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Essay Writing Guide
论文写作指南

You can use this word document to write an excellent essay from beginning to end, using a ten-step process. Most of the time, students or would-be essay writers are provided only with basic information about how to write, and most of that information concentrates on the details of formatting. These are necessary details, but writing is obviously far more than mere formatting. If you write your essay according to this plan, and you complete every step, you will produce an essay that is at least very good. You will also learn exactly how to write an essay, which is something very valuable to learn.
您可以使用此 Word 文档从头到尾撰写一篇出色的论文,采用十步法。大多数时候,学生或有意写论文的人仅获得关于如何写作的基本信息,而这些信息大多集中在格式细节上。这些都是必要的细节,但写作显然远不止于简单的格式。如果您按照此计划撰写论文,并完成每一步,您将撰写出至少非常好的论文。您还将确切了解如何写论文,这是一项非常有价值的技能。

To start writing your essay, go to the next page, for Part One: Introduction.
要开始写你的论文,请转到下一页,查看第一部分:引言。

Jordan B Peterson
乔丹·彼得森

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
第一部分:介绍

What is an essay?
什么是论文?

An essay is a relatively short piece of writing on a particular topic. However, the word essay also means attempt or try. An essay is, therefore, a short piece written by someone attempting to explore a topic or answer a question.
论文是一篇相对较短的关于特定主题的写作。然而,论文这个词也意味着尝试或试图。因此,论文是由某人撰写的短文,试图探讨一个主题或回答一个问题。

Why bother writing an essay?
为什么要费心写论文?

Most of the time, students write essays only because they are required to do so by a classroom instructor. Thus, students come to believe that essays are important primarily to demonstrate their knowledge to a teacher or professor. This is simply, and dangerously, wrong (even though such writing for demonstration may be practically necessary).
大多数时候,学生写论文只是因为课堂老师要求这样做。因此,学生开始相信,论文主要是为了向老师或教授展示他们的知识。这是简单而且危险的错误(尽管这种为了展示而写作在实际中可能是必要的)。

The primary reason to write an essay is so that the writer can formulate and organize an informed, coherent and sophisticated set of ideas about something important.
写论文的主要原因是让作者能够形成和组织一套关于重要事物的知情、连贯和复杂的思想。

Why is it important to bother with developing sophisticated ideas, in turn? It’s because there is no difference between doing so and thinking, for starters. It is important to think because action based on thinking is likely to be far less painful and more productive than action based upon ignorance. So, if you want to have a life characterized by competence, productivity, security, originality and engagement rather than one that is nasty, brutish and short, you need to think carefully about important issues. There is no better way to do so than to write. This is because writing extends your memory, facilitates editing and clarifies your thinking.
为什么发展复杂的想法很重要呢?首先,因为这样做和思考之间没有区别。思考是重要的,因为基于思考的行动往往比基于无知的行动要少得多痛苦且更具生产力。因此,如果你想要过上一个以能力、生产力、安全性、原创性和参与感为特征的生活,而不是一个肮脏、残酷且短暂的生活,你需要仔细思考重要问题。没有比写作更好的方法来做到这一点。这是因为写作可以扩展你的记忆,促进编辑并澄清你的思维。

You can write down more than you can easily remember, so that your capacity to consider a number of ideas at the same time is broadened. Furthermore, once those ideas are written down, you can move them around and change them, word by word, sentence by sentence, and paragraph by paragraph. You can also reject ideas that appear substandard, after you consider them more carefully. If you reject substandard ideas, then all that you will have left will be good ideas. You can keep those, and use them. Then you will have good, original ideas at your fingertips, and you will be able to organize and communicate them.
你可以写下比你容易记住的更多内容,从而拓宽你同时考虑多个想法的能力。此外,一旦这些想法被写下来,你可以逐字、逐句、逐段地移动和更改它们。你还可以在更仔细考虑后拒绝那些看起来不够好的想法。如果你拒绝了不合格的想法,那么你剩下的就都是好想法。你可以保留这些,并加以利用。这样,你就能随时拥有好的、原创的想法,并能够组织和传达它们。

Consider your success over the course of a lifetime. Here is something to think about: the person who can formulate and communicate the best argument almost always wins. If you want a job, you have to make a case for yourself. If you want a raise, you have to convince someone that you deserve it. If you are trying to convince someone of the validity of your idea, you have to debate its merits successfully, particularly if there are others with other competing ideas.
考虑你一生中的成功。这里有一些值得思考的事情:能够制定和传达最佳论点的人几乎总是获胜。如果你想要一份工作,你必须为自己辩护。如果你想要加薪,你必须说服某人你值得得到它。如果你试图说服某人你的想法是有效的,你必须成功地辩论其优点,特别是当有其他竞争想法时。

If you sharpen your capacity to think and to communicate as a consequence of writing, you are better armed. The pen is mightier than the sword, as the saying goes. This is no cheap cliché. Ideas change the world, particularly when they are written. The Romans built buildings, and the Romans and the buildings are both gone. The Jews wrote a book, and they are still here, and so is the book. So it turns out that words may well last longer than stone, and have more impact than whole empires.
如果你通过写作来提高思考和沟通的能力,你就更有准备。正如谚语所说,笔比剑更强大。这不是廉价的陈词滥调。思想改变世界,特别是当它们被写下来时。罗马人建造了建筑,而罗马人和建筑都已经消失。犹太人写了一本书,他们仍然在这里,这本书也在这里。因此,事实证明,文字可能比石头更持久,对整个帝国的影响更大。

If you learn to write and to edit, you will also be able to tell the difference between good ideas, intelligently presented, and bad ideas put forth by murky and unskilled thinkers. That means that you will be able to separate the wheat from the chaff (look it up). Then you can be properly influenced by profound and solid ideas instead of falling prey to foolish fads and whims and ideologies, which can range in their danger from trivial to mortal.
如果你学会了写作和编辑,你也将能够分辨出好的想法(以聪明的方式呈现)和糟糕的想法(由模糊和无能的思想家提出)之间的区别。这意味着你将能够分清优劣(查一下这个词)。然后,你可以受到深刻而扎实的想法的正确影响,而不是成为愚蠢潮流、心血来潮和意识形态的牺牲品,这些意识形态的危险程度从微不足道到致命不等。

Those who can think and communicate are simply more powerful than those who cannot, and powerful in the good way, the way that means “able to do a wide range of things competently and efficiently.” Furthermore, the further up the ladder of competence you climb, with your well-formulated thoughts, the more important thinking and communicating become. At the very top of the most complex hierarchies (law, medicine, academia, business, theology, politics) nothing is more necessary and valuable. If you can think and communicate, you can also defend yourself, and your friends and family, when that becomes necessary, and it will become necessary at various points in your life.
能够思考和沟通的人显然比不能的人更有力量,而且这种力量是积极的,意味着“能够胜任和高效地做各种事情”。此外,随着你在能力阶梯上不断攀升,凭借你经过深思熟虑的想法,思考和沟通变得愈发重要。在最复杂的等级体系(法律、医学、学术、商业、神学、政治)中,没有什么比这更必要和有价值。如果你能够思考和沟通,当需要时,你也可以为自己、为你的朋友和家人辩护,而在你生活中的不同阶段,这种需要会出现。

Finally, it is useful to note that your mind is organized verbally, at the highest and most abstract levels. Thus, if you learn to think, through writing, then you will develop a well-organized, efficient mind – and one that is well-founded and certain. This also means that you will be healthier, mentally and physically, as lack of clarity and ignorance means unnecessary stress. Unnecessary stress makes your body react more to what could otherwise be treated as trivial affairs. This makes for excess energy expenditure, and more rapid aging (along with all the negative health-related consequences of aging).
最后,值得注意的是,你的思维在最高和最抽象的层面上是以语言组织的。因此,如果你通过写作学习思考,那么你将培养出一个组织良好、高效的思维方式——一个基础扎实且确定的思维方式。这也意味着你在心理和身体上会更健康,因为缺乏清晰和无知意味着不必要的压力。不必要的压力使你的身体对本可以视为琐事的事情反应更强烈。这导致过度的能量消耗,以及更快速的衰老(以及与衰老相关的所有负面健康后果)。

So, unless you want to stay an ignorant, unhealthy lightweight, learn to write (and to think and communicate). Otherwise those who can will ride roughshod over you and push you out of the way. Your life will be harder, at the bottom of the dominance hierarchies that you will inevitably inhabit, and you will get old fast.
所以,除非你想继续做一个无知、不健康的轻量级,否则就学会写作(以及思考和沟通)。否则,那些能够做到的人会毫不留情地压过你,把你推开。你的生活会更加艰难,处于你不可避免要生活的支配等级的底层,而你会很快变老。

