The effectiveness of digital storytelling in the classrooms: a comprehensive study
數位敘事在教室中的有效性：全面研究

Abstract 摘要

In recent years the use of new technologies in educational systems has increased worldwide as digital cameras, personal computers, scanners, and easy-to-use software have become available to educators to harness the digital world. The impact of new technologies in educational contexts has been mostly positive as new technologies have given educators the opportunity to enhance their knowledge, skills, and therefore enhance the standard of education. Researchers have found that student engagement, achievement and motivation are enhanced through integration of such technologies. However, education systems still face many challenges: one of these challenges is how to enhance student engagement to provide better educational outcomes. It has become increasingly important to use innovative pedagogical models to engage learners. Digital storytelling is one of the innovative pedagogical approaches that can engage students in deep and meaningful learning. This research project aimed to create a constructivist learning environment with digital storytelling. The research investigated the pedagogical aspects of digital storytelling and the impact of digital storytelling on student learning when teachers and students use digital stories.
近年來，全球教育系統中使用新技術的數量有所增加，因為數位相機、個人電腦、掃描機和易於使用的軟體已經為教育工作者所使用，以掌握數位世界。新技術在教育情境中的影響大多數都是正面的，因為新技術為教育工作者提供了提升知識、技能的機會，從而提高教育標準。研究人員發現，透過整合這些技術，學生的參與度、成就和動機都得到了提升。然而，教育系統仍面臨許多挑戰：其中一個挑戰是如何提升學生的參與度以提供更好的教育成果。使用創新的教學模式來吸引學習者變得越來越重要。數位敘事是其中一個可以吸引學生進行深入和有意義學習的創新型教學方法。這個研究項目旨在創建一個以數位敘事為基礎的構建主義學習環境。 研究調查了數位敘事的教學面向，以及當教師和學生使用數位故事時，數位敘事對學生學習的影響。

A multi-site case study was conducted in one Australian school at primary and secondary levels. In selected classrooms, students and teachers had the opportunity to engage in innovative learning experiences based on digital storytelling. In order to enhance the reliability and validity of the research, multiple methods of data collection and analysis were used. Data was collected with qualitative and quantitative methods. An evaluation rubric was used to collect quantitative data, while interviews and observation were used to collect qualitative data. Data collection was guided by a mixed methods research design in order to evaluate if and how digital storytelling enhances teaching and learning outcomes.
在澳洲一所學校的小學和中學層級進行了一項多點案例研究。在選定的教室中，學生和教師有機會參與基於數位故事述說的創新學習體驗。為了提高研究的可靠性和有效性，使用了多種數據收集和分析方法。數據採集使用了定性和定量方法。使用評估指標來收集定量數據，同時通過訪談和觀察來收集定性數據。數據收集由混合方法研究設計指導，以評估數位故事述說是否以及如何增強教學和學習成果。

The findings from this study suggest that digital storytelling is a powerful tool to integrate instructional messages with learning activities to create more engaging and exciting learning environments. It is a meaningful approach for creating a constructivist learning environment based on novel principles of teaching and learning. Thus, this approach has the potential to enhance student engagement and provide better educational outcomes for learners.
本研究的發現表明，數位敘事是一種強大的工具，可以用於將教學訊息與學習活動整合在一起，創造更具吸引力和刺激性的學習環境。這是一種基於教學與學習的新原理，以構建主義學習環境為基礎的有意義方法。因此，這種方法有潛力提高學生的參與度，並為學習者提供更好的教育成果。

Introduction 引言

From ancient times to the present, storytelling has served as a popular education tool, utilised to pass knowledge from one generation to another. Over the past few years drastic changes have been experienced in the processes used for creating stories, the variety of media used to convey the message, and the target audience. Storytelling, in general, is a powerful pedagogical approach that can be used to enhance learning outcomes for general, scientific and technical education (Sharda [2007]). Stories have been told as a way of passing on traditions, heritage and history to future generations. Even today people continue to tell stories through new digital media tools. A digital story can be viewed as a merger between traditional storytelling and the use of multimedia technology (Normann [2011]). Technological advances, such as digital cameras, editing software and authoring tools, have increased the use of technology in the classroom to help students in constructing their own knowledge and ideas to present and share them more effectively (Standley [2003]).
自古至今，敘事一直是廣泛的教育工具，用於從一代傳遞知識給另一代。過去幾年，創建故事的過程、傳達信息的媒體種類以及目標受眾都經歷了劇烈的變化。敘事，總體上，是一種強大的教學方法，可以提高一般、科學和技術教育的學習成果（Sharda [ 2007]）。故事被用來傳遞傳統、遺產和歷史，以傳給後代。即使在今天，人們也通過新的數字媒體工具繼續講述故事。數字故事可以被視為傳統敘事與多媒體技術使用的融合（Normann [ 2011]）。技術進步，如數碼相機、編輯軟體和作者工具，已經增加了教室中技術的使用，幫助學生構建自己的知識和想法，更有效地呈現和分享他們的想法（Standley [ 2003]）。

As confirmed by Armstrong , computers, digital cameras, editing software, and other technologies are becoming more readily accessible in the classrooms, and provide learners and teachers with the tools to create digital stories more easily than ever before (Armstrong [2003]). Furthermore, digital storytelling helps students to develop their creativity to solve important problems in innovative ways (Ohler [2008]). It is an effective pedagogical tool that enhances learners’ motivation, and provides learners with a learning environment conducive for story construction through collaboration, reflection and interpersonal communication. Students can use multimedia software tools as well as other technology skills to create digital stories based on given educational issues.
阿姆斯壯所確認的，電腦、數位相機、編輯軟體和其他技術在教室中變得更加容易取得，為學習者和教師提供了創建數位故事比以往更容易的工具（阿姆斯壯 [2003]）。此外，數位敘事藝術幫助學生以創新的方式發展解決重要問題的創意（Ohler [2008]）。這是一種有效的教學工具，能增強學習者的動機，並為學習者提供一個適合通過合作、反思和人際溝通構建故事的學習環境。學生可以使用多媒體軟體工具和其他技術技能，根據給定的教育問題來創建數位故事。

Digital storytelling is used as an embodiment of multimedia production for education purposes. Therefore, this is becoming a part of our lives, and is on the threshold of becoming an important part of teaching and learning as well. All of this is being facilitated by ready access to hardware, such as digital cameras and scanners, in conjunction with easy to use software. Many educational institutions have already been exploring the application of digital storytelling for the past few years (Robin [2008]).
數位敘事是用於教育目的的多媒體生產的體現。因此，這已經成為我們生活的一部分，並且正處於成為教學和學習重要組成部分的邊緣。所有這些都得益於對硬體的易於訪問，例如數位相機和掃描儀，與易於使用的軟體相結合。許多教育機構已經在過去幾年探索數位敘事的應用（Robin [2008]）。

The power of storytelling as a pedagogical tool has been recognised since the beginning of humanity, and in more recent times, for e-Learning (Neal [2001]). Digital storytelling has become a modern incarnation of the traditional art of oral storytelling; it allows almost anyone to use off-the-shelf hardware and software to weave personal stories with the help of still/moving images, music, and sound, combined with the author’s creativity and innovation.
自人類開始以來，故事述說作為教學工具的力量就被認可，而在更近的時代，它被用於電子學習（Neal [2001]）。數位故事述說成為傳統口述故事藝術的現代變體；它允許幾乎任何人使用現成的硬體和軟體，結合靜態/動態影像、音樂和聲音，加上作者的創意和創新，來編織個人故事。

This research project aimed to explore the impact of digital storytelling on student engagement and learning outcomes. It focuses on exploring the potential of digital storytelling as an innovative teaching and learning approach, and investigates the impact of digital storytelling on student learning. The research involved a case study of an Australian P-12 school. It explored the use of digital storytelling within the primary and secondary curriculum. In selected classrooms students and teachers had the opportunity to engage in innovative learning experiences based on digital storytelling.
本研究項目旨在探討數位敘事對學生參與度和學習成果的影響。本研究專注於探索數位敘事作為創新教學與學習方法的潛力，並調查數位敘事對學生學習的影響。研究對象為澳洲的 P-12 學校。本研究探討了數位敘事在小學和中學課程中的應用。在選定的教室中，學生和教師有機會參與基於數位敘事的創新學習體驗。

The outcomes of this research project aim to help teachers and learners tap into the power of digital storytelling and partake in more engaged teaching and learning.
本研究計劃的成果旨在幫助教師和學習者利用數位敘事的強大力量，並參與更積極的教學和學習。

Background and literature review
背景與文獻回顧

In recent years, our lives have become more involved with technological tools. Developing technology resulted in new generations being more technology savvy than their parents and, even more so, their grandparents. Consequently, researchers have argued that “the impact of the digital technologies and especially the Internet in the 21st century post-secondary classroom is unquestionable and dramatic” (Tamim et al. [2011]).
近年來，我們的生活與科技工具的關係日益密切。科技的發展導致新一代比他們的父母，甚至祖父母更加熟悉科技。因此，研究人員認為，“二十一世紀大學後期教室中數位技術和特別是互聯網的影響是無可質疑且劇烈的”（Tamim 等，2011 年）。

According to Prensky, today’s students are the first generation to grow up surrounded by digital technology (Prensky [2001]). During their daily lives these students have been routinely exposed to computers, electronic games, digital music players, video cameras and mobile phones. They are immersed in instant messaging, emails, web browsing, blogs, wiki tools, portable music, social networking and video sites (Prensky [2001]; Lea & Jones [2011]; Sternberg et al. [2007]). These technologies allow them to communicate instantly and access any information from virtually any place by pushing a few buttons (Autry & Berge [2011]).
根據 Prensky 的觀點，今日的學生是第一代在數位科技的周圍成長的學生（Prensky [2001]）。在他們的日常生活中，這些學生經常接觸到電腦、電子遊戲、數位音樂播放器、錄影機和手機。他們沉浸在即時通訊、電子郵件、網際網路瀏覽、部落格、維基工具、便攜式音樂、社交網路和視頻網站中（Prensky [2001]；Lea & Jones [2011]；Sternberg et al. [2007]）。這些技術讓他們能夠即時溝通，只需按幾個按鈕，就能從幾乎任何地方訪問任何資訊（Autry & Berge [2011]）。

