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INTRODUCTION  引言

02

TWENTY KEY CONCEPTS IN NEW MEDIA
新媒体的二十个关键概念
In considering the broader socio-cultural impacts of new media, some recurring concepts come into play in identifying what it is to be new. This chapter provides an overview of twenty key concepts in new media-listed alphabetically-that will inform discussions through this book. Where bold is used in this chapter, it indicates that the term is defined in another entry.
在考虑新媒体对社会文化的广泛影响时,一些重复出现的概念会在确定新媒体的定义时发挥作用。本章概述了新媒体的二十个关键概念(按字母顺序排列),这些概念将为本书的讨论提供参考。本章中使用粗体字的地方,表示该术语在另一个条目中有定义。

01: COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE
01: 集体智慧

Collective intelligence was a term used by Pierre Lévy (1997) and Derrick de Kerckhove (1998) to describe the capacity of networked information and computer technologies (ICTs) to exponentially enhance the collective pool of social knowledge by simultaneously expanding the extent of human interactions enabled by communications networks, and providing a vastly greater capacity to generate, codify, store and retrieve knowledge through collective access to networked databases.
皮埃尔-莱维(Pierre Lévy,1997 年)和德里克-德-凯克霍夫(Derrick de Kerckhove,1998 年)使用 "集体智慧 "一词来描述网络信息和计算机技术(ICTs)的能力,即通过通信网络扩大人类互动的范围,并通过集体访问网络数据库提供更强的生成、编纂、存储和检索知识的能力,从而成倍地增加社会知识的集体储备。
This greatly expanded capacity to collaboratively develop, distribute, share and communicate knowledge is central to arguments that we are now in a knowledge economy. The concept of collective, self-organising knowledge networks was also central to claims that open source software development can generate superior outcomes to proprietary systems developed within corporations, as collective intelligence creates the scope to 'harness the hive' of knowledge that exists within a participating user community (Raymond 1999; Herz 2005).
这种合作开发、传播、共享和交流知识的能力大大增强,是我们现在处于知识经济时代这一论点的核心。集体、自组织知识网络的概念也是声称开放源码软件开发可以产生优于企业内部开发的专有系统的结果的核心,因为集体智慧创造了 "利用 "参与用户社区内存在的 "蜂巢 "知识的空间(Raymond,1999 年;Herz,2005 年)。
Jenkins (2006a) identified collective intelligence as a central element of media convergence, and as 'an alternative source of media power' derived from the principle that 'none of us can know everything; each of us knows something; and we can put the pieces together if we pool our resources and combine our skills' (Jenkins 2006a: 4). Collective intelligence has featured prominently in discussions about Web 2.0, as it has been seen as providing the tools and platforms than enable such collaboration to occur on a large scale, across geographical distances and in horizontal, networked, real-time online environments (Tapscott and Williams 2006; Musser and 0'Reilly 2007).
Jenkins (2006a)认为,集体智慧是媒体融合的核心要素,是 "媒体力量的另一种来源", 其原理是 "我们不可能无所不知;我们每个人都知道一些事情;如果我们汇集资源、结合技 能,就能把这些事情拼凑在一起"(Jenkins 2006a:4)。集体智慧在有关 Web 2.0 的讨论中占据了突出位置,因为它被视为提供了工具和平台,使这种协作能够跨越地理距离,在横向、网络化、实时的在线环境中大规模进行(Tapscott 和 Williams,2006 年;Musser 和 0'Reilly,2007 年)。

02: CONVERGENCE 02: 收敛

Convergence refers to the interlinking of computing and IT, communications networks, media content enabled by the internet and digital media technologies, and the convergent products, services and activities that have emerged as a result. Media convergence transforms established media industries, services and work practices, and enables entirely new forms of media to emerge. It erodes long-established media industry and content silos, and increasingly uncouples media content from particular devices, which presents major challenges for media policy and regulation, as well as new dilemmas for established media industries, such as newspapers, film, television and music.
融合是指计算机和信息技术、通信网络、互联网和数字媒体技术带来的媒体内容以及由此产生的融合产品、服务和活动之间的相互联系。媒体融合改变了既有的媒体产业、服务和工作方式,使全新的媒体形式得以出现。它侵蚀了长期形成的媒体产业和内容孤岛,使媒体内容与特定设备日益脱钩,这给媒体政策和监管带来了重大挑战,也给报纸、电影、电视和音乐等老牌媒体产业带来了新的困境。
Media convergence is related to the rise of digitally based companies such as Google, Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and others as significant media content providers and major companies in the digital economy, as well as media mergers and acquisitions intended to achieve crossplatform synergies for media companies, such as News Corporation's acquisition of social media site MySpace in 2005-which it has since sold-or the acquisition by Disney of Pixar Animation. It is also related to the challenges that user-created content/ user-led innovation presents to long-established hierarchical relations between media industries and professions on the one hand, and audiences/users on the other, as well as the broader cultural implications of participatory media and Web 2.0. In policy terms, convergence draws attention to the need to work across governmental and departmental silos to develop creative industries in the knowledge economy (for example the relationship between economic policy and cultural policy), as well as the challenges to media law, policy and regulation of the growing disconnect between media content and delivery platforms.
媒体融合与谷歌、苹果、脸书、微软等数字公司的崛起有关,它们是重要的媒体内容提供商和数字经济中的大公司,也与旨在实现媒体公司跨平台协同效应的媒体并购有关,如新闻集团 2005 年收购社交媒体网站 MySpace(该公司已将其出售),或迪斯尼收购皮克斯动画公司(Pixar Animation)。它还涉及用户创造内容/用户主导创新对媒体行业和专业与受众/用户之间长期形成的等级关系所带来的挑战,以及参与式媒体和 Web 2.0 所带来的更广泛的文化影响。在政策方面,融合使人们注意到在知识经济中发展创意产业需要跨越政府和部门之间的隔阂(例如经济政策与文化政策之间的关系),以及媒体内容与传播平台之间日益脱节对媒体法律、政策和监管带来的挑战。
Many see media convergence as simply one element of wider digital transformations of economy, society and culture, since all aspects of institutional activity and social life-from art to business, government to journalism, health and education, and beyond-are increasingly conducted in this interactive digital media environment, across a plethora of networked ICT devices. The Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation (CCI) mapped this trajectory for convergence from the mid 2000s to the mid 2010s.
许多人认为,媒体融合只是经济、社会和文化更广泛的数字化转型的一个要素,因为机构活动和社会生活的各个方面--从艺术到商业、从政府到新闻、从卫生到教育,以及其他--都越来越多地在这种互动的数字媒体环境中,通过大量联网的信息和通信技术设备进行。澳大利亚研究理事会(ARC)创意产业与创新卓越中心(CCI)描绘了从 2000 年代中期到 2010 年代中期的融合轨迹。

c. 2016

03: CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 03: 创意产业

The concept of creative industries has its origins in a policy initiative of the Blair Labour government in the UK to link the arts, media and ICT sectors more explicitly in economic and export growth strategies. The Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS 1998) defined creative industries as 'activities which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have the potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property'. It gained wider international currency as many countries identified opportunity to link the arts, media, design, heritage and creative services through creative industries policies, while international agencies such as United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) promoted such policies to enhance creativity and enable wealth generation through new products and services developed and distributed using ICTs (UNCTAD 2010).
创意产业的概念源于英国布莱尔工党政府的一项政策倡议,即在经济和出口增长战略中更明确地将艺术、媒体和信息通信技术部门联系起来。英国文化、媒体和体育部(DCMS,1998 年)将创意产业定义为 "源于个人创造力、技能和才能,并有可能通过创造和利用知识产权创造财富和就业机会的活动"。随着许多国家发现了通过创意产业政策将艺术、媒体、设计、遗产和创意服务联系起来的机会,而联合国贸易和发展会议(UNCTAD)等国际机构则推动此类政策,以提高创造力,并通过利用信息和通信技术开发和传播的新产品和服务创造财富(UNCTAD,2010 年),创意产业在国际上得到了更广泛的传播。
John Hartley (2005: 5) defined creative industries as:
约翰-哈特利(2005:5)将创意产业定义为
The conceptual and practical convergence of the creative arts (individual talent) with cultural industries (mass scale), in the context of new media technologies (information and communication technologies, or ICTs), within a new knowledge economy, for the use of newly interactive citizen-consumers.
创造性艺术(个人才能)与文化产业(大规模)在新媒体技术(信息和传播技 术)背景下,在新知识经济中的概念和实践融合,供新的互动公民消费者使用。
Such a definition makes clear that the rise of the creative industries is seen not simply as an outgrowth of public policy to support creative activities, or as a rebranding of traditional arts policies, but is rather linked to new media, globalisation and the knowledge economy.
这一定义清楚地表明,创意产业的兴起并不仅仅是支持创意活动的公共政策的产物,也不是传统艺术政策的改头换面,而是与新媒体、全球化和知识经济联系在一起的。
While there has been much discussion of what are (and are not) creative industries, and how to measure their size and growth (Flew 2012a), the term captures the extent to which individual creativity is increasingly seen as a core intangible asset in the development of new and compelling content in interactive digital media environments. Hartley (2012) has argued that creative industries as a concept has been evolving from early approaches that were based around already existing expert producer communities (artists, designers, media workers and so on) and established industries, towards 'open innovation' approaches that stress the role of digital networks in opening up new possibilities for user-created content and user-led innovation in a 'technologically-equipped culture' (Hartley 2012: 52).
关于什么是(什么不是)创意产业以及如何衡量创意产业的规模和增长,已经有很多讨论(Flew,2012a),而创意产业一词则反映了在互动数字媒体环境中,个人创造力在多大程度上日益被视为开发新的、引人注目的内容的核心无形资产。Hartley(2012)认为,创意产业作为一个概念,已经从早期的以现有的专家制作者群体(艺术家、设计师、媒体工作者等)和成熟产业为基础的方法演变为 "开放式创新 "方法,强调数字网络在 "技术装备文化 "中为用户创作内容和用户主导的创新开辟新的可能性的作用(Hartley 2012: 52)。