Don’t ever underestimate the power of words. Without them, we would still be living in trees. So when you are writing an essay, you are harnessing the full might of culture to your life. That is why you write an essay (even if it has been assigned). Forget that, and you are doing something stupid, trivial and dull. Remember it, and you are conquering the unknown.
永远不要低估语言的力量。没有它们,我们仍然会生活在树上。因此,当你在写一篇文章时,你是在将文化的全部力量运用到你的生活中。这就是为什么你要写一篇文章(即使它是被布置的)。忘记这一点,你就是在做一些愚蠢、琐碎和无聊的事情。记住这一点,你就是在征服未知。

A note on technology
关于技术的说明

If you are a student, or anyone else who is going to do a lot of writing, then you should provide yourself with the right technology, especially now, when it is virtually costless to do so. Obviously, you need a computer. It doesn’t have to be that good, although a digital hard drive is a good investment for speed. Less obviously, you need two screens, one set up beside the other. They don’t have to be bigger than 19” diagonal. Even 17” monitors will do well. High resolution is better. You need the two screens so that you can present your reference material on one screen, and your essay (or even two versions of your essay, side by side) on the other.
如果你是学生,或者其他需要大量写作的人,那么你应该为自己提供合适的技术,尤其是在现在几乎没有成本的情况下。显然,你需要一台电脑。它不必太好,尽管数字硬盘是提高速度的好投资。不那么明显的是,你需要两个屏幕,一个放在另一个旁边。它们不必大于 19 英寸对角线。即使 17 英寸的显示器也能很好地工作。高分辨率更好。你需要这两个屏幕,以便可以在一个屏幕上展示参考材料,而在另一个屏幕上展示你的论文(甚至是并排的两个版本)。

Having this extra visual real estate really matters. It will make you less cramped and more efficient. A good keyboard (such as the Microsoft Natural Ergonomic keyboard) is also an excellent investment. Standard keyboards will hurt your hands if you use them continually, and the less said about a notebook keyboard the better. Use a good mouse, as well, and not a touchpad, which requires too much finicky movement for someone who is really working. Set up the keyboards so you are looking directly at their centers when you are sitting up straight. Use a decent chair, and sit so that your feet can rest comfortably on the floor when your knees are bent 90 degrees. These are not trivial issues. You may spend hours working on your writing, so you have to set up a workspace that will not annoy you, or you will have just one more good reason to avoid your tasks and assignments.
拥有额外的视觉空间真的很重要。它会让你感觉不那么拥挤,更加高效。一款好的键盘(例如微软自然人体工学键盘)也是一个很好的投资。标准键盘如果长时间使用会伤害你的手,而笔记本键盘就更不用说了。也要使用一个好的鼠标,而不是触控板,因为触控板需要过多的细微动作,对于真正工作的人来说不太合适。设置键盘时,要确保坐直时可以直接看向键盘的中心。使用一把合适的椅子,坐下时双脚可以舒适地放在地面上,膝盖弯曲 90 度。这些问题并不微不足道。你可能会花几个小时在写作上,因此你必须设置一个不会让你烦恼的工作空间,否则你将有更多的理由去逃避你的任务和作业。

A note on use of time
关于时间使用的说明

People’s brains function better in the morning. Get up. Eat something. You are much smarter and more resilient after you have slept properly and ate. There is plenty of solid research demonstrating this. Coffee alone is counter-productive. Have some protein and some fat. Make a smoothie with fruit and real yogurt. Go out and buy a cheap breakfast, if necessary. Eat by whatever means necessary. Prepare to spend between 90 minutes and three hours writing. However, even 15 minutes can be useful, particularly if you do it every day.
人们的大脑在早晨运作得更好。起床。吃点东西。经过良好的睡眠和饮食后,你会变得更聪明、更有韧性。有大量的实证研究证明了这一点。单靠咖啡是适得其反的。吃一些蛋白质和脂肪。用水果和真正的酸奶做一个奶昔。如果有必要,出去买一份便宜的早餐。无论如何都要吃。准备花费 90 分钟到三个小时来写作。然而,即使是 15 分钟也可以有用,特别是如果你每天都这样做。

Do not wait for a big chunk of free time to start. You will never get big chunks of free time ever in your life, so don’t make your success dependent on their non-existent. The most effective writers write every day, at least a bit.
不要等待一大段空闲时间再开始。你一生中永远不会有大段的空闲时间,所以不要让你的成功依赖于它们的不存在。最有效的作家每天都写,至少写一点。

Realize that when you first sit down to write, your mind will rebel. It is full of other ideas, all of which will fight to dominate. You could be looking at Facebook, or Youtube, or watching or reading online porn, or cleaning the dust bunnies from under your bed, or rearranging your obsolete CD collection, or texting an old flame, or reading a book for another course, or getting the groceries you need, or doing the laundry, or having a nap, or going for a walk (because you need the exercise), or phoning a friend or a parent – the list is endless. Each part of your mind that is concerned with such things will make its wants known, and attempt to distract you. Such pesky demons can be squelched, however, with patience. If you refuse to be tempted for fifteen minutes (25 on a really bad day) you will find that the clamor in your mind will settle down and you will be able to concentrate on writing. If you do this day after day, you will find that the power of such temptations do not reduce, but the duration of their attempts to distract you will decrease. You will also find that even on a day where concentration is very difficult, you will still be able to do some productive writing if you stick it out.
意识到,当你第一次坐下来写作时,你的思维会反抗。它充满了其他想法,所有这些想法都会争相主导。你可能会在看 Facebook,或者 Youtube,或者观看或阅读在线色情内容,或者清理床下的灰尘团,或者重新整理你过时的 CD 收藏,或者给旧情人发短信,或者为另一门课程阅读书籍,或者去买你需要的杂货,或者洗衣服,或者小睡一会,或者去散步(因为你需要锻炼),或者打电话给朋友或父母——这个列表是无穷无尽的。你思维中与这些事情相关的每个部分都会表达它的需求,并试图分散你的注意力。然而,这些烦人的恶魔可以通过耐心来压制。如果你拒绝在十五分钟内受到诱惑(在非常糟糕的一天可以是 25 分钟),你会发现你脑海中的喧嚣会平息下来,你将能够专注于写作。如果你每天都这样做,你会发现这些诱惑的力量并不会减少,但它们试图分散你注意力的持续时间会减少。 你会发现,即使在一个集中注意力非常困难的日子里,如果你坚持下去,你仍然能够进行一些富有成效的写作。

Don’t kid yourself into thinking you will write for six hours, either. Three is a maximum, especially if you want to sustain it day after day. Don’t wait too late to start your writing, so you don’t have to cram insanely, but give yourself a break after a good period of sustained concentration. Three productive hours are way better than ten hours of self-deceptive non-productivity, even in the library.
不要自欺欺人地认为你能写六个小时。三小时是极限,尤其是如果你想要每天都保持这种状态。不要等到太晚才开始写作,这样你就不必疯狂地临时抱佛脚,但在一段良好的集中注意力之后给自己一个休息。三小时的高效工作远比在图书馆里十小时的自我欺骗无所事事要好得多。

PART TWO: LEVELS OF RESOLUTION
第二部分:分辨率级别

Words, sentences, paragraphs and more
单词、句子、段落等

An essay, like any piece of writing, exists at multiple levels of resolution, simultaneously. First is the selection of the word. Second is the crafting of the sentence. Each word should be precisely the right word, in the right location in each sentence. The sentence itself should present a thought, part of the idea expressed in the paragraph, in a grammatically correct manner. Each sentence should be properly arranged and sequenced inside a paragraph, the third level of resolution. As a rule of thumb, a paragraph should be made up of at least 10 sentences or 100 words. This might be regarded as a stupid rule, because it is arbitrary. However, you should let it guide you, until you know better. You have very little right to break the rules, until you have mastered them.
一篇文章,像任何一篇写作作品一样,存在于多个分辨率层面,同时进行。首先是单词的选择。其次是句子的构造。每个单词都应该是恰到好处的,位于每个句子的正确位置。句子本身应该以语法正确的方式呈现一个思想,作为段落中表达的想法的一部分。每个句子应该在段落中正确排列和排序,这是第三个分辨率层面。作为一个经验法则,一个段落应该由至少 10 个句子或 100 个单词组成。这可能被视为一个愚蠢的规则,因为它是任意的。然而,在你更了解之前,你应该让它指导你。在你掌握这些规则之前,你几乎没有权利打破它们。

Here’s a little story to illustrate that idea, taken in part from a document called the Codex Bezae.
这里有一个小故事来说明这个想法,部分取自一份名为《贝扎法典》的文件。

Christ is walking down the road on the Sabbath, when good Jews of that time were not supposed to work. In the ditch, he sees a shepherd, trying to rescue a sheep from a hole that it has fallen into. It is very hot and, clearly, the sheep will not be in very good shape if it spends a whole day in the desert sun. On the other hand, it is the Sabbath. Christ looks at the shepherd and says, “Man, if indeed thou knowest what thou doest, thou art blessed: but if thou knowest not, thou art cursed, and a transgressor of the law.” Then he walks on down the road.
基督在安息日沿着道路行走,那时的好犹太人不应该工作。在沟里,他看到一个牧羊人,试图救一只掉进洞里的羊。天气非常炎热,显然,如果羊在沙漠的阳光下待上一整天,它的状况不会很好。另一方面,今天是安息日。基督看着牧羊人说:“人啊,如果你确实知道你在做什么,你是有福的;但如果你不知道,你就是被诅咒的,是法律的违反者。”然后他继续沿着道路走。