It is likely that the rise of some changes in educational practice, such as distance education, online learning and blended learning, has been the response to the integration of computers and the Internet to the new generation’s lives (Tamim et al. [2011]). Today’s school environment includes technology, and teachers use it on a daily basis; the basic school infrastructure includes computers, printers, scanners, digital cameras and the Internet, and the majority of teachers have access to word processing, calculations, multimedia and communication software (Hsu [2013]). According to Pitler, “Applied effectively technology not only increases students’ learning, understanding, and achievement, but also augments their motivation to learn, encourages collaborative learning, and develops critical thinking and problem-solving strategies” (Pitler [2006]). Therefore, attention should be given to the subject of technology integration (Sadik [2008]).
可能一些教育實踐的變化，例如遠距教育、線上學習和混合學習的興起，是對電腦和互聯網融入新一代生活的一種回應（Tamim et al. [2011]）。當今的學校環境包含了技術，教師每天都在使用它；基本的學校設施包括電腦、打印機、掃描儀、數位相機和互聯網，大多數教師都有使用文字處理、計算、多媒體和通訊軟體的機會（Hsu [2013]）。根據 Pitler 的說法，「有效應用技術不僅能增加學生的學習、理解和成就，還能增加他們學習的動機，鼓勵合作學習，並發展批判性思考和問題解決策略」（Pitler [2006]）。因此，應當關注技術整合的主題（Sadik [2008]）。

Storytelling 故事述說

Throughout the history of human and social development, storytelling has been used as a tool for the transmission and sharing of knowledge and values, because it is a natural and yet powerful technique to communicate and exchange knowledge and experiences. Its application in the classroom is also not new; and in relation to the use of storytelling in the classroom Behmer stated, “Storytelling is a process where students personalise what they learn and construct their own meaning and knowledge from the stories they hear and tell” (Behmer [2005]).
人類與社會發展的歷史中，故事述說一直被用作傳遞與分享知識與價值觀的工具，因為它是一種自然且強大的溝通與交換知識與經驗的技術。在教室中的應用也並非新鮮事；關於教室中使用故事述說的行為，Behmer 指出，“故事述說是一個過程，學生們在這個過程中將所學的內容個性化，並從聽到和述說的故事中構建自己的意義和知識”（Behmer [2005]）。

Over the last two decades, however, much has changed in how stories can be planned and created; and, as a result, how multimedia can be used to facilitate the dissemination of stories. With the increased use of computers to tell stories, by using a variety of hardware and software systems, there has been a significant improvement in the way stories can be created and presented (Van Gils [2005]). According to Normann, “People have always told stories. It has been part of our tradition and heritage since the time we gathered around the fire to share our stories. Today people still tell stories, but now we have new media tools with which to share them. A digital story can hence be seen as a merger between the old storytelling tradition and the use of new technology” (Normann [2011]). To some extent, traditional storytelling and the application of computer technology in education have followed different paths to date (Banaszewski [2005]). Thus, there is a need to further increase the convergence of storytelling and the use of computers in the classroom. It has been argued that technology is more useful when it is used as part of a broader educational improvement agenda (Pitler [2006]).
過去二十年來，故事的規劃和創建方式已經發生了很大的變化；因此，多媒體如何促進故事的傳播方式也隨之改變。隨著電腦被用於講述故事，通過各種硬體和軟體系統，故事的創建和呈現方式得到了顯著的改善（Van Gils [2005]）。諾曼認為，“人們始終在講述故事。這是我們自圍著火堆分享故事以來傳統和遺產的一部分。今天，人們仍在講述故事，但現在我們有了新的媒體工具來分享它們。數位故事可以被視為舊的敘事傳統與新技術使用的融合”（諾曼 [2011]）。在一定程度上，傳統敘事和在教育中應用電腦技術到目前為止遵循了不同的道路（巴納斯基維茨 [2005]）。因此，需要進一步增加敘事和在教室中使用電腦的融合。 有人認為，當技術作為更廣泛的教育改善議程的一部分時，它會更有用（Pitler [2006]）。

Fortuitously, with the increase in computer power and associated cost reduction, computers and related technologies can play a significant role in making storytelling a more widely used pedagogical tool, given that “Digital storytelling provides students with a strong foundation in what are being called ‘21^st Century Skills’” (Miller [2009]). While the essential technology is currently accessible in the classroom, storytelling has not been fully recognised as a valuable tool for developing students’ learning skills and achieving 21st century learning outcomes.
幸運的是，隨著計算機性能的提高和相關成本的降低，計算機及其相關技術可以在使敘事成為更廣泛使用的教學工具方面發揮重要作用，因為“數位敘事為學生提供了被稱為‘21 ^st 世紀技能’的堅實基礎”（Miller [ 2009]）。儘管目前在教室中可以獲得必要的技術，但敘事尚未被充分認可為發展學生學習技能和實現 21 世紀學習成果的寶貴工具。

Digital storytelling 數位敘事藝術

Digital storytelling emerged at the Center for Digital Storytelling in California in the late 1980s as a method employed by community theatre workers to enable the recording, production, and dissemination of stories (Lambert [2009]). Normann defines digital storytelling as “a short story, only 2–3 minutes long, where the storyteller uses his own voice to tell his own story. The personal element is emphasised, and can be linked to other people, a place, an interest or to anything that will give the story a personal touch” (Normann [2011]). This has developed in a number of ways, shaped by advances in personal computing and recording technology, and by its use in a range of academic and non-academic contexts (Normann [2011]; Clarke & Adam [2012]).
數位敘事在 20 世紀 80 年代末期，由加州的數位敘事中心發起，作為社區劇場工作者用以錄製、製作和傳播故事的方法（Lambert [2009]）。諾曼將數位敘事定義為“一個只有 2-3 分鐘長的短故事，敘述者用自己的聲音來敘述自己的故事。強調個人元素，可以與其他人、地點、興趣或任何能讓故事帶有個人色彩的東西相聯繫”（Normann [2011]）。這種方法已經以多種方式發展，受到個人計算機和錄音技術進步的影響，並在學術和非學術的各種情境中被使用（Normann [2011]; Clarke & Adam [2012]）。

Digital storytelling is defined by The Digital Storytelling Association, as a “modern expression of the ancient art of storytelling” (The Digital Storytelling Association [2011]). Although there is not a single digital storytelling definition, the majority emphasise the use of multimedia tools including graphics, audio, video, and animation to tell a story. Benmayor’s digital storytelling definition is: “a short multimedia story that combines voice, image, and music” (Benmayor [2008]). According to Kajder, Bull & Albaugh, a group of still images, combined with a narrated soundtrack, constitutes a digital story as long as they relate a story. Focusing on its presentation on screen, Alan Davis offers another definition of digital story as “a form of short narrative, usually a personal narrative told in the first person, presented as a short movie for display on a television or computer monitor or projected onto a screen” (Kajder et al. [2005]).
數位敘事由數位敘事協會定義為「古老敘事藝術的現代表達」（數位敘事協會 [2011]）。雖然並沒有單一的數位敘事定義，但大多數都強調使用包含圖形、音頻、視頻和動畫的多媒體工具來敘述故事。Benmayor 的數位敘事定義是：「結合了語音、圖像和音樂的短多媒體故事」（Benmayor [2008]）。根據 Kajder、Bull 與 Albaugh 的觀點，只要一組靜態圖像與有旁白的音軌相結合，並能述說一個故事，就可構成數位故事。Focusing on its presentation on screen，Alan Davis 提供了另一個數位故事的定義，即「一種短篇敘述形式，通常是以第一人稱的個人敘述，呈現為短片，可在電視或電腦螢幕上顯示，或投影到屏幕上」（Kajder et al. [2005]）。

Meadows offers a more technology-focused definition, where digital storytelling makes use of low-cost digital cameras, non-linear authoring tools and computers to create short multimedia stories to accomplish social endeavours of storytelling. It is a technology application which takes advantage of user-contributed content and assists teachers in utilising technology in their classrooms (Meadows [2003]).
Meadows 提出了一個更以技術為中心的定義，數位敘事運用低成本的數位攝影機、非線性撰寫工具和電腦來創建短篇多媒體故事，以實現敘事的社會目標。這是一種利用用戶貢獻內容的技術應用，幫助教師在教室中利用技術（Meadows [2003]）。

Digital storytelling: a constructivist approach to learning
數位敘事：學習的一種構建主義方法

In recent decades, various learning paradigms have been used to enhance teaching and learning practice; each one of these learning theories, such as behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism, has its own perspective on learning methods. Before explaining the main concepts underpinning each of these theories, first let us consider what a learning theory is. According to Hill, a learning theory is the attempt to explain how people (and animals) learn, and a paradigm to understand what is fundamentally involved in the learning process (Hill [2002]).
近幾十年來，各種學習模式被用來提升教學和學習實踐；這些學習理論，如行為主義、認知主義和構建主義，對學習方法各有其獨特的觀點。在解釋每種理論的主導概念之前，首先讓我們考慮一下什麼是學習理論。根據希爾的說法，學習理論是嘗試解釋人們（和動物）如何學習的嘗試，並且是一個理解學習過程核心要素的模式（希爾 [2002]）。

The Behaviourism school founded by Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner, was based on the assumption that learning changes behaviour, and resultant responses outside the environment (Thorndike [1913]; Pavlov [1927]; Skinner [1974]). Behaviour patterns include the use of direction signs and learning practice. A change in behaviour is based on corresponding changes in observable aspects of learning and the learning process. The key elements of behavioural patterns are motivation, answers, and the connection between them. One of the most important features is the incentive present for learning within a learning environment (Jung [2008]).
行為主義學派由 Thorndike、Pavlov 和 Skinner 所創立，基於學習改變行為的假設，以及環境之外的結果反應（Thorndike [1913]；Pavlov [1927]；Skinner [1974]）。行為模式包括使用指示標誌和學習實踐。行為的改變基於學習的可觀察方面及其過程的相應變化。行為模式的關鍵元素包括動機、回答和他們之間的聯繫。其中最重要的一個特點是在學習環境中存在學習的動機（Jung [2008]）。

Compared with behaviourism, which explores students’ behaviour, cognitive theories inquire into the processes driving the behaviour. It places greater emphasis on the environment to facilitate the learning process (Jung [2008]). Cognitivism focuses on the construction, organization and arrangement of educational content to facilitate optimal management of information, and how to remember, store, and retrieve information. In addition, learning is seen as a dynamic process, which is created by the learners themselves (Anderson [2008]).
比較行為主義，它探討學生的行為，認知理論則深入探究驅動行為的過程。它更強調環境，以促進學習過程（Jung [2008]）。認知主義著重於教育內容的構建、組織和排列，以促進信息管理的最優化，以及如何記憶、存儲和提取信息。此外，學習被視為一個由學習者自己創建的動態過程（Anderson [2008]）。