04: CYBERSPACE/VIRTUAL REALITY
04:网络空间/虚拟现实

The terms cyberspace and virtual reality were widely used in relation to new media in the 1990s. Don Slater (2002) observed that 'the virtual' was typically defined in the sense of a simulated environment, or as a digital social space, typically in opposition to 'the real'. The 1990s sawaplethora of worksthat drewattentionto thevirtual nature of online communication, discussing virtual communities (Rheingold 1994), virtual identities (Turkle 1995) and other ways of 'being digital' (Negroponte 1995) that offered newer and better possibilities of life and experience in the online world. Today, 'the virtual' is a term more likely to be used to refer to computer games that have aimed for a fully immersive environment, such as simulation games.
20 世纪 90 年代,网络空间和虚拟现实这两个术语在新媒体领域被广泛使用。唐-斯莱特(Don Slater,2002 年)指出,"虚拟 "通常被定义为模拟环境或数字社会空间,通常与 "现实 "相对立。20 世纪 90 年代,有大量作品关注在线交流的虚拟性,讨论虚拟社区(Rheingold,1994 年)、虚拟身份(Turkle,1995 年)和其他 "数字化 "方式(Negroponte,1995 年),为在线世界的生活和体验提供了更新更好的可能性。如今,"虚拟 "一词更多地是指那些旨在营造完全沉浸式环境的电脑游戏,如模拟游戏。
As perhaps the most influential new media concept of the 1990 s, cyberspace referred to the 'sense of a social setting that ... exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks' (Slater 2002: 535). The term was first used by the science fiction writer William Gibson in his 1984 novel Neuromancer, which referred variously to a 'dataspace', 'the world in the wires', and 'the matrix' (Kitchin 1998: 2). Cyberspace has been used to refer to:
作为 20 世纪 90 年代最具影响力的新媒体概念,网络空间指的是 "一种社会环境感......它完全存在于计算机空间中,分布在日益复杂多变的网络中"(Slater 2002: 535)。科幻小说家威廉-吉布森(William Gibson)在其 1984 年出版的小说《神经漫游者》(Neuromancer)中首次使用了这一术语,其中提到了 "数据空间"、"电线中的世界 "和 "矩阵"(Kitchin 1998: 2)。网络空间被用来指代
  • flows of digital data through the internet that are not real in the sense of them being tangible, but are clearly real in their effects, such as flows of money or information about online transactions
    通过互联网的数字数据流,这些数据流从有形的意义上讲并不真实,但从其效果上讲显然是真实的,例如资金流或网上交易信息流
  • forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC), such as role-playing games, in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity are enacted through the use of pseudonyms and avatars
    以计算机为媒介的交流(CMC)形式,如角色扮演游戏,在游戏中通过使用假名 和化身来建立在线关系和其他形式的在线身份认同
  • the remediation of culture through new media technologies and the extent to which the internet has become 'a social space in its own right' (Slater 2002: 533).
    通过新媒体技术对文化进行补救,以及互联网在多大程度上已成为 "一个独立的社会空间"(Slater 2002: 533)。
Because online activities and behaviours are now so immersed in everyday life, there has been a decline in the use of terms such as 'cyberspace' and 'virtual reality'. In his 'rules of virtuality', Steve Woolgar (2002) observed that computer-mediated communications and virtual interactions typically supplemented rather than substituted for real activities, and that online or virtual interaction frequently acted as a stimulus for more face-to-face or real interaction.
由于在线活动和行为如今已如此深入日常生活,"网络空间 "和 "虚拟现实 "等术语的使用已有所减少。Steve Woolgar(2002 年)在他的 "虚拟性规则 "中指出,以计算机为媒介的通信和虚拟互动通常是对现实活动的补充,而不是替代,而且在线或虚拟互动经常成为更多面对面或现实互动的刺激因素。

05: DIGITAL COPYRIGHT/CREATIVE COMMONS
05:数字版权/共享资源

Copyright law has been based upon the principle, going back to the eighteenth century, that neither the creator of a new work nor the general public should be able to appropriate all intellectual property rights (IPRs) that derive from the creation of a new and original work of authorship, and that there is a need for the law to balance competing rights and claims. It proposed that original forms of creative expression can belong to individuals, who have an economic right to derive material benefits as an incentive to create further new works. However, such rights are balanced against the public right of access to such works, the extent to which original ideas and works derive from an existing pool of knowledge and creativity, and the need to make existing knowledge publicly available to enable new works to be created.
版权法所依据的原则可以追溯到十八世纪,即无论是新作品的创作者还是普通公众,都不应当占有因创作新的原创作品而产生的所有知识产权(IPR),法律有必要平衡相互竞争的权利和要求。它提出,原创性表达形式可以属于个人,个人拥有获得物质利益的经济权利,以此作为进一步创作新作品的动力。然而,这种权利要与公众获取这些作品的权利、原创思想和作品在多大程度上源自现有的知识和创造力,以及公开现有知识以便创作新作品的必要性相平衡。
Copyright in the digital age engages with a major paradox. On the one hand, new media technologies have made the copying, distribution, re-use and repurposing of all forms of media content infinitely simpler and quicker, and the costs of digital reproduction have fallen to nearly zero. On the other hand, the laws that govern the ownership, use of, access to and financial payment for such content have become progressively stricter, often as a result of the political lobbying of the creative industries. While copyright law has always contained terisions between reasonable compensation for its original creators and fair use for noncommercial purposes in the public domain, recent developments in copyright law have seen new forms of management of the ownership and use of intellectual property, such as digital rights management (DRM) systems. Critics argue that strong copyright regimes unduly benefit the owners of existing copyrightable material, criminalising legitimate uses of digital works by labelling them as piracy, and acting to the detriment of new applications of creativity that re-use existing digital content in new and innovative ways (Lessig 2001, 2004; Vaidhyanathan 2001; Perelman 2002).
数字时代的版权面临着一个重大的悖论。一方面,新媒体技术使各种形式的媒体内容的复制、传播、再使用和再利用变得无限简单和快捷,数字复制的成本几乎降为零。另一方面,规范这些内容的所有权、使用、获取和经济支付的法律却变得越来越严格,这往往是创意产业政治游说的结果。虽然版权法一直包含对原创者的合理补偿和在公有领域内为非商业目的的合理使用之间的界限,但版权法的最新发展已经出现了管理知识产权所有权和使用权的新形式,如数字版权管理(DRM)系统。批评者认为,强有力的版权制度不恰当地有利于现有版权材料的所有者,通过将数字作品的合法使用贴上盗版标签而将其定为犯罪,并且不利于以新的创新方式重新使用现有数字内容的新的创造性应用(莱西格,2001 年,2004 年;韦迪亚纳坦,2001 年;佩雷尔曼,2002 年)。
As an alternative to this use of law to establish monopoly rents through intellectual property rights has been the development of Creative Commons (CC) licences. Creative Commons is a non-profit organisation that was founded in the US in 2001, that is devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to legally build upon and to share, and which has affiliates in seventy countries (Creative Commons 2013). Creative Commons licences have been developed in order to enable authors, artists, scientists, educators and other creators of original content to establish more flexible yet legally sound principles through which their work can be used and repurposed to serve non-commercial, public good principles.
除了利用法律通过知识产权建立垄断租金之外,共享创意(CC)许可的发展也是一种替代方式。共享创意 "是一个非营利组织,2001年成立于美国,致力于扩大创意作品的范围,供他人合法利用和分享,在70个国家设有分支机构("共享创意",2013年)。开发知识共享许可协议的目的是使作者、艺术家、科学家、教育工作者和其他原创内容的创作者能够制定更加灵活但法律上合理的原则,通过这些原则,他们的作品可以被使用和重新利用,以服务于非商业和公益原则。

06: THE DIGITAL DIVIDE
06:数字鸿沟

The digital divide refers to the gap between populations that have easy access to ICTs and those who remain underserved by these technologies. The term was first used by the US National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) in its Falling Through the Net reports on differential access to networked personal computers. Rice and Haythornthwaite (2005) noted that digital divides arise out of a combination of socio-economic factors (differences in new media use based on income, education, age, race/ethnicity and gender), and from physical/geographical factors (for example rural and remote areas being less well served by internet connectivity than urban centres). Such unequal access matters because it is typically associated with other measures of social disadvantage, and because of the resulting unequal advantages derived from the benefits of new media access.
数字鸿沟指的是容易获得信息和传播技术的人口与仍然得不到这些技术服务的人口之间的差距。美国国家电信和信息管理局(NTIA)在其关于不同人群使用联网个人电脑的 "Falling Through the Net "报告中首次使用了这一术语。Rice 和 Haythornthwaite(2005 年)指出,数字鸿沟是由社会经济因素(基于收入、教育、年龄、种族/民族和性别的新媒体使用差异)和自然/地理因素(例如,农村和偏远地区的互联网连接不如城市中心)共同造成的。这种使用机会的不平等之所以重要,是因为它通常与其他社会劣势措施相关联,还因为由此产生的新媒体使用利益的不平等。
The concept of a digital divide has been important in the context of globalisation. Thomas (2010) has observed that unequal access to ICTs on a global scale matters because inclusion and engagement with the global knowledge economy is an important quality of life indicator for people in the twenty-first century, and exclusion is a significant source of deprivation and disadvantage. Norris (2001) proposed that it was important to distinguish between:
数字鸿沟的概念在全球化背景下非常重要。Thomas (2010) 指出,全球范围内获取信息和传播技术的机会不平等是一个重要问题,因为融入和参与全球知识经济是 21 世纪人们生活质量的一个重要指标,而排斥则是贫困和不利处境的一个重要来源。Norris (2001) 提出,必须区分以下两种情况:
1 the 'global divide', or differential internet access between nations based on access to networked ICT infrastructures, computers, information transmission capacity, local website hosts and so on
1 "全球鸿沟",即国家之间在互联网接入方面的差异,其基础是能否使用联网的 ICT 基础设施、计算机、信息传输能力、本地网站主机等。
2 the 'social divide', or the gaps within nations in terms of access to the internet as a means of social engagement.
2 "社会鸿沟",即国家内部在使用互联网作为社会参与手段方面的差距。
Critics of the digital divide concept argue that inequalities related to new media involve more than access; they also include opportunities to effectively participate in online environments. Murdock and Golding (2004) argued that because the computing hardware, software and skills required change so quickly, and opportunities to learn these new skills are unequally distributed, inequalities in the digital environment continue to reflect other sources of social inequality, such as those arising from income, occupation or geographical location. Selwyn (2004) argued that the term 'digital divide' can be misleading as it is often taken to refer primarily to access to computers and the internet, whereas it is the ability to use these technologies for enhanced participation in public life, and hence to be a part of wider networks of social influence, that is critical.
数字鸿沟概念的批评者认为,与新媒体有关的不平等现象不仅涉及使用新媒体的机会,还包括有效参与网络环境的机会。Murdock 和 Golding(2004 年)认为,由于所需的计算机硬件、软件和技能变化如此之快,而且学习这些新技能的机会分布不均,因此数字环境中的不平等继续反映了其他社会不平等的根源,如收入、职业或地理位置造成的不平等。Selwyn (2004) 认为,"数字鸿沟 "一词可能具有误导性,因为它通常被认为主要是指使 用计算机和互联网的机会,而利用这些技术加强参与公共生活的能力,从而成为更广泛的 社会影响网络的一部分,才是至关重要的。