The point is this: There is a rest day for a reason. Otherwise people would work all the time. Then they would be chronically unhappy and exhausted. They would compete each other to death. So if it’s time for everybody to rest, then rest, and don’t be breaking the rule. However, it is also not good to let a sheep die in the hot sun, when a few minutes of labor might save it. So, if you are respectful of the rule, and conscious of its importance, and realize that it serves as a bulwark against the chaos of the unknown, and you still decide to break it, carefully, because the particularities of the circumstances demand it – well, then, more power to you. If you are just a careless, ignorant, antisocial narcissist instead, however, then look out. You break a rule at your peril, whether you know it or not.
关键在于:休息日是有原因的。否则人们会一直工作。然后他们会长期感到不快乐和疲惫。他们会互相竞争到死。因此,如果是大家休息的时间,那就休息,不要违反规则。然而,让一只羊在烈日下死去也不好,当几分钟的劳动可能拯救它。所以,如果你尊重规则,意识到它的重要性,并意识到它作为抵御未知混乱的防线的作用,而你仍然决定小心地打破它,因为特定情况要求这样——那么,祝你好运。然而,如果你只是一个粗心、无知、反社会的自恋者,那就小心了。无论你知道与否,违反规则都是有风险的。

Rules are there for a reason. You are only allowed to break them if you are a master. If you’re not a master, don’t confuse your ignorance with creativity or style. Writing that follows the rules is easier for readers, because they know roughly what to expect. So rules are conventions. Like all conventions, they are sometimes sub-optimal. But not very often. So, to begin with, use the conventions. For example, aim to make your paragraphs about 10 sentences or 100 words long.
规则存在是有原因的。只有当你是大师时,才可以打破它们。如果你不是大师,不要把自己的无知与创造力或风格混淆。遵循规则的写作对读者来说更容易,因为他们大致知道该期待什么。因此,规则是惯例。像所有惯例一样,它们有时并不是最优的。但并不常见。因此,首先,使用这些惯例。例如,尽量使你的段落大约有 10 个句子或 100 个单词长。

A paragraph should present a single idea, using multiple sentences. If you can’t think up 100 words to say about your idea, it’s probably not a very good idea, or you need to think more about it. If your paragraph is rambling on for 300 words, or more, it’s possible that it has more than one idea in it, and should be broken up.
一个段落应该用多个句子呈现一个单一的想法。如果你想不出 100 个字来表达你的想法,那可能这个想法并不好,或者你需要更多地思考。如果你的段落有 300 个字或更多,可能它包含了多个想法,应该被拆分。

All of the paragraphs have to be arranged in a logical progression, from the beginning of the essay to the end. This is the fourth level of resolution. Perhaps the most important step in writing an essay is getting the paragraphs in proper order. Each of them is a stepping stone to your essay’s final destination.
所有段落必须按照逻辑顺序排列,从文章的开头到结尾。这是第四个层次的解析。写作文章中最重要的一步可能就是将段落按正确的顺序排列。每一个段落都是通往你文章最终目的地的垫脚石。

The fifth level of resolution is the essay, as a whole. Every element of an essay can be correct, each word, sentence, and paragraph – even the paragraph order – and the essay can still fail, because it is just not interesting or important. It is very hard for competent but uninspired writers to understand this kind of failure, because a critic cannot merely point it out. There is no answer to their question, “exactly where did I make a mistake?” Such an essay is just not good. An essay without originality or creativity might fall into this category. Sometimes a creative person, who is not technically proficient as a writer, can make the opposite mistake: their word choice is poor, their sentences badly constructed and poorly organized within their paragraphs, their paragraphs in no intelligible relationship to one another – and yet the essay as a whole can succeed, because there are valuable thoughts trapped within it, wishing desperately to find expression.
第五层次的分辨率是整篇文章。文章的每个元素都可以是正确的,每个单词、句子和段落——甚至段落的顺序——但文章仍然可能失败,因为它根本没有趣味或重要性。对于有能力但缺乏灵感的作家来说,理解这种失败是非常困难的,因为评论者不能仅仅指出这一点。他们的问题“我到底哪里出错了?”没有答案。这样的文章就是不好。没有原创性或创造性的文章可能会落入这个类别。有时,一个在技术上不熟练的创意人可能会犯相反的错误:他们的用词不当,句子结构糟糕,段落组织混乱,段落之间没有可理解的关系——然而整篇文章可能会成功,因为其中蕴藏着有价值的思想,渴望找到表达的机会。

Additional levels
额外级别

You might think that there could not possibly be anything more to an essay than these five levels of resolution or analysis, but you would be wrong. This is something that was first noticed, perhaps, by those otherwise entirely reprehensible and destructive scholars known as post-modernists. An essay necessarily exists within a context of interpretation, made up of the reader (level six), and the culture that the reader is embedded in (level seven), which is made up in part of the assumptions that he or she will bring to the essay. Levels six and seven have deep roots in biology and culture. You might think, “Why do I need to know this?” but if you don’t you are not considering your audience, and that’s a mistake. Part of the purpose of the essay is to set your mind straight, but the other part, equally important, is to communicate with an audience.
你可能会认为,文章中不可能有比这五个分析层次更多的内容,但你错了。这一点或许是由那些完全可恶和破坏性的学者,即后现代主义者,首次注意到的。文章必然存在于一种解释的背景中,这种背景由读者(第六层次)和读者所嵌入的文化(第七层次)构成,而后者部分由他或她带入文章的假设组成。第六层次和第七层次在生物学和文化中有着深厚的根基。你可能会想:“我为什么需要知道这些?”但如果你不考虑这些,你就是在忽视你的受众,这是一种错误。文章的部分目的是让你的思维清晰,但同样重要的另一部分是与受众进行沟通。

For the essay to succeed, brilliantly, it has to work at all of these levels of resolution simultaneously. That is very difficult, but it is in that difficulty that the value of the act of writing exists.
为了使文章成功,出色地,它必须同时在所有这些分辨率层面上发挥作用。这是非常困难的,但正是在这种困难中,写作行为的价值存在。

Considerations of Aesthetics and Fascination
美学与魅力的考虑

This is not all that has to be properly managed when you write an essay. You should also strive for brevity, which is concise and efficient expression, as well as beauty, which is the melodic or poetic aspect of your language (at all the requisite levels of analysis). Finally, you should not be bored, or boring. If you are bored while writing, then, most importantly, you are doing it wrong, and you will also bore your reader. Think of it this way: you get bored for a reason, and sometimes for a good reason. You may be bored while writing your essay because you are actually lying to yourself in a very deep way about what you are doing and why you are doing it. Your mind, independent of your ego, cannot be hoodwinked into attending to something that you think is uninteresting or useless. It will automatically regard such a thing as unworthy of attention, and make you bored by it.
这并不是写论文时需要妥善管理的全部。你还应该追求简洁,这是一种简明高效的表达方式,以及美感,这是你语言的旋律或诗意方面(在所有必要的分析层面上)。最后,你不应该感到无聊或让人感到无聊。如果你在写作时感到无聊,那么最重要的是,你做错了,并且你也会让读者感到无聊。这样想:你感到无聊是有原因的,有时是出于很好的理由。你在写论文时可能会感到无聊,因为你实际上在非常深层次上对自己所做的事情和为什么要这样做撒谎。你的思维,独立于你的自我,无法被欺骗去关注你认为无趣或无用的东西。它会自动将这样的事物视为不值得关注,并让你感到无聊。

If you are bored by your essay, you have either chosen the wrong topic (one which makes no difference to you and, in all likelihood, to anyone else) or you are approaching a good topic in a substandard manner. Perhaps you are resentful about having to write the essay, or afraid of its reception, or lazy, or ignorant, or unduly and arrogantly skeptical, or something of the kind.
如果你对自己的论文感到无聊,可能是你选择了错误的主题(一个对你和其他人都没有影响的主题),或者你以不合格的方式处理了一个好的主题。也许你对写这篇论文感到愤恨,或者害怕它的反响,或者懒惰,或者无知,或者过于傲慢和怀疑,或者类似的原因。

You have to place yourself in the correct state of mind to write properly. That state of mind is partly aesthetic. You have to be trying to produce something of worth, beauty and elegance. If you think that is ridiculous, then you are far too stupid at the moment to write properly. You need to meditate long and hard on why you would dare presume that worth, beauty and elegance are unworthy of your pursuit. Do you plan to settle for ugly and uncouth? Do you want to destroy, instead of build?
你必须让自己处于正确的心态中才能写得好。那种心态部分是审美的。你必须努力去创造一些有价值、美丽和优雅的东西。如果你觉得这很荒谬,那么你此刻太愚蠢,无法正确写作。你需要长时间深入思考,为什么你敢假设价值、美丽和优雅不值得你去追求。你打算满足于丑陋和粗俗吗?你想要毁灭,而不是建设吗?