Constructivism is one of the most influential educational approaches developed in recent times. It overlaps the cognitive learning school in many ways; however, it is characterised by its emphasis on learning through the use of authentic contexts, and a focus on the importance of the social dimension of learning. Wilson defines it as “a place where learners may work together and support each other as they use a variety of tools and information resources in their guided pursuit of learning goals and problem-solving activities” (Wilson [1996]).
構建主義是近年來最具影響力的教育方法之一。它在許多方面與認知學習學派有交集，但其特點在於強調通過實際情境進行學習，並重視學習的社會性維度。Wilson 定義它為“一個學習者可以共同工作並互相支持的地方，在這裡，他們在導師的指導下追求學習目標和解決問題活動，使用多種工具和資訊資源”（Wilson [1996]）。

In addition, according to Anderson the constructivist has more than a simple perspective on learning, recognising that people explain the learnt information and the world around them, based on their personal vision (Anderson [2008]). Jonassen argues that learning environments should offer constructive, active, intentional, collaborative, complex, conversational, contextualised and reflective learning (Jonassen et al. [1999]). To sum up, the most important learning characteristics of constructivism are that learners can build on their own interpretation of the world, depending on experience and interaction, and that will generate a new understanding through the collection of knowledge from various sources (Duffy et al. [2012]).
此外，根據安德森的觀點，構建主義者不僅僅持有對學習的簡單看法，他們認識到人們根據自己的個人視角解釋所學信息和周圍的世界（安德森 [2008]）。瓊森認為，學習環境應該提供建設性、積極、有意圖、合作、複雜、對話式、上下文相關和反思性的學習（瓊森等 [1999]）。總而言之，構建主義最重要的學習特徵是學習者能夠根據經驗和互動，基於自己的世界觀來構建知識，並且通過從各種來源收集知識來產生新的理解（杜菲等 [2012]）。

On the other hand, the education theories developed in the 20th century consider teaching and learning as more than mere interaction or transmission of knowledge (Daniels [2001]; Dewey [2007]; Vygotsky et al. [1978]; Wells [1999]). These theories consider teaching as a specific paradigm of teacher–student interaction, where the desired role of the adult is a collaborator and/or co-constructor.
另一方面，20 世紀發展的教育理論認為教學與學習不僅是簡單的互動或知識的傳授（Daniels [2001]; Dewey [2007]; Vygotsky et al. [1978]; Wells [1999]）。這些理論將教學視為教師與學生互動的特定模式，其中成人的期望角色是合作夥伴和/或共同構建者。

Bouman defines learning as the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, practice, or study, or by being taught. He classifies learning under different headings: the two main ones are student-led and teacher-led learning. Student-led learning is a process of learning information where students ask questions of one another, while they assist each other as peers in discussing the method used to acquire the answers to those questions; students are also allowed to work with one another in a student-centred environment. Teacher-led learning is currently the most popular form of teaching students. This method involves the teacher holding all the information and sharing it with the students over time. The most recent works in the literature favour student-led over teacher-led learning since it leads to longer retention. This hinges on the fact that when students take a more active role in their learning process, this results in a more meaningful connection to the information (Bouman [2012]).
布曼將學習定義為通過經驗、實踐或學習，或通過授課獲得知識或技能的過程。他將學習分為不同的類別：主要的兩種是學生主導的學習和教師主導的學習。學生主導的學習是一種學習信息的過程，學生彼此提出問題，並作為同儕討論獲得答案的方法，互相幫助；學生也被允許在以學生為中心的環境中一起工作。教師主導的學習是目前最流行的學生教學方式。這種方法涉及教師掌握所有信息，並在一定時間內與學生分享。文學中最新的研究傾向於學生主導的學習，因為它導致更長的記憶。這取決於一個事實，即當學生在學習過程中扮演更積極的角色時，這會導致對信息更為有意義的聯繫（布曼 [2012]）。

The learner’s active position is strongly emphasised as it is indispensable for the development of lifelong learning skills (Verenikina [2008]). The zone of proximal development (ZPD), developed by Vygotsky (Wells [1999]), is defined as the distance between what a student can do with or without help (Vygotsky et al. [1978]). The main focus in the ZPD is to ensure that students are actively engaged in learning that will make them self-directed, lifelong learners in the long run. In this sense, teaching becomes a co-construction of knowledge between learner and teacher. It also facilitates further transformation of that knowledge into individual student knowledge (Verenikina [2008]; Dakich [2014]).
學習者的積極角色被強調，因為這是終身學習技能發展不可或缺的（Verenikina [2008]）。維果茨基發展的近發展區（ZPD，Wells [1999]）被定義為學生在有或無幫助的情況下能做什麼的距離（Vygotsky et al. [1978]）。在 ZPD 的主要焦點是確保學生積極參與學習，這將使他們成為長期的自我指導、終身學習者。從這個角度看，教學成為學習者和教師共同構建知識的過程。它還促進了知識的進一步轉化為個體學生的知識（Verenikina [2008]；Dakich [2014]）。

Digital storytelling can thus facilitate a constructivist approach for teaching and learning. It can be a helpful educational tool, as it provides a vehicle for combining digital media with innovative teaching and learning practices. Apart from building on learners’ technology skills, digital storytelling encourages additional educational outcomes (Dakich [2008]). It enhances learners’ motivation, and helps teachers in building constructivist learning environments that encourage creative problem solving based on collaboration and peer-to-peer communication. In addition, digital storytelling can be used to facilitate integrated approaches to curriculum development, and engage learners in higher order thinking and deep learning (Dakich [2008]).
數位敘事可以因此促進教學與學習的構建主義方法。它可以用作有幫助的教育工具，因為它提供了將數位媒體與創新的教學和學習實踐結合的載體。除了建立學習者的技術技能之外，數位敘事還鼓勵了更多的教育成果（Dakich [2008]）。它增強了學習者的動機，並幫助教師建立鼓勵基於合作和同儕溝通的創意思考和問題解決的構建主義學習環境。此外，數位敘事可以用於促進課程開發的整合方法，並使學習者參與高階思考和深度學習（Dakich [2008]）。

Consequently, as the literature review has revealed, digital storytelling is a powerful model for creating constructivist e-Learning environments. Digital storytelling has the potential to engage learners in integrated approaches to learning with digital media. Furthermore, digital storytelling enhances learners’ motivation, and helps teachers in building constructivist learning environments. To facilitate the harnessing of these pedagogical benefits we need an overarching framework for creating digital stories. This framework should be cognisant of the needs and capabilities of learners at their various stages of learning (i.e. catering for learners from primary school to university level, and even professional e-Learning content creators).
因此，根據文獻回顧所揭示的，數位敘事是創建構建主義電子學習環境的強大模式。數位敘事有潛力讓學習者參與以數位媒體為基礎的整合式學習方法。此外，數位敘事可以提升學習者的動機，並幫助教師建立構建主義學習環境。為了促進這些教學優點的利用，我們需要一個統領性的架構來創建數位故事。這個架構應該考慮到學習者在不同學習階段的需求和能力（即從小學到大學，甚至專業電子學習內容創作者）。

This research presented a new e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt) framework to be able to use digital storytelling as a pedagogical model for constructivist learning (Additional file 1: Appendix A). This framework was developed for application of digital storytelling at various stages of learning. The e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt) framework also articulates how storytelling can be used at different levels of education. The eLDiSt framework is designed primarily as a tool to help story creators in producing engaging digital stories, the framework is based on thirteen storytelling aspects and five levels, and each aspect advances in complexity as the learner’s level advances from level one to five. It considers the needs and abilities of learners at different stages of learning, including learners from primary school to university, and even professional e-Learning content creators. With the help of this eLDiSt framework, digital storytelling can be used as an efficient and effective learning tool at various levels of education. Different aspects identified in this framework enable teachers as well as students to fully grasp the elements required for an engaging and educative digital story.
本研究提出了一個新的 e 學習數位敘事（eLDiSt）框架，用於將數位敘事作為構建主義學習的教學模式（附加文件 1：附錄 A）。此框架旨在將數位敘事應用於學習的不同階段。e 學習數位敘事（eLDiSt）框架還說明了敘事如何在不同層級的教育中被使用。eLDiSt 框架主要設計為幫助敘事創作者生產引人入勝的數位敘事的工具，該框架基於十三個敘事元素和五個層級，隨著學習者的水平從一級到五級進步，每個元素的複雜性也會增加。它考慮了不同學習階段學習者的需要和能力，包括從小學到大學的學習者，甚至專業的 e 學習內容創作者。借助此 eLDiSt 框架，數位敘事可以作為各種教育層級的有效學習工具。 此框架中識別的不同方面使教師以及學生能夠全面掌握引人入勝且具有教育意義的數位故事所需的元素。

Therefore, the mission of this research is to create a methodology for building constructivist learning environments based on digital storytelling, the outcomes of this research project aim to help teachers and learners tap into the power of digital storytelling and partake in more engaged teaching and learning.
因此，本研究的使命是創建基於數位故事叙述的構建主義學習環境的方法論，本研究項目的目的在於幫助教師和學習者利用數位故事叙述的力量，並參與更積極的教學和學習。

Methods 方法

This research project investigated impact of digital storytelling on student engagement and outcomes. It focused on exploring the potential of digital storytelling as an innovative teaching and learning approach and its potential to enhance student engagement and student outcomes. This research involves a multi-site case study of an Australian P-12 school, and explores the use of digital storytelling within the primary and secondary curriculum. In the selected classrooms students and teachers had the opportunity to engage in innovative learning experiences based on digital storytelling. In order to enhance the reliability and validity of the research, both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used. A rubric was used to collect quantitative data, while interviews and observation were used to collect qualitative data. Data collection and analysis of the feedback provided by teachers was based on mixed methods research to thoroughly evaluate the benefits of digital storytelling vis-à-vis teaching and learning.
本研究項目探討數位敘事對學生參與度和成果的影響。本研究專注於探索數位敘事作為創新教學和學習方法的潛力，以及其如何增強學生參與度和學生成果的潛力。本研究涉及對澳洲 P-12 學校的多點案例研究，並探討數位敘事在小學和中學課程中的應用。在選定的教室中，學生和教師有機會參與基於數位敘事的創新學習體驗。為了提高研究的可靠性和有效性，本研究使用了定性和定量的數據收集和分析方法。使用評分表收集定量數據，同時進行訪談和觀察來收集定性數據。根據混合方法研究，根據收集的反饋進行數據收集和分析，以全面評估數位敘事在教學和學習方面的優點。

Research questions 研究問題

The rationale for this project is to explore the pedagogical benefits of digital storytelling. Therefore, the overall research question is: How can digital storytelling enhance the student engagement and provide better educational outcomes for learners? This question can be divided into the following sub-questions:
此專案的理據在於探討數位敘事的教學優點。因此，整體研究問題是：數位敘事如何能提升學生的參與度，並為學習者提供更好的教育成果？這個問題可以分為以下子問題：