07: DIGITAL ECONOMY/DIGITAL
CAPITALISM
07:数字经济/数字资本主义

In public policy discourse the digital economy has been defined as 'the global network of economic and social activities that are enabled by information and communications technologies' (ALRC 2012a: 11). It is also sometimes referred to as the internet economy (Deloitte Access Economics 2011) or the networked information economy (Benkler 2006). An underlying premise of the idea that we are now increasingly in a digital economy is the assumption that the interaction between the new economic significance attached to information and knowledge and the enabling capabilities of the internet and digital media have transformed economic dynamics. Yochai Benkler (2006: 4) has argued that 'the removal of the physical constraints on effective information production has made human creativity and the economics of information ... core structuring facts in the new networked information economy'.
在公共政策讨论中,数字经济被定义为 "由信息和通信技术促成的全球经济和社会活动网络"(ALRC 2012a:11)。有时也被称为互联网经济(Deloitte Access Economics,2011 年)或网络信息经济(Benkler,2006 年)。我们现在日益处于数字经济时代这一观点的一个基本前提是,信息和知识所具有的新经济意义与互联网和数字媒体的赋能能力之间的互动已经改变了经济动态。尤凯-本克勒(Yochai Benkler)(2006: 4)认为,"有效信息生产的物理限制消除后,人类的创造力和信息经济学......成为新网络信息经济的核心结构事实"。
Critical political economists such as Dan Schiller (2000, 2006), Robert McChesney (1999, 2003) and Vincent Mosco (2004) have argued that new media and the internet revolution mark the rise of digital capitalism, with digital networks constituting the core infrastructure of global commerce and new media businesses being the fastest growing sectors of the global capitalist economy. Rather than seeing this as heralding a new economy, they argue that, as information is increasingly commodified as intellectual property through digital copyright such trends mark the consolidation and intensification of capitalist relations on a global scale. Political economists have also stressed the key role played by traditional big media corporations such as News Corporation and Time-Warner in the new media environment, arguing that there is in fact a further concentration of media ownership and control occurring, alongside a growing international digital divide between information haves and have-nots.
丹-席勒(Dan Schiller,2000,2006)、罗伯特-麦克切斯尼(Robert McChesney,1999,2003)和文森特-莫斯科(Vincent Mosco,2004)等批判政治经济学家认为,新媒体和互联网革命标志着数字资本主义的崛起,数字网络成为全球商业的核心基础设施,新媒体企业成为全球资本主义经济中增长最快的部门。他们并不认为这预示着一种新的经济,而是认为,随着信息通过数字版权日益商品化为知识产权,这种趋势标志着资本主义关系在全球范围内的巩固和强化。政治经济学家还强调了新闻集团和时代华纳等传统大型媒体公司在新媒体环境中扮演的关键角色,认为媒体所有权和控制权实际上正在进一步集中,同时信息拥有者和信息贫乏者之间的国际数字鸿沟也在不断扩大。
The rise of a digital economy creates new dilemmas for governments around the question of copyright law. As the Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) has noted, 'the context and political economy of copyright law is changing as copyright has a more direct impact on disparate users and producers, extending beyond rights holders and institutional rights users' (ALRC 2012a: 14). Among some interests in the creative industries, notably, the largest media and entertainment corporations, stronger copyright laws are seen as necessary to growing the digital economy by reducing losses associated with content piracy. By contrast, existing copyright laws have been seen as overly restrictive and poorly designed for the digital economy, which present their own costs, and which are largely invisible yet substantial. The Hargreaves Report estimated that copyright reform could add between 0.3 per cent and 0.6 per cent to the size of the UK economy by 2020, or between billion and billion (Hargreaves 2011).
数字经济的崛起为各国政府在版权法问题上带来了新的困境。正如澳大利亚法律改革委员会(ALRC)所指出的,"版权法的背景和政治经济正在发生变化,因为版权对不同用户和生产者产生了更直接的影响,超越了权利持有者和机构权利使用者的范围"(ALRC 2012a:14)。在创意产业的某些利益集团,尤其是最大的媒体和娱乐公司中,更强有力的版权法被认为是通过减少与盗版内容相关的损失来发展数字经济所必需的。相比之下,现有的版权法被认为限制过多,设计不当,不适合数字经济的发展。据《哈格里夫斯报告》估计,到 2020 年,版权改革可使英国经济规模增加 0.3% 至 0.6%,即 0 亿至 亿美元(Hargreaves,2011 年)。

08: GLOBALISATION 08: 全球化

Globalisation has been defined as 'the expanding scale, growing magnitude, speeding up and deepening impact of transcontinental flows and patterns of social interaction' (Held and McGrew 2002: 1). The term is used to both describe and make sense of interconnected developments, including:
全球化被定义为 "跨洲流动和社会互动模式的规模不断扩大,程度不断加深,速度不断加快,影响不断加深"(Held and McGrew 2002: 1)。该术语用于描述和理解相互关联的发展,包括
  • economic globalisation: the rise of multinational corporations (MNCs), international trade and financial systems, and global production networks
    经济全球化:跨国公司(MNC)、国际贸易和金融体系以及全球生产网络 的兴起
  • political globalisation: the growth of international governmental organisations (IG0s) and non-government organisations (INGOs), international laws and treaties, regional trading blocs and international social movements
    政治全球化:国际政府组织(IG0s)和非政府组织(INGOs)、国际法律和条 约、地区贸易集团和国际社会运动的发展。
  • cultural globalisation: the increasingly multicultural nature of national societies, global movements of people, the role of global cultural, linguistic and religious diasporas, and associated changes in cultural consumption patterns and forms of identity
    文化全球化:各国社会日益多元的文化性质,全球人口流动,全球文化、语言 和宗教移民社群的作用,以及文化消费模式和身份认同形式的相关变化。
  • media globalisation: the proliferation of technologies, platforms and services that enable cross-border communication and intensify transnational communication flows, including the internet and cable and satellite television, and associated developments in global media culture.
    媒体全球化:包括互联网、有线电视和卫星电视在内的技术、平台和服务的激 增,这些技术、平台和服务促成了跨境传播并加强了跨国传播流动,以及全球媒 体文化的相关发展。
There are several layers of debate around globalisation. There are arguments about whether its net consequences for people and nations are positive or negative, and it has both its advocates (Cairncross 1998; Legrain 2002; Friedman 2005) and critics (Mander and Goldsmith 1996; Barber 2000; Klein 2000). There is the debate about whether this is a qualitatively new phenomenon or simply the latest stage in developments that have been around since the Silk Road that linked Europe and China was created in the thirteenth century, or since the capitalist world system based around trade and empire was inaugurated when Columbus crossed the Atlantic to the Americas in 1492. In particular, it has been argued that phenomena presented as fundamentally new are in fact more generic features of global capitalism: Colin Sparks (2007: 188) has argued that 'the master category ... is not globalisation but capitalism, in its most recent and expansive phase'.
围绕全球化有几层争论。关于全球化对人民和国家的净影响是积极的还是消极的,既有支持者(Cairncross,1998 年;Legrain,2002 年;Friedman,2005 年),也有批评者(Mander 和 Goldsmith,1996 年;Barber,2000 年;Klein,2000 年)。自 13 世纪连接欧洲和中国的丝绸之路开辟以来,或自 1492 年哥伦布横渡大西洋到达美洲,以贸易和帝国为基础的资本主义世界体系建立以来,这种发展就一直存在。特别是,有观点认为,从根本上说是新出现的现象,实际上是全球资本主义更为普遍的特征:Colin Sparks (2007: 188)认为,"主要的范畴......不是全球化,而是资本主义,在其最近的扩张阶段"。
As technologies that enable borderless communication, new media are central to debates about globalisation and its impacts. Recognising the importance of new media technologies, there is still the question of the extent to which the trends associated with globalisation mark a qualitative shift in the pattern of economic, social, political and cultural relations within and between states and societies, or whether they constitute a continuation of long-established trends. Arguments that propose that globalisation marks out a fundamental shift in social relations have been termed 'strong globalisation' arguments (Flew and McElhinney 2005). By contrast, there are those who can be described as globalisation sceptics, who argue that many of the developments being associated with globalisation are not historically new, and that globalisation theories underestimate the ongoing significance of nation-states (Hirst, Thompson and Bromley 2009).
作为实现无国界传播的技术,新媒体在有关全球化及其影响的辩论中占据着中心位置。在认识到新媒体技术的重要性的同时,仍然存在这样一个问题,即与全球化相关的趋势在多大程度上标志着国家和社会内部以及国家和社会之间的经济、社会、政治和文化关系模式发生了质的转变,抑或是长期以来形成的趋势的延续。认为全球化标志着社会关系发生根本性转变的观点被称为 "强全球化 "观点(Flew 和 McElhinney,2005 年)。相比之下,也有一些人被称为全球化怀疑论者,他们认为与全球化相关的许多发展在历史上并不新鲜,而且全球化理论低估了民族国家的持续重要性(Hirst、Thompson 和 Bromley,2009 年)。