You must choose a topic that is important to you. This should be formulated as a question that you want to answer. This is arguably the hardest part of writing an essay: choosing the proper question. Perhaps your instructor has provided you with a list of topics, and you think you are off the hook as a consequence. You’re not. You still have to determine how to write about one of those topics in a manner that is compelling to you. It’s a moral, spiritual endeavour.
你必须选择一个对你重要的话题。这应该被表述为一个你想要回答的问题。这可以说是写论文中最困难的部分:选择合适的问题。也许你的老师给你提供了一份话题清单,你认为因此可以轻松应对。其实并不是。你仍然需要确定如何以一种对你有吸引力的方式来写其中一个话题。这是一个道德和精神的追求。

If you properly identify something of interest to you, then you have put yourself in alignment with the deeper levels of your psyche, your spirit. If these deeper levels do not want or need an answer to the question you have posed, you will not possibly be interested in it. So the fact of your interest is evidence of the importance of the topic. You, or some part of you, needs the answer – and such needs can be deep enough so that life itself can depend upon them. Someone desperate, for example, might find the question “why live?” of extreme interest, and absolutely require an answer that makes life’s suffering worth bearing. It is not necessary to ensure that every question you try or essay to answer of that level of importance, but you should not waste your time with ideas that do not grip you.
如果你正确地识别出对你感兴趣的事物,那么你就将自己与内心更深层次的心理和精神对齐。如果这些更深层次的部分不想或不需要你提出的问题的答案,你就不可能对此感兴趣。因此,你的兴趣的事实证明了这个话题的重要性。你,或者你的一部分,需要这个答案——这种需求可能深到生活本身都可能依赖于它。例如,某个绝望的人可能会发现“为什么活着?”这个问题极其有趣,并且绝对需要一个让生活的痛苦值得承受的答案。确保你尝试或试图回答的每个问题都具有那种重要性并不是必要的,但你不应该浪费时间在那些无法吸引你的想法上。

So, the proper attitude is interested and aesthetically sensitive.
所以,正确的态度是感兴趣和具有审美敏感性。

Having said all that, here is something to remember: finished beats perfect. Most people fail a class or an assignment or a work project not because they write badly, and geta D’s or F’s, but because they don’t write at all, and get zeroes. Zeroes are very bad. They are the black holes of numbers. Zeroes make you fail. Zeroes ruin your life. Essays handed in, no matter how badly written, can usually get you at least a C. So don’t be a completely self-destructive idiot. Hand something in, regardless of how pathetic you think it is (and no matter how accurate you are in that opinion).
说了这么多,这里有一点要记住:完成比完美更重要。大多数人失败于一门课程、一个作业或一个工作项目,并不是因为他们写得不好,得了 D 或 F,而是因为他们根本不写,得了零分。零分是非常糟糕的。它们是数字的黑洞。零分让你失败。零分毁了你的生活。无论写得多糟糕,交上去的论文通常至少能让你得到 C。所以不要做一个完全自我毁灭的傻瓜。无论你认为它有多可怜(无论你在这个观点上有多准确),都要交上去一些东西。

PART THREE: THE TOPIC AND THE READING LIST
第三部分:主题和阅读清单

The central question that you are trying to answer with the essay is the topic question. Here are some potentially interesting topic questions:
您试图通过论文回答的核心问题是主题问题。以下是一些可能有趣的主题问题:

Does evil exist?
邪恶存在吗?

Are all cultures equally worthy of respect?
所有文化都同样值得尊重吗?

How should a man and a woman treat each other in a relationship?
在一段关系中,男人和女人应该如何相互对待?

What, if anything, makes a person good?
什么,如果有的话,能使一个人变得善良?

These are very general, abstract topics. That makes them philosophical. Good topics do not have to be so general. Here are some good, more specific topics:
这些是非常一般的、抽象的话题。这使它们具有哲学性。好的话题不必如此一般。以下是一些好的、更具体的话题:

What were the key events of Julius Caesar’s rule?
尤利乌斯·凯撒统治期间的关键事件是什么?

What are the critical elements of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution?
查尔斯·达尔文的进化论的关键要素是什么?

Is “The Sun Also Rises,” by Ernest Hemingway, an important book?
《太阳照常升起》是欧内斯特·海明威的一本重要书吗?

How might Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud’s theory of the psyche be contrasted?
卡尔·荣格和西格蒙德·弗洛伊德的心理理论如何对比?

How did Newton and Einstein differ in their conceptualization of time?
牛顿和爱因斯坦在时间的概念化上有什么不同?

Was the recent Iraq war just or unjust?
最近的伊拉克战争是正义的还是不正义的?

You can begin your essay writing process two different ways. You can either list the topics you have been assigned, or list ten or so questions that you might want to answer, if you are required to choose your own topic, or you can start to create and finalize your reading list. If you think you can already identify several potential topics of interest, start with Topics. If you are unsure, then start constructing your Reading List.
您可以通过两种不同的方式开始您的论文写作过程。您可以列出您被分配的主题,或者列出十个左右您可能想要回答的问题,如果您需要选择自己的主题,或者您可以开始创建和最终确定您的阅读清单。如果您认为自己已经能够识别出几个潜在的感兴趣主题,请从主题开始。如果您不确定,那么请开始构建您的阅读清单。

CHOICE BETWEEN TOPICS and READING LIST
主题选择和阅读清单

Topics
主题

Put these in question form, as in the examples above.
将这些转换为疑问形式,如上面的例子所示。

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

If you can’t do this, then you have to do some more reading (which you will likely have to do to complete the essay anyway). There is, by the way, no such thing as reader’s block. If you can’t write, it is because you have nothing to say. You have no ideas. In such a situation, don’t pride yourself on your writer’s block. Read something. If that doesn’t work, read something else – maybe something better. Repeat until the problem is solved.
如果你做不到这一点,那么你就需要多读一些书(反正你可能也需要这样做才能完成论文)。顺便说一下,根本没有所谓的读者障碍。如果你无法写作,那是因为你没有话要说。你没有想法。在这种情况下,不要为你的写作障碍感到自豪。读点东西。如果那不管用,就读点别的——也许是更好的东西。重复这个过程,直到问题解决。

Reading List
阅读清单

Indicate here what you have to or want to read. These should be books or articles, generally speaking. If you don’t know what articles or books might be appropriate or useful, then you could start with Wikipedia articles or other encyclopedic sources, and look at their reference lists for ideas about further reading. These sources are fine as a beginning.
在这里指明您需要或想要阅读的内容。这些通常应该是书籍或文章。如果您不知道哪些文章或书籍可能合适或有用,那么您可以从维基百科文章或其他百科全书来源开始,并查看它们的参考列表以获取进一步阅读的想法。这些来源作为开始是不错的选择。

If you find someone whose writing is particularly interesting and appropriate, it is often very useful to see if you can find out what authors they admired and read. You can do this by noting who they refer to, in the text of their writings or in the reference list. You can meander productively through wide bodies of learning in this manner.
如果你发现某人的写作特别有趣且合适,了解他们欣赏和阅读的作者通常非常有用。你可以通过注意他们在写作文本或参考列表中提到的作者来做到这一点。你可以通过这种方式有效地在广泛的知识领域中游走。

Assume you need 5-10 books or articles per thousand words of essay, unless you have been instructed otherwise. A double-spaced page of typing usually contains about 250 words. List your sources now, even if you have to do it badly. You can always make it better later.
假设每千字的论文需要 5-10 本书或文章,除非另有指示。双倍行距的页面通常包含约 250 个单词。现在列出你的来源,即使你不得不做得很糟糕。你可以稍后再改进。

Reading 1.
阅读 1。

Notes: (see next section for Notes on Notes):
备注:(请参见下一部分关于备注的备注):

Reading 2.
阅读 2。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 3.
阅读 3。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 4.
阅读 4。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 5.
阅读 5。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 6.
阅读 6。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 7.
阅读 7。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 8.
阅读 8。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 9.
阅读 9。

Notes:
笔记:

Reading 10 (repeat if necessary).
阅读 10(如有必要,请重复)。

Notes (repeat if necessary)
笔记(如有必要,请重复)
:

A Psychological Note and some Notes on Notes.
心理笔记和一些关于笔记的说明。

While you are reading, see if you can notice anything that catches your attention. This might be something you think is important, or something that you seriously disagree with, or something that you might want to know more about. You have to pay careful attention to your emotional reactions to do this.
在你阅读的时候,看看你是否能注意到任何引起你注意的东西。这可能是你认为重要的事情,或者是你严重不同意的事情,或者是你想要了解更多的事情。你必须仔细关注你的情感反应才能做到这一点。