How can digital storytelling be used to enhance student engagement?
如何使用數位敘事來提升學生的參與度？

How can digital storytelling be used to improve educational outcomes?
數位敘事如何可以被用來改善教育成果？

What are teacher perceptions about student learning through digital storytelling?
教師對於學生透過數位敘事學習的觀感是什麼？

Significance of the study
研究的意義

Since the main aim of this research is to investigate the impact of digital storytelling on student learning, the outcomes of this research will enable both teachers and students to tap into the power of digital storytelling, leading to more engaged teaching and learning. This study contributes to new understandings of how to create authentic and constructivist learning contexts that can be used in a range of educational settings. The research focuses on how to implement digital storytelling in the classroom, describing the digital story workshop, and explaining teacher roles and student tasks; i.e. this research gives a clear picture of how to integrate digital storytelling into schools. Therefore, it is expected that the new knowledge generated by this research will inform educational policy and practice.
由於本研究的主要目標在於探討數位敘事對學生學習的影響，本研究的結果將使教師和學生都能夠利用數位敘事的力量，導致更積極的教學和學習。本研究為如何創建真實且構建主義的學習環境提供了新的理解，這些環境可以在各種教育場景中使用。研究重點在於如何在教室中實施數位敘事，描述數位故事工作坊，並解釋教師的角色和學生的任務；因此，本研究預期將產生的新知識將指導教育政策和實踐。

Methodology 方法論

A case study design that uses multiple case studies was chosen for this research (Mello [2001]). Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the researcher explores a case or multiple cases over time, involving multiple sources of information, for example, observations, interviews, documents and reports (Yin [2009]; Creswell et al. [2007]). The research methodology is designed to utilise both quantitative and qualitative methods. As previously mentioned, this research aims to explore the pedagogical benefits of digital storytelling; therefore, this research will focus on the level of the student engagement and the associated educational outcomes using digital storytelling. In order to achieve a complete understanding of these phenomena, both quantitative and qualitative data were collected.
此研究選擇使用多個案例研究的設計進行案例研究（Mello [2001]）。案例研究是一種質性方法，研究人員會在時間上探索個案或多個個案，涉及多種信息來源，例如觀察、訪談、文件和報告（Yin [2009]；Creswell 等[2007]）。研究方法學旨在利用定量和質性方法。如前所述，此研究旨在探索數位故事述說的教學優點；因此，此研究將專注於學生參與度和使用數位故事述說的相關教育成果。為了對這些現象有全面的理解，收集了定量和質性數據。

Classroom observations 教室觀察

To record both qualitative and quantitative observations an observation tool was created (Additional file 1: Appendix B). This observation tool was adapted from WestEd ([2002]) to fit the purpose of this study. This tool contains three different forms:
為了記錄 BOTH 質性與量化觀察，我們創建了一個觀察工具（附加文件 1：附錄 B）。這個觀察工具是根據 WestEd ([ 2002]) 修改而來，以適應本研究的目的。這個工具包含三種不同的形式：

Pre-observation form (qualitative)
預觀察表格（質性）

Timed observation form (quantitative)
計時觀察表（定量）

Field notes form (qualitative)
田野工作筆記表（質性）

The pre-observation and field notes forms were used to collect qualitative data. The pre-observation form was used to collect information about the class being observed, objectives of the story, and materials used. Whereas the field notes form was used immediately after the class, to write up research notes.
預觀察和現場筆記表單用於收集定性資料。預觀察表單用於收集關於所觀察課程的信息、故事的目標以及使用的所有材料。而現場筆記表單則在課程結束後立即使用，用於撰寫研究筆記。

The timed observation form was used to collect quantitative data about the use of new technologies. The timed interval observation sheet is divided into several components, analysed for the percentage of time each variable observed in the classroom. To collect data, the observer checks the presence of various attributes of technology integration observed during three-minute intervals. The check marks for the noted intervals are then tallied for an overall distribution of observed events (Sadik [2008]). This observation was conducted to examine the quality of student engagement in authentic learning tasks using digital storytelling, and specifically focuses on: class collaboration, knowledge gain, student roles, teacher roles, student engagement, technology integration and modes of learning.
計時觀察表用於收集有關新技術使用的情量化數據。計時間隔觀察表分為幾個部分，分析在教室中觀察到的每個變量所佔的時間百分比。為了收集數據，觀察者在三分鐘間隔期間觀察到的技術整合的各種屬性。然後對記錄的間隔進行計數，以獲得觀察到的事件的總體分布（Sadik [2008]）。此觀察旨在檢視學生在真實學習任務中使用數位敘事法的參與質量，特別是關注：班級合作、知識獲取、學生角色、教師角色、學生參與、技術整合和學習方式。

Evaluation rubric 評估指標

In addition to classroom observations, a scoring rubric was used by teachers to assess the quality of the digital stories created by the students. This stage had two different aims: to assess the level of student engagement, and document the educational outcomes achieved through digital storytelling. The level of engagement is a quantity that can be measured with the help of a scoring rubric. According to Sadik, it is appropriate to use an assessment instrument, such as a scoring rubric, to evaluate ICT-based learning projects (Sadik [2008]). Therefore, the role of digital storytelling was assessed by means of an evaluation rubric. An evaluation rubric created by the University of Houston ([2011]) was chosen as a guide to create the rubric for this research (Additional file 1: Appendix C). The evaluation rubric included nine criteria; these are: Purpose, Plot, Pacing of Narrative, Dramatic Question, Story Content, Grammar and Language Usage, Technological Competence, Emotional Content and Economy of Content. Four levels of descriptors were given for each category, with scores of 4, 3, 2, or 1 possible, depending on the level of success in that area.
除了教室觀察外，教師使用評分指標來評估學生創建的數位故事的品質。此階段有兩個不同的目標：評估學生參與度的水平，並記錄數位敘事所實現的教育成果。參與度的水平是一種可以通過評分指標來衡量的量。根據薩迪克的說法，使用評估工具，如評分指標，來評估基於 ICT 的學習項目是適當的（薩迪克 [2008]）。因此，數位敘事的角色是通過評估指標來評估的。休斯頓大學（[2011]）創建的評估指標被選為創建此研究指標的指南（額外文件 1：附錄 C）。評估指標包括九個標準；這些是：目的、劇情、敘事節奏、劇情疑問、故事內容、語法和語言使用、技術能力、情感內容和內容的經濟性。每個類別提供了四個描述符級別，根據在該領域的成功程度，可能的分數為 4、3、2 或 1。

Teacher interviews 師傅訪談

Once the level of engagement was measured, we needed to ascertain the educational outcomes associated with digital storytelling. To perform this step qualitative data was collected through teacher interviews. After conducting interviews, the interview data were analysed to identify the benefits related to the use of digital storytelling as a pedagogical approach, and the teacher’s opinion about integrating new technologies in their curricula and classroom.
一俟參與度的測量完成，我們需要確定數位敘事所產生的教育成果。為了進行這一步驟，我們通過教師訪談收集了質性資料。在進行訪談後，對訪談資料進行分析，以識別使用數位敘事作為教學方法所帶來的優點，以及教師對於在課程和教室中整合新技術的意見。

Therefore, three different methods were utilised for data collection: observation, teacher evaluation rubric, and interview. Timed observation and field notes were used as the observation method, while a scoring rubric instrument was used for teacher assessment. Finally, an interview protocol was used for interviewing the participating teachers. The overall conclusions will be extracted by integrating the findings of each method (Creswell [2008]).
因此，採用了三種不同的方法來收集資料：觀察、教師評估指標和訪談。定時觀察和場地筆記用作觀察方法，而教師評估則使用評分指標工具。最後，使用訪談程式來訪談參與的教師。整體結論將通過整合每種方法的發現結果來提取（Creswell [ 2008]）。

Participant groups 參與者群組

This study involved five teachers from prioritised curriculum areas (Science, Art, English, Library and Social Studies) to integrate digital storytelling into the primary and secondary school curriculum during third and fourth terms in 2012.
本研究涉及五位優先課程領域的教師（科學、藝術、英語、圖書館和社會研究），他們在 2012 年的第三和第四學期將數位故事述說整合到小學和中學的課程中。

Table 1 lists the details of each setting including the subject area in which the digital storytelling was implemented, the number of students, and days spent observing the project development, including viewing the digital story.
表 1 列出了每一個設置的詳細信息，包括在其中實施數字敘事的主題領域，學生數量，以及觀察項目發展所花費的天數，包括觀看數字故事。

Table 1 Case study groups
表 1 案例研究組別

Implementation of digital storytelling in classrooms
數位敘事在教室的實踐

Since the main aim of this research was to investigate the impact of digital storytelling on student learning when teachers and students use digital stories, and evaluate if and how digital storytelling could enhance student engagement and improve educational outcomes; the next section will focus on how digital storytelling is implemented in the classroom, describing the digital story workshop, and explaining the teachers’ roles and students’ tasks (Smeda et al. [2012]).
由於本研究的主要目標在於探討數位敘事對學生學習的影響，以及教師和學生使用數位故事時，數位敘事是否能夠提升學生的參與度並改善教育成果；下一部分將專注於數位敘事在教室中的實踐方式，描述數位故事工作坊，並解釋教師的角色和學生的任務（Smeda 等[2012]）。

As mentioned by Sadik, the use of technology is only effective if the teachers have the expertise to customise the use of technology for story creation. The benefits can only be received if teachers have the ability to use it in the classroom effectively (Sadik [2008]). Therefore, the researcher started by giving an orientation seminar, followed by workshops to teachers during the first two weeks to support and engage them in the project.
如薩迪克所提到的，如果教師具有量身訂製技術以進行故事創作的專業知識，則技術的使用才會有效。只有當教師能夠在課堂上有效使用它時，才能獲得這些好處（薩迪克 [2008]）。因此，研究者首先舉辦了一個導向研討會，接著在前兩周為教師舉辦了工作坊，以支持和激勵他們參與這個項目。

The following steps were used to help teachers easily integrate digital storytelling in their classroom. It is not the only way to implement digital storytelling; however, it can provide clear strategies on how to integrate digital storytelling when teachers and their students do not have any previous training in digital storytelling (Ohler [2008]; Sadik [2008]; Miller [2009]; Kajder et al. [2005]; [University of Houston 2011]; Smeda et al. [2012]; Robin [2006]; Sharda [2005]; Lasica [2006]).
以下步驟用於協助教師輕鬆將數位敘事融入課堂。這並非實現數位敘事的唯一方式，然而，它能提供明確的策略，讓教師和學生在沒有數位敘事的先前訓練時，如何整合數位敘事（Ohler [2008]; Sadik [2008]; Miller [2009]; Kajder 等 [2005]; [休士頓大學 2011]; Smeda 等 [2012]; Robin [2006]; Sharda [2005]; Lasica [2006]）。