09: HACKING 09: 黑客

Hacking generally refers to activities related to software design and computer programming. A distinction is often made between:
黑客一般指与软件设计和计算机编程有关的活动。黑客攻击通常区分为
1 hacking as the sharing and modifying of computer programs in order to explore how they work and potentially improve them
1 黑客是指共享和修改计算机程序,以探索其工作原理并对其进行潜在改进的行为
2 hacking as the entry into a computer security system-legally or illegally-for purposes that can range from the relatively benign to more malicious purposes that include stealing user data or rendering a system inoperable for political or other reasons: distributed denial-of-service (DDOS) attacks.
黑客攻击是指以合法或非法的方式进入计算机安全系统,其目的可以是相对善意的,也可以是更恶意的,包括窃取用户数据或出于政治或其他原因使系统无法运行:分布式拒绝服务(DDOS)攻击。
Hacking in the first-more positive-sense is seen as central to the development of the internet. Born in the computer labs of elite US universities such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Stanford in the late 1960s, hacking was 'both an aesthetic and an ethic, in which cooperation among hackers was achieved through their mutual desire for recognition, achieved via improvements or modifications to each other's programming code' (Wark 2006: 320). Eric Raymond referred to the hacker culture as 'a shared culture, of expert programmers and networking wizards that traces its history back ... to the first time-sharing minicomputers and the earliest ARPANET experiments' (Raymond 1999: 231). Authors such as Levy (1994), Himanen (2001) and Castells (2001) have described hacking in this relatively benign sense as critical to the information age; contemporary manifestations of hacking in this form include the open source software movement, the free software movement and the Creative Commons movement, and it continues to exist 'as something like a craft sense of what programming as a kind of labour ought to be' (Wark 2006: 321).
黑客攻击在第一义--更积极的意义上被视为互联网发展的核心。20 世纪 60 年代末,黑客诞生于麻省理工学院(MIT)和斯坦福大学等美国精英大学的计算机实验室,"黑客既是一种美学,也是一种道德,黑客之间的合作是通过改进或修改彼此的程序代码来实现的,他们都希望得到认可"(Wark,2006 年:320)。埃里克-雷蒙德(Eric Raymond)将黑客文化称为 "程序员专家和网络奇才的共享文化,其历史可追溯到......第一台分时微型计算机和最早的 ARPANET 实验"(Raymond 1999: 231)。Levy(1994 年)、Himanen(2001 年)和 Castells(2001 年)等作家将这种相对良性的黑客行为描述为信息时代的关键;这种形式的黑客行为在当代的表现形式包括开放源码软件运动、自由软件运动和知识共享运动,而且它继续 "作为编程作为一种劳动应该具有的工艺意识 "而存在(Wark 2006: 321)。
Hacking in the second sense has been a major issue of public contention since the hacker crackdown of the early 1990s (Sterling 1993), and continues to be at the core of concerns about privacy and surveillance and computer security. In recent times, the most famous instance of hacking in this second sense was the release by the WikiLeaks organisation of over 400,000 diplomatic cables from US embassies and consulates around the world in December 2010, from material released bythe US soldier turned whistleblower Bradley Manning. Whether the actions of WikiLeaks and its founder, Julian Assange, constituted a serious breach of national security, or was a new commitment to transparency and democratic ideals in an age of information control, remains a subject of ongoing argument (Flew and Liu 2011; Andrejevic 2013).
自 20 世纪 90 年代初的黑客攻击事件(Sterling,1993 年)以来,第二种意义上的黑客攻击一直是公众争论的主要问题,并继续成为隐私、监控和计算机安全问题的核心。近来,第二种意义上的黑客行为最著名的例子是维基解密组织于 2010 年 12 月发布的来自美国驻世界各地使领馆的 40 多万份外交电报,这些电报是由美国士兵变身告密者布拉德利-曼宁(Bradley Manning)发布的。维基解密及其创始人朱利安-阿桑奇(Julian Assange)的行为是否构成对国家安全的严重破坏,还是在信息控制时代对透明度和民主理想的新承诺,仍是一个争论不休的话题(Flew 和 Liu,2011 年;Andrejevic,2013 年)。

10: INTERACTIVITY 10: 互动性

One of the most widely touted features of new media has been the scope for interactivity, defined as 'the active participation of a beneficiary in an information transaction' (Levy 2001: 61). Given that no recipient of a message in a communication process is simply the passive receiver of information-as observed in the 'active audience' tradition of media and cultural studies (Fiske 1987)-there is a continuum of degrees of interactivity, based upon such variables as the ability to personalise the message received, the reciprocity of communication and the extent to which interaction is enabled in real time (Levy 2001: 64-67).
新媒体最广为人知的特点之一就是互动性,互动性被定义为 "受益人积极参与信息交 易"(Levy 2001: 61)。正如媒体和文化研究中的 "积极受众 "传统(Fiske,1987 年)所指出的那样,在传播过程中,任何信息的接收者都不是简单的被动信息接收者,因此,互动程度是一个连续的统一体,它取决于接收信息的个性化能力、传播的互惠性以及实时互动的实现程度等变量(Levy,2001 年:64-67)。
There are clearly different levels of interactivity, as well as different assessments of its broader socio-cultural impact. Klaus Bruhn Jensen (2010: 83-5) argued that there were three layers of interactivity:
互动性显然有不同的层次,对其更广泛的社会文化影响也有不同的评估。克劳斯-布鲁恩-詹森(Klaus Bruhn Jensen)(2010: 83-5)认为互动性分为三个层次:
1 interactivity with the medium itself, as with hyperlinking to other Web sites
1 与媒体本身的互动性,如与其他网站的超链接
2 interactivity with other users through the medium, as on social media sites and online discussion forums
2 通过社交媒体网站和在线论坛等媒介与其他用户进行互动

3 interactivity as engagement with social institutions, as when the medium is used for deliberative purposes.
3 互动是对社会机构的参与,就像当媒介被用于审议目的时一样。
This tripartite distinction echoes the distinction made by McMillan (2005: 211-12) between feedback and dialogic modes of interaction, based upon the ability of the user to actively shape the communicative engagement.
这种三方区分与麦克米伦(2005:211-12)对反馈式和对话式互动模式所做的区分相呼应,后者的基础是用户主动塑造交流参与的能力。
Interactivity has often been presented as a feature of new media that distinguishes them from old media by enabling participation, whereas other media could offer only passive consumption. Tim Berners-Lee saw the concept of interactivity as it had developed on the internet by the late 1990 s as too restrictive, since it focused on the ability to access and choose content that had been published by others, and not on the capacity to create and distribute new content. Berners-Lee (2000: 183) argued instead that the Web needed to be about intercreativity, or 'the process of making things or solving problems together. If interactivity is not just sitting there passively in front of a display screen, then intercreativity is not just sitting there in front of something "interactive".'
互动性常常被认为是新媒体的一个特点,它使人们能够参与,而其他媒体只能提供被动的消 费,从而使新媒体有别于旧媒体。蒂姆-伯纳斯-李(Tim Berners-Lee)认为,20 世纪 90 年代末在互联网上发展起来的交互性概念限制性太强,因为它只关注访问和选择他人发布内容的能力,而不关注创造和发布新内容的能力。伯纳斯-李(Berners-Lee,2000:183)认为,网络需要的是跨创造性,或者说是 "共同创造事物或解决问题的过程"。如果说互动性不仅仅是被动地坐在显示屏前,那么跨创造性也不仅仅是坐在 "互动 "的东西前。

11: THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY
11:知识经济

The claim that the twenty-first century is marked by the rise of the knowledge economy points to the increasingly important role played by information, technology and learning in wealth creation and economic competitiveness. The observation of three related trends lies behind this argument:
二十一世纪的标志是知识经济的崛起,这一说法表明,信息、技术和学习在创造财富 和提高经济竞争力方面发挥着越来越重要的作用。这一论点的背后有三个相关的趋势:
1 First is the structural shift in employment from agriculture and industry towards the services and information sectors. Castells and Aoyama (1994) found that the proportion of the population involved in the handling of information, as distinct from the handling of goods, grew by 80 per cent in the US between 1920 and 1990.
1 首先是就业结构从农业和工业向服务业和信息部门转移。Castells 和 Aoyama(1994 年)发现,1920-1990 年间,美国从事信息处理(有别于货物处理)的人口比例增长了 80%。
2 Second is the ways in which new media and ICTs greatly accelerate the production of new knowledge by enhancing access to existing knowledge through digital networks, promoting online interaction between designers, producers and users, and dramatically increasing the speed with which new knowledge can be disseminated into the public domain. In these ways, they promote both the creation of new knowledge and more rapid dissemination and pooling of collective intelligence across all knowledge domains.
2 第二,新媒体和信息与传播技术通过数字网络加强对现有知识的获取,促进设计者、 生产者和使用者之间的在线互动,并大大加快新知识在公共领域的传播速度,从而大大加 速了新知识的生产。通过这些方式,它们既促进了新知识的创造,也促进了所有知识领域集体智慧的更快传播和汇集。
3 The third is the argument that it is now innovation, or the development of new products and services, that has become 'the sole means to survive and prosper in highly competitive and globalised economies' (David and Foray 2002: 11).
3 第三种观点认为,现在创新或开发新产品和服务已成为 "在高度竞争和全球化经济中生存和繁荣的唯一手段"(David and Foray 2002: 11)。
As knowledge is not synonymous with information, this presents the question of how to promote individual creativity and foster knowledge networks among people within and outside organisations, since the evidence on knowledge creation and knowledge transfer indicates that 'there are advantages to working together, however well people may be connected by technology' (Brown and Duguid 2000: 146). One consequence of the increasingly interactive and networked nature of digital media environments is the rise of user-led innovation, as users of online products and services are not simply consumers, but are also innovators in their own right.
由于知识并不等同于信息,这就提出了一个问题,即如何促进个人的创造力,以及如何在组织内外的人们之间建立知识网络,因为有关知识创造和知识转移的证据表明,"无论人们之间的技术联系有多好,合作都是有好处的"(Brown and Duguid 2000: 146)。数字媒体环境的互动性和网络化日益增强,其后果之一就是用户主导型创新的兴起,因为在线产品和服务的用户不仅仅是消费者,他们本身也是创新者。