You also want to take some notes. You can place your notes below the readings you listed above.
你还想做一些笔记。你可以把你的笔记放在你上面列出的阅读材料下面。

When you are taking notes, don’t bother doing stupid things like highlighting or underlining sentences in the textbook. There is no evidence that it works. It just looks like work. What you need to do is to read for understanding. Read a bit, then write down what you have learned or any questions that have arisen in your mind. Don’t ever copy the source word for word. The most important part of learning and remembering is the recreation of what you have written in your own language. This is not some simplistic “use your own words.” This is the dialog you are having with the writer of your sources. This is your attempt to say back to the author “this is what I understand you are saying.” This is where you extract the gist of the writing.
当你做笔记时,不要浪费时间做一些愚蠢的事情,比如在教科书中突出或划线句子。没有证据表明这样有效。这看起来只是工作。你需要做的是为了理解而阅读。读一点,然后写下你所学到的内容或你脑中产生的任何问题。绝不要逐字复制来源。学习和记忆中最重要的部分是用你自己的语言重新创造你所写的内容。这不是一些简单的“用你自己的话”。这是你与来源作者之间的对话。这是你试图对作者说“这是我理解你所说的内容”。在这里,你提取了写作的要点。

If someone asks you about your day, you don’t say, “Well, first I opened my eyes. Then I blinked and rubbed them. Then I placed my left leg on the floor, and then my right.” You would bore them to death. Instead, you eliminate the extra detail, and concentrate on communicating what is important. That is exactly what you are supposed to be doing when you take some notes during or after reading (after is often better, with the book closed, so that you are not tempted to copy the author’s writing word for word so that you can fool yourself into thinking you did some work).
如果有人问你今天过得怎么样,你不会说:“好吧,首先我睁开了眼睛。然后我眨了眨眼,揉了揉它们。接着我把左腿放在地板上,然后是右腿。” 你会让他们无聊得要死。相反,你会去掉多余的细节,专注于传达重要的信息。这正是你在阅读时或阅读后做笔记时应该做的(阅读后通常更好,书本合上,这样你就不会被诱惑逐字抄袭作者的文字,以至于让自己觉得自己做了些工作)。

If you find note-taking in this manner difficult, try this. Read a paragraph. Look away. Then say to yourself, out loud, even in a whisper (if you are in a library), what the paragraph meant. Listen to what you said, and then quickly write it down.
如果你发现以这种方式记笔记很困难,可以试试这个。阅读一段文字。看开。然后大声对自己说,甚至轻声说(如果你在图书馆),这段文字的意思。听听你所说的,然后迅速把它写下来。

Take about two to three times as many notes, by word, as you will need for your essay. You might think that is inefficient, but it’s not. In order to write intelligibly about something, or to speak intelligently about it, you need to know far more than you actually communicate. That helps you master level six and seven, described previously – the context within which the essay is to be understood. Out of those notes you should be able to derive 8-10 topic questions. Do so. Remember, they can be edited later. Just get them down.
记下大约两到三倍于你写论文所需的笔记。你可能会觉得这效率低下,但其实并不是。为了能够清晰地写作或表达某个主题,你需要了解的远比你实际传达的要多。这有助于你掌握之前描述的第六和第七级——理解论文的背景。根据这些笔记,你应该能够提出 8-10 个主题问题。这样做。记住,它们可以稍后编辑。只需把它们写下来。

PART FOUR: THE OUTLINE
第四部分:大纲

At this point you have prepared a list of topics, and a reading list. Now it’s time to choose a topic.
在这一点上,您已经准备了一份主题列表和阅读清单。现在是选择一个主题的时候了。

ENTER TOPIC HERE
输入主题在这里

1.

Here’s another rule. When you write your first draft, it should be longer than the final version. This is so that you have some extra writing to throw away. You want to have something to throw away after the first draft so that you only have to keep what is good. It is NOT faster to try to write exactly as many words as you need when you first sit down to write. Trying to do so merely makes you too aware of what you are writing. This concern will slow you down. Aim at producing a first draft that is 25% longer than the final draft is supposed to be. If your final work is to be 1000 words, then write that (or four pages) below. The word document will automatically add 25% to the length you specify.
这是另一个规则。当你写第一稿时,它应该比最终版本长。这是为了让你有一些额外的文字可以丢弃。你希望在第一稿之后有一些可以丢弃的东西,这样你只需保留好的部分。当你第一次坐下来写作时,试图写出正好需要的字数并不是更快。这样做只会让你过于关注自己在写什么。这种担忧会让你变得缓慢。目标是产生一份比最终稿长 25%的第一稿。如果你的最终作品是 1000 字,那么在下面写下(或四页)。Word 文档会自动将你指定的长度增加 25%。

Now specify the length of your essay.
现在指定你的论文长度。

WORDS:
单词:

PAGES:

ADD 25% TO THE ABOVE LENGTHS
在上述长度上增加 25%

Now you have to write an outline. This is the most difficult part of writing an essay, and it’s not optional. The outline of an essay is like the skeleton of a body. It provides its fundamental form and structure. Furthermore, the outline is basically the argument (with the sentences themselves and the words serving that argument).
现在你必须写一个大纲。这是写论文中最困难的部分,而且这是必不可少的。论文的大纲就像身体的骨架。它提供了基本的形式和结构。此外,大纲基本上就是论点(句子本身和为该论点服务的词语)。

A thousand-word essay requires a ten-sentence outline. However, the fundamental outline of an essay should not get much longer than fifteen sentences, even if the essay is several thousand words or more in length. This is because it is difficult to keep an argument of more than that length in mind at one time so that you can assess the quality of its structure. So, write a ten to fifteen sentence outline of your essay, and if it is longer than a thousand words, then make sub-outlines for each primary outline sentence. Here is an example of a good simple outline:
一千字的论文需要一个十句的提纲。然而,论文的基本提纲不应超过十五句,即使论文的字数达到几千字或更多。这是因为很难在一个时间内记住超过这个长度的论点,以便评估其结构的质量。因此,写一个十到十五句的论文提纲,如果字数超过一千字,则为每个主要提纲句子制作子提纲。以下是一个好的简单提纲的例子:

Topic: Who was Abraham Lincoln?
主题:亚伯拉罕·林肯是谁?

Why is Abraham Lincoln worthy of remembrance?
亚伯拉罕·林肯为何值得被铭记?

What were the crucial events of his childhood?
他童年时期的关键事件是什么?

Of his adolescence?
他的青春期?

Of his young adulthood?
他的年轻成年时期?

How did he enter politics?
他是如何进入政治的?

What were his major challenges?
他面临的主要挑战是什么?

What were the primary political and economic issues of his time?
他那个时代的主要政治和经济问题是什么?

Who were his enemies?
他的敌人是谁?

How did he deal with them?
他是如何处理他们的?

What were his major accomplishments?
他主要的成就是什么?

How did he die?
他是怎么死的?

Here is an example of a good longer outline (for a three thousand word essay):
这是一个好的较长大纲的例子(用于三千字的论文):

Topic: What is capitalism?
主题:什么是资本主义?

How has capitalism been defined?
资本主义是如何定义的?

Author 1
作者 1

Author 2
作者 2

Author 3
作者 3

Where and when did capitalism develop?
资本主义在哪里和何时发展?

Country 1
国家 1

Country 2
国家 2

How did capitalism develop in the first 50 years after its origin?
资本主义在其起源后的前 50 年是如何发展的?

How did capitalism develop in the second 50 years after its origin?
资本主义在其起源后的第二个 50 年是如何发展的?

(Repeat as necessary)
(根据需要重复)

Historical precursors?
历史前兆?

(choose as many centuries as necessary)
(选择尽可能多的世纪)

Advantages of capitalism?
资本主义的优势?

Wealth generation
财富创造

Technological advancement
技术进步

Personal freedom
个人自由

Disadvantages of capitalism?
资本主义的缺点?

Unequal distribution
不平等分配

Pollution and other externalized costs
污染和其他外部化成本

Alternatives to capitalism?
资本主义的替代方案?

Fascism
法西斯主义

Communism
共产主义

Consequences of these alternatives?
这些替代方案的后果是什么?

Potential future developments?
潜在的未来发展?