Teachers’ workshop 教師的工作坊

Two workshops were conducted for the teachers with the following main objectives:
兩場工作坊為教師們進行，其主要目標如下：

• 1. Introduce Digital Storytelling (Workshop 1):
  數位敘事法導入（工作坊 1）:

Objective: Describe the concept of digital storytelling
目標：描述數位敘事的概念

Facilitator: Researcher 促進者: 研究員

Description: The workshop started with a conversation about teachers’ experiences with digital sound, video, and storytelling. An overview of possible strategies for using digital storytelling as a medium for engaging students and improving learning outcomes. The potential power of digital storytelling as a teaching and learning tool was then explored within the constructivist paradigm.
描述：研討會開始時，進行了一次關於教師在數位音訊、影片和敘事方面的經驗的對話。概述了使用數位敘事作為吸引學生和提升學習成果的媒介的可能策略。在構建主義框架下，探討了數位敘事作為教學和學習工具的潛在力量。

• 2. Introduce Moviemaker software (Workshop 2):
  導入 Moviemaker 软體（工作坊 2）:

Objective: Describe how to create a digital story with the Moviemaker software
目標：描述如何使用「動畫製作」軟體創建數位故事

Facilitator: Researcher 促進者: 研究員

Description: In this workshop Moviemaker software was introduced to the teacher with an explanation of how to create a digital story using this software; various features and options available in Moviemaker were demonstrated.
描述：在這個研討會中，向教師介紹了 Moviemaker 软体，並解釋了如何使用此軟体創建數位故事；展示了 Moviemaker 中可用的各種功能和選項。

Students and teacher roles
學生與教師角色

Students at different levels have different skills and knowledge, so they need different levels of help. For example, primary school students who have basic skills and knowledge need more direction and guidance to create a digital story. Obviously, students in different grades might need different levels of assistance and scaffolding. Therefore, students worked under the supervision of their teachers, and depending on each individual student, teachers provided help in constructing and creating the story. It is expected that the level of teacher support and the extent of scaffolding may vary across levels; teachers were prepared to provide this support through a series workshops ([Smeda et al. 2012]).
學生在不同層次有不同的技能和知識，因此他們需要不同層次的幫助。例如，具備基本技能和知識的小學學生需要更多的指導和引導來創建數位故事。顯然，不同年級的學生可能需要不同層次的幫助和架構。因此，學生在老師的監督下工作，根據每個個體學生的需要，老師提供了構建和創建故事的幫助。預期老師的支援水平和架構的範圍可能會因層次而異；老師準備通過一系列的工作坊來提供這種支援([Smeda 等，2012])。

Using the following lessons, teacher and student worked together to create the digital stories step-by-step:
利用以下課程，教師和學生合作，逐步創建數位故事：

Lesson 1: brainstorm 第一課：集思廣益

The objective of this lesson is to brainstorm the story. Typical expected duration is 1 to 3 days. In this lesson, teachers divide students into groups and allocate topics for them to discuss between themselves, share their ideas with each other and brainstorm the story in different ways. The students jot down ideas and write the initial narrative for the story for a particular topic the teacher had given them.
本課的目標是進行故事的集思會。通常預計的時間長度為 1 至 3 天。在本課中，教師將學生分組，為他們分配主題進行討論，互相分享想法，以不同的方式 brainstorm 故事。學生記錄下想法，為教師給定的特定主題寫下故事的初稿。

Lesson 2: storyboard 第 2 課：故事板

The purpose of this lesson is to create the storyboard. The estimated duration is 2 to 4 days. In this lesson, teachers help their students in writing the storyboard to organise the story sequences. They also help students clarify the main ideas of the story. Students, on the other hand, create the storyboard and select the right element(s) for it. They may also start by writing a draft of their storyboard. This assists in planning the visual materials in the right order, and thinking about how to match images or videos with the voiceover and music.
本課的目的在於創建故事板。預計時間為 2 至 4 天。在本課中，教師幫助學生撰寫故事板，以組織故事序列。他們還幫助學生澄清故事的主要思想。另一方面，學生創建故事板並選擇適合它的元素。他們還可能會先撰寫故事板的草稿。這有助於以正確的順序計劃視覺材料，並思考如何將圖像或視頻與旁白和音樂相匹配。

Lesson 3: search the material
第三課：尋找材料

This lesson is directed towards collecting the material required to create the digital story over a period of 2 to 4 days. Teachers demonstrate to their students how to look for images from different sources such as books, magazines, and the internet. They also explain copyright and digital rights issues related to the materials used. Furthermore, teachers show the students how to use the digital camera, if required. It is the students’ responsibility to choose elements which match their digital story such as photos, videos, and music.
這堂課的目標是收集製作數位故事所需的材料，時間跨度為 2 至 4 天。教師向學生展示如何從不同來源尋找圖像，如書籍、雜誌和互聯網。他們還解釋了使用材料時涉及的版權和數位權利問題。此外，教師向學生展示如何使用數位相機（如果需要的話）。學生有責任選擇與他們的數位故事相匹配的元素，如照片、影片和音樂。

Lesson 4: creating the digital story
第四課：創建數位故事

The objective is to use Moviemaker software for creating a digital story. Due to the amount of work associated, the duration of this lesson is 5 to 10 days, the longest among digital story creation steps. For teachers, this lesson is designed to help students create the digital story and explain how to import pictures and videos into the Moviemaker software. Moreover, teachers help the students who want to record their voices and use them within the story. The students created the digital story based on the storyboard by importing the elements to Moviemaker software and recording their voice to add to the narrative and test if it works effectively with the digital story. They can also add special effects and adjust the length of each visual element. This is achieved by choosing and adding some special effects, such as music and transitions, to make the story more attractive, adjusting the length of each visual element to make sure it matches the narration, and this is done over the entire digital story.
目標是使用「動畫製作」軟體來創建數位故事。由於相關工作量，這堂課的時間長達 5 至 10 天，是數位故事創建步驟中最長的。對於教師來說，這堂課設計的目的是幫助學生創建數位故事，並解釋如何將照片和影片導入「動畫製作」軟體。此外，教師還協助想要錄製聲音並在故事中使用的學生。學生根據故事板，通過將元素導入「動畫製作」軟體並錄製聲音來創建數位故事，以測試它是否能有效與數位故事結合。他們還可以添加特效並調整每個視覺元素的長度。這通過選擇並添加一些特效，如音樂和轉場，使故事更具吸引力，調整每個視覺元素的長度以確保它與敘述相匹配，並在整個數位故事中完成。

Lesson 5: editing and feedback
第五課：編輯與回饋

This lesson is aimed at editing and finalising the digital story, after the student has created its first version. The duration of this lesson is 1 to 3 days. In this lesson teachers provide some feedback to incorporate further improvements before the final draft of the digital story. Students revise and edit the drafts based on teachers’ comments and feedback. Then they discuss the final drafts with the teacher and other students. The final form of the story is prepared based on these comments and feedback.
本課的目標在於編輯和完成數位故事，學生在創建其第一個版本後。本課的持續時間為 1 至 3 天。在本課中，教師提供一些反饋，以整合進一步的改進，然後進行數位故事的最終草稿。學生根據教師的評論和反饋，修訂和編輯草稿。然後，他們與教師和其他學生討論最終草稿。根據這些評論和反饋，準備故事的最終形式。

Lesson 6: presentation and evaluation
第六課：展示與評估

The final step of digital story creation is about presenting and evaluating the finalised digital stories over 1 or 2 days. Teachers attend the student presentation and evaluate them based on story elements, story creation and presentation. The sole responsibility of the students in this lesson is to present the digital story to teachers, classmates, and parents.
數位故事創作的最後一步是在一到兩天內展示並評估最終完成的數位故事。教師參加學生的展示，並根據故事元素、故事創作和展示來評估他們。在這堂課中，學生的唯一責任是將數位故事向教師、同班同學和家長展示。

Results and discussion 結果與討論

Individual case studies using mixed methods constitute the body of this research. Data for this study was collected through observations, the evaluation rubric, and teacher interviews. Five separate case reports were prepared. The case reports aim to answer the research questions; and a cross-case matrix was developed for each research question. The intent of the study was not comparative, due to the fact that it was conducted in a single school and all five practice case studies were conducted at different educational levels such as Years 3–4 in primary school, and Year 11 in secondary school. In addition, the approach assumed in the implementation of this research was dependent on teachers. Therefore, in one-class students worked autonomously, while in others they worked in groups.
個案研究，使用混合方法，構成本研究的主體。本研究的數據通過觀察、評估指標和教師訪談收集。準備了五個單獨的個案報告。個案報告旨在回答研究問題；為每個研究問題開發了一個跨個案矩陣。由於研究是在一所學校進行的，且五個實踐個案研究分別在小學三至四年級和中學十一級等不同的教育水平進行，因此研究的目的是比較性的。此外，本研究的實施方式假設取決於教師。因此，在一班學生獨立工作，而在其他班級他們則以小組形式工作。

Considering all the above parameters, the main focus of the research was not to perform a comparative analysis, but rather to evaluate the effects of digital storytelling on education. The intent was to capture the benefits of using digital storytelling to explore student engagement and outcomes, as well as teacher experience with digital storytelling.
考量所有上述因素，研究的主要重點並非進行比較分析，而是評估數位敘事對教育的影響。意圖在於捕捉使用數位敘事探索學生參與度和成果，以及教師對數位敘事的經驗的優點。

Therefore, in this section will focus on the main conclusion derived from the discussion of main findings related to student’s engagements and learning outcomes, as well as the teacher perceptions about digital storytelling as a pedagogical tool.
因此，在本節中，將專注於從關於學生參與和學習成果的主要發現的討論中得出的主要結論，以及教師對數位敘事作為教學工具的看法。