12: MOBILE MEDIA 12: 移动媒体

The mobile phone is the most globally distributed ICT device. In 2011, the International Telecommunications Union estimated that there were 5.981 billion mobile phone subscribers in the world, which would account for about 86.7 per cent of the world population. This is over five times the number of people with a fixed line telephone connection, as shown in Table 2.1. In Africa, almost forty times as many people subscribe to a mobile phone service as have a fixed line telephone.
移动电话是全球分布最广的信息和通信技术设备。据国际电信联盟估计,2011 年全球移动电话用户达 59.81 亿,约占世界人口的 86.7%。如表 2.1 所示,这一数字是拥有固定电话连接人数的五倍多。在非洲,移动电话用户几乎是固定电话用户的 40 倍。
Importantly, the mobile phone has proven to be very much a phenomenon of the developing world, where almost 80 per cent of the population now has a mobile phone subscription. It has
重要的是,事实证明,移动电话在很大程度上是发展中世界的一种现象,那里几乎 80% 的人口现在都订有移动电话。它已经
TABLE 2.1 KEY GLOBAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDICATORS, 2011
表 2.1 2011 年全球主要电信指标
Gtobal
Developed
nations
Developing
nations
Africa
Arab
states
Asia
and the
Pacific
CIS Europe
The
Americas
Mobile
cellular
subscrip-
tions
(millions)
5,981 1,461 4,520 433 349 2,897 399 741 969
Per 100
people
|86.7 |117.8 78.8 53.0 96.7 73.9 143.0 119.5 |103.3
Fixed
tele-
phone
lines
(millions)
1,159 494 665 12 35 511 74 |242 268
Per 100
people
|16.6 39.8 |11.6 1.4 9.7 13.0 26.3 |39.1 28.5
Active
mobile
broad-
band
subscrip-
tions
(millions)
1,186 701 484 31 48 421 42 336 286
Per 100
people
17.0 56.5 8.5 3.8 13.3 10.7 14.9 54.1 30.5
Fixed
broad-
band
subscrip-
tions
(millions)
319 272 1 8 243 27 160 145
Per 100
people
8.5 25.7 4.8 0.2 2.2 6.2 9.6 25.8 15.5
All figures are estimates. Source: mobiThinking 2013 been noted that China and India alone account for 30 per cent of the world's mobile phone users; the countries with over 100 million mobile phone users in 2011 included Indonesia, Brazil, Russia, Pakistan and Nigeria, as well as the US, Japan and Germany (mobiThinking 2013).
所有数字均为估计值。资料来源:mobiThinking 2013 据悉,仅中国和印度就占全球移动电话用户的 30%;2011 年移动电话用户超过 1 亿的国家包括印度尼西亚、巴西、俄罗斯、巴基斯坦和尼日利亚,以及美国、日本和德国(mobiThinking 2013)。
Until relatively recently, mobile phones were thought of as a form of telecommunications, used primarily for the carriage of voice and, more recently, text messages. As Gerard Goggin and Larissa Hjorth (2009) observe, however, mobiles have become media in the fullest sense of the term, used for music, video, photography, games, internet access and much more besides, as they became smartphones. They observe that mobile phones as media acquired qualities more akin to the Swiss army knife, used for user-created content as well as devices for accessing media content, and symbolising 'a democratisation of media, affording the everyday user with the ability to become a photojournalist or micromovie filmmaker' (Goggin and Hjorth 2009: 7).
直到最近,移动电话一直被认为是一种电信形式,主要用于传输语音,最近还用于传输文本信息。然而,正如杰拉德-戈金(Gerard Goggin)和拉丽莎-赫约斯(Larissa Hjorth)(2009 年)所指出的那样,随着手机成为智能手机,手机已成为最全面意义上的媒体,可用于音乐、视频、摄影、游戏、互联网接入以及更多其他用途。他们认为,手机作为媒体的特性更类似于瑞士军刀,既可用于用户创作内容,也可作为访问媒体内容的设备,象征着 "媒体的民主化,使日常用户有能力成为摄影记者或微电影制片人"(Goggin and Hjorth 2009: 7)。
The rise of tablet devices such as the Apple iPad, the Samsung Galaxy Plus and others added further layers to mobile media, as it meant that the line between computing and telecommunications devices, which had become blurred with smartphones and wireless networks, was all but disappearing. Mobility has now become the norm for computing, further intensifying the strong tendencies towards convergence of media devices, platforms and content, and ubiquitous computing (Hjorth, Burgess and Richardson 2012).
苹果 iPad、三星 Galaxy Plus 等平板设备的崛起进一步丰富了移动媒体的内涵,因为这意味着计算设备与电信设备之间的界限正在消失,而这一界限随着智能手机和 无线网络的出现已变得模糊不清。移动性现已成为计算的常态,进一步加剧了媒体设备、平台和内容以及泛在计算融合的强烈趋势(Hjorth、Burgess 和 Richardson,2012 年)。

13: NETWORKS 13: 网络

The centrality of networks and networking to new media needs to be understood at three levels. First, the internet is itself a technical network, or a global network of networks. At the core of its physical infrastructure are the wires, cables, wireless transmission systems and so on that provide the capacity to carry large amounts of information between a series of interconnected points. The internet has exceeded the possibilities of earlier networked communications systems, such as the telephone system, as a result of its matrix structure, where all senders and receivers are interconnected through a sub-network of routing systems or servers that distribute messages as a series of packets, regardless of the initial representational form encoded by the signal and decoded by the end user.
网络和联网对新媒体的核心作用需要从三个层面来理解。首先,互联网本身就是一个技术网络,或者说是一个全球网络。其物理基础设施的核心是电线、电缆、无线传输系统等,它们提供了在一系列相互连接的点之间传输大量信息的能力。互联网的矩阵结构超越了早期的网络通信系统(如电话系统),在矩阵结构中,所有发送方和接收方都通过路由系统或服务器的子网络相互连接,这些子网络以一系列数据包的形式分发信息,而不管信号编码和终端用户解码的初始表示形式如何。
Second is the importance of social networks, understood in social network analysis as emphasising the interdependent and relational nature of links between people and institutions, and their importance in managing resource flows, providing opportunities, presenting constraints and maintaining durable forms of social infrastructure (Thompson 2003). Platforms such as Facebook and Google+ provide our clearest contemporary images of what social network are, but the concept has a longer history in social theory. Social network analysis is a methodology used in the social sciences to map interpersonal linkages by using statistical and graphical techniques, focusing upon the interdependencies that exist among agents and the role played by relational ties in facilitating the flow of resources, and how resulting network structures demonstrate durable relationships (Wasserman and Faust 1994).
其次是社会网络的重要性,在社会网络分析中,社会网络被理解为强调人与机构之间联系的相互依存性和关系性,以及它们在管理资源流动、提供机会、形成制约和维持持久的社会基础设施方面的重要性(汤普森,2003 年)。Facebook 和 Google+ 等平台为我们提供了当代最清晰的社会网络形象,但这一概念在社会理论中的历史更为悠久。社会网络分析是社会科学中使用的一种方法,通过使用统计和图形技术来绘制人际联系图,重点关注行为主体之间存在的相互依存关系、关系纽带在促进资源流动方面发挥的作用,以及由此产生的网络结构如何展示持久的关系(Wasserman 和 Faust,1994 年)。
The third level is that of socio-technical networks. In the work of Manuel Castells in particular, networks 'constitute the new social morphology of our societies' (Castells 1996:
第三个层面是社会技术网络。特别是在曼努埃尔-卡斯特尔斯的著作中,网络 "构成了我们社会新的社会形态"(卡斯特尔斯,1996 年:
469), to the point where the network society is 'the social structure characteristic of the Information Age' (Castells 2000b: 5). Castells views the technological revolution associated with the internet and networked ICTs and the social transformation to a global informational economy based around networks as fundamentally linked, since it has only been with the technological advances associated with new media that networks have had the capacity to operate at a scale, speed and level of complexity that have enabled them to become the dominant mode of social organisation. In particular, networked forms of organisation are seen as being the central drivers of processes of globalisation at the economic, geopolitical and cultural levels, and in terms of media use and identity formation (Castells 2001).
469),以至于网络社会成为 "信息时代特有的社会结构"(Castells 2000b: 5)。卡斯特尔斯认为,与互联网和网络化信息通信技术相关的技术革命,以及向以网络为基础的全球信息经济的社会转型,两者之间有着根本的联系,因为只有随着与新媒体相关的技术进步,网络才有能力以一定的规模、速度和复杂程度运作,从而成为社会组织的主导模式。特别是,网络化的组织形式被认为是经济、地缘政治和文化层面全球化进程的核心驱动力,也是媒体使用和身份形成的核心驱动力(Castells,2001 年)。

