0.640
0.185
0.277
0.316
0.80
EX8
I sometimes have the impression that l'm looking after my child(ren) on autopilot 我有時會覺得我是在自動駕駛下照顧我的孩子。
0.552
0.311
0.165
0.348
0.71
EX9
I'm in survival mode in my role as a parent 身為家長，我處於生存模式
0.541
0.276
0.371
0.295
0.73
CO1
I don't think I'm the good father/mother that I used to be to my child(ren) 我覺得我不再是以前那個對孩子好的父親/母親了
0.323
0.764
0.212
0.050
0.83
CO2
I tell myself that I'm no longer the parent I used to be 我告訴自己，我不再是以前的父母了
0.279
0.755
0.259
0.237
0.85
CO3
I'm ashamed of the parent that l've become 我為自己變成這樣的父母感到羞愧
0.240
0.708
0.306
0.218
0.88
CO4
I'm no longer proud of myself as a parent 身為父母，我不再感到驕傲
0.262
0.699
0.257
0.282
0.88
CO5
I have the impression that I'm not myself any more when I'm interacting with my child(ren) 當我和孩子互動時，我覺得我不再是我自己了。
0.289
0.681
0.298
0.289
0.83
CO6
I feel as though I've lost my direction as a dad/mum 我覺得自己好像失去了做爸爸/媽媽的方向。
0.450
0.628
0.307
0.014
0.78
FU1
I can't stand my role as father/mother any more 我再也無法忍受自己身為父親/母親的角色了
0.186
0.172
0.824
0.129
0.81
FU2
I can't take being a parent any more 我再也受不了為人父母了
0.190
0.268
0.747
0.223
0.83
FU3
I feel like I can't take any more as a parent 身為家長，我覺得我不能再忍受了
0.292
0.289
0.689
0.134
0.83
FU4
I feel like I can't cope as a parent 我覺得我無法應付為人父母的壓力
0.423
0.403
0.636
0.074
0.86
FU5
I don't enjoy being with my child(ren) 我不喜歡和孩子在一起
0.231
0.312
0.560
0.276
0.75
ED1
I do what I'm supposed to do for my child(ren), but nothing more 我為我的孩子做了我應該做的事，但僅止於此。
0.233
0.306
0.364
0.542
0.69
ED2
Outside the usual routines (lifts in the car, bedtime, meals), l'm no longer able to make an effort for my child(ren) 在一般例行公事（車上的升降機、就寢時間、用餐）之外，我無法再為我的孩子付出努力
0.258
0.368
0.462
0.505
0.84
ED3
I'm no longer able to show my child(ren) how much I love them 我無法再向我的孩子表達我有多愛他們
0.076
0.385
0.379
0.412
0.72
a
0.93
0.93
0.90
0.81
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.77
EFA CFA
EP SD LA ED EP SD LA ED
EX1 I feel completely run down by my role as a parent 0.824 0.254 0.291 -0.061 0.84
EX2 I have the sense that l'm really worn out as a parent 0.780 0.322 0.176 0.119 0.86
EX3 I'm so tired out by my role as a parent that sleeping doesn't seem like enough 0.726 0.131 0.068 -0.031 0.70
EX4 When I get up in the morning and have to face another day with my child(ren), I feel exhausted before l've even started 0.718 0.226 0.206 0.287 0.82
EX5 I find it exhausting just thinking of everything I have to do for my child(ren) 0.656 0.207 0.165 0.317 0.75
EX6 I have zero energy for looking after my child(ren) 0.656 0.334 0.333 0.091 0.80
EX7 My role as a parent uses up all my resources 0.640 0.185 0.277 0.316 0.80
EX8 I sometimes have the impression that l'm looking after my child(ren) on autopilot 0.552 0.311 0.165 0.348 0.71
EX9 I'm in survival mode in my role as a parent 0.541 0.276 0.371 0.295 0.73
CO1 I don't think I'm the good father/mother that I used to be to my child(ren) 0.323 0.764 0.212 0.050 0.83
CO2 I tell myself that I'm no longer the parent I used to be 0.279 0.755 0.259 0.237 0.85
CO3 I'm ashamed of the parent that l've become 0.240 0.708 0.306 0.218 0.88
CO4 I'm no longer proud of myself as a parent 0.262 0.699 0.257 0.282 0.88
CO5 I have the impression that I'm not myself any more when I'm interacting with my child(ren) 0.289 0.681 0.298 0.289 0.83
CO6 I feel as though I've lost my direction as a dad/mum 0.450 0.628 0.307 0.014 0.78
FU1 I can't stand my role as father/mother any more 0.186 0.172 0.824 0.129 0.81
FU2 I can't take being a parent any more 0.190 0.268 0.747 0.223 0.83
FU3 I feel like I can't take any more as a parent 0.292 0.289 0.689 0.134 0.83
FU4 I feel like I can't cope as a parent 0.423 0.403 0.636 0.074 0.86
FU5 I don't enjoy being with my child(ren) 0.231 0.312 0.560 0.276 0.75
ED1 I do what I'm supposed to do for my child(ren), but nothing more 0.233 0.306 0.364 0.542 0.69
ED2 Outside the usual routines (lifts in the car, bedtime, meals), l'm no longer able to make an effort for my child(ren) 0.258 0.368 0.462 0.505 0.84
ED3 I'm no longer able to show my child(ren) how much I love them 0.076 0.385 0.379 0.412 0.72
a 0.93 0.93 0.90 0.81 0.93 0.94 0.91 0.77| | | EFA | | | | CFA | | | |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| | | EP | SD | LA | ED | EP | SD | LA | ED |