Enhancing engagement 提升參與度

The findings of this research indicate that levels of student engagement fluctuate between moderate and high. In other words, students were always engaged in the classroom. The use of software and conducting searches for digital media took these levels to very high, and were the highest for student presentations. In all cases students liked using technology, searching the internet, and watching other digital stories. There were some differences in implementation. For instance, Year 7 students had very low engagement levels when they had to complete their storyboards. Year 9 students had a constant, high level of engagement as they occasionally presented their completed works. Some Year 11 students’ lack of interest in school curriculum presented as an engagement problem. However, the use of digital media managed to increase their engagement level. This finding is supported by Dupain and Maguire who argued that educators continuously need methods to engage students’ interest with teaching material. With the aid of the latest developments in technology, classrooms welcome digital storytelling as a means of teaching, and students are motivated to conceive an academic concept and transmit their own (Dupain & Maguire [2005]).
本研究的發現顯示，學生的參與度在中等至高之間波動。換句話說，學生始終在課堂上參與。使用軟體和進行數位媒體搜尋使這些參與度達到非常高的水平，並且學生展示的參與度最高。在所有情況下，學生都喜歡使用技術、搜尋互聯網，並觀看其他數位故事。在實施方面有一些差異。例如，年級 7 的學生在必須完成故事板時，其參與度水平非常低。年級 9 的學生在偶爾展示完成的作品時，始終保持高參與度。年級 11 的一些學生對學校課程的缺乏興趣表現為參與度問題。然而，使用數位媒體成功提高了他們的參與度水平。這一發現得到了杜派恩和馬奎爾的支撐，他們認為教育者需要不斷尋找方法，以激發學生對教學材料的興趣。 利用最新技術的發展，教室欣然接受數位敘事作為教學方法，學生被激勵構思學術概念並傳達自己的想法（Dupain & Maguire [2005]）。

The above findings are also in agreement with the current literature which encourages this new teaching approach, that is, digital storytelling permits students to utilise technology in an effective manner. Provision of appropriate resources and editing tools paves the way for student motivation and maximises its positive effect (Sadik [2008]; Morris [2011]). This encourages students to put more effort into their stories and to create quality products.
上述發現也與現有文獻相符，鼓勵這種新的教學方法，即數位敘事允許學生有效利用技術。提供適當的資源和編輯工具為學生提供了動機，並最大化了其正面影響（Sadik [2008]; Morris [2011]）。這鼓勵學生在故事中投入更多努力，並創建高品質的產品。

Yet another result confirming the above findings is reported by Gils, this research showed that pupils are more engaged with the practical environment. Digital storytelling makes practice and training more engaging, diverse, and customised to their needs and challenges, which makes it more realistic. In this sense, it encourages students to focus on using English to communicate with classmates. Digital storytelling has the advantage of engaging three different senses: hands, eyes and ears. It also increases students’ technical literacy (Van Gils [2005]).
然而，Gils 的研究又報告了一個結果，確認了上述發現。研究顯示，學生對實踐環境的參與度更高。數位敘事使實踐和訓練變得更有趣、多樣化，並根據學生的需求和挑戰進行個性化，這使得訓練更為逼真。從這個角度看，它鼓勵學生專注於使用英語與同班同學進行溝通。數位敘事的優點在於激發了三種不同的感官：手、眼和耳。同時，它也提高了學生的技術素養（Van Gils [2005]）。

On the other hand, the findings of this research indicate students had a hard time getting engaged in the class when they had to finish their storyboard; some students were not interested in any school activity including digital storytelling. Therefore, they had a low engagement level. However, when these students started recording their own videos, engagement levels increased significantly.
另一方面，本研究的發現顯示，當學生需要完成故事板時，他們在課堂中難以投入，有些學生對任何學校活動，包括數位敘事，都缺乏興趣，因此他們的參與度很低。然而，當這些學生開始錄製自己的影片時，他們的參與度顯著增加。

Consequently, it is possible to use digital storytelling to integrate instructional messages with learning activities to create more engaging and exciting learning environments. This teaching approach enhances emotional interest and cognitive attention, and reflects consistent and reliable transfer of knowledge in line with modern learning theories. Considering Barrett’s findings, it can be concluded that digital storytelling combines student engagement and effective integration of technology into instruction, which are student-centred learning strategies (Barrett [2006]).
因此，可以利用數位敘事來將教學訊息與學習活動整合在一起，創造更具吸引力和刺激性的學習環境。這種教學方法增強了情感興趣和認知注意力，並與現代學習理論保持一致，確保知識的穩定和可靠轉移。考慮到 Barrett 的研究結果，可以得出結論，數位敘事結合了學生參與和技術有效整合到教學中的策略，這些是學生中心的學習策略（Barrett [2006]）。

Fostering collaboration 促進合作

The findings of this research indicated that students work collaboratively and engage with digital content. They did more work while directly using applications and digital resources, such as the internet and/or libraries, instead of conventional printed media, such as books. This research also observed collaboration between groups where different groups helped each other with technical or grammar issues. This increased their levels of communication.
研究的發現顯示，學生們會合作並與數位內容互動。他們在直接使用應用程式和數位資源，如互聯網和/or 圖書館時，進行了更多的工作，而非傳統的印刷媒體，如書籍。此研究也觀察到不同小組之間的合作，不同小組互相幫助技術或語法問題，這提高了他們的溝通水平。

The above findings are in agreement with Standley who found that the creation of digital stories encourages collaboration between students, which in turn leads to the utilisation of various cognitive capabilities. Moreover, when working in a group, individuals pay more attention to content (Standley [2003]).
上述發現與 Stanley 的發現相符，Stanley 發現數位故事的創建鼓勵學生之間的合作，這進一步促進了各種認知能力的利用。此外，當在小組中工作時，個體對內容更加關注（Stanley [2003]）。

In addition, other researchers have found similar findings to those in this research. According to them, the digital learning experience can promote collaborative studying and encourages students to share resources online. Students’ skills are also enhanced by using databases and internet sources. Furthermore, digital content ensures that different groups are helping each other, as networked digital content connects the whole class; students who participate in digital storytelling projects have better communication, organisational skills, and more confidence in terms of asking questions and expressing opinions (Robin [2006]; VanderArk and Schneider. [2012]; Hung et al. [2012]).
此外，其他研究人員也發現了類似的結果。根據他們的研究，數位學習體驗可以促進合作學習，並鼓勵學生在線上分享資源。學生的技能也通過使用資料庫和網際網路資源得到提升。此外，數位內容確保不同群體互相幫助，因為網際網路的數位內容連結整個班級；參與數位敘事作品的學生在溝通、組織能力以及問問題和表達意見方面有更好的自信（Robin [2006]；VanderArk 和 Schneider. [2012]；Hung 等[2012]）。

The fact that students helped one another in problem solution and concept development reinforces the idea that cooperation and collaboration levels are increased with digital storytelling, in other words students have a higher engagement level when they are working in groups to create a story.
學生在問題解決和概念發展中互相幫助的現象，強化了一個觀點，即在數位敘事中，合作與協作的層次得到了提高，換句話說，當學生們一起創建一個故事時，他們的參與度更高。

In conclusion, this research demonstrates that digital storytelling can increase students’ collaboration and communication skills.
總結而言，本研究顯示，數位敘事可以提升學生的合作與溝通能力。

Transforming learning 轉型學習

This research affirms that digital storytelling is suitable for a constructive approach to learning; because students work on their own story after receiving basic instructions from the teacher. Students have their own individual approach based on their interactions and experiences and generate novel outputs by using different sources in their creation of the digital story. These findings are in line with those reported by other researchers, such as Garrard who observed that digital storytelling supports constructivist learning and concluded that digital storytelling is a good method of teaching with positive impacts (Garrard [2011]).
本研究確認數位敘事適合於建設性學習的方法；因為學生在老師提供基本指導後，會根據自己的故事進行工作。學生有自己的個別方法，基於他們的互動和經驗，通過在創建數位故事時使用不同的來源，產生新的輸出。這些發現與其他研究者的報告相符，例如 Garrard 觀察到數位敘事支持構建主義學習，並得出結論，認為數位敘事是一種有積極影響的教學方法（Garrard [2011]）。

In addition, the findings of research conducted by Normann concur with this research. He concluded that digital storytelling is a perfect way of learning new things and to implement constructive approaches to education, he reported that the method of conducting lessons impacted the students’ approach to learning activities (Normann [2011]).
此外，諾曼所進行的研究的結果也與此研究相符。他總結道，數位敘事是學習新事物的完美方式，並實現教育的建設性方法，他報告說，上課的方式影響了學生對學習活動的態度（諾曼 [2011]）。

The constructivist approach has several perspectives on learning since it recognises that human beings use their own personal vision in explaining the acquired information (Duffy et al. [2012]). This was supported by teachers in our study who concluded that digital storytelling permits students to learn by doing, and providing a flexible learning environment enables students to use their own ideas.
構建主義方法在學習方面有幾個視角，因為它認可人類使用自己的個人視角來解釋獲得的信息（Duffy 等[2012]）。我們的研究中教師的結論得到了支持，他們認為數位故事述說允許學生通過實踐學習，而提供一個靈活的學習環境使學生能夠使用自己的想法。

In addition, the findings of this research confirm that facilitating or scaffolding the learning process is the teacher’s main role. At the beginning, tasks, software and digital storytelling are explained by the teacher, which requires a teacher-led mode. Following this step, students have the necessary knowledge from which to start working autonomously, with some teacher supported learning.
此外，本研究的發現確認，協助或提供學習過程的支架是教師的主要角色。在開始時，教師會解釋任務、軟體和數位敘事，這需要教師領導的模式。在這一步驟之後，學生已經具備了自主工作的必要知識，同時也有一部分的教師輔導學習。

Robin, who has a similar outlook on digital storytelling, found that a story created by the teacher will help students to enhance their abilities. The teacher thus builds the framework for discussing storytelling topics and makes conceptual and/or abstract subjects more comprehensible. Building on experience and knowledge with teacher support, students create their own story using iMovie and/or Moviemaker. Thus students improve their skill set with teacher support in project development (Robin [2008]).
羅賓，對數位敘事有相似看法的人，發現教師創建的故事能幫助學生提升能力。教師因此為討論敘事主題建立框架，使概念性和/或抽象的主題變得更易理解。在教師的支持下，基於經驗和知識，學生使用 iMovie 和/或 Moviemaker 創建自己的故事。因此，在項目開發中，在教師的支持下，學生提高了他們的技能集（羅賓 [2008]）。

This has significant congruence with Miller’s findings, i.e. students imitate interactions with their teacher and use these interactions to help others, thus building their interpersonal skills and confidence (Miller [2009]).
這與 Miller 的研究結果有顯著的一致性，即學生模仿與教師的互動，並利用這些互動來幫助他人，從而建立他們的人際交往能力和自信心（Miller [2009]）。