14: PARTICIPATION 14:参与

In the new media literature, participation is a concept used in three ways. First, in the context of the digital divide, it refers to inequalities in access to new media and the opportunity to use ICTs to participate as a user, worker, citizen or consumer. At a global level, it refers to the difficulties faced by developing countries in being involved in decision making concerning the development of ICTs in the context of globalisation, as reflected at international forums such as the World Summit on the Information Society (International Telecommunications Union 2013).
在新媒体文献中,参与这一概念有三种用法。首先,在数字鸿沟的背景下,它指的是在获取新媒体和利用信息与传播技术作为用户、工人、公民或消费者参与的机会方面存在的不平等。在全球层面,它指的是发展中国家在全球化背景下参与有关信息与传播技术发展的决策时所面临的困难,信息社会世界峰会等国际论坛就反映了这一点(国际电信联盟,2013 年)。
The second use identifies the distinctive properties of new media that enable a greater degree of interactivity than traditional communications technologies, by virtue of being more open to dialogic communication (McMillan 2005), authors such as Tim Berners-Lee (2000) were critical of claims that interactivity was synonymous with participation. At the user level, Ross Mayfield (2006) has developed the power law of participation, observing that the model of collective intelligence associated with Web 2.0 is not necessarily at the high end of potential user engagement with different forms of online media.
第二种用途确定了新媒体的独特属性,即与传统通信技术相比,新媒体具有更强的互动性,因为新媒体对对话交流更加开放(McMillan,2005 年),蒂姆-伯纳斯-李(Tim Berners-Lee,2000 年)等作者对互动性等同于参与的说法提出了批评。在用户层面,罗斯-梅菲尔德(Ross Mayfield,2006 年)提出了 "参与幂律",认为与 Web 2.0 相关的集体智慧模式并不一定是用户参与不同形式在线媒体的最高潜能。
The third use of the term concerns the question of whether the participatory culture that is promoted by new media (Jenkins 2006a; Jenkins 2006b; Bruns 2008) is connected to
该词的第三个用法涉及新媒体(Jenkins,2006a;Jenkins,2006b;Bruns,2008 年)所倡导的参与文化是否与以下问题有关
FIGURE 2.2 POWER LAW OF PARTICIPATION
图 2.2 参与的幂律
wider processes of democratisation of media access and use, particularly with the enhanced scope to produce and distribute user-created content. John Hartley has proposed that in the contemporary internet environment 'the structural asymmetry between producers and consumers, experts and amateurs, writers and readers has begun to rebalance. In principle (if not yet in practice), everyone can publish as well as "read" mass media' (Hartley 2012: 25).
更广泛的媒体获取和使用民主化进程,特别是随着用户创作内容的制作和传播范围的扩大。约翰-哈特利提出,在当代互联网环境中,"生产者与消费者、专家与业余爱好者、作者与读者之间的结构性不对称已开始重新平衡。原则上(如果尚未付诸实践的话),每个人都可以出版以及 "阅读 "大众媒体"(Hartley 2012: 25)。

15: PIRACY 15: 海盗

Historically, piracy referred to the capturing and looting of ships at sea, when pirate crews would take the goods on board and claim the wealth for themselves. Piracy of that sort, which has existed for many centuries, has mostly disappeared-although there have been highprofile cases around the Persian Gulf and the Horn of Africa. The term is typically used today in relation to the illegal copying of digital content. Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite (2002) note that reference to such use of copyrighted materials as piracy was a rhetorical strategy adopted by US software, media and entertainment corporations in the 1980s and 1990s, and typically referred to content being copied in Asia, which was beginning to challenge the US for economic supremacy in this period. The passing of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) in 1994, and the globalisation of intellectual property laws and their enforcement, was justified in part as a necessary international response to the threat of intellectual property piracy.
在历史上,海盗指的是在海上劫持和掠夺船只,海盗船员将船上的货物据为己有。尽管波斯湾和非洲之角一带曾发生过引人注目的海盗案件,但这种存在了许多世纪的海盗行为大多已销声匿迹。如今,这个词通常用于非法复制数字内容。Peter Drahos 和 John Braithwaite(2002 年)指出,将这种使用受版权保护材料的行为称为盗版是美国软件、媒体和娱乐公司在 20 世纪 80 年代和 90 年代采取的一种修辞策略,通常指在亚洲复制的内容,而亚洲在这一时期开始挑战美国的经济霸主地位。1994 年《与贸易有关的知识产权协议》(TRIPS)的通过,以及知识产权法律及其执行的全球化,在一定程度上被认为是对知识产权盗版威胁的必要国际回应。
As the term clearly implies, IP piracy is most commonly viewed as theft, akin to stealing other forms of property such as goods from shops or someone's car. As Ramon Lobato (2012: 72) observes, this interpretation of the need for IP protection from illegal copying, which is viewed as an act of social and economic deviance, is consistent with strategies advocating the strong defence of intellectual property rights through law enforcement and public education. It is, however, only one of a number of views of piracy.
正如该词的明确含义,知识产权盗版通常被视为偷窃行为,类似于偷窃其他形式的财产,如商店里的商品或他人的汽车。正如拉蒙-洛巴托(Ramon Lobato)(2012: 72)所指出的,这种对需要保护知识产权免遭非法复制的解释,与主张通过执法和公共教育有力捍卫知识产权的战略是一致的,因为非法复制被视为一种社会和经济偏差行为。然而,这只是对盗版的众多看法之一。
For some internet activists, such as the global Pirate Party movement, IP piracy is a legitimate expression of popular resistance to the locking up of digital content by corporations that should, as a matter of principle, be available for sharing among user communities. Such a view of piracy as resistance to corporate control of digital content has echoes in the hacker culture and its critique of proprietary forms of software. Internationally, the existence of content piracy, as seen with the proliferation of illegally copied DVDs throughout much of the developing world, is also seen by some as an economically rational response to the pricing of such products in global markets, where they are made legally available only at prices that are out of reach to most people in the developing world (Lobato 2012: 80-5).
对于一些互联网活动家,如全球海盗党运动,知识产权盗版是民众抵制企业锁闭数字内容的合法表现,而这些内容原则上应供用户社区共享。这种将盗版视为抵制企业对数字内容控制的观点与黑客文化及其对专有软件形式的批判不谋而合。在国际上,盗版内容的存在(如非法复制的 DVD 在发展中世界大部分地区的泛滥)也被一些人视为对全球市场上此类产品定价的经济理性回应,因为在全球市场上,这些产品的合法售价是发展中世界大多数人无法承受的(Lobato 2012: 80-5)。

16: PRIVACY AND SURVEILLANCE
16:隐私与监控

The internet has generated a plethora of new personal privacy and security issues, for individuals and businesses, which range from email spamming, computer virus proliferation and online harassment, to forms of cyber-fraud and identity theft. The fact that the enactment of new laws nearly always lags behind new issues related to information security has meant
互联网为个人和企业带来了大量新的个人隐私和安全问题,从电子邮件垃圾邮件、计算机病毒扩散和在线骚扰,到各种形式的网络欺诈和身份盗窃,不一而足。新法律的颁布几乎总是滞后于与信息安全有关的新问题,这意味着

that the ICT industry itself has frequently taken the lead in developing technological solutions to such problems, raising further issues about democratic participation, corporate uses of personal information and the scope for new forms of surveillance.
还注意到信息和传播技术产业本身经常带头开发解决这些问题的技术方案,从而引发了更多有关民主参与、企业使用个人信息和新形式监控范围的问题。
The risks may come from those engaged in cybercrime, described officially as 'the growing array of state and non-state actors who are compromising, stealing, changing or destroying information and therefore potentially causing critical disruptions to ... systems' (Commonwealth of Australia 2009:v). But the concern may be about activities by corporations and governments themselves, which, while strictly legal, may well be felt by individuals to be a threat to their personal privacy were they fully aware of what was occurring.
这些风险可能来自那些从事网络犯罪的人,官方将其描述为 "越来越多的国家和非国家行为者破坏、窃取、更改或销毁信息,从而可能对......系统造成严重破坏"(澳大利亚联邦,2009:v)。但人们关注的可能是公司和政府本身的活动,虽然这些活动严格合法,但如果个人完全了解正在发生的事情,他们很可能会认为这些活动威胁到他们的个人隐私。
Mills (2008: 13) has argued that 'today's society is more intrusive than at any time in modern history'. All four spheres of privacy-the personal freedom to make decisions, control over personal information, the right to control property and the control of personal-physical space-are challenged by governments and corporations in a growing variety of ways, enabled by digital technologies. The area with the least legal protection is control over personal information, and it is the sphere where privacy rights are being eroded by the uses of digital technologies. Many electronic transactions, such as getting a personal loan or a credit card, or making an online purchase, require the disclosure of personal information. Individuals cannot be fully aware of how such data can be aggregated through techniques such as data mining and strategies such as consumer profiling, so that the information is 'easier to collect, easier to collate and file, and easier to disseminate' (Mills 2008: 15).
米尔斯(2008:13)认为,"当今社会比现代史上任何时期都更具侵扰性"。在数字技术的推动下,所有四个隐私领域--个人决策自由、对个人信息的控制、对财产的控制权以及对个人物理空间的控制--都受到了政府和企业越来越多的挑战。法律保护最少的领域是对个人信息的控制,这也是隐私权因数字技术的使用而受到侵蚀的领域。许多电子交易,如办理个人贷款或信用卡,或网上购物,都需要披露个人信息。个人不可能完全了解这些数据是如何通过数据挖掘等技术和消费者特征描述等策略被汇总的,从而使信息 "更容易收集,更容易整理和归档,也更容易传播"(米尔斯,2008:15)。
Web 2.0 platforms such as Facebook encourage individuals to self-disclose a variety of forms of information about themselves that can then be used for other purposes, which individuals may not themselves approve of. Christian Fuchs has referred to 'dataveillance', or surveillance through access to user data, where:
Facebook 等 Web 2.0 平台鼓励个人以各种形式披露自己的信息,这些信息可能会被用于其他目的,而这些目的可能并不为个人所认可。克里斯蒂安-福克斯(Christian Fuchs)提到了 "数据监控"(dataveillance),即通过访问用户数据进行监控,其中包括:
Targeted advertising concerns the large mass of users of commercial web 2.0 platforms because by agreeing to terms of use they agree in most cases to the surveillance of their personal data and usage behaviour ... this surveillance is fine-tuned in order to detect and store the individual differences and to target each user with a separate mass of advertising. Web 2.0 surveillance is a form of personal mass surveillance (Fuchs 2012: 48).
有针对性的广告涉及到商业 Web 2.0 平台的大量用户,因为在大多数情况下,同意使用条款就意味着同意对其个人数据和使用行为进行监控......这种监控是经过微调的,目的是检测和存储个体差异,并针对每个用户单独投放大量广告。Web 2.0监控是个人大规模监控的一种形式(福克斯,2012:48)。
The writer J. D. Lasica observed that 'today, our pasts have become etched like a tattoo into our digital skin' (quoted in Mills 2008: 21).
作家 J. D. Lasica 指出,"今天,我们的过去已像纹身一样刻在我们的数字皮肤上"(引自 Mills 2008: 21)。
David Lyon (2002) has argued that a combination of interconnected digital technologies, from the cookies left on personal computers by web browsers to closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs) in various urban spaces, have led to the rise of a surveillance society. Lyon (2002: 5-8) identifies the four key elements of surveillance society as being:
David Lyon (2002) 认为,从网络浏览器在个人电脑上留下的 cookies 到各种城市空间的闭路电视 (CCTV),这些相互关联的数字技术的结合导致了监控社会的兴起。Lyon (2002: 5-8) 指出监控社会的四个关键要素是:
1 the growing use of ICTs to mark and locate where people are at particular times in order to better coordinate activities
1 越来越多地使用信息和传播技术来标记和定位人们在特定时间的位置,以便更好地协调活动
2 the management of risk of various forms, from the comparatively low level-welfare fraud, shoplifting, street crime-to the risks associated with large-scale terrorist actions
2 对各种形式的风险进行管理,从相对较低的风险--福利欺诈、商店行窃、街头犯罪--到与大规模恐怖行动相关的风险
3 the balance between personal privacy and the use of personal information by various sources, from governments to insurance agencies and marketers
3 个人隐私与从政府到保险机构和营销人员等各种来源对个人信息的使用之间的平衡