| EX1 | I feel completely run down by my role as a parent | 0.824 | 0.254 | 0.291 | $-0.061$ | 0.84 | | | |
| EX2 | I have the sense that l'm really worn out as a parent | 0.780 | 0.322 | 0.176 | 0.119 | 0.86 | | | |
| EX3 | I'm so tired out by my role as a parent that sleeping doesn't seem like enough | 0.726 | 0.131 | 0.068 | $-0.031$ | 0.70 | | | |
| EX4 | When I get up in the morning and have to face another day with my child(ren), I feel exhausted before l've even started | 0.718 | 0.226 | 0.206 | 0.287 | 0.82 | | | |
| EX5 | I find it exhausting just thinking of everything I have to do for my child(ren) | 0.656 | 0.207 | 0.165 | 0.317 | 0.75 | | | |
| EX6 | I have zero energy for looking after my child(ren) | 0.656 | 0.334 | 0.333 | 0.091 | 0.80 | | | |
| EX7 | My role as a parent uses up all my resources | 0.640 | 0.185 | 0.277 | 0.316 | 0.80 | | | |
| EX8 | I sometimes have the impression that l'm looking after my child(ren) on autopilot | 0.552 | 0.311 | 0.165 | 0.348 | 0.71 | | | |
| EX9 | I'm in survival mode in my role as a parent | 0.541 | 0.276 | 0.371 | 0.295 | 0.73 | | | |
| CO1 | I don't think I'm the good father/mother that I used to be to my child(ren) | 0.323 | 0.764 | 0.212 | 0.050 | | 0.83 | | |
| CO2 | I tell myself that I'm no longer the parent I used to be | 0.279 | 0.755 | 0.259 | 0.237 | | 0.85 | | |
| CO3 | I'm ashamed of the parent that l've become | 0.240 | 0.708 | 0.306 | 0.218 | | 0.88 | | |
| CO4 | I'm no longer proud of myself as a parent | 0.262 | 0.699 | 0.257 | 0.282 | | 0.88 | | |
| CO5 | I have the impression that I'm not myself any more when I'm interacting with my child(ren) | 0.289 | 0.681 | 0.298 | 0.289 | | 0.83 | | |
| CO6 | I feel as though I've lost my direction as a dad/mum | 0.450 | 0.628 | 0.307 | 0.014 | | 0.78 | | |
| FU1 | I can't stand my role as father/mother any more | 0.186 | 0.172 | 0.824 | 0.129 | | | 0.81 | |
| FU2 | I can't take being a parent any more | 0.190 | 0.268 | 0.747 | 0.223 | | | 0.83 | |
| FU3 | I feel like I can't take any more as a parent | 0.292 | 0.289 | 0.689 | 0.134 | | | 0.83 | |
| FU4 | I feel like I can't cope as a parent | 0.423 | 0.403 | 0.636 | 0.074 | | | 0.86 | |
| FU5 | I don't enjoy being with my child(ren) | 0.231 | 0.312 | 0.560 | 0.276 | | | 0.75 | |
| ED1 | I do what I'm supposed to do for my child(ren), but nothing more | 0.233 | 0.306 | 0.364 | 0.542 | | | | 0.69 |
| ED2 | Outside the usual routines (lifts in the car, bedtime, meals), l'm no longer able to make an effort for my child(ren) | 0.258 | 0.368 | 0.462 | 0.505 | | | | 0.84 |
| ED3 | I'm no longer able to show my child(ren) how much I love them | 0.076 | 0.385 | 0.379 | 0.412 | | | | 0.72 |
| | a | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.90 | 0.81 | 0.93 | 0.94 | 0.91 | 0.77 |
Factor loadings in EFA > |0.40||0.40| are in bold; EX, Exhaustion in Parental role; CO, Contrast in parental self; FU, Feelings of being fed up; ED, Emotional Distancing. EFA > |0.40||0.40| 中的因子負載以粗體表示；EX，父母角色的疲憊；CO，父母自我的對比；FU，被厭倦的感覺；ED，情感疏離。
and 0.79 (feelings of being fed up-emotional distancing). With regard to fit indices, chi_((193))^(2)=685.71\chi_{(193)}^{2}=685.71 was significant at p=0.001p=0.001, indicating that there is some discrepancy between the hypothesized model and the data. Other fit measures demonstrated a very good fit to the data, with CFI =0.94=0.94, TLI=0.93\mathrm{TLI}=0.93, RMSEA =0.07=0.07, and SRMR=0.04\operatorname{SRMR}=0.04. These results confirm the validity of the four-factor internal structure of the PBA. 和 0.79（被厭惡感-情感疏離）。在擬合指數方面， chi_((193))^(2)=685.71\chi_{(193)}^{2}=685.71 在 p=0.001p=0.001 顯著，表示假設的模型與資料之間存在一些差異。其他的契合度指標顯示與資料的契合度非常好，CFI =0.94=0.94 、 TLI=0.93\mathrm{TLI}=0.93 、RMSEA =0.07=0.07 和 SRMR=0.04\operatorname{SRMR}=0.04 。這些結果證實了 PBA 四因子內部結構的有效性。
Comparison of the Factor Structure of French-Speaking and English-Speaking Parents 法語家長與英語家長的因子結構比較
Congruence coefficients obtained when comparing the factorial structure of French-speaking parents with that of English-speaking parents were 0.98 for factor 1 (exhaustion in 比較講法語的父母與講英語的父母的因子結構時，因子 1 的一致性係數為 0.98 (法語父母的精疲力竭程度)，而英語父母的一致性係數則為 0.98 (英語父母的精疲力竭程度)。