Conclusion
结论

Beware of the tendency to write trite, repetitive and clichéd introductions and conclusions. It is often useful to write a stock intro (what is the purpose of this essay? How is it going to proceed?) and a stock conclusion (How did this essay proceed? What was its purpose?) but they should usually then be thrown away. Write your outline here. Try for one outline heading per 100 words of essay length. You can add subdivisions, as in the example regarding capitalism, above.
注意避免写陈腐、重复和老生常谈的引言和结论。写一个固定的引言(这篇文章的目的是什么?将如何进行?)和一个固定的结论(这篇文章是如何进行的?它的目的是什么?)通常是有用的,但它们通常应该被丢弃。在这里写下你的大纲。每 100 个字的文章长度尝试一个大纲标题。你可以添加子标题,如上面关于资本主义的例子。

Write outline here:
在这里写大纲:

1. Outline sentence 1:
1. 概述句子 1:

2. Outline sentence 2:
2. 概述句子 2:

3. Outline sentence 3:
3. 概述句子 3:

4. Outline sentence 4:
4. 概述句子 4:

5. Outline sentence 5:
5. 概述句子 5:

6. Outline sentence 6:
6. 概述句子 6:

7. Outline sentence 7:
7. 概述句子 7:

8. Outline sentence 8:
8. 概述句子 8:

9. Outline sentence 9:
9. 概述句子 9:

10. Outline sentence 10 (repeat if necessary):
10. 概述句子 10(如有必要,请重复):

PART FIVE: PARAGRAPHS
第五部分:段落

So, now you have your outline. Copy it here:
所以,现在你有了你的大纲。把它复制到这里:

OUTLINE COPIED HERE

Now, write ten to fifteen sentences per outline heading to complete your paragraph. You may find it helpful to add additional subdivisions to your outline, and to work back and forth between the outline and the sentences, editing both. Use your notes, as well. Use single spacing at this point, so that you can see more writing on the paper at once. You will format your essay properly later.
现在,根据大纲标题写十到十五个句子来完成你的段落。你可能会发现为你的大纲添加额外的细分是有帮助的,并且在大纲和句子之间来回工作,编辑两者。也请使用你的笔记。此时请使用单倍行距,以便你可以在纸上一次看到更多的文字。稍后你会正确格式化你的论文。

Don’t worry too much about how well you are writing at this point. It is also best at this point not to worry too much about the niceties of sentence structure and grammar. That is all best left for the second major step, which is editing. You should think of the essay writing process as twofold. The first major step is the first draft, which can be relatively quick and dirty. For the first draft you can use your notes, extensively, and rough out the essay. If you get stuck writing anywhere, just move to the next outline sentence. You can always go back.
不要过于担心你此时写作的质量。在这个阶段,最好也不要过于担心句子结构和语法的细节。这些最好留到第二个主要步骤,即编辑。你应该将写作过程视为两个部分。第一个主要步骤是初稿,可以相对快速和粗略。对于初稿,你可以广泛使用你的笔记,粗略地写出论文。如果在某处写作时遇到困难,只需移动到下一个大纲句子。你总是可以回去。

The second major step is editing. Production (the first major step) and editing (the second) are different functions, and should be treated that way. This is because each interferes with the other. The purpose of production is to produce. The function of editing is to reduce and arrange. If you try to do both at the same time then the editing stymies the production. It’s not faster to combine them, nor is it better, and it is bound to be frustrating.
第二个主要步骤是编辑。制作(第一个主要步骤)和编辑(第二个主要步骤)是不同的功能,应该这样对待。这是因为它们相互干扰。制作的目的是生产。编辑的功能是减少和安排。如果你试图同时进行这两者,那么编辑会阻碍制作。将它们结合在一起并不会更快,也不会更好,必然会令人沮丧。

Here is an example of writing associated with an outline question: (note: places where references are necessary are indicate as (REFERENCE, 19XX). How to format these references will be discussed later.
这是与大纲问题相关的写作示例(注意:需要引用的地方标记为(REFERENCE, 19XX)。如何格式化这些引用将在后面讨论。

Outline sentence: How has capitalism been defined?
资本主义是如何被定义的?

Something as complex as capitalism cannot be easily defined. Different authors have each offered their opinion. Liberal or conservative thinkers stress the importance of private property and the ownership rights that accompany such property as key to capitalism (REFERENCE, 19XX). Such private property (including valuable goods and the means by which they are produced) can be traded, freely, with other property owners, in a market where the price is set by public demand, rather than by any central agency. Liberal and conservative thinkers stress efficiency of production, as well as quality, and consider profit the motive for efficiency. They believe that lower cost is a desirable feature of production, and that fair competition helps ensure desirably lower prices.
像资本主义这样复杂的事物无法轻易定义。不同的作者各自提出了他们的观点。自由派或保守派思想家强调私有财产及其伴随的所有权的重要性,认为这是资本主义的关键(参考文献,19XX)。这种私有财产(包括有价值的商品和生产这些商品的手段)可以在市场上自由交易,市场价格由公众需求决定,而不是由任何中央机构决定。自由派和保守派思想家强调生产效率以及质量,并认为利润是效率的动机。他们认为,降低成本是生产的一个理想特征,而公平竞争有助于确保理想的低价格。

The World Socialist Movement (REFERENCE, 19XX), an international consortium of far left political parties, defines capitalism, by contrast, as ownership of the means of production by a small minority of people, the capitalist class, who profitably exploit the working class, the genuine producers, who must sell their ability to work for a salary or wage. Such socialists believe that it is profit that solely motivates capitalism, and that the profit motive is essentially corrupt. Modern environmentalists tend to add the natural world itself to the list of capitalist targets of exploitation (REFERENCE, 19XX). Thinkers on the right tend to regard problems emerging from the capitalist system as real, but trivial in comparison to those produced by other economic and political systems, real and hypothetical. Thinkers on the far left regard capitalism as the central cause of problems as serious as poverty, inequality and environmental degradation, and believe that there are other political and economic systems whose implementation would constitute an improvement.
世界社会主义运动(参考文献,19XX),一个国际极左政治党派的联盟,将资本主义定义为少数人,即资本家阶级,拥有生产资料,他们以盈利的方式剥削工人阶级,即真正的生产者,后者必须出售他们的劳动能力以换取薪水或工资。这些社会主义者认为,利润是唯一驱动资本主义的动力,而利润动机本质上是腐败的。现代环境主义者倾向于将自然界本身也列入资本主义剥削的目标(参考文献,19XX)。右派思想家倾向于将资本主义系统中出现的问题视为真实的,但与其他经济和政治系统(无论是现实的还是假设的)所产生的问题相比,显得微不足道。极左派思想家则认为,资本主义是导致贫困、不平等和环境恶化等严重问题的根本原因,并相信还有其他政治和经济系统的实施将构成改善。

It took two paragraphs to begin to address the first outline sentence. Notice that the essay begins without referring to itself. It is better to tell the reader what the essay will be about and how the topic will be addressed than to meander around stupidly at the beginning of an essay, but it is still better to grab the reader’s attention immediately without beating around the bush.
花了两个段落才开始处理第一个大纲句子。请注意,文章开始时没有提及自己。告诉读者文章将讨论什么以及将如何处理主题,比在文章开头无目的地徘徊要好,但立即吸引读者的注意力而不拐弯抹角仍然更好。

Once you have completed ten to fifteen sentences for each outline heading, you have finished your first draft. Now it is time to move to editing.
一旦你为每个大纲标题完成了十到十五个句子,你就完成了初稿。现在是时候进行编辑了。

PART SIX: EDITING AND ARRANGING OF SENTENCES WITHIN PARAGRAPHS
第六部分:段落内句子的编辑和排列

Copy the first paragraph of your first draft here:
将您的初稿的第一段复制到这里:

Paragraph 1:
段落 1:

Now, place each sentence on its own line, so it looks like this (this example is taken from the first paragraph on capitalism, above):
现在,将每个句子放在单独的一行上,使其看起来像这样(这个例子取自上面的资本主义第一段):

Something as complex as capitalism cannot be easily defined.
像资本主义这样复杂的事物无法轻易定义。

Different authors have each offered their opinion.
不同的作者各自表达了他们的观点。

Liberal or conservative thinkers stress the importance of private property and the ownership rights that accompany such property as key to capitalism (REFERENCE, 19XX).
自由派或保守派思想家强调私有财产及其伴随的所有权的重要性,认为这是资本主义的关键(参考文献,19XX)。

Such private property (including valuable goods and the means by which they are produced) can be traded, freely, with other property owners, in a market where the price is set by public demand, rather than by any central agency.
这样的私有财产(包括有价值的商品及其生产手段)可以在一个由公众需求而非任何中央机构设定价格的市场中,与其他财产所有者自由交易。

Liberal and conservative thinkers stress efficiency of production, as well as quality, and consider profit the motive for efficiency.
自由派和保守派思想家强调生产效率以及质量,并认为利润是效率的动机。

They believe that lower cost is a desirable feature of production, and that fair competition helps ensure desirably lower prices.
他们认为,较低的成本是生产的一个理想特征,而公平竞争有助于确保理想的较低价格。

Now, write another version of each sentence, under each sentence, like this:
现在,写每个句子的另一个版本,在每个句子下面,像这样:

Liberal and conservative thinkers stress efficiency of production, as well as quality, and consider profit the motive for efficiency.
自由派和保守派思想家强调生产效率以及质量,并认为利润是效率的动机。

Liberal and conservative thinkers alike stress the importance of quality and efficiency, and see them as properly rewarded by profit.
自由派和保守派思想家都强调质量和效率的重要性,并认为它们应当通过利润得到合理回报。