4 the questions of power associated with who has access to such information, and whose information is accessed, or who watches and who is watched.
4 与权力有关的问题:谁能获取这些信息,谁的信息被获取,或谁监视谁,谁被监视。
As Lyon notes, one of the great paradoxes of the use of ICTs to address security concerns is that 'the applications of technology to risk management in the social sphere may themselves be read as a risk' (2002: 7).
正如 Lyon 所指出的,利用信息与传播技术解决安全问题的一个最大悖论是,"在社会领域应用技术进行风险管理本身就可能被解读为一种风险"(2002: 7)。

17: REMEDIATION 17:补救

Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin (2000) proposed remediation as a way of thinking about the relationship between media forms, and the relationship that new media has to old media. Arguing that the relationship between media forms is a 'genealogy of affiliations' rather than a 'linear history', they proposed that 'no medium ... can now function independently and establish its own separate and purified space of cultural meaning' (Bolter and Grusin 2000: 55). In other words, no matter how new media are, they are always constituted, both in form and in content, by other already existing media.
杰伊-戴维-博尔特和理查德-格鲁辛(2000 年)提出了 "补救"(remediation)一词,以此来思考媒体形式之间的关系,以及新媒体与旧媒体之间的关系。他们认为,媒体形式之间的关系是一种 "隶属关系谱系",而不是 "线性历史",并提出 "没有一种媒体......现在可以独立运作,建立自己独立的、纯粹的文化意义空间"(Bolter and Grusin 2000: 55)。换句话说,无论新媒体的形式和内容如何,它们总是由其他已有媒体构成的。
Their argument draws upon the earlier insight of Marshall McLuhan (1964) that our earliest experiences of any new medium are conditioned by those media with which we are already familiar. Early photographs sought to look like paintings, early television was watched in darkened rooms to replicate the cinema experience and computer-generated imagery sought to achieve realism-that is, to look like film. McLuhan termed this 'rearviewmirrorism', and John Hartley (2011: 224) identified one of its implications as being that 'new media must establish its credentials in terms that are already familiar to producers and consumers. Only later can they be exploited for their own potential.'
他们的论点借鉴了马歇尔-麦克卢汉(Marshall McLuhan,1964 年)早先的见解,即我们对任何新媒体的最初体验都受我们已经熟悉的媒体的制约。早期的照片力求看起来像绘画,早期的电视是在昏暗的房间里观看的,以复制电影院的体验,而计算机生成的图像则力求逼真,即看起来像电影。麦克卢汉将此称为 "后视镜主义",约翰-哈特利(2011: 224)认为其含义之一是 "新媒体必须用生产者和消费者已经熟悉的术语来建立自己的信誉。只有在此之后,它们才能发挥自身的潜力"。
Bolter and Grusin observed two apparently contradictory features of digital media design and new media content. First, there was the desire to establish immediacy in the relationship between the user and the content, to generate a sense of being there that could efface the extent to which this interaction was technologically mediated in order to enhance its realism and immediacy. Second, there was the extent to which digital media content was generated by the combination and collage of already existing media content being reassembled in the digitally networked environment. Online news media sites, for instance, repurpose the content of newspapers and television news bulletins, while gradually evolving their own modes of digital storytelling.
博尔特和格鲁辛注意到数字媒体设计和新媒体内容有两个明显相互矛盾的特点。首先,他们希望在用户与内容之间建立起直接的关系,产生一种身临其境的感觉,这种感觉可以消除这种互动的技术中介程度,以增强其真实性和直接性。其次,数字媒体内容是通过在数字网络环境中重新组合和拼贴已有的媒体内容而产生的。例如,在线新闻媒体网站重新利用报纸和电视新闻的内容,同时逐渐发展出自己的数字叙事模式。
The relationship between media forms thus becomes mutually reinforcing. Devices such as webcams offer an immediacy of access to others through computers, but reality television genres and programs such as Big Brother adapted this immediacy for the television environment, enabling the immediate behaviour of others to be consumed at a distance by television viewers. The result is that convergence does not imply the replacement of some media by others; nor does it point to a single media device through which all content can be accessed. Rather, Bolter and Grusin argue that 'in our heterogeneous culture, no one technology is likely to eliminate the others ... convergence means greater diversity for digital technologies in our culture (2000: 225 ).
因此,媒体形式之间的关系变得相辅相成。网络摄像头等设备提供了通过电脑访问他人的即时性,但电视真人秀类型和节目(如《老大哥》)则将这种即时性调整到了电视环境中,使电视观众能够远距离消费他人的即时行为。其结果是,融合并不意味着用其他媒体取代某些媒体,也不意味着只有一种媒体设备可以获取所有内容。相反,博尔特和格鲁辛认为,"在我们的异质文化中,没有一种技术可能取代其他技术......融合意味着数字技术在我们的文化中更加多样化(2000:225)。

18: UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING
18:泛在计算

Ubiquitous computing is 'a method of enhancing computer use and efficiency by making multiple computers availablethroughout a physical environment while having them essentially invisible to the user' (West 2011: 175). Originally arising out of a research program led by Marc Weiser at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC), the promise of ubiquitous computing has been that of 'computing without computers', as computational capacities migrate to myriad objects that have become sites for the sensing and processing of information, and where 'computation would flourish, becoming intimately intertwined with the stuff of everyday life' (Greenfield 2006: 11).
无处不在的计算是 "一种通过在物理环境中提供多台计算机来提高计算机使用率和效率的方法,而用户基本上看不到这些计算机"(West,2011 年:175)。无处不在的计算最初源于施乐公司帕洛阿尔托研究中心(PARC)的马克-韦泽领导的一项研究计划,其承诺是 "没有计算机的计算",因为计算能力迁移到无数物体上,这些物体已成为感知和处理信息的场所,"计算将在这里蓬勃发展,与日常生活紧密结合"(格林菲尔德,2006 年:11)。
The proliferation of digital devices, the density and interconnectedness of networks, and both the multiplicity of forms of use and the routine nature of uses of the internet have seen new media embedded in all aspects of everyday life. Understandings of how we access the internet have migrated from its exclusive association with computers, understood as devices with screens that sat on desks, towards a diverse and growing array of mobile media. These digital devices have enabled users to have access to information and communication services in ways that maximise speed and mobility.
数字设备的激增、网络的密度和互联性,以及互联网使用形式的多样性和使用的日常性,都使新媒体融入了日常生活的方方面面。我们对上网方式的理解已经从只与电脑联系在一起--电脑被理解为放在桌子上的带屏幕的设备--转变为多样化的、日益增长的移动媒体。这些数字设备使用户能够以最快的速度和最大的流动性获取信息和通信服务。
Mobile media is not the same as ubiquitous computing, as internet-enabled portable devices are not themselves context-aware. The aim of ubiquitous computing is not to integrate the computer into the user's environment, but rather 'to integrate the user into its computermade environment' (West 2011: 175). A familiar example is that of the microwave oven, which has always essentially been a computer used for the purpose of cooking food, but is designed to appeal to consumers more as a food preparation device, hiding its computational capacities in a different skin. Similar observations can be made about cars, aeroplanes and a vast range of increasingly computationally driven products and devices.
移动媒体不等同于泛在计算,因为支持互联网的便携式设备本身并不具备情境感知能力。泛在计算的目的不是将计算机整合到用户的环境中,而是 "将用户整合到计算机创造的环境中"(West,2011:175)。一个熟悉的例子是微波炉,它本质上一直是一台用于烹饪食物的计算机,但在设计上却更多地将其作为食物准备设备来吸引消费者,将其计算能力隐藏在不同的表皮之下。对于汽车、飞机以及大量日益由计算驱动的产品和设备,我们也可以提出类似的看法。
Parallels to ubiquitous computing can be found in Donald Norman's (1998) work on the invisible computer, which drew attention to the centrality of design and usability in the appeal of new technologies to consumers, and the Internet of Things. The Internet of Things refers to 'the transition of the physical world-objects, devices and machines-into an information system ... [where] all physical objects will soon be linked through networks that connect to the Internet, enabling information to flow between devices and computers' (Ngo and Zuniga 2013).
唐纳德-诺曼(Donald Norman,1998 年)关于 "无形计算机 "的研究与泛在计算有相似之处,后者提请人们注意设计和可用性在新技术吸引消费者方面的核心作用,而物联网也是如此。物联网指的是 "物理世界--物体、设备和机器--向信息系统的过渡......[其中]所有物理物体将很快通过网络连接到互联网,使信息在设备和计算机之间流动"(Ngo 和 Zuniga,2013 年)。