Building digital literacy
構建數位素養

This research indicates that the utilisation of digital storytelling in education increases skills. Teachers witnessed that digital storytelling via technology integration assisted students, and helped them overcome their problems. As supported by Ohler, who viewed digital storytelling as a concept supporting creativity, students could solve crucial problems in unprecedented ways. Furthermore, teachers viewed digital storytelling as a valuable tool to increase research skills. A myriad of skills, such as spelling, writing, teamwork or collaborating with students and teachers, can be improved. Needless to say, the uptake of technology improves technical skills (Ohler [2008]). Sadik arrived at a different conclusion in his research, where classroom observations and interviews showed that the use of technology is only effective if teachers have the expertise to customise content for story creation (Sadik [2008]).
此研究顯示，將數位敘事融入教育中，可以提升學生的技能。教師觀察到，透過技術整合進行數位敘事，能夠協助學生解決問題，並克服困難。正如 Ohler 所指出的，數位敘事被視為促進創意的概念，學生能夠以前所未有的方式解決關鍵問題。此外，教師認為數位敘事是一種寶貴的工具，用於提升研究技能。許多技能，如拼寫、寫作、團隊合作或與學生和教師合作，都可以得到改善。毋庸置疑，技術的採用可以提高技術技能（Ohler [2008]）。Sadik 的研究得出不同的結論，其課堂觀察和訪談顯示，技術的使用只有在教師具有量身定製內容以進行故事創作的專業知識時才有效（Sadik [2008]）。

In addition, the findings of teacher interviews indicate that digital storytelling is an effective tool to help students improve their technical skills and information literacy. Students have the opportunity to choose the skill they want to work on and improve. This may include individual skills, such as spelling and writing, as well as interpersonal skills such as working in a team, or collaborating with students and teachers. Miller also found that in every class engaged in digital storytelling, one student acted like a tutor. This student not only worked on the project, but also provided technical support to peers in terms of developing their stories. In this sense, students are empowered to use their strongest skills, and improve them. Their research skills are also honed during video searches, scanning images and selecting audio content for the story (Miller [2009]).
此外，教師訪談的結果顯示，數位敘事是幫助學生提升技術技能和資訊素養的有效工具。學生有機會選擇自己想要專注和提升的技能。這可能包括個別技能，如拼寫和寫作，以及人際技能，如團隊合作，或與學生和教師合作。Miller 也發現，在每一個進行數位敘事的班級中，有一名學生扮演了導師的角色。這名學生不僅參與了項目，還為同伴在發展故事時提供了技術支援。從這個角度看，學生被賦予了使用他們最強技能並提升這些技能的能力。他們在視頻搜尋、掃描圖像和為故事選擇音頻內容的過程中也鍛煉了研究技能（Miller [2009]）。

Also, the findings indicated that teachers believe that the use of stories in education is very beneficial for countries receiving immigrants, such as Australia, because a digital story incorporates multiple aspects of the curriculum, and all teachers should use this medium at some stage. One teacher commented that in their school, where they work with many students from non-English-speaking countries, students welcome the opportunity to express themselves through visual media, rather than more words; it facilitates communication for new students and builds their confidence. Similar finding were reported by Benmayor who stated that digital storytelling can help learners to transfer their knowledge, skills and culture, thereby evolving their thinking process and helping them gain confidence. Accordingly, digital storytelling can be classified as an asset based pedagogy (Benmayor [2008]).
研究結果顯示，教師認為在教育中使用故事對接收移民的國家，如澳洲，非常有益，因為數位故事涵蓋了課程的多個方面，所有教師都應在某個階段使用這種媒介。一名教師表示，在他們工作的學校，與許多非英語為母語的學生合作時，學生歡迎通過視覺媒體表達自己的機會，而不是更多的文字；這有助於新學生的溝通，並建立他們的自信。Benmayor 的報告也指出類似的發現，他指出數位故事述可以幫助學習者轉移知識、技能和文化，從而促進他們的思考過程，幫助他們建立自信。因此，數位故事述可以被歸類為以資產為基礎的教學法（Benmayor [2008]）。

Additionally, the findings of teacher interviews indicated that, with digital storytelling, not only students but the teachers also got the opportunity to improve their technological skills. This included the use of electronic devices such as personal computers, cameras and recorders. Miller reported similar findings. She stated that digital storytelling is the best application for teachers to encourage students to increase their use and knowledge of technology and technical skills. Furthermore, in order to create these stories, not only the students but also the teachers are obliged to increase their technical proficiency in using personal computers, digital cameras, recorders, etc. This helped teachers keep up with the latest technology (Miller [2009]).
此外，教師訪談的結果顯示，透過數位敘事，不僅學生，教師也獲得了提升技術能力的機會。這包括使用個人電腦、相機和錄音機等電子設備。Miller 也有類似的發現。她指出，數位敘事是鼓勵學生增加對技術和技術技能的使用和了解的最佳應用。此外，為了創建這些故事，不僅學生，教師也必須增加使用個人電腦、數位相機、錄音機等設備的技術熟練度。這有助於教師跟上最新技術（Miller [2009]）。

Personalising learning experience
量身訂製學習體驗

The findings of this research show that digital storytelling can cater for greater diversity by personalising student’s experience. It can help them improve their confidence, and contribute to enhanced social and psychological skills. It can also be used to support students with special needs such as ESL^a and VCAL^b students.
本研究的發現顯示，數位敘事可以透過個性化學生的經驗來滿足更大的多樣性。它能幫助學生提升自信，並促進提升社交和心理技能。此外，它還可以用來支援有特殊需要的學生，例如 ESL ^a 和 VCAL ^b 學生。

These findings are in line with other research outcomes reported in literature. Van Gils found that personalised education is one of the main advantages of digital storytelling. He argued that learners can present their experiences, reflections and evaluate their achievements while creating digital stories (Van Gils [2005]). According to Ohler, digital storytelling helped students to become active participants rather than passive consumers of information (Ohler [2008]).
這些發現與文獻中報告的其他研究結果相符。van Gils 發現，個性化教育是數位敘事的主導優點之一。他認為，學習者可以在創建數位故事的過程中呈現他們的經驗、反思和評估他們的成就（van Gils [2005]）。根據 Ohler 的觀點，數位敘事幫助學生成為資訊的積極參與者，而不是資訊的被动消費者（Ohler [2008]）。

Academic efforts that focus on the benefits of digital storytelling are supported by government agencies. Several governing and regulatory authorities have been working on improving the education system in terms of motivation, learning outcomes and professional integration. For instance, the Australian Curriculum in Victoria (AusVELS) was specifically designed to ensure that curriculum content and achievement standards established high expectations of all students (AusVELS [2013]). According to AusVELS students are expected to enrich their learning experience, not only in a single aspect of the curriculum, but in all areas. It is known that students in Australian classrooms have varying needs based on individual’s learning histories, abilities, cultural and educational backgrounds. In recognition of this fact, the Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) is developing additional curriculum to promote learning outcomes for students with disabilities, and/or to assist students from different linguistic and learning backgrounds (ACARA [2013]).
學術界關注數位敘事的優點，獲得政府機構的支持。多個管理及監管機構正在努力改善教育系統，以提高動機、學習成果和職業整合。例如，維多利亞州的澳洲課程（AusVELS）特別設計以確保課程內容和成就標準對所有學生設立了高期望（AusVELS [2013]）。根據 AusVELS，學生被期望豐富他們的學習經驗，不僅在課程的單一領域，而是所有領域。已知澳洲教室中的學生根據個體的學習歷史、能力、文化及教育背景有不同的需求。為了認可這個事實，澳洲課程評估與報告局（ACARA）正在開發額外的課程，以促進有特殊需求學生的學習成果，或協助來自不同語言和學習背景的學生（ACARA [2013]）。

This fact is also recognised by the UNESCO program for the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. It considers storytelling to be one of the modules which can be used to equip students with professional learning and teaching skills. This helps students achieve a wide range of knowledge, skills and values, which is the objective of Education for Sustainable Development (UNESCO [2010]). The use of storytelling in Australian schools is bound to have a lasting impact, since it is defined by UNESCO as “a key teaching strategy for achieving the objectives of education for sustainable futures” (p.1).
這個事實也被聯合國教科文組織為聯合國可持續發展教育十年所制定的計劃所認可。它認為敘事是可用於培養學生專業學習和教學技能的一個模塊。這有助於學生獲得廣泛的知識、技能和價值觀，這是可持續發展教育的目標（聯合國教科文組織 [2010]）。在澳洲學校使用敘事，肯定會產生持久的影響，因為聯合國教科文組織將其定義為“實現可持續未來教育目標的關鍵教學策略”（第 1 頁）。

Consequently, suffice to say that digital storytelling has, inter alia, the benefit of increasing student motivation, especially for those students who have difficulties with reading and writing, allowing personalisation of the learning experience, acquiring experience with in-depth and comprehensible reading and becoming more proficient at technical aspects of language. Digital storytelling can be used to develop personalised learning experiences for students, thereby responding to diverse individual needs.
因此，可以說，數位敘事具有增加學生動機的優點，特別是對於那些在閱讀和寫作方面有困難的學生，它允許學習經驗的個性化，獲得深入且易於理解的閱讀經驗，並在語言的技術方面變得更加精通。數位敘事可以用來為學生開發個性化的學習經驗，從而應對多樣的個體需求。

Impact of digital storytelling on student outcomes
數位敘事對學生結果的影響

As the latest report for the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) indicated that the use of technology in education can increase various skills of learners, the findings of this research also suggested that digital storytelling can enhance several learning skills including writing, designs, library and research, technology and communication.
根據最新一期的國際學生評估項目（PISA）報告，報告指出在教育中使用技術可以提高學習者的各種技能，本研究的結果也表明數位敘事可以提升包括寫作、設計、圖書館與研究、技術和溝通等多種學習技能。

In addition, digital storytelling can help students with tasks they previously found very difficult including spelling, sentence formation and building, and forming the whole body of a text; this integration of technology assisted students to overcome their writing problems.
此外，數位敘事可以幫助學生完成他們之前認為非常困難的任務，包括拼寫、句子構造和組合，以及構建文本的整體；這種技術的整合幫助學生克服了他們的寫作問題。

However, age and ability to learn technological subjects have some impact on the outcomes. When compared with primary school students, secondary school students have the ability to learn more and faster. They use the internet and computers more than primary school students. This was apparent during the study, especially where primary school students worked exclusively on their stories in the class, secondary school students worked on their stories, both inside and outside the class.
然而，年齡和學習科技科目能力對結果有一定的影響。與小學生相比，中學生有能力學習更多且更快。他們比小學生更常使用互聯網和計算機。在研究中特別明顯，特別是在小學生在課堂上專門撰寫故事的情況下，中學生在課堂內和課堂外都撰寫故事。