In this example, the meaning of the sentence has been changed slightly, during the rewrite. It may be that the second sentence flows better than the first, and is also more precise and meaningful. See if you can make each sentence you have written better, in a similar manner:
在这个例子中,句子的意思在重写过程中略有改变。第二个句子可能比第一个句子更流畅,并且更精确、更有意义。看看你是否能以类似的方式使你写的每个句子更好。

Better would mean shorter and simpler (as all unnecessary words should be eliminated). There is almost nothing a novice writer can do that will improve his or her writing more rapidly than writing very short sentences. See if you can cut the length of each sentence by 15-25%. Remember, earlier, you tried to make your essay longer than necessary. Here you can start cleaning it up.
更好意味着更短更简单(所有不必要的词都应该被消除)。几乎没有什么新手作家能比写非常简短的句子更快地提高自己的写作水平。看看你能否将每个句子的长度减少 15-25%。记住,之前你试图让你的文章比必要的更长。现在你可以开始清理它。

Better would mean that each word is precisely and exactly the right word. Don’t be tempted to use any word that you would be uncomfortable to use in spoken conversation. Often, new writers try to impress their readers with their vocabulary. This often backfires when words are used that are technically correct but whose connotation is not, or that are unsuitable within the context of the sentence, paragraph or full essay. An expert writer will spot such flaws immediately, and see them for what they are: forms of camouflage and deception. Write clearly at a vocabulary level you have mastered (with maybe a bit of stretching, to produce improvement).
更好的意思是每个词都是精确和恰当的。不要被诱惑使用任何你在口头交流中会感到不舒服的词。通常,新作家试图用他们的词汇来给读者留下深刻印象。这往往适得其反,当使用的词在技术上是正确的,但其含义却不然,或者在句子、段落或整篇文章的上下文中不合适时。一个专业的作家会立即发现这样的缺陷,并看出它们的本质:伪装和欺骗的形式。用你掌握的词汇水平清晰地写作(也许稍微扩展一下,以促进进步)。

Read each sentence aloud, and listen to how it sounds. If it’s awkward, see if you can say it a different, better way. Listen to what you said, and then write it down. Rewrite each sentence. Once you have done this with all the sentences, read the old versions and the new versions, and replace the old with the new if the new is better. Then copy the new paragraph here:
大声朗读每个句子,听听它的声音。如果听起来很别扭,看看是否可以用不同的、更好的方式表达。听听你说的内容,然后把它写下来。重写每个句子。完成所有句子的修改后,阅读旧版本和新版本,如果新版本更好,就用新版本替换旧版本。然后把新段落复制到这里:

New paragraph 1:
新段落 1:

Repeat for each paragraph:
逐段重复:

New paragraph 2:
新段落 2:

New paragraph 3:
新段落 3:

New paragraph 4:
新段落 4:

New paragraph 5 (etc.):
新段落 5(等等):

Now you are going to try to improve each of those paragraphs. Copy them again here, unchanged (you are doing this so that you can easily compare the improved paragraphs to the originals, so that you can be sure they are truly improved, before you keep them):
现在你将尝试改进每一个段落。将它们再次复制到这里,保持不变(你这样做是为了能够轻松地将改进后的段落与原文进行比较,以确保它们确实得到了改进,然后再保留它们):

New paragraph 1 (copy):
新段落 1 (复制):

New paragraph 2 (copy):
新段落 2 (复制):

New paragraph 3 (copy):
新段落 3(复制):

New paragraph 4 (copy):
新段落 4(复制):

New paragraph 5 (copy) (etc.):
新段落 5(复制)(等):

Start with paragraph 1. Break it up into single sentences, as you did before. Now check to see if the sentences are in the best possible order, within each paragraph. Drag and drop them, or cut and paste them, into better order.
从第一段开始。将其拆分为单个句子,就像你之前做的那样。现在检查一下句子在每段中的顺序是否最佳。将它们拖放或剪切粘贴到更好的顺序中。

You can also eliminate sentences that are no longer necessary. When you are satisfied with the first paragraph (which means that the sentences are necessary, short and punchy, and in the correct order) then go ahead to the next paragraph and do the same thing.
您还可以删除不再必要的句子。当您对第一段感到满意时(这意味着句子是必要的、简短有力且顺序正确),然后继续进行下一段并做同样的事情。

PART SEVEN: RE-ORDERING THE PARAGRAPHS
第七部分:重新排序段落

Now, copy all of the new, improved paragraphs that you have edited here:
现在,将您在此处编辑的所有新改进段落复制过来:

New improved paragraph 1:
新改进的段落 1:

New improved paragraph 2:
新改进的段落 2:

New improved paragraph 3:
新改进的第 3 段:

New improved paragraph 4:
新改进的第 4 段:

New improved paragraph 5 (etc.):
新改进的第 5 段(等):

Now you are going to try to improve the order of those new, improved paragraphs. Copy them here, again, unchanged.
现在你将尝试改善这些新改进段落的顺序。将它们复制到这里,保持不变。

New improved paragraph 1 (copy):
新改进的段落 1(复制):

New improved paragraph 2 (copy):
新改进的段落 2(复制):

New improved paragraph 3 (copy):
新改进的第 3 段(复制):

New improved paragraph 4 (copy):
新改进的第 4 段(复制):

New improved paragraph 5 (copy) (etc.):
新改进的第 5 段(复制)(等):

Now look at the order of the paragraphs themselves (as you just did with the sentences within each paragraph). It may well be that by now in the editing process, you will find that the order of the subtopics within your original outline is no longer precisely appropriate, and that some re-ordering of those sub-topics is called for. So, move around the new improved paragraph (copies) above, until they are ordered more appropriately than they were.
现在看看段落本身的顺序(就像你刚刚对每个段落中的句子所做的那样)。在编辑过程中,你可能会发现原始大纲中子主题的顺序不再完全合适,因此需要对这些子主题进行一些重新排序。因此,移动上面的新改进段落(副本),直到它们的顺序比之前更合适。

PART EIGHT: GENERATING A NEW OUTLINE
第八部分:生成新大纲

So now you should have produced a pretty decent second draft. You have identified the appropriate sources, written the proper notes, outlined your argument, roughed in a first draft (paragraph by paragraph), rewritten your sentences to make them more elegant, and re-ordered those sentences, as well as the paragraphs themselves. This is much farther than most writers ever get. You may even think you’re finished – but you’re not.
所以现在你应该已经完成了一个相当不错的第二稿。你已经找到了合适的来源,写下了适当的笔记,概述了你的论点,逐段草拟了第一稿,重写了句子使其更优雅,并重新排列了这些句子以及段落本身。这比大多数作家所达到的要远得多。你甚至可能认为你已经完成了——但其实你还没有。

The next step will take you from a “B” essay to an “A” essay. It may even help you write something that is better than you have ever produced (better meaning richer in information, precise, coherent, elegant and beautiful). Copy what you have written so far here:
下一步将帮助你将“B”级论文提升到“A”级论文。它甚至可能帮助你写出比你以往所写的更好的东西(更好的意思是信息更丰富、准确、连贯、优雅和美丽)。请在这里复制你到目前为止写的内容:

FULL RE-ORDERED ESSAY HERE
完整的重新排序的论文在这里

Read it. Then go to the next page.
阅读它。然后翻到下一页。

This part of the process will probably strike you as unnecessary, or annoying, or both, but what do you know? This is the step that separates the men from the boys, or the women from the boys, or the men from the girls, or whatever version of this saying is acceptably non-sexist and politically correct.
这个过程的这一部分可能会让你觉得不必要、烦人,或者两者兼而有之,但你知道什么呢?这是将男人与男孩、女人与男孩、男人与女孩,或者任何一个被接受为非性别歧视和政治正确的说法版本区分开来的步骤。

You have just finished reading your essay. Try now to write a new outline of ten to fifteen sentences. Don’t look back at your essay while you are doing this. If you have to, go back and re-read the whole thing, and then return to this page, but don’t look at your essay while you are rewriting the outline. If you force yourself to reconstruct your argument from memory, you will likely improve it. Generally, when you remember something, you simplify it, while retaining most of what is important. Thus, your memory can serve as a filter, removing what is useless and preserving and organizing what is vital. What you are doing now is distilling what you have written to its essence.
你刚刚完成了你的论文阅读。现在尝试写一个新的大纲,包含十到十五个句子。在这个过程中不要回头看你的论文。如果需要,可以回去重新阅读整篇文章,然后再回到这一页,但在重写大纲时不要看你的论文。如果你强迫自己从记忆中重建你的论点,你可能会改善它。一般来说,当你记住某件事时,你会简化它,同时保留大部分重要内容。因此,你的记忆可以作为一个过滤器,去除无用的东西,保留和组织重要的内容。你现在所做的就是提炼你所写的内容的本质。

Write new outline here:
在此处写下新大纲:

1. New outline sentence 1:
1. 新大纲句子 1:

2. New outline sentence 2:
2. 新大纲句子 2:

3. New outline sentence 3:
3. 新大纲句子 3:

4. New outline sentence 4:
4. 新大纲句子 4:

5. New outline sentence 5:
5. 新大纲句子 5:

6. New outline sentence 6:
6. 新大纲句子 6:

7. New outline sentence 7:
7. 新大纲句子 7:

8. New outline sentence 8:
8. 新大纲句子 8:

9. New outline sentence 9:
9. 新大纲句子 9:

10. New outline sentence 10 (repeat if necessary):
10. 新大纲句子 10(如有必要,请重复):

Now that you have a new outline, you can cut and paste material from your previous essay. To do this, open up a new Word document beside this one. Then cut and paste the new outline that you have written into the new Word document. Return to the original document, and scroll up to the full, re-ordered essay you copied and pasted into Part Eight, above. Then cut and paste from the re-ordered essay into your new outline.
现在你有了新的大纲,可以从你之前的论文中剪切和粘贴材料。为此,请在此文档旁边打开一个新的 Word 文档。然后将你写的新大纲剪切并粘贴到新的 Word 文档中。返回到原始文档,向上滚动到你复制并粘贴到第八部分的完整重新排序的论文。然后从重新排序的论文中剪切并粘贴到你的新大纲中。

You may find that you don’t need everything you wrote before. Don’t be afraid to throw unnecessary material away. You are trying to get rid of what is substandard, and leave only what is necessary.
你可能会发现你之前写的并不是所有的东西都是必要的。不要害怕扔掉不必要的材料。你是在努力去除不合格的内容,只保留必要的部分。

Once you have finished cutting and pasting your old material into the new outline, then copy the new essay, and paste it into a new word document. That will be your final essay. Don’t forget to put a title page on it.
一旦你完成了将旧材料剪切并粘贴到新大纲中,然后复制新的论文,并将其粘贴到一个新的 Word 文档中。那将是你的最终论文。别忘了给它加上标题页。

PASTE NEWLY OUTLINED ESSAY HERE:
在此粘贴新大纲的论文:

PART NINE: REPEAT
第九部分:重复

Now you have a third draft, and it’s probably pretty good. If you really want to take it to the next level, then you can repeat the process of sentence rewriting and re-ordering, as well as paragraph re-ordering and re-outlining. Often it is a good idea to wait a few days to do this, so that you can look at what you have produced with fresh eyes. Then you will be able to see what you have written, instead of seeing what you think you wrote (which is the case when you try to edit immediately after producing).
现在你有了第三稿,可能已经相当不错。如果你真的想把它提升到一个新的水平,那么你可以重复句子重写和重新排序的过程,以及段落重新排序和重新大纲的过程。通常,等待几天再进行这些操作是个好主意,这样你就可以用新鲜的眼光来看你所创作的内容。然后你将能够看到你所写的内容,而不是看到你认为自己写的内容(这就是在创作后立即尝试编辑时的情况)。

You are not genuinely finished until you cannot edit so that your essay improves. Generally, you can tell if this has happened when you try to rewrite a sentence (or a paragraph) and you are not sure that the new version is an improvement over the original.
你并没有真正完成,直到你无法编辑以使你的论文得到改善。通常,当你尝试重写一个句子(或一个段落)时,如果你不确定新版本是否比原版更好,你就可以判断这种情况发生了。

PART TEN: REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
第十部分:参考文献和书目

When you write a sentence that contains what is supposed to be a fact or at least an informed opinion, and you have picked it up from something you read, then you have to refer to that source. Otherwise, following convention, people may accuse you of plagiarism, which is a form of theft (of intellectual property). There are a large number of conventions that you can follow to properly structure your references and your bibliography (which is a list of books and articles that you have read to obtain relevant background information, but from which you may not have drawn any ideas specific enough to require a reference).
当你写一个包含应该是事实或至少是经过深思熟虑的观点的句子时,如果你是从你所阅读的内容中获取的,那么你必须引用那个来源。否则,按照惯例,人们可能会指责你抄袭,这是一种盗窃(知识产权)。你可以遵循大量的惯例来正确构建你的引用和参考书目(这是你为获取相关背景信息而阅读的书籍和文章的列表,但你可能没有从中提取出任何具体到需要引用的想法)。

The conventions of the American Psychological Association (APA) are commonly used by essay writers. This convention generally requires the use of the last names of the authors of the source in parentheses after the sentence requiring a reference. For example
美国心理学会(APA)的规范通常被论文作者使用。该规范通常要求在需要引用的句子后用括号注明来源作者的姓氏。例如
:

It is necessary to add a reference after a sentence containing an opinion which is not your own, or a fact that you have acquired from some source material (Peterson, 2014).
在包含非自己观点或从某些来源材料获得的事实的句子后,有必要添加参考文献(Peterson, 2014)。

This sentence could also be constructed like this:
这句话也可以这样构造:

Peterson (2014) claims that it is necessary to add a reference after a sentence containing an opinion which is not your own, or a fact that you have acquired from some source material.
彼得森(2014)声称,在包含非自己观点的句子或从某些来源材料获得的事实后,必须添加引用。

There are also many conventions covering the use of a direct quote, which have to be followed when you directly quote someone, rather than paraphrasing them. Here is an example, adding the specific (fictional) number of the page containing the quoted material in the original manuscript:
还有许多关于直接引用使用的惯例,当你直接引用某人而不是对他们进行意译时,必须遵循这些惯例。以下是一个例子,添加了包含引用材料的原稿中特定(虚构)页码:

Peterson (2014, p. 19) claims that “the conventions of the American Psychological Association (APA) are commonly used by essay writers.”
彼得森(2014 年,第 19 页)声称“美国心理学协会(APA)的规范通常被论文作者使用。”

In the Reference List, at the end of the essay, Peterson’s paper might be listed, as follows (this is a fictional reference):
在参考文献列表中,论文末尾可能会列出彼得森的论文,如下所示(这是一个虚构的参考文献):

Peterson, J.B. (2014). Essay writing for writers. Journal of Essay Writing, 01, 15-24.
彼得森,J.B.(2014)。作家写作的论文写作。论文写作杂志,01,15-24。

Different conventions hold for different types of source material such as webpages, books, and articles. All the details regarding APA style can be found at http://www.apastyle.org/
不同类型的来源材料,如网页、书籍和文章,适用不同的规范。有关 APA 格式的所有细节可以在 http://www.apastyle.org/找到。

Your instructor may have recommended, or demanded, use of a different set of conventions. Information about other techniques and rules can be found at http://www.easybib.com/reference/guide/mla/general.
您的讲师可能建议或要求使用不同的规范。有关其他技巧和规则的信息可以在 http://www.easybib.com/reference/guide/mla/general 找到。

It is necessary to master at least one convention. The rules are finicky and annoying. However, they are necessary, so that readers know what writers are up to. Furthermore, you only have to learn them once, so bite the bullet and do it.
掌握至少一种规范是必要的。规则很挑剔且令人烦恼。然而,它们是必要的,以便读者知道作者在做什么。此外,你只需要学一次,所以咬紧牙关去做吧。

Copy your essay here again.
在这里再次复制你的论文。

Add references where they are necessary. Then, add your reference list to the end of your essay. Make sure you construct both according to APA convention, or some other set of rules.
在必要的地方添加参考文献。然后,将参考文献列表添加到论文的末尾。确保根据 APA 规范或其他规则进行构建。

YOUR COMPLETED ESSAY
您的完整论文

Now your essay is completed. Now you need to copy it into a new Word document, and format it properly.
现在你的论文已经完成。现在你需要将其复制到一个新的 Word 文档中,并正确格式化。

That generally means double-spaced, with a title page, with a five space tab indent at the beginning of each paragraph. If you want to add subtitles, or section headers, their use is discussed in detail at https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ . Additional useful information for style, including examples, can be found at http://bit.ly/ZC5eFV . A video discussing such matters is available at http://bit.ly/ZpX1nR .
这通常意味着双倍行距,带有标题页,每段开头有五个空格的缩进。如果您想添加副标题或章节标题,它们的使用在 https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ 中有详细讨论。有关风格的其他有用信息,包括示例,可以在 http://bit.ly/ZC5eFV 找到。讨论此类问题的视频可在 http://bit.ly/ZpX1nR 找到。

If you got this far, good work. If you write a number of essays using this process, you will find that your thinking will become richer and clearer, and so will your conversation. There is nothing more vital to becoming educated, and there is nothing more vital than education to your future, and the future of those around you
如果你能走到这一步,做得很好。如果你使用这个过程写一些文章,你会发现你的思维会变得更加丰富和清晰,你的对话也是如此。没有什么比接受教育更重要的,而教育对你的未来以及你周围人的未来也同样至关重要。

Good luck with your newly organized and refreshed mind.
祝你好运,愿你拥有一个重新整理和焕然一新的思维。