parental role), 0.96 for factor 2 (contrast with previous parental self), 0.94 for factor 3 (feelings of being fed up), and 0.95 for factor 4 (emotional distancing). The loadings of the four factors in the two subsamples are presented in Supplemental Material Table S2. Based on Lorenzo-Seva and Ferrando (2006) threshold points, these results suggest that the four factors compared in the two samples may be considered as similar, suggesting invariance of the factor structure of the PBA across samples. 父母角色），因子 2（與先前父母自我的對比）為 0.96，因子 3（被厭倦的感覺）為 0.94，因子 4（情感疏離）為 0.95。兩個子樣本中四個因子的負載列於補充材料表 S2。根據 Lorenzo-Seva 和 Ferrando (2006) 的臨界點，這些結果顯示在兩個樣本中比較的四個因子可以被認為是相似的，這說明 PBA 的因子結構在不同樣本中是不變的。
Comparison of the Factor Structure of Mothers and Fathers 母親和父親的因子結構比較
Congruence coefficients obtained when comparing the factorial structure of mothers with that of fathers were 0.98 for factor 1 (exhaustion), 0.89 for factor 2 (contrast with previous parental self), 0.88 for factor 3 (feelings of 在比較母親和父親的因子結構時，因子 1 (疲憊) 的一致性系數為 0.98，因子 2 (與先前為人父母的自我對比) 的一致性系數為 0.89，因子 3 (對父母的感覺) 的一致性系數為 0.88。
being fed up), and 0.88 for factor 4 (emotional distancing). The loadings of the four factors in the two subsamples are presented in Supplemental Material Table S2. These results suggest that the exhaustion factor is equal across samples while the three other factors display fair similarity. 被厭倦），因子 4（情感疏遠）為 0.88。兩個子樣本中四個因子的負載列於補充材料表 S2。這些結果顯示，精疲力竭因子在不同樣本之間是相等的，而其他三個因子則顯示出相當的相似性。
Based on the results found for the internal structure of the PBA and in order to investigate both the convergent validity and the relations between PBA and other variables, scores were computed for the four validated PBA factors. These were obtained by summing the item scores in each of the four subscales; the higher the scores, the higher the burnout. A global score was also computed, which was found to be highly reliable in the pooled sample of 901 parents (alpha=0.96)(\alpha=0.96). Descriptive statistics of the PBA scores in the pooled sample are presented in Table 2. 基於 PBA 內部結構的結果，並為了研究 PBA 與其他變數之間的收斂效度和關係，我們計算了四個已驗證的 PBA 因子的分數。這些分數是將四個分量表中每個量表的項目分數相加而得到的；分數越高，倦怠感越強。此外，還計算了總體分數，在 901 位家長 (alpha=0.96)(\alpha=0.96) 的集合樣本中，發現總體分數非常可靠。表 2 列出了匯集樣本中 PBA 分數的描述性統計。
Convergent Validity 收斂有效性
The correlations between the four subscales of the PBA and the three subscales of the PBI as well as the bivariate associations encompassing the two total scores are presented in Table 3. Coefficients between the two exhaustion factors were high, r=0.86r=0.86 and tau =0.67=0.67, and the same was true for emotional distancing, r=0.80r=0.80 and tau =0.60=0.60, and for the global scores, r=0.84r=0.84 and tau =0.64=0.64, giving support to the good convergent validity of the PBA. The feelings of being fed up and the contrast with previous parental self-factors were moderately correlated to the three PBI dimensions, suggesting that they constitute dimensions specifically drawn from the inductive method under consideration in this paper which had not been fully identified by the deductive method inspired from the job burnout framework. 表 3 列出了 PBA 的四個分量表與 PBI 的三個分量表之間的關聯，以及包含兩個總分的二元關聯。兩個疲憊因子之間的系數很高， r=0.86r=0.86 和tau =0.67=0.67 ，情感疏離的系數 r=0.80r=0.80 和tau =0.60=0.60 以及總分的系數 r=0.84r=0.84 和tau =0.64=0.64 也是如此，這支持了PBA良好的收斂效度。被厭倦的感覺和與以往父母自我因素的對比與三個 PBI 維度呈中度相關，表明它們構成了本文所考慮的歸納法中的特定維度，而這些維度並未被工作倦怠框架啟發的演繹法完全識別出來。
Parents displaying at least 65%65 \% of the burnout symptoms (i.e., items) every day were considered to be in burnout. Following this rule, we examined whether the percentage of burned-out parents based on the PBA and the PBI was equal. Based on frequencies, 5.9%5.9 \% of the parents were found to be in burnout with the PBA against 5.3%5.3 \% for the PBI. The frequencies at each of the five burnout levels are shown in Table 4 according to the PBI and the PBA, across French- and English-speaking parents, and across gender. The distribution appears to be highly similar for the PBI and the PBA over the five burnout levels in the pooled sample, except between low and moderate risks. With regard to gender, the PBA seemed to discriminate between burned-out mothers and fathers to a higher extent than the PBI in the last two categories, i.e., high risk and burnout. The percentage of mothers in burnout or at high risk according to the PBA was higher than the percentage of fathers in the same situations. For the sample, the percentage of burned-out parents seemed to be slightly higher among English-speaking than French-speaking parents, suggesting some cross-cultural variability in the prevalence of parental burnout. 每天至少有 65%65 \% 倦怠症狀（即項目）出現的家長被認為有倦怠。根據這個規則，我們檢驗了根據 PBA 和 PBI 的倦怠父母百分比是否相同。根據頻數，PBA有 5.9%5.9 \% 的家長陷入倦怠，而PBI則有 5.3%5.3 \% 的家長陷入倦怠。五個倦怠等級中每個等級的頻率顯示在表 4 中，依據 PBI 和 PBA、法語和英語家長，以及不同性別。在匯集的樣本中，PBI 和 PBA 在五種倦怠程度上的分佈似乎非常相似，除了低風險和中風險之間。在性別方面，在最後兩個類別，即高風險和倦怠中，PBA似乎比PBI更能區分倦怠的母親和父親。根據 PBA，倦怠或高風險母親的百分比高於相同情況下父親的百分比。在樣本中，說英語的家長倦怠的百分比似乎略高於說法語的家長，這顯示在家長倦怠的普遍性上有一些跨文化的差異。
The results of the binary logistic regression showed that the odds of being in the highest burnout category rather than not being in this category with the PBI significantly increased as parents moved from one category level to the next 二元邏輯迴歸的結果顯示，當家長從一個類別層級移動到下一個類別層級時，在 PBI 中屬於最高倦怠類別而非不屬於此類別的機率顯著增加。
with the PBA (odds ratio =3.48=3.48 ). The model had a good pseudo-R ^(2){ }^{2} (Nagelkerke’s R_(N)^(2)=0.44\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{N}}^{2}=0.44 ) and the classification table indicated that it correctly predicted the outcome in 94.7%94.7 \% of cases. 與 PBA（機會率 =3.48=3.48 ）。該模型具有良好的偽 R ^(2){ }^{2} (Nagelkerke's R_(N)^(2)=0.44\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{N}}^{2}=0.44 )，分類表顯示該模型正確預測了 94.7%94.7 \% 個案的結果。
Relations With Other Variables 與其他變數的關係
Correlation coefficients between the global score for parental burnout (measured either with the PBA or the PBI as a further means of assessing convergent validity), age, educational level, number of children, neuroticism, coparenting disagreement, family disorganization, and job burnout are presented in Table 5. Coefficients found for PBA were very close to those found for PBI, giving additional support to the good convergent validity of the PBA. None of the coefficients was statistically different from its counterpart in the other instrument. We also replicated previously found low associations between parental burnout and sociodemographic factors but moderate to high associations between parental burnout and neuroticism, coparenting disagreement, family disorganization, and job burnout (Mikolajczak et al., 2017; Roskam et al., 2017). 表 5 列出了父母職業倦怠的整體評分（使用 PBA 或 PBI 測量，以進一步評估收斂效度）、年齡、教育程度、子女數目、神經性、共養分歧、家庭涣散和工作倦怠之間的相關係數。PBA 的系數與 PBI 的系數非常接近，進一步證明 PBA 具有良好的收斂效度。沒有一個系數在統計學上與其他工具中的相應系數不同。我們也複製了先前發現的家長倦怠與社會人口因素之間的低關聯，但家長倦怠與神經質、共同養育分歧、家庭失調和工作倦怠之間的中度至高度關聯（Mikolajczak等人，2017；Roskam等人，2017）。
The results of ANOVAs showed that the intensity of mothers’ burnout assessed with the PBA was significantly higher than that of fathers. However, this difference according to gender was not displayed with the PBI. With regard to family type, there was no difference in burnout between single parents by choice and single parents by circumstance, either with the PBA or with the PBI. Also, burnout among parents in two-parent families did not differ from burnout in single parents by circumstance either with the PBA or with the PBI. Burnout among parents in twoparent families did not differ from burnout in single parents by choice either with the PBA or with the PBI. A last comparison for family type was made between parents in blended families and in two-parent families. These tended to differ from each other according to the PBA and differed significantly according to the PBI. 方差分析結果顯示，以 PBA 評估的母親倦怠強度明顯高於父親。然而，這種性別上的差異並沒有在 PBI 中顯示出來。在家庭類型方面，無論是使用 PBA 或 PBI 評估，選擇單親家長和環境單親家長的倦怠感都沒有差異。此外，雙親家庭中的家長的倦怠感，無論是在PBA或PBI中，都與單親家長的倦怠感沒有差異。雙親家庭中父母的倦怠與單親家庭中父母的倦怠在選擇上並無差異，無論是使用 PBA 或 PBI。最後一項家庭類型的比較是在混合家庭的父母和雙親家庭的父母之間進行的。根據 PBA，這兩種家庭傾向於彼此不同，而根據 PBI，則有顯著的差異。
In terms of working time, parents working part-time displayed higher levels of burnout than parents working full-time with the PBA but not with the PBI. Parents having at least one child with special needs displayed higher levels of burnout than other parents with both the PBA and the PBI. Finally, having at least one child younger than 5 years old was associated with higher burnout with the PBA but not with the PBI. Descriptive statistics are given in Table 2. Overall, slightly more significant differences emerge with the PBA than with the PBI. 就工作時間而言，兼職工作的家長比全職工作的家長顯示出更高程度的倦怠感，但PBA卻沒有顯示出更高程度的倦怠感。至少有一個孩子有特殊需求的家長，在PBA和PBI中都比其他家長顯示出更高的倦怠程度。最後，至少有一個孩子小於 5 歲與 PBA 的倦怠感較高相關，但與 PBI 的倦怠感不 相關。表 2 列出了描述性統計資料。總體而言，PBA 的差異比 PBI 稍為顯著。
DISCUSSION 討論
This study aimed to go deeper in the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout using a radically different approach. In the first generation of studies, parental burnout was not conceptualized as a distinct syndrome from job burnout and, therefore, parents’ burnout was measured via instruments that did not discriminate between the two forms of burnout (Lindhal-Norberg, 2007; Norberg, 2010; Lindström et al., 2011; Lindhal Norberg et al., 2014). In the second generation of 本研究旨在使用一種截然不同的方法，深入探討父母職業倦怠的概念化和測量。在第一代研究中，家長倦怠並未被概念化為與工作倦怠截然不同的綜合症狀，因此，家長倦怠是透過不區分這兩種倦怠形式的工具來測量的（Lindhal-Norberg，2007；Norberg，2010；Lindström 等人，2011；Lindhal Norberg 等人，2014）。在第二代
Pooled sample 匯集樣本(N=901)(N=901)
Gender 性別
Sample 樣品
Family type 家庭類型
Working time 工作時間
Having a child with special needs 有特殊需求的孩子
Having at least one child younger than 5 years old 至少有一個 5 歲以下的孩子
All the correlations are significant at p < 0.001p<0.001. 所有的相關性在 p < 0.001p<0.001 時都是顯著的。
TABLE 4∣4 \mid Percentage of parents belonging to each category (higher categories = higher burnout scores) according to the PBA and the PBI. 表 4∣4 \mid 根據 PBA 和 PBI，屬於各類別的家長百分比（類別越高 = 職業倦怠分數越高）。
Category 1, 2/3 of the symptoms never to a few times a year; Category 2, once a month or less; Category 3, a few times a month; Category 4, a few times a week; Category 5, every day. 第 1 類，2/3 的症狀每年從未至數次；第 2 類，每月一次或更少；第 3 類，每月數次；第 4 類，每週數次；第 5 類，每天。
studies, parental burnout conceptualization and measurement were deduced from those of job burnout (e.g., Roskam et al., 2017; Lebert-Charron et al., 2018). In the current study, which can be seen as instituting the third generation of studies, parental burnout and its measurement were approached using an inductive method, viz. starting from burned-out parents’ testimonies. 研究中，父母倦怠的概念化和測量是從工作倦怠的概念化和測量推導出來的（例如，Roskam等人，2017；Lebert-Charron等人，2018）。在本研究中，父母倦怠及其測量採用歸納法，即從倦怠父母的見證著手，可視為第三代研究的開始。
The results of this study show substantial consistency between the dimensions emerging from the deductive and inductive approaches (resulting in the PBI and the PBA respectively). The first and most important dimension of the PBA, Exhaustion in one’s parental role, is the same as in the PBI. The second dimension, i.e., Contrast, is not formally measured in the PBI (nor in the MBI) but is nonetheless inherent to the notion of burnout: if the current state of the person does not contrast with a previous period, the person cannot be said to be in burnout. Thus, the PBA materializes a very important diagnosis criterion of burnout that is not captured by any other burnout measure, although it should be. The third dimension of the PBA, “Feelings of being fed up,” differs somewhat from the “Loss of parental accomplishment and efficacy” of the PBI and suggests that, while all burned-out parents lose pleasure and fulfillment in their parental role, not all of them lose their efficacy. Finally, the last dimension, Emotional distancing from one’s children, is the same in the PBA and the PBI. 本研究的結果顯示，演繹法和歸納法（分別產生 PBI 和 PBA）所產生的維度之間有實質的一致性。PBA的第一個也是最重要的一個維度「父母角色的疲憊」與PBI相同。第二個維度，也就是「對比」，在 PBI（或 MBI）中並沒有正式測量，但卻是倦怠概念中的固有維度：如果當前的狀態與之前的狀態沒有對比，就不能說此人處於倦怠狀態。因此，PBA實現了倦怠的一個非常重要的診斷標準，這是任何其他倦怠測量方法都無法捕捉到的，儘管它應該被捕捉到。PBA的第三個維度「厭倦的感覺」與PBI的「失去為人父母的成就感和效能感」有些不同，它表明，雖然所有倦怠的父母都在為人父母的角色中失去了樂趣和成就感，但並不是所有的父母都失去了效能感。最後，最後一個維度「與子女的情感疏離」在 PBA 和 PBI 中是相同的。
In addition to the congruence between the constructs emerging from the deductive and inductive approach, there was also remarkable consistency between the correlations of the PBA and PBI with other variables (sociodemographics, neuroticism, coparental disagreement, family disorganization, 除了演繹法和歸納法所產生的構造之間的一致性之外，PBA 和 PBI 與其他變項（社會人口學、神經主義、家長不和、家庭組織失調）之間的相關性也顯著一致、
etc.). A close comparison of the relationships of the PBA and PBI with these variables show that the correlation of one instrument with a given variable differed at most by 6%6 \% from the correlation of the other instrument with the same variable. This constitutes another argument in favor of the idea that the two instruments measure the same syndrome. 等）。如果仔細比較 PBA 和 PBI 與這些變數的關係，就會發現其中一種工具與特定變數的相關性，與另一種工具與相同變數的相關性最多相差 6%6 \% 。這構成了另一個論據，支持這兩種工具測量的是相同的綜合症。
Taken together, the results of this study add to the growing body of evidence corroborating the view of Pines and Aronson (1988) and Bianchi et al. (2014) that the burnout phenomenon is not confined to work. However, the structure and content of parental burnout is somewhat different from job burnout from both theoretical and practical perspectives. As in Pelsma’s work (1989) as well as in the validation study of the PBI (Roskam et al., 2017), depersonalization was found to be unsuitable in the parental context. Although highly exhausted employees may consider their clients or patients as numbers, highly exhausted parents cannot “dehumanize” their children. Even when they are at the end of their rope, parents cannot consider the flesh of their flesh as objects. This is an important difference between burnout in the professional and parental spheres. What they can do, however, is distance themselves from the source of exhaustion. In our clinical and research experience with parents of children with externalized disorders, i.e., conduct disorder or antisocial behavior, we have observed that exhausted parents disengage emotionally rather than physically, i.e., they provide practical care such as feeding or sleeping but became less emotionally involved, sensitive, and responsive to their offspring. 綜合而言，本研究的結果增加了越來越多的證據，印證了Pines和Aronson (1988)以及Bianchi等人(2014)的觀點，即工作倦怠現象不僅限於工作。然而，從理論和實踐的角度來看，父母倦怠的結構和內容與工作倦怠有些不同。正如 Pelsma 的研究（1989 年）以及 PBI 的驗證研究（Roskam 等人，2017 年）發現，去人格化並不適合用於家長情境。雖然高度精疲力竭的員工可能會將他們的客戶或病人視為數字，但高度精疲力竭的父母無法將他們的孩子「非人化」。即使到了山窮水盡之時，父母也不能將自己的骨肉視為物品。這是專業領域的倦怠與父母領域的倦怠之間的重要差異。然而，他們可以做的，是與疲憊的根源保持距離。在我們的臨床和研究經驗中，我們觀察到有外化障礙（即行為障礙或反社會行為）的兒童的父母，精疲力竭的父母會在情緒上而非身體上脫離，也就是說，他們提供實際的照顧，例如餵食或睡眠，但卻變得較少在情緒上投入、敏感，以及對後代的回應。
TABLE 5 | Correlations between the PBA, the PBI and other variables under study. 表 5 | PBA、PBI 與其他研究變數間的相關性。
^(**)p < 0.05,^(****)p < 0.01{ }^{*} p<0.05,{ }^{* *} p<0.01, and ^(******)p < 0.001{ }^{* * *} p<0.001. ^(**)p < 0.05,^(****)p < 0.01{ }^{*} p<0.05,{ }^{* *} p<0.01 ，以及 ^(******)p < 0.001{ }^{* * *} p<0.001 。
The results of the current study also support the validity of the PBA as a measure of parental burnout in both French-speaking and English-speaking parents. Finally, they replicate previous findings that psychological traits of the parents, parenting factors, and family functioning account for more variance in parental burnout than sociodemographic factors such as the number and age of children, working time, or family structure (Mikolajczak et al., 2017). With regard to this last point, the results of the current study shed some light on an intriguing result of Mikolajczak et al. (2017), who found no difference in average burnout score between single parents and parents with a spouse. In order to go deeper into this counterintuitive result, we differentiated here between single parents by choice and burdened single parents. Descriptive statistics showed that single parents by choice scored lower on burnout than parents with a partner, who themselves scored lower than burdened single parents. Although these differences were not statistically significant, this pattern of results fully explains why single parents (in general) did not score higher on burnout in previous studies. 目前的研究結果也支持 PBA 作為父母倦怠度量法語和英語父母的有效性。最後，他們複製了先前的研究結果，即父母的心理特質、養育因素和家庭功能在父母倦怠中所佔的變異比社會人口因素（如孩子的數量和年齡、工作時間或家庭結構）更多（Mikolajczak等人，2017）。關於最後一點，目前的研究結果對 Mikolajczak 等人（2017）的一個耐人尋味的結果有所啟發，他們發現單親父母和有配偶的父母在倦怠平均分數上沒有差異。為了深入探討這個反直覺的結果，我們在此區分了選擇性單親父母和負擔型單親父母。描述性統計資料顯示，選擇單親的父母在倦怠上的得分比有伴侶的父母低，而有伴侶的父母在倦怠上的得分比有負擔的單親父母低。儘管這些差異在統計學上並不顯著，但這個結果模式完全解釋了為什麼在先前的研究中，單親家長（一般而言）在倦怠上的得分不高。
The current study has the merit of providing an alternative to the measurement of parental burnout that can be considered, like the PBI, as a valid assessment method. High overlap between the two instruments and consistency regarding relations with other variables might be thought to suggest that the PBI and the PBA are commutable measures. However, this is not true, for at least four reasons. The first is that unlike the PBI, the PBA provides an important diagnostic criterion in the form of contrast with previous parental self. Although contrast is inherent to the notion of burnout, it is not formally assessed in the PBI. This diagnostic criterion is very important to make sure that the concept of burnout is employed to identify exhausted parents rather than permanently dismissive ones. The second reason for distinguishing the two instruments is that in the PBI (as in the MBI), the items of the Exhaustion and Emotional Distancing subscales evaluate burnout, i.e., the higher the score, the higher the burnout symptoms, while the items of the (Loss of) Parental Accomplishment and Efficacy subscale evaluate the inverse of burnout, i.e., the higher the score, the lower the burnout symptoms. However, the mere fact that a parent reports a limited level of accomplishment and efficacy does not mean that (s)he is in burnout. In the testimonies, burned-out parents reported that they did not enjoy being with their children anymore, not that they enjoyed being 本研究的優點在於提供了另一種父母職業倦怠的測量方法，與 PBI 一樣，可視為有效的評估方法。這兩種工具之間的高度重疊，以及與其他變數關係的一致性，可能會被認為暗示 PBI 和 PBA 是可共通的量測方法。然而，事實並非如此，至少有四個原因。首先，與PBI不同的是，PBA提供了一個重要的診斷標準，其形式是與先前父母自我的對比。雖然對比是倦怠的固有概念，但在 PBI 中卻沒有正式評估。這個診斷標準是非常重要的，它可以確保職業倦怠的概念是用來識別精疲力竭的家長，而不是永遠不屑一顾的家長。區分這兩種工具的第二個原因是，在 PBI 中（如同在 MBI 中），「精疲力竭」和「情感疏離」分量表的項目評估倦怠，也就是分數越高，倦怠症狀越嚴重，而「（失去）家長成就感」和「效能」分量表的項目評估倦怠的反向，也就是分數越高，倦怠症狀越輕。然而，僅僅是家長報告成就感和效能感水平有限的事實，並不意味著（他）已經陷入倦怠。在證詞中，倦怠的家長表示他們不再喜歡和孩子在一起，而不是他們喜歡被
with their children slightly less. We strongly believe that items that directly assess burnout are preferable. In the PBA, all 23 items are formulated in a sense which measures burnout. The third reason is that the inductive method allowed us to nuance the (Loss of) Parental Accomplishment and Efficacy dimension. It shows that, in the case of parental burnout, the loss of pleasure and fulfillment in the parental role takes precedence over the loss of efficacy. The last reason for differentiating between the PBA and the PBI is that the use of the first is free while the use of the second is not ^(3){ }^{3}. In sum, we recommend the use of the PBI in studies aiming to compare burnout in two contexts, i.e., work and family, using a very common framework. The use of the PBA should be preferred in any other situation. 與子女相處的時間較少。我們堅信，直接評估倦怠的項目比較可取。在 PBA 中，所有 23 個項目都是以測量倦怠的方式來制定的。第三個原因是，歸納法讓我們可以對（失去）家長成就感和效能感維度進行細微的分析。它顯示出，在父母職業倦怠的情況下，父母角色的樂趣和成就感的喪失優先於效能感的喪失。區分 PBA 和 PBI 的最後一個原因是，使用前者是免費的，而使用後者卻不是 ^(3){ }^{3} 。總而言之，我們建議在旨在比較工作和家庭這兩種情境下的倦怠感的研究中使用 PBI，並使用一個非常通用的框架。在任何其他情況下，我們都建議使用 PBA。
While we recommend the use of the PBA, it is not without limitations. The main limitation is that the PBA was created on the basis of the testimonies of burned-out mothers only. Although the congruence between factor scores of the two genders was acceptable and although the correlations with other variables were comparable across genders, mean burnout scores differed between genders: PBA scores were significantly lower for fathers than mothers. This gender difference was not found using the PBI. At this stage, we lack information to determine whether this result reflects higher sensitivity of the PBA to true gender differences or, on the contrary, a lack of sensitivity of the PBA to the detection of burned-out fathers. Future studies are urgently needed to go into this issue. These results also highlight the need for testimonies from burned-out fathers. 雖然我們建議使用 PBA，但它並非沒有限制。主要的限制是，PBA 是僅基於倦怠母親的證詞而建立的。儘管兩種性別的因子分數之間的一致性是可以接受的，儘管與其他變數之間的相關性在不同性別之間是可比的，但是平均倦怠分數在不同性別之間是有差異的：父親的 PBA 分數明顯低於母親。使用 PBI 則沒有發現這種性別差異。在現階段，我們缺乏資料來判斷這個結果是否反映出 PBA 對於真正的性別差異有較高的敏感度，或是相反地，PBA 對於偵測倦怠的父親缺乏敏感度。未來的研究急需探討這個問題。這些結果也突顯出需要倦怠父親的見證。
Another limitation is that the PBA was created on the basis of French-speaking and English-speaking samples only. The results show that the experience of burnout seems identical among Belgian, French, British, and American parents. Yet, this does not preclude the possibility that the structure and expression of parental burnout varies across countries or cultures. The countries surveyed here are very close to each other on many cultural dimensions (independent-interdependent self-construal, individualism-collectivism, gender roles, temporal orientation, etc.) and it is possible that the results would have been different if the study had been conducted in a country with opposite cultural characteristics and values. 另一個限制是 PBA 只根據說法語和說英語的樣本建立。結果顯示，在比利時、法國、英國和美國的父母中，倦怠的經驗似乎是相同的。然而，這並不排除家長倦怠的結構和表現在不同國家或文化中有所差異的可能性。本文所調查的國家在許多文化層面上（獨立-獨立的自我結構、個人主義-集體主義、性別角色、時間取向等）非常接近，如果研究是在文化特徵和價值觀相反的國家進行，結果可能會有所不同。
These limitations leave plenty of room for future research. The most urgent direction stemming from the current research is the need to go deeper into the experience of burned-out fathers. A second, related, future direction is the need to examine crosscultural variations in the expression and structure of parental burnout. A third pressing research direction concerns the need for clinical cutoff scores for the PBA and the PBI. In order to be valid, these clinical cutoffs must be set according to objective external criteria and not according to an arbitrary criterion such as the one used here to analyze the convergence between parental burnout instruments in detecting high levels of burnout (i.e., 66.6%66.6 \% of symptoms every day). Future studies using objective external criteria are therefore needed. The resulting clinical cut-off scores would allow epidemiological studies to 這些限制為未來的研究留下了很大的空間。目前研究最迫切的方向，是需要更深入地探究倦怠父親的經驗。第二個相關的未來方向，是需要研究父母倦怠的表達和結構的跨文化差異。第三個迫切的研究方向是關於PBA和PBI的臨床臨界分數。為了使其有效，這些臨床臨界值必須根據客觀的外部標準來設定，而不是根據任意的標準，例如這裡用來分析家長倦怠工具之間在檢測高水平倦怠（即每天都有 66.6%66.6 \% 症狀）方面的一致性的標準。因此，未來的研究需要使用客觀的外部標準。由此產生的臨床臨界分數可讓流行病學研究
determine the prevalence of parental burnout (i.e., the proportion of parents affected in a given location at a particular time), which is essential to both public health policy decision-making (highly prevalent disorders warrant preventive actions as well as training and staffing more specialized health professionals) and to clinical decision-making (if parental burnout is more common than myalgic encephalomyelitis, this is useful information in evaluating a stay-at-home mother describing intense fatigue). 確定父母職業倦怠的流行率（即在特定時間特定地點受影響父母的比例），這對於公共衛生政策決策（高流行率的疾病需要採取預防措施，以及訓練更專門的衛生專業人員並為其配置人員）和臨床決策（如果父母職業倦怠比肌痛腦髓炎更常見，這對於評估一位描述強烈疲勞的家庭主婦非常有用）都非常重要。
ETHICS STATEMENT 道德聲明
This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct with written informed consent from all subjects. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. 本研究依據美國心理學會(APA)心理學家倫理原則及行為準則的建議進行，並取得所有受試者的書面知情同意。所有受試者均依照赫爾辛基宣言給予書面知情同意。研究方案已獲得比利時新魯汶天主教大學心理科學研究所的批准。
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AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS 作者貢獻
IR, MEB and MM designed the project and lead the data collection. IR computed the analyses, wrote the Method, and Results sections. MM wrote the Introduction and Discussion sections. IR、MEB 和 MM 設計本專案並領導資料收集。IR 負責計算分析、撰寫方法和結果部分。MM 撰寫引言和討論部分。
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 致謝
This study was funded by an FSR Grant from the Université catholique de Louvain (UCL) in Belgium. We warmly thank Sarah Hubert for sharing her material and the parents for sharing their testimonies. We also thank Philip from Crossword for proofreading the manuscript. 本研究由比利時魯汶天主教大學 (Université catholique de Louvain, UCL) 的 FSR 補助金資助。我們熱烈感謝 Sarah Hubert 分享她的資料，以及家長們分享他們的見證。我們也感謝 Crossword 的 Philip 校正手稿。
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 利益衝突聲明：作者聲明，本研究是在沒有任何可被視為潛在利益衝突的商業或財務關係的情況下進行。
^(2){ }^{2} Skewness and kurtosis indicated that 10 of the 23 final items displayed deviations from normality. Conceptually, these deviations from normality make sense: burnout is not expected to be normally distributed in the population. Like most mental health indicators, burnout is expected to present an asymmetric distribution (i.e., to be positively skewed, like most psychological disorders). ^(2){ }^{2} 偏度和峰度表明，23個最終項目中有10個偏離了正態性。從概念上來看，這些偏離正態是有道理的：預期倦怠在人群中不會呈正態分布。就像大多數心理健康指標一樣，倦怠預期會呈現不對稱的分佈 (也就是像大多數心理失調一樣呈正傾斜)。
However, as normality is a critical assumption underlying the maximum likelihood procedure used for CFA, log transformations of these items were computed and ensured a normal distribution. Then CFA was performed twice, once including transformed items and once including original items. Estimates and model fit indices were strictly similar. Therefore, only the results obtained from the analyses computed on original variables are presented. 然而，由於正態性是 CFA 所使用的最大似然法程序的重要假設，因此我們對這些項目進行對數轉換，以確保其呈正態分布。然後，CFA 進行了兩次，一次包括轉換後的項目，另一次包括原始項目。估算結果和模型契合度指數完全相似。因此，本文只呈現原始變數的分析結果。
CO, Contrast in parental self; FU, Feelings of being fed up; ED, Emotional; EE, Emotional Exhaustion; PA, (Decreased) Personal Accomplishment.