19: USER-CREATED CONTENT/ USER-LED INNOVATION
19:用户创造的内容/用户主导的创新

User-created content (UCC) is a term used to refer to sites such as blogs, practices such as citizen journalism, and platforms such as YouTube, where users are empowered to become creators and distributors'of digital content, and to be open to interaction with and feedback from others. The rise of user-created content is associated with media convergence and a shift in the status of those engaged online from audiences to active participants in their media environments.
用户创作内容(UCC)是一个术语,指博客等网站、公民新闻等实践以及 YouTube 等平台,在这些平台上,用户有权成为数字内容的创作者和传播者,并接受与他人的互动和反馈。用户创作内容的兴起与媒体融合以及上网者的地位从受众转变为媒体环境的积极参与者有关。
The rise of user-created content is associated with broader trends away from a twentiethcentury mass communications model, characterised by large-scale distribution, media content largely produced and distributed by media professionals, and a clear distinction between media producers and consumers, towards convergent social media, characterised by dramatically reduced barriers to user participation through easy-to-use Web 2.0 technologies and the resultant blurring of distinctions between producers and consumers. Bruns (2008) has referred to this as the rise of the 'prod-user', who is both a user and a creator of online content, while Charles Leadbeater and Paul Miller (2004) associated user-created content with a wider 'pro-am revolution', in which the tools of content creation become cheaper and simpler to use, thereby blurring distinctions between amateurs and experts.
用户创作内容的兴起与更广泛的趋势有关,即从以大规模传播、媒体内容主要由媒体专业人员制作和传播、媒体生产者和消费者之间区别明显为特征的二十世纪大众传播模式,转向以通过简单易用的 Web 2.0 技术大大降低用户参与障碍、生产者和消费者之间的区别因此而变得模糊为特征的融合型社交媒体。Bruns(2008 年)将此称为 "产品用户 "的崛起,他们既是用户也是在线内容的创造者,而 Charles Leadbeater 和 Paul Miller(2004 年)则将用户创造的内容与更广泛的 "专业革命 "联系在一起,在这场革命中,内容创造的工具变得更便宜、更易于使用,从而模糊了业余爱好者与专家之间的区别。
The rise of online user-created content has been linked to what Eric von Hippel (2005) has described as user-led innovation, where 'users of products and services-both firms and individual consumers-are increasingly able to innovate for themselves' (von Hippel 2005: 1). Through digital networks in the knowledge economy, user communities can distribute, share and improve upon these innovations. Such an understanding of the online user as participant in co-production points in the direction of the open source movement in the software development realm and its championing of collective intelligence as the cornerstone of collaborative innovation (Leadbeater 2008).
在线用户创作内容的兴起与埃里克-冯-希佩尔(Eric von Hippel,2005 年)所描述的用户主导型创新有关,即 "产品和服务的用户--包括企业和个人消费者--越来越有能力为自己创新"(von Hippel,2005 年:1)。通过知识经济中的数字网络,用户社区可以传播、分享和改进这些创新。这种将在线用户视为共同生产参与者的认识,与软件开发领域的开源运动及其将集体智慧作为协作创新基石的主张不谋而合(Leadbeater,2008 年)。
Reflecting on the wider significance of such trends, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) identified user-created content as a significant disruptive force, where 'digital content innovations seem to be more based on decentralised creativity, organisational innovation and new value-added models, which favour new entrants, and less on traditional scale advantages and large start-up investments' (OECD 2008a: 11). It was also arqued that 'the Internet as a new creative outlet has altered the economics of information production, increased the democratisation of media production ... Changes in the way users produce, distribute, access and re-use information, knowledge and entertainment potentially give rise to increased user autonomy, increased participation and increased diversity' (OECD 2008a: 12).
经济合作与发展组织(OECD)对这种趋势的广泛意义进行了反思,认为用户创造的内容是一种重要的破坏性力量,"数字内容创新似乎更多地基于分散的创造力、组织创新和新的增值模式,这有利于新进入者,而不是传统的规模优势和大量的启动投资"(OECD,2008a:11)。经合组织还指出,"互联网作为一种新的创意渠道,改变了信息生产的经济学,提高了媒体生产的民主化程度......。用户生产、传播、获取和再利用信息、知识和娱乐的方式发生了变化,这可能会增强用户的自主性、参与性和多样性"(经合组织,2008a:12)。

20: WEB 2.0

Web 2.0 is a term that has been used to identify developments in internet software and platforms that enabled Web applications to move from being static and based around a push of content from producers to userswith limited interactivity, to a scenario where the engagement, participation and collaboration among users themselves generates the content. Among the platforms most commonly associated with Web 2.0 are Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, Second Life and Twitter, although the term captures a much wider range of sites worldwide.
Web 2.0 是一个术语,用来指互联网软件和平台的发展,这些发展使网络应用从静态的、以生产者向用户推送内容为基础的、互动性有限的应用,转变为用户自己参与、参与和协作生成内容的应用。最常与 Web 2.0 联系在一起的平台有维基百科、YouTube、Facebook、第二人生(Second Life)和推特(Twitter),尽管这一术语涵盖了全球范围内更广泛的网站。
Core principles of software programs and internet sites that conform to Web 2.0 principles are that they are:
符合 Web 2.0 原则的软件程序和互联网网站的核心原则是
  • many-to-many in their connectivity
    多对多的连接性
  • decentralised in terms of control
    控制权下放
  • user-focused and easy for new users to use
    以用户为中心,便于新用户使用
  • open in terms of their technology standards and their application programming interface (API)
    在技术标准和应用程序接口(API)方面具有开放性
  • relatively simple and lightweight in their design
    设计相对简单轻便
  • expected to evolve and change over time, with users participating as beta testers of new features (Musser and 0 'Reilly 2007).
    用户可以作为新功能的测试者参与其中(Musser 和 0'Reilly 2007 年)。
Macnamara (2010: 34) has observed that 'the key characteristic of web 2.0 applications is that they allow and actively encourage user contribution, interaction and even full production and distribution of user-generated content'.
Macnamara (2010: 34)指出,"web 2.0 应用程序的主要特点是允许并积极鼓励用户贡献、互动,甚至全面制作和分发用户生成的内容"。
Web 2.0 software is now so common that it seems redundant to understand the internet as anything other than what Nicholas Carr terms a 'bidirectional medium', from which 'we send messages through the network as well as receive them', and where the interactivity of the Web has 'turned it into the world's meetinghouse, where people gather to chat, gossip, argue, show off, and flirt on Facebook, Twitter ... and all sorts of other social (and sometimes anti-social) networks' (Carr 2010: 85). Reflecting on the shift in the nature of the internet as an increasingly social medium, Tim 0'Reilly and John Battelle commented:
Web 2.0 软件现在如此普遍,以至于把互联网理解为尼古拉斯-卡尔(Nicholas Carr)所说的 "双向媒介 "似乎是多余的,"我们通过网络发送信息,同时也接收信息",网络的互动性 "使其成为世界的聚会场所,人们聚集在这里聊天、闲聊、争论、炫耀,并在 Facebook、Twitter......以及其他各种社交(有时是反社交)网络上调情"(卡尔,2010 年:85)。蒂姆-0'莱利和约翰-巴特尔在反思互联网作为日益社交媒体的性质转变时评论道:
The Web is no longer a collection of static pages of HTML that describe something in the world. Increasingly, the Web is the world-everything and everyone in the world casts an 'information shadow,' an aura of data which, when captured and processed intelligently, offers extraordinary opportunity and mind-bending implications (0'Reilly and Battelle 2009: 2).
网络不再是描述世界上某些事物的静态 HTML 网页的集合。网络日益成为世界--世界上的每一件事、每一个人都投下了 "信息的影子",这种数据光环一旦被智能捕捉和处理,就会带来非凡的机遇和令人惊叹的影响(0'Reilly 和 Battelle,2009: 2)。
Not all would share such sunny optimism about Web 2.0. In particular, sites such as Facebook have been criticised for the privacy and surveillance implications of it enabling personal information acquired through self-disclosure to be used by third parties for targeted marketing, or even as a basis for denying employment or pursuing criminal action against individuals (Andrejevic 2012). Web 2.0 is increasingly how we understand the internet itself, as a medium through which we publish, comment on and share information, as well as reading and viewing it: this has also been referred to as the read-write web.
并非所有人都对 Web 2.0 持如此乐观的态度。特别是,Facebook 等网站因其对隐私和监控的影响而备受批评,因为它使第三方可以利用通过自我披露获得的个人信息进行有针对性的营销,甚至作为拒绝就业或对个人采取刑事行动的依据(Andrejevic,2012 年)。Web 2.0 越来越被我们理解为互联网本身,是我们发布、评论和分享信息以及阅读和查看信息的媒介:这也被称为读写网络。

CONCLUSION 结 论

This chapter has provided definitions of, and drawn connections between, twenty key concepts of new media. This material will be of value as you work through the more specialist chapters and topic areas in this book, and this chapter will be a useful reference for understanding key terms used in courses you may be undertaking. It is particularly important to understand not only the key concepts themselves, but also the interconnectedness between them. It is also important to understand how they are located within the context of different theories of new media, which are discussed in the next chapter.
本章提供了新媒体二十个关键概念的定义,并在这些概念之间建立了联系。当你学习本书中更专业的章节和主题领域时,这些材料将很有价值,本章也将成为你理解课程中使用的关键术语的有用参考。尤其重要的是,不仅要理解关键概念本身,还要理解它们之间的相互联系。同样重要的是,要了解这些概念在不同的新媒体理论中是如何定位的,这将在下一章中讨论。

ONLINE RESOURCES 在线资源

Encyclopedia of New Media http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/newmedia/SAGE.xml-Online resource edited by Steve Jones and publishéd by Sage. Some material is freely available, but other content requires subscription-based access.
新媒体百科全书 http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/newmedia/SAGE.xml-Online 资源由 Steve Jones 编辑,Sage 出版。部分资料免费提供,但其他内容需要订阅才能访问。
Voice of the Shuttle http://vos.ucsb.edu/index.asp-Comprehensive database of online resources and key concepts in the humanities, first developed by Alan Liu and maintained at the University of
Voice of the Shuttle http://vos.ucsb.edu/index.asp-Comprehensive 人文学科在线资源和关键概念数据库,最初由 Alan Liu 开发,并由美国加州大学洛杉矶分校维护。

03

APPROACHES TO NEW MEDIA
新媒体方法


California, Santa Barbara.
加利福尼亚州,圣巴巴拉