Furthermore, teachers observed that students were learning without realising. Provided that students are clearly informed about the task that is required of them, digital storytelling is useful as an all-round skill development tool; the use of digital storytelling can therefore reinforce various complementary skills.
此外，教師觀察到學生在未意識到的情況下學習。如果學生清楚知道他們需要完成的任務，數位敘事是全面技能發展工具的有用工具；因此，使用數位敘事可以強化各種相補的技能。

The findings of the cross-case analysis based on the rubric data are presented in the following sections.
根據評分標準數據進行的跨案例分析的結果，在以下部分中呈現。

Overall mean level of student scores
學生成績的整體平均水準

Figure 1 shows the mean of overall scores received by students for digital story quality for all cases. The overall scores were very close, despite the differences in age, subject, knowledge, technology use, etc. Nevertheless, the students in primary school (i.e. ESL and Years 3/4), received the lowest scores while those in secondary school had much better results. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, primary school students did not have prior exposure to Moviemaker software while more secondary school students had used it before.
圖一顯示了所有情況下學生對數位故事品質的平均評分。儘管年齡、主題、知識、技術使用等存在差異，但總分非常接近。然而，小學學生（即 ESL 和 3/4 年級）獲得的評分最低，而中學學生的成績要好得多。這有兩個原因。首先，小學學生沒有接觸過 Moviemaker 軟體，而更多中學學生在之前使用過它。

Figure 1 圖 1

Overall scores for digital story quality for the five case studies.
數位故事品質的五個案例的總分

Furthermore, age and ability to learn technological subjects have sme impact. When compared with primary school students, secondary school students have the ability to learn faster and learn more. They use the internet and computer more regularly than primary school students. This was apparent during the study where the primary school students worked on their stories only in the class. On the other hand, secondary school students worked more regularly on their stories, both inside and outside the class.
此外，年齡和學習科技科目能力對影響也有所影響。與小學生相比，中學生有更快的學習能力和學習更多的能力。他們比小學生更經常使用互聯網和計算機。在研究中可以清楚地看出，小學生只在課堂上完成他們的故事。另一方面，中學生更經常在課堂內和課堂外完成他們的故事。

It is observed that the subject does not impact student performance. However, the approach taken by the teacher proved to have significant impact. This was observed in two cases. In Years 3–4, the teacher observed that students were struggling with their writing and opted to introduce software so that the students had a clear idea about what was required of them. This additional step increased student performances.
觀察到主題並未影響學生表現。然而，教師所採用的方法卻顯示出顯著的影響。這在兩個案例中被觀察到。在三年級到四年級期間，教師注意到學生在寫作上遇到困難，因此選擇引入軟體，讓學生對他們需要做什麼有清楚的概念。這額外的步驟提高了學生的表現。

In Year 7, the teacher asked the students to present their work when it was finished. Consequently, almost every fortnight there was a story presentation in class and this contributed to their engagement and better performance. Year 11, Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) students were a special case. There were two groups, one of which was working very well, while the other group was not interested in school work. Although digital storytelling created some interest in the second group, especially during video shoots and presentation, it was not easy to engage them with the overall task. They did not work on the story creation, required constant help from the teacher and received a very low mark.
在第 7 年，老師要求學生在完成作品後進行展示。因此，幾乎每個兩個星期，班上就有一次故事展示，這對他們的參與度和表現都有所幫助。第 11 年，維多利亞應用學習證書（VCAL）的學生是一個特別的情況。有兩個小組，其中一個表現得很好，而另一個對學校工作不感興趣。雖然數字故事創作在第二個小組中引起了一些興趣，特別是在錄製視頻和展示期間，但要讓他們參與整個任務並不容易。他們沒有進行故事創作，需要老師不斷的幫助，並獲得非常低的評分。

Overall performance based on evaluation criteria
根據評估標準的整體表現

Figure 2 shows the mean score obtained for the selected criteria for the five case studies. This shows that primary school students performed well in story aspects such as purpose, plot, pacing of narrative, dramatic question, story characters, and emotional content. This is because they planned their storyboard well. The key to their success was that they spent more time in writing and editing their story with some help from the teacher, before actually starting the creation process. However, they did not perform as well in technological components, emotional content and economy of the story. Nor did they perform as well in the “Dramatic Question” and “Grammar and Language Usage” since their knowledge of English was limited.
圖二顯示，選取的五個案例研究中，所選標準的平均分數。這顯示，小學學生在故事方面表現良好，如目的、劇情、敘述的節奏、劇情疑問、故事角色和情感內容。這是因為他們在編寫故事板時準備得當。他們成功的關鍵是，在實際開始創建過程之前，他們花更多時間撰寫和編輯故事，並在一定程度上得到了老師的幫助。然而，他們在技術成分、情感內容和故事的經濟性方面表現不佳。他們在“劇情疑問”和“語法和語言使用”方面也表現不佳，因為他們的英語知識有限。

Figure 2 圖 2

Mean Score for criteria for the five case studies.
五個案例研究的平均分數對於評分標準。

On the other hand, secondary school students were a complete contrast. They performed not so well in the story aspects since they did not want to spend much time writing and storyboarding. This affected their scores in “Plot” and “Pacing of Narrative”. Their competency in technology helped them receive high marks in technological components such as “Technological Competence”, “Emotional Content” and “Economy of content”. This can be traced back to their age group and knowledge in technology use.
另一方面，中學學生的表現則完全不同。他們在故事方面表現不佳，因為他們不願花太多時間在寫作和故事板上。這影響了他們在「劇情」和「敘述節奏」部分的成績。他們在技術方面的技能幫助他們在技術成分如「技術能力」、「情感內容」和「內容的經濟性」獲得高分。這可以追溯到他們的年齡層和對技術使用的知識。

Teacher perceptions about student learning through digital storytelling
教師對學生透過數位敘事學習的觀感

Teachers had a positive attitude towards the use of digital storytelling as a teaching tool in their classrooms, as both students and teachers had the opportunity to improve their technological skills, which included the use of various electronic devices, as previously mentioned.
教師們對在課堂上使用數位敘事作為教學工具持有積極的態度，因為學生和教師都有機會提升他們的數位技能，這包括使用各種電子設備，正如之前所提到的。

Teachers indicated that digital storytelling increased and enhanced the use of technology in the classroom, which helped students improve their technical skills and information literacy; digital storytelling can also be applied to subjects such as English and History, and in almost all the sciences including mathematics, social studies and humanities.
教師表示，數位敘事增加了教室中技術的使用，這有助於學生提高技術技能和資訊素養；數位敘事也可以應用於如英語和歷史等科目，以及包括數學、社會研究和人文学科在內的所有科學領域。

Furthermore, teachers confirmed that the use of digital stories in education is beneficial for countries receiving immigrants, such as Australia. The ability for expression through visual media, rather than words, facilitates communication for new students and builds their confidence. In addition, teachers fulfilled the role of facilitator, consultant, and could scaffold the learning process more effectively when they used digital storytelling in class.
此外，教師確認，使用數位故事在教育中的應用對接收移民的國家，如澳洲，非常有益。透過視覺媒體表達的能力，而非文字，有助於新學生的溝通，並建立他們的信心。此外，當教師在課堂上使用數位敘事時，他們擔任了促導者、顧問的角色，並且能夠更有效地支撐學習過程。

Conclusion 結論

Since the main aim of this research was to investigate the impact of digital storytelling on student learning, the outcomes of this research will enable both teachers and students to tap into the power of digital storytelling and more engaged teaching and learning. This study contributes to new understandings of how to create authentic and constructivist learning contexts that can be used in a range of educational settings. The research focused on how to implement digital storytelling in the classroom, describing the digital story workshop, and explaining teacher roles and student tasks; therefore, this research gives a clear picture of how to integrate digital storytelling into schools. Consequently, the new knowledge generated by this research can inform future educational policy.
由於本研究的主要目標在於探討數位敘事對學生學習的影響，本研究的結果將使教師和學生都能夠利用數位敘事的力量，並促進更積極的教學和學習。本研究為如何創建真實且構建主義的學習環境提供了新的理解，這些環境可以在多種教育場景中使用。研究重點在於如何在教室中實施數位敘事，描述數位故事工作坊，並解釋教師的角色和學生的任務；因此，本研究為如何將數位敘事整合到學校中提供了清晰的圖像。因此，本研究產生的新知識可以為未來的教育政策提供信息。

Furthermore, a number of story development models have been created in the past to help educators achieve better learning outcomes with digital storytelling; however, none of these models provide a holistic pedagogical framework for engaging students with digital storytelling during various stages of learning. This research presented a new e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt) framework for using digital storytelling as a pedagogical model for constructivist learning.
此外，過去已創建了多個故事發展模型，以幫助教育工作者通過數位故事述說實現更好的學習成果；然而，這些模型中的任何一個都沒有為在學習的不同階段與學生進行數位故事述說提供全面的教學框架。本研究提出了一個新的 e 學習數位故事述說（eLDiSt）框架，用於將數位故事述說作為構建主義學習的教學模式。

In addition, even though the findings of this research are important and have the potential to inform policy, practice and theory, generalisations could not be derived due to the following reasons. The research only included participants from one school (even though there were two levels: primary and secondary) and limitations related to the participant sample used, since unequal numbers of students from primary and secondary schools took part in this research. In future research this limitation could be overcome by using multiple sites instead of one school, and the same participant sample, if possible. Another issue is related to the limited access to technology in the school; the students faced some technical problems while creating their digital stories, also there was some shortage of computers in the labs.
此外，雖然本研究的發現重要且有潛力指導政策、實踐和理論，但由於以下原因，無法得出一般化結論。本研究僅包含一所學校的參與者（雖然有兩個層次：小學和中學），並且由於使用參與者樣本的限制，因為小學和中學的學生參與本研究的人數不均等。未來的研究可以通過使用多個場地而不是一所學校，如果可能的話，使用相同的參與者樣本來克服這一限制。另一個問題與學校的技術訪問有限有關；學生在創建數位故事時遇到了一些技術問題，而且實驗室中電腦短缺。

The results of this research indicate that digital storytelling can provide support to students with special needs, such as ESL and VCAL students. In addition, digital storytelling can help students to improve their confidence, and can contribute to better social and psychological skills.
本研究的結果顯示，數位敘事可以為特殊需求學生，如英語為第二語言（ESL）和職業與技術教育（VCAL）學生，提供支持。此外，數位敘事還能幫助學生提升自信，並對改善社交和心理技能有所貢獻。

Endnotes 腳註

^aEnglish as Second Language.
^a 英語為第二語言

^bVictorian Certificate of Applied Learning.
^b 應用學習 Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning.