Just as we can assert that no product has ever been created in a single moment of inspiration . . nobody has ever produced a set of requirements for any product in a similarly miraculous manner. These requirements may well begin with an inspirational moment but, almost certainly, the emergent bright idea will be developed by iterative processes of evaluation until it is thought to be worth starting to put pencil to paper. Especially when the product is entirely new, the development of a set of requirements may well depend upon testing initial ideas in some depth. 正如我们可以断言，没有任何产品是在单一的灵感时刻中创造出来的... 没有人曾以类似的奇迹般的方式为任何产品制定一组需求。这些需求可能起初是由灵感而来，但几乎可以肯定，这个新颖的想法会通过迭代评估的过程不断发展，直到被认为值得开始动手落实。特别是对于全新的产品，制定需求集很可能取决于对最初的想法进行深入测试。
The Plan is the generator. Without a plan, you have lack of order and willfulness. The Plan holds in itself the essence of sensation. 计划是发生器。没有计划，就会缺乏秩序和随意性。计划内含有感知的本质。
Le Corbusier 勒·柯布西耶
Towards a New Architecture, 1931 走向新建筑，1931 年
CHAPTER OUTLINE 章节大纲
4.1 Introduction 4.1 简介
4.2 Organizational Support for Design 4.2 设计的组织支持
4.3 The Design Process 4.3 设计过程
4.4 Design Frameworks 4.4 设计框架
4.5 Design Methods 4.5 设计方法
4.6 Design Tools, Practices, and Patterns 4.6 设计工具、实践和模式
4.7 Social Impact Analysis 4.7 社会影响分析
4.8 Legal Issues 4.8 法律问题
4.1 Introduction 4.1 介绍
Design can be loosely defined as the outcome or the process of creating specifications for synthetic artifacts, such as products, services, and processes. All manufactured objects in the world - objects that were made by people and are not found in nature-are the result of some form of design process, whether a deliberate one or otherwise. User interfaces, which are very much synthetic and decidedly do not occur in nature, are no exception. However, while early computer manufacturers were quick to enlist industrial designers to shape the physical form factors of the first computers, they were much less agile in recognizing the need for interaction design (Moggridge, 2007): the design of the digital interface itself. Now an established design discipline in its own right, interaction design is defined as making plans and specifications for digital objects, which include devices, interfaces, services, and information. 设计可以宽泛地定义为为合成物品（如产品、服务和流程）创建规格的结果或过程。世界上所有制造的物体——即人们制造的而非自然存在的物体——都是某种形式的设计过程的结果，无论是有意识的还是其他形式的。用户界面，这些界面非常合成，明显不是自然发生的，也不例外。然而，早期的计算机制造商很快就聘请工业设计师来塑造第一台计算机的物理形态，但他们在认识到需要交互设计（Moggridge，2007）——即数字界面设计本身——方面则远不如此。现在，交互设计已经成为一门独立的设计学科，其定义为为数字物品（包括设备、界面、服务和信息）制定计划和规格。
Every time designers create a new digital artifact, they make decisionsunconscious or not-on how the artifact will look, feel, and function. If they carefully consider how digital products and services are created, they can make appealing products and services that respond to human needs with user interfaces that are easy to learn, comprehensible, and efficient to use. Early computer applications were designed by programmers to be highly functional for the programmers themselves and their peers, but this approach quickly failed when the audience for computers grew to non-technical fields. Bill Moggridge (2007) calls this phenomenon being "kind to chips but cruel to people," and it was an early failing of interaction design. 每当设计师创建一个新的数字产品时，他们会在无意识或有意识的情况下决定该产品的外观、感觉和功能。如果他们认真考虑数字产品和服务的创建过程，他们可以制作出吸引人的产品和服务，这些产品和服务能够满足人们的需求，使用起来界面简单易学，易于理解和高效。早期的计算机应用是由程序员设计的，旨在对程序员自身和同行来说功能强大，但当计算机的用户群扩大到非技术领域时，这种方法很快失败了。Bill Moggridge（2007）称这种现象为“对芯片友好对人类残酷”，这是交互设计的早期失败之一。
The current generation of users for smartphones, social media, and ecommerce have vastly different backgrounds from programmers and engineers. They have no interest in obscure interfaces but are more oriented toward their professional or recreational needs and are less dedicated to the technology itself. Therefore, effective interaction design takes the intended user as its starting point and focuses on facilitating the function of the artifact. As a result, professional interaction designers carefully observe their users, iteratively refine their prototypes based on thoughtful analysis, and systematically validate their interfaces through early usability and acceptance tests. However, as for any design discipline, function is not the only important aspect of a digital object. Form is another aspect, and it sometimes comes in conflict with function. While on the one hand it can be argued that good form will facilitate function (since an aesthetically appealing artifact can invite use), it is also true that a highly convoluted form may inhibit it. Consider a kitchen cabinet door with no handles: slick and appealing according to contemporary design sense but lacking visual indications of how and where to open the door. In fact, it may not even be immediately obvious that a door 智能手机、社交媒体和电子商务的当前用户群与程序员和工程师有着截然不同的背景。他们对于晦涩的界面不感兴趣，而更关注他们的专业或娱乐需求，对技术本身的执着程度较低。因此，有效的交互设计以目标用户为出发点，专注于促进工具的功能。因此，专业的交互设计师会仔细观察用户，通过深入分析逐步完善原型，并通过早期可用性和接受性测试系统地验证界面。然而，就像任何设计学科一样，功能并不是数字产品的唯一重要方面。形式是另一个方面，并且有时会与功能相冲突。一方面，可以说良好的形式会促进功能（因为一个审美吸引人的工具会吸引使用者），但同时也可以说，过于复杂的形式可能会阻碍功能的发挥。 考虑一个没有手柄的厨柜门：根据当代设计理念，它可能很光滑和吸引人，但缺乏说明如何以及在哪里打开门的视觉指示。实际上，可能甚至不会立即显而易见地意识到一扇门
with no handles is in fact a door, let alone that it can be opened! The same is true for interfaces: It often makes sense to let form follow function (Sullivan, 1896). Tradeoffs between form and function are discussed in Chapter 12. 没有手柄，更不用说它可以被打开了！对于界面来说也是如此：让形式服从功能常常是有意义的（Sullivan, 1896 年）。形式和功能之间的权衡在第 12 章中讨论。
If there are several similarities between interaction design and other design disciplines, what is particularly unique about interaction design? One of the key characteristics of digital media is that they are freely reproducible without consuming the original copy or costing additional resources. They also have few of the physical requirements that real materials must obey, such as cost, ease of manufacturing, or physical robustness. In essence, information technology is thus a "material without qualities" (Löwgren and Stolterman, 2004). For software engineering, this fact has led to the global open source movement, where programmers, even professional ones, are willing to give away the results of their hard work for free. In the context of interfaces and interactions, digital media mean that designers work under few physical constraints compared to tangible artifacts. A digital button can be arbitrarily large or small, or it can be entirely gold- or diamond-plated, with no added or reduced cost to the overall project. In fact, the designer can freely experiment with any number of alternate designs during the process without incurring any other cost than time. However, this added freedom is a double-edged sword in that constraints can often be helpful in reducing the space of potential designs (also known as the design space) and even boosting the creativity of the designer; after all, necessity is said to be the mother of invention. With no such helpful constraints to reduce the design space for digital interfaces and objects, interaction designers are often left with a much more daunting problem than industrial designers working in the real world. 如果交互设计与其他设计学科之间存在一些相似之处，那么交互设计的独特之处是什么？数字媒体的一个关键特征是，它们可以自由复制，而不会消耗原始副本或产生额外资源成本。它们也没有真实材料必须遵守的一些物理要求，比如成本、制造便捷性或物理强度。实质上，信息技术因此成为了一种“无质量的材料”（Löwgren和Stolterman，2004）。对于软件工程而言，这一事实导致了全球开源运动，程序员，甚至专业程序员，愿意免费分享他们辛勤劳动的成果。在界面和交互的背景下，数字媒体意味着设计师在与有形物品相比工作时受到较少的物理限制。数字按钮可以任意大或小，或者可以完全镀金或镶钻石，而整个项目的成本不会增加或减少。事实上，设计师可以在过程中自由尝试任意数量的替代设计，而不会产生除时间之外的任何其他成本。 然而，这种额外的自由是一把双刃剑，因为约束通常有助于减少潜在设计空间（也称为设计空间），甚至可以提高设计师的创造力；毕竟，必需品被认为是发明之母。在数字界面和物体的设计空间中没有这样有用的约束，交互设计师通常面临比在现实世界中工作的工业设计师更为艰巨的问题。
The key to good design starts in the organization itself. The primary reason for this is that design is unpredictable, which requires an agile organizational structure as well as a comprehensive business strategy oriented around diverse design processes. In fact, some companies, such as Apple, Pepsi, Philips, and Kia Motors, have hired chief design officers (CDOs) in recognition of this unpredictability. Section 4.2 offers examples of such structures and strategies that managers can adapt to suit their organizations, projects, schedules, and budgets. 良好设计的关键在于组织本身。这主要原因在于设计是不可预测的，这需要一个灵活的组织结构以及一个围绕多样化设计流程的全面业务策略。事实上，一些公司，如苹果、百事可乐、飞利浦和起亚汽车，已经聘请了首席设计官（CDOs）来认识到这种不可预测性。第 4.2 节提供了这些结构和策略的示例，管理者可以根据自己的组织、项目、进度和预算进行调整。
This unpredictable and dynamic nature requires a robust and flexible design process. Section 4.3 describes a four-phase iterative design process consisting of requirements analysis (Phase 1), preliminary and detailed design (Phase 2), build and implementation (Phase 3), and finally evaluation (Phase 4, described in Chapter 5). This cycle is repeated until the outcome from the evaluation phase is acceptable given the requirements. The design cycle itself is part of a larger cycle that incorporates the entire life cycle of a product, including deployment, maintenance, and new updates to the system. 这种不可预测和动态的特性需要一个强大而灵活的设计过程。4.3 节描述了一个由需求分析（第 1 阶段）、初步和详细设计（第 2 阶段）、构建和实施（第 3 阶段）以及最终评估（第 4 阶段，第 5 章描述）组成的四阶段迭代设计过程。此循环将重复进行，直到评估阶段的结果符合要求。设计循环本身是整个产品生命周期的一部分，包括部署、维护和系统的新更新。
Design frameworks are discussed in Section 4.4 and permeate the entire design philosophy and design methods used in the process. Three specific frameworks are of particular interest to interaction designers: agile and rapid prototyping, user-centered design, and participatory design. The exact choice of which design framework to use depends on the organization, the project team, and the product being designed. 设计框架在 4.4 节中讨论，并贯穿了整个设计哲学和设计方法。对互动设计师而言，三个特定的框架具有特殊的兴趣：敏捷和快速原型制作，以用户为中心的设计，和参与式设计。选择使用哪种设计框架取决于组织、项目团队和正在设计的产品。
If frameworks provide the high-level structure, then the design methods are the building blocks that are used to populate the structure. Section 4.5 reviews popular interaction design methods for each phase of the design process, including ethnographic observation and sketching (Phase 1), storyboarding and scenario development (Phase 2), and paper mockups and prototyping (Phase 3). Evaluation methods for Phase 4 are described separately in Chapter 5. 如果框架提供了高层次的结构，那么设计方法就是用来填充结构的构建模块。第 4.5 节回顾了每个设计阶段流行的交互设计方法，包括人种学观察和素描（第 1 阶段）、故事板和情节发展（第 2 阶段）、以及纸质模型和原型制作（第 3 阶段）。第 4 阶段的评估方法在第 5 章单独描述。
Design is a challenging activity and is difficult to learn in a purely theoretical setting, particularly for newcomers but also for seasoned designers entering a new domain. Section 4.6 offers several practical, hands-on best practices to facilitate the design process, including UX prototyping tools, UX guidelines documents, and the notion of design patterns for interaction design and UX. Originally derived for as disparate areas as urban planning (Alexander, 1977) and software engineering (Freeman et al., 2004), design patterns are concrete and reusable solutions to commonly occurring problems. The section shows how such design patterns can be applied to interaction design. 设计是一项具有挑战性的活动，在纯理论设置中学习起来很困难，尤其是对于新手来说，也适用于进入新领域的经验丰富的设计师。第 4.6 节提供了几种实用的，动手操作的最佳实践，以促进设计过程，包括 UX 原型工具，UX 指南文件，以及交互设计和 UX 的设计模式概念。最初来源于城市规划（Alexander, 1977）和软件工程（Freeman 等，2004）等不同领域，设计模式是常见问题的具体可重用解决方案。本节展示了这些设计模式如何应用于交互设计。
This chapter concludes with Section 4.7, which describes legal concerns that should be addressed in the design process, including topics such as privacy, safety, intellectual property, standardization, and certification. 本章以第 4.7 节结束，描述了在设计过程中应该解决的法律问题，包括隐私、安全、知识产权、标准化和认证等主题。
See also: 另请参阅：
Chapter 5, Evaluation and the User Experience 第 5 章，评估与用户体验
Chapter 12, Advancing the User Experience 第 12 章，推进用户体验
4.2 Organizational Support for Design 4.2 设计的组织支持
Most companies may not yet have chief usability officers (CUOs) or vice presidents for usability, but some companies are beginning to employ chief design officers (CDOs), which may help to promote usability and design thinking at every level. A case in point is Apple Inc., which was one of the first companies with a CDO and which accordingly has been praised for its innovative, 大多数公司可能还没有首席可用性官员（CUOs）或可用性副总裁，但一些公司开始雇佣首席设计官（CDOs），这可能有助于在各个层面推广可用性和设计思维。一个例子是苹果公司，它是最早拥有首席设计官的公司之一，因此也因其创新而受到赞扬。
well-designed, and usable products. Even if a company has no CDO, organizational awareness can be stimulated by presentations, internal seminars, newsletters, and awards. However, resistance to new techniques and changing roles for software engineers can become a problem in traditional organizations. 设计精良、易用的产品。即使公司没有首席设计官，组织意识也可以通过演示、内部研讨会、通讯和奖项来激发。然而，传统组织中对新技术和软件工程师角色变化的抵制可能成为一个问题。
Organizational change is difficult, but creative leaders blend inspiration and provocation. The high road is to appeal to the desire for quality that most professionals share. When they are shown data on shortened learning times, faster performance, or lower error rates on well-designed interfaces, managers are likely to be more sympathetic to applying usability-engineering methods. Even more compelling for e-commerce managers is evidence of higher rates of conversion, enlarged market share, and increased customer retention. For managers of consumer products, the goals include fewer returns/complaints, increased brand loyalty, and more referrals. The low road is to point out the frustration, confusion, and high error rates caused by current complex designs while citing the successes of competitors who apply usability-engineering methods. 组织变革是困难的，但有创意的领导者可以融合启发与挑衅。最佳途径是呼吁大多数专业人士共有的对品质的渴望。当他们看到缩短学习时间、更快的性能或者在设计良好界面上更低的错误率的数据时，经理们更有可能同情应用可用性工程方法。对于电子商务经理而言，更有说服力的是证据显示更高的转化率、扩大市场份额和增加客户保留率。对于消费品经理来说，目标包括减少退货/投诉、提高品牌忠诚度和增加推荐。另一种途径是指出当前复杂设计引起的沮丧、混淆和高错误率，同时引用应用可用性工程方法的竞争对手的成功案例。
Collecting momentum for organizational change can come from different sources. Major corporations almost always question the return on investment (ROI) for usability engineering and interaction design. However, the business case for focusing on usability has been made powerfully and repeatedly (Karat, 1994; Marcus, 2002; Bias and Mayhew, 2005; Nielsen, 2008). Claire-Marie Karat's (1994) business-like reports within IBM became influential documents when they were published externally. She reported up to payoffs for each dollar spent on usability, with identifiable benefits in reduced program-development costs, reduced maintenance costs, increased revenue due to higher customer satisfaction, and improved user efficiency and productivity. Other economic analyses showed fundamental changes in organizational productivity (with improvements of as much as ) when designers kept usability in mind from the beginning of development projects (Landauer, 1995). 组织变革的动力可以来自不同的来源。大型公司几乎总是质疑可用性工程和交互设计的投资回报率（ROI）。然而，专注于可用性的商业案例已经被强有力地反复提出（Karat，1994年；Marcus，2002年；Bias和Mayhew，2005年；Nielsen，2008年）。Claire-Marie Karat（1994年）在IBM内部的商业报告在被外部发布时成为有影响力的文件。她报告称，每花费一美元在可用性上都会有可辨认的好处，包括降低程序开发成本、降低维护成本、由于更高的客户满意度而增加的收入，以及提高用户效率和生产率。其他经济分析显示，当设计师从开发项目的开始就考虑可用性时，组织生产力会发生根本性变化（Landauer，1995年），改善幅度高达 。
The necessary pressure for change may also come from the customers themselves. Corporate marketing and customer-assistance departments are becoming more aware of the importance of usability and are a source of constructive encouragement. When competing products provide similar functionality, usability engineering is vital for product acceptance. Today's customers are discerning and expect high quality, and their overall brand loyalty is steadily diminishing. Retaining as well as increasing its customer base can provide a powerful incentive for an organization to improve its focus on interaction design and usability engineering. 变革所需的压力也可能来自客户自身。企业营销和客户协助部门越来越意识到可用性的重要性，并成为建设性鼓励的源泉。当竞争产品提供类似功能时，可用性工程对产品接受至关重要。现今的客户很有洞察力，期望高质量，他们对品牌的忠诚度整体上正在稳步减少。保持并增加客户群可以为组织提供一个改进互动设计和可用性工程关注的强大动力。
Finally, usability engineering is required for certification and standardization in some industries. For example, the aerospace industry has Human Systems Integration (HSI) requirements that deal with a combination of human factors, usability, display design, navigation, and so forth (National Research Council, 2007). 最后，在一些行业的认证和标准化中需要可用性工程。例如，航空航天工业有人体系统整合（HSI）要求，涉及人类因素、可用性、显示设计、导航等（国家研究委员会，2007 年）。
As a result, most large and many small organizations now maintain a centralized human factors group or usability/UX laboratory as a source of 因此，大多数大型和许多小型组织现在都保持一个集中的人因因素团队或可用性/UX 实验室作为一个
expertise in design and testing techniques. In fact, many organizations have created dedicated usability laboratories to provide expert reviews and to conduct usability tests of products during development in carefully supervised conditions (Rubin and Chisnell, 2008). Beyond internal usability teams, outside experts can sometimes provide fresh and unbiased insights on difficult design and usability decisions. These and other evaluation strategies are covered in Chapter 5. 设计和测试技术方面的专业知识。事实上，许多组织已经建立了专门的可用性实验室，以提供专家评审，并在开发过程中在仔细监督的条件下对产品进行可用性测试（Rubin 和 Chisnell，2008 年）。除了内部可用性团队外，外部专家有时可以就困难的设计和可用性决策提供新鲜和无偏见的见解。这些以及其他评估策略将在第 5 章中介绍。
Organizational support for usability testing is not sufficient, however, but should also include the creative parts of the design process. Each project should have its own user-interface architect who develops the necessary skills, manages the work of other people, prepares budgets and schedules, and coordinates with internal and external human-factors professionals when further expertise, references to the literature, or usability tests are required. Organizations with a strong design ethos understand this, and their example can be used in enacting change in more traditional corporations. 然而，对可用性测试的组织支持并不足够，还应包括设计过程的创造性部分。每个项目都应有自己的用户界面架构师，他开发必要的技能，管理其他人的工作，准备预算和时间表，并在需要进一步专业知识、参考文献或可用性测试时与内部和外部人因专业人员协调。具有强烈设计理念的组织明白这一点，他们的示范可以用来在更传统的公司中实施变革。
There are interaction design activities where the ROI for usability analysis during the development cycle is not immediately apparent but true usability of the delivered system is crucial for success. One familiar example is voting machines. An end result of confused, misinterpreted voting results would be catastrophic and counter to the best interests of the voting population, but the usability analysis and associated development costs should be manageable by the government contractor building the electronic voting system. 有互动设计活动，开发周期中的可用性分析的投资回报率并不立即显现，但交付系统的真正可用性对成功至关重要。一个熟悉的例子是投票机。混淆、误解的投票结果将是灾难性的，违背选民的最佳利益，但政府承包商建造电子投票系统时应该能够管理可用性分析和相关开发成本。
As the field of interaction design has matured, projects have grown in complexity, size, and importance. Role specialization is emerging, as it has in fields such as architecture, aerospace, and book design. Interaction design takes on new perspectives when writing web, mobile, or desktop applications, with an emerging discipline in translating the same information across each of these media. Eventually, individuals will become highly skilled in specific problem areas, such as user-interface-building tools, graphic display strategies, voice and audio design, shortcuts, navigation, and online tutorial writing. Consultation with graphic artists, book designers, advertising copywriters, textbook authors, game designers, or animators is expected. Perceptive system developers recognize the need to employ psychologists for conducting experimental tests, sociologists for evaluating organizational impact, educational psychologists for refining training procedures, and social workers for guiding customer-service personnel. 随着互动设计领域的成熟，项目在复杂性、规模和重要性上不断增长。角色专业化正在出现，就像在建筑、航空航天和书籍设计等领域一样。在编写网页、移动或桌面应用程序时，互动设计会从新的角度出发，涉及到在这些媒体之间传递相同信息的新学科。最终，个人将在特定问题领域变得高度熟练，比如用户界面构建工具、图形显示策略、语音和音频设计、快捷方式、导航和在线教程编写等。预计将与图形艺术家、书籍设计师、广告文案撰写人、教科书作者、游戏设计师或动画师进行咨询。富有洞察力的系统开发人员认识到需要聘请心理学家进行实验测试、社会学家评估组织影响、教育心理学家完善培训程序，以及社会工作者指导客户服务人员。
Usability engineers and user-interface architects, sometimes called the user experience (UX) team, are gaining experience in managing organizational change. As attention shifts away from software engineering or managementinformation systems, battles for control and power manifest themselves in budget and personnel allocations. Well-prepared managers who have a concrete organizational plan, defensible cost/benefit analyses, and practical development methodologies are most likely to be winners. 用户体验（UX）团队中的可用性工程师和用户界面架构师，有时被称为用户体验团队，正在积累管理组织变革的经验。随着关注点从软件工程或管理信息系统转移，对控制权和权力的争夺显现在预算和人员配置上。准备充分、具有切实的组织计划、可辩护的成本效益分析和实用的开发方法的管理者最有可能成为赢家。
4.3 The Design Process 4.3 设计过程
Design is inherently creative and unpredictable, regardless of discipline. In the context of interactive systems, successful designers blend a thorough knowledge of technical feasibility with an uncanny aesthetic sense of what attracts and satisfies users. One way to define design is by its operational characteristics (Rosson and Carroll, 2002): 设计本质上是创造性的和不可预测的，无论从哪个学科角度来看。在交互式系统的背景下，成功的设计师将技术可行性的深入了解与对吸引和满足用户的奇异美学的感知相融合。定义设计的一种方式是通过其操作特性（Rosson 和 Carroll，2002 年）：
Design is a process; it is not a state, and it cannot be adequately represented statically. 设计是一个过程；它不是一个状态，也不能静态地充分代表它。
The design process is nonhierarchical; it is neither strictly bottom-up nor strictly top-down. 设计过程是非层次性的；它既不是完全自底向上，也不是完全自顶向下。
The process is radically transformational; it involves the development of partial and interim solutions that may ultimately play no role in the final design. 这个过程是彻底变革的；它涉及到部分和临时解决方案的开发，这些解决方案最终可能在最终设计中发挥不了任何作用。
Design intrinsically involves the discovery of new goals. 设计本质上涉及新目标的发现。
These characterizations of design convey the dynamic nature of the process. An iterative design process based on this operational definition would consist of four distinct phases (Fig. 3.1): requirements analysis (Phase 1), preliminary and detailed design (Phase 2), build and implementation (Phase 3), and evaluation (Phase 4). This is a bare-bones process that describes its overall structure; individual applications of this process in specific design teams and for specific design artifacts will differ in terms of the frameworks, methods, and tools used. The primary feature of this process is that it is iterative and cyclical; unlike linear 这些对设计的描述传达了过程的动态性质。基于这一操作定义的迭代设计过程将包括四个不同阶段（图 3.1）：需求分析（阶段 1）、初步和详细设计（阶段 2）、构建和实施（阶段 3）以及评估（阶段 4）。这是一个描述其总体结构的基本过程；特定设计团队和特定设计工件对这一过程的个别应用在所使用的框架、方法和工具方面会有所不同。这一过程的主要特点是它是迭代和周期性的；与线性。
FIGURE 4.1 图 4.1
An iterative design process for interaction design. 交互设计的迭代设计过程。
waterfall models where one phase of a pipeline feeds the next, our design process repeats each phase over and over until the final product is of acceptable quality. Second, there are several cross-cutting factors that contribute to each phase of the cycle, including academic and user research, guidelines and standards, and tools and patterns. Each of these is described below. 瀑布模型中，管道的一个阶段将下一个阶段的数据传递，我们的设计过程重复每个阶段，直到最终产品达到可接受的质量。其次，有几个横切因素影响循环的每个阶段，包括学术和用户研究、指南和标准，以及工具和模式。每个因素将在下文中描述。
Our focus here is purely on the human and social aspects of an interactive system or product, but the overall design process encompasses also technical aspects. Many technical design processes, such as in software engineering, follow a similar four-phase cycle, allowing interaction design and engineering to be integrated with them easily. 我们这里的重点纯粹在于交互系统或产品的人类和社会方面，但整体设计过程也包括技术方面。许多技术设计过程，如软件工程，遵循类似的四阶段循环，使交互设计和工程能够轻松集成其中。
This phase collects all of the necessary requirements for an interactive system or device and yields a requirements specification or document as its outcome. In general, soliciting, capturing, and specifying user requirements are major keys to success in any development activity (Selby, 2007). Methods to elicit and reach agreement upon interaction requirements differ across organizations and industries, but the end result is the same: a clear specification of the user community and the tasks the users perform. 该阶段收集交互系统或设备的所有必要需求，并产生一个需求规范或文档作为其结果。一般来说，征集、捕获和规定用户需求是任何开发活动成功的关键（Selby，2007）。引出和达成交互需求一致的方法在组织和行业之间有所不同，但最终结果是相同的：对用户群体和用户执行的任务的明确规范。
Collecting interaction design requirements is part of the overall requirements analysis and management phase and often has a direct impact on the engineering aspects of the design; for example, a finger painting app requires a multitouch display with low touch latency. Thus, even requirements documents written specifically for user experience and interaction design aspects are often specified in terms of three components (see Box 4.1 for specific examples): 收集交互设计需求是整体需求分析和管理阶段的一部分，并经常直接影响设计的工程方面；例如，一个手指绘画应用程序需要具有低触摸延迟的多点触控显示屏。因此，即使专门为用户体验和交互设计方面编写的需求文档通常也以三个组件的术语规定（请参见具体示例见框 4.1）。
Functional requirements define specific behavior that the system should support (often captured in so-called use cases, see below); 功能需求定义了系统应支持的具体行为（通常在所谓的用例中捕获，见下文）;
Non-functional requirements specify overall criteria governing the operation of the interactive system without being tied to a specific action or behavior (hardware, software, system performance, reliability, etc.); and 非功能需求指定了规范整体标准，管理交互系统的操作，而不与特定操作或行为相关（硬件、软件、系统性能、可靠性等）; 和
User experience requirements explicitly specify non-functional requirements for the user interaction and user interface of the interactive system (navigation, input, colors, etc.). 用户体验需求明确指定了交互系统的用户交互和用户界面的非功能需求（导航、输入、颜色等）。
Requirements documents provide a shared understanding between the members of the product team. The success or failure of software projects often depends on the precision and completeness of this understanding between all the designers, developers, and users. What happens without adequate requirements definition? You are not sure what problem you are solving, and you do not know when you are done. 需求文档为产品团队成员之间提供了共同的理解。软件项目的成功或失败往往取决于所有设计师、开发人员和用户之间这种理解的准确性和完整性。如果没有充分的需求定义会发生什么？您不确定自己正在解决什么问题，也不知道何时才算完成。
Box 4.1 gives an example of interaction design requirements for an e-commerce website, an ATM, and a mobile messaging app. Be careful not to Box 4.1 提供了电子商务网站、ATM 和移动消息应用的交互设计需求的示例。要小心，不要
BOX 4.1
Examples of requirements regarding system behavior for three distinct types of interactive systems: an e-commerce website, an ATM, and a mobile messaging app. 对于三种不同类型的交互式系统（电子商务网站、ATM 和移动消息应用程序）的系统行为要求示例：
Functional requirements: 功能需求：
Website: The website shall allow users to purchase items and shall provide other, related merchandise based on past visits and purchases. 网站：该网站应允许用户购买物品，并应根据过去的访问和购买提供其他相关商品。
ATM: The system shall let users enter a PIN code as identification and shall ensure that the code matches the one on file. ATM：系统应允许用户输入 PIN 码作为身份验证，并确保该码与档案中的码匹配。
Mobile app: The app shall be able to send messages at all times, even when out of the service area (in which case they are saved for later sending). 移动应用程序：该应用程序应能够随时发送消息，即使在服务区域之外（在这种情况下，消息将被保存以便稍后发送）。
Non-functional requirements: 非功能性需求：
Website: The website shall give users the ability to access their user account at all times, allowing them to view and modify name, mail address, e-mail address, phone, etc. 网站: 网站应始终使用户能够访问其用户帐户，可以查看和修改名称、邮寄地址、电子邮件地址、电话等。
ATM: The system shall permit the ATM customer 15 seconds to make a selection. The customer shall be warned that the session will be ended if no selection is made. 自动取款机: 该系统应允许自动取款机客户 15 秒钟进行选择。如果客户未做出选择，系统应会提醒客户会话将结束。
Mobile app: Messages should send within 2 seconds, returning the user to the new message window (continuing in the background if necessary). 移动应用: 消息应在 2 秒内发送，并将用户带回新消息窗口（必要时在后台继续发送）。
User experience requirements: 用户体验要求：
Website: The website shall always have a visible navigation menu in the same position on the screen. 网站：网站应始终在屏幕上相同位置具有可见的导航菜单。
ATM: On-screen prompts and instructions shall be clear and accessible. The ATM should return the user's commands within half a second. ATM：屏幕提示和指示应清晰易懂。ATM 应在半秒内返回用户的命令。
Mobile app: The mobile app shall support customization such as color schemes, skins, and sounds. 移动应用程序：移动应用程序应支持自定义功能，如颜色方案、外观和声音。
impose human operator actions (requirements) onto the interaction design requirements. For example, it is best not to specify a requirement like this: "The user shall decide how much to withdraw from the ATM within 15 seconds." Rather, allocate that same requirement to the computer system: "The ATM shall permit a user 15 seconds to select a withdrawal amount ... before prompting for a response." 将人工操作行为（要求）应用于交互设计要求。例如，最好不要指定像这样的要求：“用户应在 15 秒内决定从 ATM 机中取出多少钱。”相反，将同样的要求分配给计算机系统：“ATM 机允许用户在选择取款金额之前有 15 秒的时间...然后提示输入。”
While it is possible to write functional requirements as simply an informal list of actions (as in Box 4.1), the concept of a use case from software engineering can come in handy here because of its direct connection to users and interaction. Put simply, a use case is a formalized scenario that captures an operation between an actor and the system (in general software engineering, the actor could be 虽然可以将功能要求简单地写成非正式的操作列表（如框 4.1 所示），但软件工程中的用例概念在这里非常有用，因为它与用户和交互直接相关。简单来说，用例是捕捉一个参与者和系统之间操作的形式化场景（在一般的软件工程中，参与者可以是
another system, but the focus is on human users here) in a step-by-step manner. The rule is that a system should simply be a sum of its use cases: No functionality should be implemented that does not explicitly support at least one use case. This also gives a straightforward recipe for evaluating the system (in Phase 4); if all use cases can be completed successfully, the system is correct and valid. 另一个系统，但重点是人类用户，在这里以逐步方式。规则是，系统应该简单地是其用例的总和：不应该实现任何不明确支持至少一个用例的功能。这也为评估系统提供了一个直接的方法（在第 4 阶段）；如果所有用例都能成功完成，系统就是正确和有效的。
Several methods exist for actually collecting and analyzing interaction design requirements, including ethnographic observation, focus groups, and user interviews. Common among all of these is that they are intended to monitor the context and environment of real users, either in action or in their own words. Section 4.5 describes these methods in detail. Tradeoffs between what functions are done best by computers versus humans in human-computer interaction (Section 3.3.6) should also be discussed at this point in the development process. 实际收集和分析交互设计需求的几种方法存在，包括人类学观察、焦点小组和用户访谈。所有这些方法的共同之处在于它们旨在监视真实用户的环境和背景，无论是在行动中还是用他们自己的话语。第 4.5 节详细描述了这些方法。在开发过程中，应该讨论计算机与人类在人机交互中哪些功能做得最好之间的权衡（第 3.3.6 节）。
4.3.2 Phase 2: Preliminary and detailed design 4.3.2 阶段 2：初步和详细设计
The core of the design process is realizing the requirements from the previous phase. The design phase in turn consists of two stages: a preliminary stage, where the high-level design or architecture of the interactive system is derived, and a detailed stage, where the specifics of each interaction are planned out. The outcome from the design phase is a detailed design document. 设计过程的核心是实现前一阶段的要求。设计阶段又分为两个阶段：初步阶段，在此阶段推导交互系统的高级设计或架构；详细阶段，在此阶段规划每个交互的具体细节。设计阶段的结果是详细的设计文档。
The preliminary design is also known as architectural design, and in engineering settings this stage often entails deriving the architecture of the system. For user experience and interaction design, preliminary design consists of mapping out the high-level concepts such as the user, controls, interface displays, navigation mechanisms, and overall workflow. Preliminary design can also be called conceptual design, particularly in software engineering, because it is sometimes useful to organize the high-level concepts into a conceptual map with their relations. Overall, this activity is about developing the mental model that users should have about the interactive system when using it. Is your system focused on a central view, such as a map or a table, or is it a sequence of forms or a set of linked displays? Is it an app that integrates with other apps to pop up on demand, or is it intended for focused, sustained use? These are questions to answer and refine during this stage. 初步设计也称为建筑设计，在工程环境中，这个阶段通常涉及到推导系统的架构。对于用户体验和交互设计，初步设计包括绘制高层次的概念，如用户、控件、界面显示、导航机制和整体工作流程。初步设计也可以被称为概念设计，特别是在软件工程领域，因为有时将高层概念组织成概念图以显示它们之间的关系是很有用的。总体而言，这个活动的目的是在用户使用交互系统时培养用户应该拥有的心理模型。你的系统重点是中心视图，比如地图或表格，还是一系列表单或一组链接的显示？它是一个与其他应用程序集成以按需弹出的应用，还是用于专注、持续使用的应用？在这个阶段要回答和完善这些问题。
The high-level concepts and their relations provide a starting point for the detailed design. This stage entails planning out all of the operations that take place between user and interactive system to a level where only implementation and technical details remain. Regardless whether you are using the use case concept discussed in the previous section, this can be done by creating and refining a step-by-step list for the exchanges between the user and the system. 高级概念及其关系为详细设计提供了一个起点。这个阶段涉及规划用户与交互系统之间发生的所有操作，直到只剩下实施和技术细节。无论您是否使用前一节讨论的用例概念，都可以通过创建和完善用户与系统之间交流的逐步列表来完成。
One difficulty in designing interactive systems is that customers and users may not have a clear idea of what the system will look like when it is done. Since interactive systems are novel in many situations, users may not realize the implications of design decisions. Unfortunately, it is difficult, costly, and 设计交互式系统的一个困难在于客户和用户可能不清楚系统完成后会是什么样子。由于在许多情况下交互式系统是新颖的，用户可能没有意识到设计决策的影响。不幸的是，这是困难的、昂贵的、
time-consuming to make major changes to systems once those systems have been implemented. Although this problem has no complete solution, some of the more serious difficulties can be avoided if, at an early stage, the customers and users can be given a realistic impression of what the final system will look like. Suitable methods for the design phase should thus go beyond eliciting the needs of the users and instead find ways to fulfill these needs. 实施后对系统进行重大更改是耗时的。尽管这个问题没有完全的解决方案，但如果在早期阶段能让客户和用户对最终系统的外观有一个现实的印象，一些更严重的困难就可以避免。因此，设计阶段的适当方法应该超越满足用户需求，而是找到实现这些需求的方法。
Examples of suitable design methods include sketching, paper mockups, and high-fidelity prototypes. Furthermore, all methods can be informed through the use of tools, patterns, and best practices. For example, guidelines documents give direction on specific design choices, such as menu design, display layout, and navigation techniques. Patterns suggest effective ways to design an interface, such as single-page applications for websites or multi-document interfaces for desktop tools. Dedicated wireframing tools allow for rapidly creating mockups of a design. Section 4.6 discusses these tools and patterns in depth. 适当的设计方法示例包括草图、纸质模型和高保真原型。此外，所有方法都可以通过工具、模式和最佳实践来提高。例如，指南文件指导特定设计选择，如菜单设计、显示布局和导航技术。模式建议设计界面的有效方式，例如网站的单页面应用程序或桌面工具的多文档界面。专用线框工具可快速创建设计的模型。第 4.6 节深入讨论了这些工具和模式。
4.3.3 Phase 3: Build and implementation 4.3.3 第三阶段：构建和实施
The implementation phase is where all of the careful (or not very careful at all, depending on your design approach; see the agile development framework in Section 4.4.1) planning gets turned into actual, running code. The outcome from this phase is a working system, albeit not necessarily the final one. The actual software and hardware engineering needed to achieve this are outside the scope of this book. It is worth, however, briefly mentioning some suitable software development platforms for interactive applications based on your computing platform: 实施阶段是所有谨慎（或者根据您的设计方法也可能是不太谨慎；请参见第 4.4.1 节中的敏捷开发框架）规划转化为实际运行代码的阶段。这个阶段的结果是一个运行系统，尽管不一定是最终系统。实现这一点需要的实际软件和硬件工程超出了本书的范围。值得一提的是，根据您的计算平台，一些适合互动应用的软件开发平台：
Mobile: Building mobile apps typically requires using the SDK (software development kit) and development environment provided by the manufacturer of the operating system: the Android SDK in Java, the Apple iOS SDK in Objective-C, and the Windows Phone/Mobile SDKs. Most of these SDKs require registering as a developer to have access to the app exchange for making your app available to general users. Since mobile app development typically is cross-platform-the development is actually conducted on a personal computer-all of these SDKs include emulators for testing the app on a virtual phone residing on the personal computer itself. 移动端：构建移动应用通常需要使用操作系统制造商提供的 SDK（软件开发工具包）和开发环境：Java 中的 Android SDK，Objective-C 中的 Apple iOS SDK 和 Windows Phone/Mobile 的 SDK。大部分这些 SDK 需要注册成为开发者才能访问应用交流，这样才能让您的应用对一般用户可用。由于移动应用通常是跨平台的——开发实际上是在个人电脑上进行的——所有这些 SDK 都包括模拟器，以便在个人电脑上模拟测试应用程序在虚拟电话上的表现。
Web: The browser has become a ubiquitous information access platform, and modern web technologies are both pervasive and full-featured to the point that they can emulate or replace traditional computer software. Web applications and services typically consist of both client and server software: Client-side software runs in the user's browser and is accordingly built in JavaScript-the programming language of the browser-whereas server-side software runs on the web server or connected hosts and is often implemented in languages such as PHP, Ruby, Java, or even JavaScript (using Node.js). Web: 浏览器已成为一个无处不在的信息访问平台，现代网络技术在功能上异常强大，可以模拟或取代传统的电脑软件。Web 应用程序和服务通常由客户端和服务器端软件组成：客户端软件在用户的浏览器中运行，并且通常使用 JavaScript 语言进行开发；而服务器端软件运行在 Web 服务器或连接的主机上，并且通常使用 PHP、Ruby、Java 甚至 JavaScript（使用 Node.js）等语言进行实现。
A recent change in web development has been to build mobile apps using web technologies; the resulting app runs in a dedicated browser instance and is almost indistinguishable from a normal app built using the native SDK yet has the benefit of being cross-platform across different mobile operating systems. 最近，在 Web 开发中出现了一种使用 Web 技术构建移动应用程序的方式；由此产生的应用程序在专用的浏览器实例中运行，几乎和使用原生 SDK 构建的普通应用程序无法区分，同时又能够跨不同的移动操作系统进行平台适配。
Personal Computers: Developing dedicated applications for a personal computer typically requires using the native SDKs for the specific operating system. Development environments such as Microsoft's Visual Basic/C++ are easy to get started with yet have an excellent set of features. C# and the .NET Framework are other good candidates for your project. For cross-platform software development that works regardless of operating system, Oracle's is a popular choice. People who want to write their own Java programs can use the Java Development (JDK). 个人计算机：为个人计算机开发专用应用程序通常需要使用特定操作系统的本机 SDK。开发环境，如微软的 Visual Basic/C++，易于入门，同时具有出色的功能集。C# 和 .NET 框架是您项目的其他不错选择。对于跨平台软件开发，无论操作系统如何，Oracle 的 都是一个受欢迎的选择。想要编写自己的 Java 程序的人可以使用 Java 开发 (JDK)。
Regardless of platform, make sure to evaluate tool capabilities, ease of use, ease to learn, cost, and performance. Tailor your tool choices for the size of the job. Building a software architecture that supports your user-interface project is just as important as it is for any other (particularly large-scale) software development activity. 无论平台如何，请确保评估工具的功能、易用性、易学性、成本和性能。根据工作量量身定制您的工具选择。构建支持用户界面项目的软件架构与任何其他（特别是大规模）软件开发活动一样重要。
4.3.4 Phase 4: Evaluation 4.3.4 阶段 4：评估
In the final phase of the design cycle, developers test and validate the system implementation to ensure that it conforms to the requirements and design set out earlier in the process. The outcome of the validation process is a validation report specifying test performance. As discussed above, a straightforward approach to validate a system specified using use cases is simply to check that each use case can be completed successfully. Since an interactive system is the sum of all of its conceivable user operations, such a test covers all of the system functionality. Depending on this outcome, the design team can decide to proceed with production and deployment of the system or to continue another cycle through the design process. 在设计周期的最后阶段，开发人员测试和验证系统实施，以确保其符合先前在流程中设定的要求和设计。验证过程的结果是一个指定测试性能的验证报告。如上所述，验证使用用例指定的系统的简单方法是简单地检查每个用例是否可以成功完成。由于交互式系统是其所有可想象的用户操作的总和，这样的测试涵盖了所有系统功能。根据这一结果，设计团队可以决定继续生产和部署系统，或者通过设计流程继续另一个周期。
Validation is a vital part of the design process. Theatrical producers know that extensive rehearsals and previews for critics are necessary to ensure a successful opening night. Early rehearsals may involve only the key performers wearing street clothes, but as opening night approaches, dress rehearsals with the full cast, props, and lighting are required. Aircraft designers carry out windtunnel tests, build plywood mockups of the cabin layout, construct complete simulations of the cockpit, and thoroughly flight-test the first prototype. Similarly, website designers know that they must carry out many small and some large pilot tests of components before release to customers (Rubin and Chisnell, 2008). In addition to a variety of expert review methods, tests with the intended users, surveys, and automated analysis tools are proving to be 验证是设计过程中至关重要的一部分。剧场制作人知道，为了确保成功的首演，需要进行大量的排练和面向评论家的预演。早期的排练可能只涉及主要演员穿着便装，但随着首演日期的临近，需要进行全体演员、道具和灯光的彩排。飞机设计师进行风洞测试，制作飞机舱布局的胶合板模型，构建驾驶舱的完整模拟，并对第一架原型机进行彻底的飞行测试。同样，网站设计师知道他们必须在发布给客户之前进行许多小型和一些大型的组件试验（Rubin 和 Chisnell，2008）。除了各种专家审查方法外，与预期用户的测试、调查和自动分析工具正在证明其价值。根据可用性研究的目标、预期用户数量、错误危险性和投资水平的不同，程序会有很大的变化。第 5 章深入介绍了这个阶段的一系列适当的评估方法。
valuable. Procedures vary greatly depending on the goals of the usability study, the number of expected users, the danger of errors, and the level of investment. Chapter 5 covers a range of suitable evaluation methods for this phase in depth. 有价值的。程序的具体步骤会根据可用性研究的目标、预期用户数量、错误危险性和投资水平的不同而有所不同。第 5 章详细介绍了这个阶段适用的一系列评估方法。
4.4 Design Frameworks 4.4 设计框架
While the design process discussed above generally should remain the same for all your projects, the approach to performing it may vary. The concept of design frameworks captures this idea: the specific flavor and approach the design takes to conducting the design process. More specifically, interaction design practice over the past few decades has unearthed several unique approaches to conducting the design process. This section reviews the concepts of user-centered design (UCD), participatory design (PD), and the nascent idea of agile interaction design. 虽然上面讨论的设计过程通常对于所有项目应该保持不变，但执行它的方法可能会有所不同。设计框架的概念捕捉了这个想法：设计所采取的具体风格和方法来执行设计过程。更具体地说，过去几十年的交互设计实践已经发掘出了几种独特的执行设计过程的方法。本节回顾了用户中心设计（UCD）、参与式设计（PD）以及敏捷交互设计这一新兴理念的概念。
4.4.1 User-centered design 4.4.1 用户中心设计
Many software development projects fail to achieve their goals; some estimates of the failure rate put it as high as (Jones, 2005). Much of this problem can be traced to poor communication between developers and their business clients or between developers and their users. The result is often systems and interfaces that force the users to adapt and change their behavior to fit the interface rather than an interface that is customized to the needs of the users. 许多软件开发项目无法实现其目标；一些估计的失败率高达 （Jones，2005）。这个问题的很大一部分可以归因于开发人员与业务客户之间或开发人员与用户之间的沟通不畅。结果往往是系统和界面迫使用户去适应和改变他们的行为以适应界面，而不是一个根据用户需求定制的界面。
User-centered design (UCD) is a counterpoint to this fallacy and prescribes a design process that primarily takes the needs, wants, and limitations of the actual end users into account during each phase of the design process (Lowdermilk, 2013). Directly involving the intended users in the process constantly challenges the assumptions of the design team about user behavior in the real world and gives designers a much-needed understanding of what their users actually need. In particular, careful attention to user-centered design issues during the early stages of software development dramatically reduces both development time and cost. UCD leads to systems that generate fewer problems during development and have lower maintenance costs over their lifetimes. They are easier to learn, result in faster performance, reduce user errors substantially, and encourage users to explore features that go beyond the minimum required to get by. Most importantly, UCD reduces the risk of designers building the "wrong system": a system that the end users neither need nor asked for. In addition, user-centered design practices help organizations align system functionality with their business needs and priorities. 用户中心设计（UCD）是与此谬误相对立的，并规定了一个设计过程，主要在设计的每个阶段中考虑实际用户的需求、愿望和限制。（Lowdermilk，2013）。直接将预期用户纳入过程中，不断挑战设计团队对用户在现实世界中行为的假设，并使设计师更好地理解他们的用户所真正需要的。特别是在软件开发的早期阶段，对用户中心设计问题的仔细关注极大地减少了开发时间和成本。用户中心设计导致的系统在开发过程中出现的问题更少，其生命周期的维护成本较低。它们更容易学习，性能更快，大大减少用户的错误，并鼓励用户探索超越最低需求的功能。最重要的是，用户中心设计降低了设计师构建“错误系统”的风险：一种既不需要也没有被要求的系统。 此外，以用户为中心的设计实践有助于组织将系统功能与其业务需求和优先事项保持一致。
While the main premise of UCD-user involvement-is straightforward, it is also its most significant challenge. For example, finding users may be difficult 尽管 UCD（用户参与）的主要前提很简单，但也是最重要的挑战。例如，找到用户可能会很困难
because of the need to select a manageable number of representative users, because the users may be unable or unwilling to participate, and because the users often lack the technical expertise needed to communicate effectively with the designers. Even when these challenges have been overcome, many users may not have a clear understanding of what they need in the new system or product. Successful developers work carefully to understand the business's needs and refine their skills in eliciting accurate requirements from nontechnical business managers. In addition, since business managers may lack the technical knowledge to understand proposals made by the developers, dialogue is necessary to reduce confusion about the organizational implications of design decisions. 因为需要选择一定数量的代表性用户，因为用户可能无法或不愿参与，因为用户通常缺乏与设计师有效沟通所需的技术专业知识。即使这些挑战已经克服，许多用户可能并不清楚他们在新系统或产品中需要什么。成功的开发人员会认真了解业务需求，并提高从非技术业务经理那里获取准确需求的技能。此外，由于业务经理可能缺乏理解开发人员提出的建议的技术知识，因此有必要进行对话，以减少关于设计决策的组织影响的混乱。
4.4.2 Participatory design 4.4.2 参与式设计
Going beyond user-centered design, participatory design (PD) (also known as cooperative design in Scandinavia) is the direct involvement of people in the collaborative design of the things and technologies they use. The arguments in favor suggest that more user involvement brings more accurate information about tasks and an opportunity for users to influence design decisions. The sense of participation that builds users' ego investment in successful implementation may be the biggest influence on increased user acceptance of the final system (Kujala, 2003; Muller and Druin, 2012). On the other hand, extensive user involvement may be costly and may lengthen the implementation period. It may also generate antagonism from people who are not involved or whose suggestions are rejected and potentially force designers to compromise their designs to satisfy incompetent participants. 超越用户中心设计，参与式设计（PD）（在斯堪的纳维亚地区也被称为合作设计）是让人们直接参与协作设计他们使用的事物和技术。支持这种设计的论点认为，更多用户参与可以带来关于任务的更准确信息，并为用户影响设计决策提供机会。用户参与建立的参与感可能是增加用户对最终系统接受度的最大影响因素（Kujala，2003；Muller 和 Druin，2012）。另一方面，广泛的用户参与可能成本高昂，可能延长实施周期。它还可能引起未参与或其建议被拒绝的人的敌意，并可能迫使设计师妥协他们的设计以满足无能的参与者。
Participatory design experiences are usually positive, however, and advocates can point to many important contributions that would have been missed without user participation. Many variations of participatory design have been proposed that engage participants to create dramatic performances, photography exhibits, games, or merely sketches and written scenarios. For example, users can be asked to sketch interfaces and use slips of paper, pieces of plastic, and tape to create low-fidelity early prototypes. A scenario walkthrough can be recorded on video for presentation to managers, users, or other designers. High-fidelity prototypes and simulations can also be key in eliciting user requirements. 参与式设计体验通常是积极的，倡导者可以指出许多重要的贡献，如果没有用户参与，这些贡献可能会被忽视。已经提出了许多变体的参与式设计，让参与者创作戏剧表演、摄影展览、游戏，或者仅仅是草图和书面情景。例如，可以要求用户草绘界面，并使用纸片、塑料片和胶带来创建低保真的早期原型。情景演练可以录制成视频，用于向管理者、用户或其他设计师展示。高保真的原型和模拟也可以是引出用户需求的关键。
Careful selection of users helps to build a successful participatory design experience. A competitive selection increases participants' sense of importance and emphasizes the seriousness of the project. Participants may be asked to commit to repeated meetings and should be told what to expect about their roles and their influence. They may have to learn about the technology and business plans of the organization and be asked to act as a communication channel to the larger group of users that they represent. 精心选择用户有助于打造成功的参与式设计体验。竞争性选择会增加参与者的重要感，并强调项目的严肃性。参与者可能会被要求承诺参加多次会议，并应告知他们关于自己角色和影响的预期。他们可能需要了解组织的技术和商业计划，并被要求充当代表的更大用户群体的沟通渠道。
The social and political environment surrounding the implementation of complex interfaces is not amenable to study by rigidly defined methods or controlled experimentation. Social and industrial psychologists are interested in these issues, but dependable research and implementation strategies may never emerge. The sensitive project leader must judge each case on its merits and must decide on the correct level of user involvement. The personalities of the participatory design team members are such critical determinants that experts in group dynamics and social psychology may be useful as consultants. Many questions remain to be studied, such as whether homogeneous or diverse groups are more successful, how to tailor processes for small and large groups, and how to balance decision-making control between typical users and professional designers. 在复杂界面实施周围的社会和政治环境不适合通过严格定义的方法或受控实验来研究。社会和工业心理学家对这些问题感兴趣，但可靠的研究和实施策略可能永远不会出现。敏感的项目领导者必须根据情况判断每个案例，并决定正确的用户参与水平。参与式设计团队成员的个性是如此关键的决定因素，团队动态和社会心理学专家可能会作为顾问有用。还有许多问题有待研究，例如同质或多样化群体更成功，如何为小型和大型群体量身定制流程，以及如何在典型用户和专业设计师之间平衡决策控制。
The experienced interaction designer knows that organizational politics and the preferences of individuals may be more important than technical issues in governing the success of an interactive system. For example, warehouse managers who see their positions threatened by an interactive system that provides senior managers with up-to-date information through digital displays may try to ensure that the system fails by delaying data entry or by being less than diligent in guaranteeing data accuracy. The interaction designer should take into account the system's effect on users and should solicit their participation to ensure that all concerns are made explicit early enough to avoid counterproductive efforts and resistance to change. Novelty is threatening to many people, so clear statements about what to expect can be helpful in reducing anxiety. 有经验的交互设计师知道，组织政治和个人偏好可能比技术问题更重要，影响交互系统的成功。例如，仓库经理可能会感到自己的职位受到威胁，因为交互系统通过数字显示提供给高级经理最新信息，他们可能会通过延迟数据输入或在保证数据准确性方面不够勤勉来确保系统失败。交互设计师应考虑系统对用户的影响，并征求他们的参与，以确保所有关注点在早期得到明确表达，避免产生适得其反的努力和对变革的抵制。新颖性对许多人来说是威胁，因此关于预期的明确陈述可以帮助减少焦虑。
Ideas about participatory design are being refined with diverse users, ranging from children to older adults. Arranging for participation is difficult for some users, such as those with cognitive disabilities or those whose time is limited (for example, surgeons). The levels of participation are becoming clearer; one taxonomy describes the roles of children in developing interfaces for children, older adults in developing interfaces whose typical users will be other older adults, and so on, with roles varying from testers to informants to partners (Druin, 2002; Fig. 4.2). Testers are merely observed as they try out novel designs, while informants comment to designers through interviews and focus groups. The key characteristic of participatory design is that the design partners are active, first-class members of the product design team. 与不同年龄层的用户（从儿童到老年人）一起，对参与式设计的想法正在不断完善。为一些用户安排参与是困难的，比如那些认知障碍或时间有限（比如外科医生）的用户。参与的级别变得更加清晰；一个分类法描述了儿童在开发儿童界面中的角色，老年人在开发典型用户为其他老年人的界面中的角色，等等，角色从测试者到信息提供者到合作伙伴不等（Druin, 2002; 图 4.2）。测试者仅仅被观察，因为他们尝试新颖的设计，而信息提供者则通过访谈和焦点小组向设计师发表意见。参与式设计的关键特点是设计合作伙伴是产品设计团队的积极，一流成员。
4.4.3 Agile interaction design 4.4.3 敏捷交互设计
Traditional design processes can be described as heavyweight in that they require significant investments in time, manpower, and resources to be successful. In particular, such processes are often not sufficiently reactive to today's fast-moving markets and dynamic user audiences. Originally hailing from software engineering, agile development is a family of development methods for self-organizing, dynamic teams that facilitate flexible, adaptive, and rapid 传统的设计过程可以被描述为沉重，因为它们需要在时间、人力和资源上进行相当大的投资才能取得成功。特别是，这些过程通常对今天快速变化的市场和动态的用户群体反应不够迅速。敏捷开发最初源自软件工程，它是一套用于自组织、动态团队的开发方法，可以促进灵活、适应性和快速的开发。
FIGURE 4.2 图 4.2
Intergenerational and interdisciplinary design team from the University of Maryland's KidsTeam working on new human-computer interaction technologies using paper prototypes (http://hcil.umd.edu/children-as-design-partners/). 马里兰大学的 KidsTeam 跨代、跨学科设计团队正在使用纸质原型开发新的人机交互技术（http://hcil.umd.edu/children-as-design-partners/）。
development that is robust to changing requirements and needs. These methods are based on evolutionary development, where software is built incrementally and in rapid release cycles. Similarly, rapid prototyping comes from manufacturing disciplines and describes a family of techniques for quickly fabricating physical parts or assemblies using computer-aided design (CAD). Both methods counter traditional heavyweight processes that have plagued design and facilitate a more flexible and, indeed, agile approach to design. Taken together, the methods can also be applied to interaction design to enable the rapid creation of interactive systems to meet user needs. In fact, taking users and usability into account during agile development may help to address a common weakness of agile development methods: Constant interface changes due to continuous iterative design may lead to inconsistent and confusing user experience poorly matched to the user. 开发应对不断变化的需求和需求的方法。这些方法基于演进式开发，其中软件是按增量和快速发布周期构建的。同样，快速原型制作源自制造学科，并描述了一系列利用计算机辅助设计（CAD）快速制造物理零件或组件的技术。这两种方法对抗传统的繁重流程，这些流程一直困扰着设计，并促进了更灵活、确实更敏捷的设计方法。综合考虑，这些方法也可以应用于交互设计，以实现快速创建满足用户需求的交互式系统。事实上，在敏捷开发过程中考虑用户和可用性可能有助于解决敏捷开发方法的一个常见弱点：由于持续迭代设计导致不一致和令人困惑的用户体验，这种体验与用户不匹配。
Thus, agile interaction design uses lightweight design processes that facilitate the incremental and iterative nature of agile software developments. Instead of 因此，敏捷交互设计使用轻量级设计流程，促进了敏捷软件开发的增量和迭代特性。与其
FIGURE 4.3 图 4.3
Professor Jon Froehlich and his students working in the HCIL Hackerspace at University of Maryland, College Park. 乔恩·弗罗利奇教授及其学生在马里兰大学学院园区的 HCIL 黑客空间工作。
costly and time-consuming documentation, high-fidelity prototypes, and usability evaluation and workshops that are common to heavyweight design processes, agile interaction design will use sketches, low-fidelity mockups, and fast usability inspections (Gundelsweiler et al., 2004). This enables practical and pragmatic design, short development cycles, and dynamic designs that are responsive to changing needs. Good resources for more information on agile interaction design and extreme usability (XU) can be found in Ambler . 昂贵且耗时的文档、高保真原型、以及常见于重型设计流程的可用性评估和研讨会，敏捷交互设计将使用草图、低保真模型和快速可用性检查（Gundelsweiler 等，2004 年）。这使得实用和务实的设计、短周期开发以及对变化需求响应灵活的设计成为可能。关于敏捷交互设计和极端可用性（XU）的更多信息，请参阅 Ambler 。
The contemporary "maker culture" movement on technology-based tinkering and manufacturing is a prime example of agile methods in action, where the focus is heavily on rapid and informal experimentation and prototyping by like-minded individuals gathering in so-called makerspaces, hackerspaces, or fablabs. Fig. 4.3 shows the Hackerspace at University of Maryland, College Park. For more information on maker culture, see Anderson (2014). 当代的“创客文化”运动是技术为基础的修补和制造的一个典型例子，其中重点是由志同道合的个人聚集在所谓的创客空间、黑客空间或者制造实验室中进行快速和非正式的实验和原型制作。图 4.3 展示了马里兰大学学院园区的黑客空间。有关创客文化的更多信息，请参阅 Anderson（2014 年）。
4.5 Design Methods 4.5 设计方法
Design methods are the practical building blocks that form the actual day-today activities in the design process. There are dozens of design methods in the literature, but designers may want to focus on the most common ones (discussed 设计方法是构成设计过程中实际日常活动的实用构件。文献中存在数十种设计方法，但设计者可能希望专注于最常见的方法（详见下文）。有关特定方法或超出这些方法的其他方法的更多详细信息，请参阅 Holtzblatt 和 Beyer（2014）和 Jacko（2012）。
below). See Holtzblatt and Beyer (2014) and Jacko (2012) for more details on specific methods or additional methods beyond these.
What is the relation between design frameworks and design methods? It is certainly true that specific design frameworks have an affinity to specific design methods; for example, participatory and user-centered design tends to incorporate a lot of ethnographic observation, whereas rapid and agile development employs sketching to a high degree. However, the design frameworks also provide a flavor for the overall process and each of the design methods: An agile approach to sketching will focus on collecting quick ideas from the design team, whereas a user-centered or participatory approach will let the intended users themselves be part of the sketching process. The description below discusses such variations and affinities. 设计框架与设计方法之间的关系是什么？特定的设计框架确实与特定的设计方法有亲和力；例如，参与式和用户中心的设计倾向于大量融入民族志观察，而快速和敏捷开发则高度运用素描。然而，设计框架也为整个过程和每种设计方法提供了一种风格：对素描的敏捷方法将侧重于从设计团队快速收集想法，而用户中心或参与式方法将让预期用户自己参与素描过程。下面的描述讨论了这些变化和亲和力。
4.5.1 Ideation and creativity 4.5.1 构思和创造力
One way to think about design is as an incremental fixation of the solution space, where the range of possible solutions is gradually whittled down until only a single solution exists. This is the final product or service that then goes on to ship and be deployed. Gradually reducing the solution space in this manner is called convergence or convergent thinking, particularly for teams of designers 一种思考设计的方式是将其视为解决方案空间的逐步固定，即可能解决方案的范围逐渐减少，直到只剩下一个解决方案。这就是最终的产品或服务，然后进行交付和部署。以这种方式逐渐减少解决方案空间被称为收敛或收敛思维，特别适用于设计团队。
FIGURE 4.4 图 4.4
Illustration of how the solutions considered during a design process will grow (diverge) and shrink (converge) iteratively until they eventually fixate on a single point, the finished product. This particular design process involves three iterations, but real processes may have more or fewer iterations. 展示了设计过程中考虑的解决方案如何在迭代中增长（分歧）和收缩（收敛），直到最终固定在一个单一点上，即成品。这个特定的设计过程涉及三次迭代，但实际过程可能有更多或更少的迭代。
who each bring their own expertise and visions to the table. However, employing convergent thinking alone runs the risk of imposing conformance and uniformity too early in the process, yielding an end result that is a local rather than a global optimum. To avoid such local optima, there is a need to introduce divergence or divergent thinking into the design process as well (Löwgren, 2004). Fig. 4.4 demonstrates how interleaving divergent and convergent thinking iteratively can lead to a well-rounded and balanced design process that considers a large portion of the potential solution space. 每个人都带着自己的专业知识和愿景参与其中。然而，仅采用收敛思维会在过程早期就面临强加一致性和统一性的风险，导致最终结果是局部最优而不是全局最优。为了避免这种局部最优，需要在设计过程中引入分歧或分歧思维（Löwgren，2004）。图 4.4 展示了如何交替使用分歧和收敛思维迭代地导致一个全面且平衡的设计过程，考虑了潜在解决方案空间的大部分。
Ideation (or idea generation) and creativity techniques are methods for such divergent thinking in that they require designers to test their limits, abandon their assumptions, and reframe their problems. Many creativity techniques exist in the literature, including lateral thinking, brainstorming and brainwriting, improvisation and role playing, and aleatoricism (incorporation of chance) and bootlegging (Holmquist, 2008). Common among many of these techniques is that they incorporate visual aids, sketching (Buxton, 2007), and physical artifacts. For example, brainstorming often results in mind maps that show the main concepts as bubbles with links describing relations between the concepts. The mere process of creating hastily drawn visual depictions of ideas and conceptssketching (Buxton, 2007)- has been shown to facilitate both divergence and convergence by inviting both common ground and consensus as well as deviation and diversity. Fig. 4.5 shows two concept sketches of personal hovercrafts drawn by two different designers. 构思（或创意生成）和创造性技术是这种发散性思维的方法，因为它们要求设计师测试他们的极限，放弃他们的假设，并重新构思他们的问题。文献中存在许多创造性技术，包括横向思维、头脑风暴和头脑书写、即兴表演和角色扮演，以及偶然主义（纳入机会）和非法制造（Holmquist，2008）。许多这些技术中共同的是它们包含视觉辅助工具、素描（Buxton，2007）和物理工件。例如，头脑风暴经常会产生展示主要概念的思维导图，其中将主要概念显示为气泡，并使用链接描述概念之间的关系。仅仅是匆忙绘制想法和概念的视觉描绘过程（Buxton，2007）已被证明通过邀请共同点和共识以及偏离和多样性来促进发散和收敛。图 4.5 显示了两位不同设计师绘制的个人气垫船概念草图。
FIGURE 4.5 图 4.5
Concept sketches of personal hovercraft drawn by two different designers (divergence). In a follow-up step, the designers may work together to combine ideas from each separate sketch (convergence). 两个不同设计师绘制的个人飞行器概念草图（分歧）。在随后的步骤中，设计师可以共同合作，将每个独立草图的想法结合在一起（融合）。
An in-depth discussion of ideation and creativity techniques is beyond the scope of this book. Many excellent resources on creativity exist; see, for example, the book by Buxton (2007). 对构思和创造性技术的深入讨论超出了本书的范围。有许多关于创意的优秀资源；例如，参见 Buxton（2007）的著作。
4.5.2 Surveys, interviews, and focus groups 4.5.2 调查、访谈和焦点小组
The most straightforward way to elicit requirements and desires from users is simply to ask them. Surveys-online or paper-based-are the simplest and cheapest approach and simply entail distributing a questionnaire to representative users. Online surveys can have significant reach but often yield a low response rate. Furthermore, the feedback received is often superficial in nature. 从用户那里征集需求和愿望的最直接方式就是简单地询问他们。在线或纸质的调查是最简单和最廉价的方法，只需向代表性用户发送问卷即可。在线调查的覆盖面可能很广，但往往回应率较低。此外，收到的反馈通常是肤浅的。
In-person interviews are more labor-intensive than surveys but will yield more accurate and high-quality responses. Interviews can take place either in one-on-one settings between designer and user or in focus group discussions with multiple users and designers. Again, the choice between individual or group interviews depends largely on cost; a group session requires less time investment but may not be able to collect in-depth feedback from all participants. On the other hand, sometimes group dynamics yield synergistic effects where one participant's response may trigger additional feedback from other participants. Thus, group interviews are often used in UCD and PD design frameworks. 与调查相比，面对面的访谈工作量更大，但会获得更准确和高质量的反馈。访谈可以在设计师和用户之间进行一对一的设置，也可以是多个用户和设计师参与的焦点小组讨论。再次，个体或小组访谈的选择在很大程度上取决于成本；小组讨论需要较少的时间投资，但可能无法从所有参与者那里收集到深入的反馈。另一方面，有时候群体动力学会产生协同效应，其中一个参与者的回应可能会引发其他参与者的额外反馈。因此，群体访谈经常在用户中心设计和产品设计框架中使用。
Depending on the goal of the interview, the designer will take a structured or unstructured approach. Structured interviews are essentially verbal surveys, but the method often lets the designer follow up with additional questions based on the answer. Unstructured interviews have no specific questions to ask the user, only a general discussion topic. Successful designers often combine both strategies in the same session: Some questions are fixed, whereas some are more open-ended. This allows for collecting unsolicited feedback as well as getting answers to specific questions that the designer did not know to ask but that are important to the user. 根据面试的目标，设计师会采取结构化或非结构化的方法。结构化面试本质上是口头调查，但该方法通常允许设计师根据回答追加其他问题。非结构化面试没有特定的问题需要问用户，只有一个普遍的讨论话题。成功的设计师通常会在同一次面试中结合两种策略：一些问题是固定的，而一些是开放性的。这既可以收集未经请求的反馈，也可以得到对设计师不知道该问的但对用户来说很重要的特定问题的答案。
A common problem with soliciting feedback directly from users is that they often don't really know what they want, either because they are too accustomed to the current way of doing things or because they don't know what is technologically possible (as well as impossible) to do. For this reason, the interaction designer often has to take the role of a therapist, trying to tease out deeper meaning and underlying motivation from the things that participants say. Furthermore, successful designers are often creative in interpreting participant responses and use them as a springboard for future ideas. For example, if several users mention that they tend to think of their job duties as a list of tasks to be crossed out one by one once completed, the designer may use the idea of a dynamic timeline of tasks as a central metaphor in future sketches and prototypes. 直接向用户征求反馈的一个常见问题是，他们通常并不真正知道自己想要什么，要么是因为他们太习惯于当前的做事方式，要么是因为他们不知道技术上可能（以及不可能）做到什么。因此，交互设计师经常需要扮演心理医生的角色，试图从参与者所说的话中挖掘更深层的含义和潜在动机。此外，成功的设计师通常在解释参与者的回应方面具有创造力，并将其作为未来想法的跳板。例如，如果几位用户提到他们倾向于将工作职责看作一份任务清单，一旦完成就划掉一项，设计师可能会在未来的草图和原型中使用任务动态时间轴的概念作为中心隐喻。
4.5.3 Ethnographic observation 4.5.3 人种学观察
The early stages of most methodologies include observation of users. Since interface users form a unique culture, ethnographic methods for observing them in the workplace are becoming increasingly important (Fig. 4.2). Ethnographers join work or home environments to listen and observe carefully, sometimes stepping forward to ask questions and participate in activities (Fetterman, 2009; Dourish and Bell, 2011; Bazeley, 2013). As ethnographers, interaction designers gain insight into individual behavior and the organizational context. However, they differ from traditional ethnographers in that, in addition to seeking understanding of their subjects, interaction designers focus on interfaces for the purpose of changing and improving those interfaces. Also, whereas traditional ethnographers immerse themselves in cultures for weeks or months, interaction designers usually need to limit this process to a period of days or even hours to obtain the relevant data needed to influence a redesign (Crabtree et al., 2012). 大多数方法学的早期阶段包括观察用户。由于界面用户形成了独特的文化，因此在工作场所观察他们的人类学方法变得越来越重要（图4.2）。人类学家加入工作或家庭环境，仔细倾听和观察，有时向前迈进，提问并参与活动（Fetterman, 2009; Dourish and Bell, 2011; Bazeley, 2013）。作为人类学家，交互设计师深入了解个体行为和组织背景。然而，他们不同于传统的人类学家，因为除了寻求对研究对象的理解外，交互设计师还专注于改变和改进这些界面。此外，传统的人类学家沉浸于文化中数周甚至数月，而交互设计师通常需要将这个过程限制在数天甚至数小时内，以获得影响重新设计所需的相关数据（Crabtree et al., 2012）。
The goal of ethnographic observation for interaction design is to obtain the necessary data to influence interface redesign. Unfortunately, it is easy to misinterpret observations, to disrupt normal practice, and to overlook important information. Following a validated ethnographic process reduces the likelihood of these problems. Examples of ethnographic observation research include (1) how cultural probes have been adopted and adapted by the HCI community (Boehner et al., 2007), (2) development of an interactive location-based service for supporting distributed mobile collaboration for home healthcare (Christensen et al., 2007), and (3) social dynamics influencing technological solutions in developing regions (Ramachandran et al., 2007). Box 4.2 provides some guidelines for how to prepare for the evaluation, perform the field study, analyze the data, and report the findings. 对于交互设计而言，民族学观察的目标是获取必要的数据，以影响界面重新设计。不幸的是，很容易对观察结果进行错误解读，干扰正常实践，并忽视重要信息。遵循经过验证的民族学过程可以减少这些问题的发生。民族学观察研究的例子包括（1）文化探针如何被人机交互社区采纳和改进（Boehner et al., 2007），（2）开发支持分布式移动协作的家庭保健互动位置服务（Christensen et al., 2007），以及（3）社会动态影响发展中地区的技术解决方案（Ramachandran et al., 2007）。第4.2节提供了一些准备评估、进行现场研究、分析数据和报告研究结果的指导方针。
These notions seem obvious when stated, but they require interpretation and attention in each situation. For example, understanding the differing perceptions that managers and users have about the efficacy of the current interface will alert you to the varying frustrations of each group. Managers may complain about the unwillingness of staff to update information promptly, but staff may be resistant to using the interface because the login process is tedious and time-consuming. Respecting the rules of the workplace is important for building rapport: In preparing for one observation, we appreciated that the manager called to warn us that graduate students should not wear jeans because the users were prohibited from doing so. Learning the technical language of the users is also vital for establishing rapport. It is useful to prepare a long list of questions that you can then filter down by focusing on the proposed goals. Awareness of the differences between user communities, such as those mentioned in Chapter 2, will help to make the observation and interview process more effective. 当陈述这些概念时，它们似乎是显而易见的，但在每种情况下都需要解释和关注。例如，了解管理者和用户对当前界面功效的不同看法，会使你意识到每个群体的不同挫折。管理者可能抱怨员工不愿及时更新信息，但员工可能不愿使用界面，因为登录过程繁琐耗时。尊重工作场所的规则对于建立融洽关系至关重要：在一次观察准备中，我们很感激经理提醒我们，研究生不应穿牛仔裤，因为用户被禁止这样做。学习用户的技术语言对建立融洽关系也至关重要。准备一份大量问题的清单，然后通过专注于建议的目标来过滤问题，将非常有益。意识到用户社区之间的差异，比如第 2 章提到的那些，将有助于使观察和访谈过程更加有效。
BOX 4.2 箱 4.2
Guidelines for conducting ethnographic studies for interaction design. 互动设计的人种研究指南。
Preparation 准备
Understand policies in the target environment (work, home, public space, etc.). 了解目标环境中的政策（工作、家庭、公共空间等）。
Familiarize yourself with the existing interface and its history. 熟悉现有界面及其历史。
Set initial goals and prepare questions. 设定初始目标并准备问题。
Gain access and permission to observe or interview. 获取访问权限并观察或进行采访。
Field study 实地研究
Establish a rapport with all users. 与所有用户建立融洽关系。
Observe or interview users in their setting, and collect subjective and objective quantitative and qualitative data. 在用户的环境中观察或采访用户，并收集主观和客观的定量和定性数据。
Follow any leads that emerge from the visits. 跟进拜访中出现的任何线索。
Record your visits. 记录您的访问。
Analysis 分析
Compile the collected data in numerical, textual, and multimedia databases. 将收集的数据编制成数字、文本和多媒体数据库。
Quantify data and compile statistics. 量化数据并编制统计。
Reduce and interpret the data. 减少并解释数据。
Refine the goals and the process used. 优化目标和使用的流程。
Reporting 报告
Consider multiple audiences and goals. 考虑多个受众和目标。
Prepare a report and present the findings. 准备一份报告并呈现研究结果。
Data collection can include a wide range of subjective impressions that are qualitative or of subjective reactions that are quantitative, such as rating scales or rankings. Objective data can consist of qualitative anecdotes or critical incidents that capture user experiences or can be quantitative reports about, for example, the number of errors that occur during a one-hour observation of six users. Deciding in advance what to capture is highly beneficial, but remaining alert to unexpected happenings is also valuable. Written report summaries have proved to be valuable far beyond expectations; in most cases, raw transcripts of every conversation are too voluminous to be useful. 数据收集可以包括定性的主观印象或者定量的主观反应，比如评分或排名。客观数据可以是捕捉用户体验的定性趣闻或关键事件，也可以是关于六个用户一小时观察期间发生错误次数等定量报告。提前决定要捕捉什么是非常有益的，但对意外事件保持警惕也是十分重要的。书面报告摘要已经证明其价值远远超出预期；在大多数情况下，每次对话的原始转录量太大而无用。
Making the process explicit and planning carefully may seem awkward to many people whose training stems from computing and information technology. However, a thoughtfully applied ethnographic process has proved to 对很多从计算机和信息技术领域得到训练的人而言，明确表达和精心计划可能显得尴尬。然而，经过深思熟虑的人种学过程已经被证明是有效的。
have many benefits. It can increase trustworthiness and credibility, since designers learn about the complexities of the intended environment by visits to the workplace, school, home, or other environment where the eventual system will be deployed. Personal presence allows designers to develop working relationships with several end users to discuss ideas, and, most importantly, the users may consent to be active participants in the design of their new interface. 具有许多好处。由于设计师通过访问工作场所、学校、家庭或其他最终系统将被部署的环境来了解所涉及的复杂性，所以这可以增加可信度和可靠性。面对面的交流让设计师能够与多位最终用户建立工作关系，讨论想法，并且最重要的是用户可以同意成为他们新接口设计的积极参与者。
4.5.4 Scenario development and storyboarding 4.5.4 情景开发和故事板制作
Scenario development builds on the use case concept and allows for developing specific scenarios when a user engages the interactive system to solve a particular task. Storyboarding is the use of graphical sketches and illustrations to convey important steps in a scenario (Fig. 4.6). Several additional methods for scenario development are useful. Often, a flowchart or transition diagram helps designers to record and convey the sequences of possible actions; the thickness of the connecting lines indicates the frequency of the transitions. An easy way to describe a novel system is to write scenarios of usage and then, if possible, to act them out as a form of theater. This technique can be especially effective when multiple users must cooperate (for example, in control rooms, cockpits, or financial trading rooms) or multiple physical devices are used (for example, at customer-service desks, medical laboratories, or hotel check-in areas). Scenarios can represent common or emergency situations with both novice and expert users. Personas can also be included in scenario generation. 场景开发建立在用例概念的基础上，允许在用户使用交互系统解决特定任务时开发特定场景。故事板是使用图形草图和插图来传达场景中重要步骤的方法。场景开发的几种附加方法很有用。通常，流程图或转换图帮助设计师记录和传达可能操作的顺序；连接线的粗细表示转换的频率。描述新系统的一种简单方法是编写使用场景，然后尽可能地将其表演出来作为一种戏剧形式。当多个用户必须合作时（例如在控制室、驾驶舱或金融交易室），或者使用多个物理设备时（例如在客户服务台、医学实验室或酒店办理入住手续处），这种技术尤其有效。场景可以代表普通或紧急情况，包括初学者和专家用户。角色扮演也可以包含在场景生成中。
Some scenario writers take a further step and produce videos to convey their intentions. In 2011, Corning Incorporated released a futuristic video named "A Day Made of Glass" that showed a vision for how interactive surfaces can become increasingly incorporated into both our professional and 一些情节作者进一步采取措施，制作视频来传达他们的意图。2011 年，康宁公司发布了一部名为“由玻璃制成的一天”的未来主义视频，展示了交互表面如何越来越多地融入我们的专业和
USERS CAN ANALYZE TOGETHER 用户可以一起分析
FIGURE 4.6 图 4.6
Hand-drawn storyboard for collaborative software that allows multiple people to view a common dataset using their personal smartphones and tablets. 用于协作软件的手绘故事板，允许多人使用个人智能手机和平板电脑查看共同数据集。
everyday lives in the near future. Similarly, in 2013, "Future Vision 2020" showed a similar vision of the future with integrated displays everywhere. Finally, in 2015, Microsoft released the video "Microsoft: Productivity Future Vision," which followed several individuals across the globe as they went through their day five to ten years in the future collecting, analyzing, and summarizing their data in mostly professional settings. All three videos feature large, transparent, and touch-sensitive displays as well as many personal, small, thin, and even flexible displays that are all seamlessly connected and integrated with each other. Taken together, these videos all point to an increasingly augmented digital future where computing continues to become part of the fabric of everyday life. 在不久的将来的日常生活中。同样，在 2013 年，“未来愿景 2020”展示了一个类似的未来愿景，到处都有集成显示屏。最后，在 2015 年，微软发布了视频“微软：生产力未来愿景”，跟随全球几个个体在未来五到十年的一天中收集、分析和总结他们的数据，大多数是在专业环境中。这三个视频都展示了大型、透明、触摸敏感的显示屏，以及许多个人、小型、薄型，甚至是灵活的显示屏，它们之间都无缝连接和集成。综合起来，这些视频都指向一个日益增强的数字未来，计算继续成为日常生活的一部分。
4.5.5 Prototyping 4.5.5 原型设计
Prototypes, or physical sketches as Buxton (2007) calls them, are particularly powerful design tools because they allow users and designers alike to see and hold (for physical prototypes) representations of the intended interface. They also allow the design team to play out specific scenarios and tests using the prototype. For example, a printed version of the proposed displays can be used for pilot tests, whereas an interactive display with an active keyboard and mouse can be used for more realistic tests. Fig. 4.7 shows a hand-drawn sketch for a mouse equipped with a touch display, and Fig. 4.8 represents the corresponding physical prototype that has been constructed simply by attaching a smartphone to an off-the-shelf mouse. 原型, 或者如 Buxton (2007) 所称的物理草图, 是非常强大的设计工具, 因为它们让用户和设计师都能够看到和触摸(对于物理原型)所期望界面的表示。它们还允许设计团队使用原型来演练特定的场景和测试。例如, 提议的显示器的打印版本可以用于试点测试, 而带有活动键盘和鼠标的交互式显示器可以用于更真实的测试。图 4.7 展示了一款带有触摸显示器的手绘鼠标草图, 而图 4.8 则代表了相应的物理原型, 这个物理原型只需要将智能手机连接到现成的鼠标上即可构建出来。
Increasing realism, or fidelity, for a prototype governs the time investment in creating it. Obviously, low-fidelity prototypes are more suitable for early ideation and creativity because they are easily generated and as easily 增加原型的真实性或保真度决定了创建它的时间投入。显然, 低保真度的原型更适用于早期构思和创造力, 因为它们容易生成和容易
FIGURE 4.7
Hand-drawn concept sketch for a so-called LensMouse: a mouse that incorporates a touch display. The sketch suggests constructing the mouse by simply attaching a smartphone to a traditional optical mouse. 一个所谓的 LensMouse 的手绘概念草图：一个集成触摸显示屏的鼠标。草图建议通过简单地将智能手机连接到传统的光学鼠标来构建鼠标。
FIGURE 4.8 图 4.8
Prototype of the LensMouse. This high-fidelity prototype was created by simply attaching a smartphone on top of a standard wireless optical mouse (Yang et al., 2010). LensMouse 的原型。这个高保真原型是通过简单地将智能手机放在标准无线光学鼠标的顶部而创建的（Yang 等，2010 年）。
discarded; in fact, the very vagueness of a "quick and dirty" sketch communicates the uncertainty of the ideation process and invites improvements or rejection. Here are some examples of prototypes at different levels of fidelity: 抛弃；事实上，“快速粗糙”的草图的模糊性表达了创意过程的不确定性，并邀请改进或拒绝。以下是不同保真度的一些原型示例：
Low-fidelity prototypes are generally created by sketching, using sticky notes, or cutting and gluing pieces of paper together (paper mockups); 低保真度原型通常是通过素描、使用便签纸或剪切粘贴纸片（纸质模型）创建的；
Medium-fidelity prototypes are often called wireframes, provide some standardized elements (such as buttons, menus, and text fields), even if potentially drawn in a sketchy fashion, and have some basic navigation functionality; and 中保真度原型通常被称为线框图，它提供一些标准化的元素（如按钮、菜单和文本输入框），即使可能以草图的方式绘制，也具有一些基本的导航功能；
High-fidelity prototypes look almost like the final product and may have some rudimentary computational capabilities; however, the prototype is typically not complete and may not be fully functional. 高保真原型看起来几乎像最终产品，可能具有一些基本的计算能力；然而，原型通常不完整，并且可能无法完全功能。
4.6 Design Tools, Practices, and Patterns 4.6 设计工具、实践和模式
Beyond the theoretical frameworks and methods discussed above, design activities today are supported by current design practice: tools that have arisen to support many design methods, guidelines and standards to inform working designers, and patterns that provide reusable solutions to commonly occurring problems encountered by interaction designers. 除了上述讨论的理论框架和方法之外，当今的设计活动得到了当前设计实践的支持：出现的工具支持许多设计方法，指南和标准为工作设计师提供信息，并且提供可重用解决方案的模式，以解决交互设计师常遇到的问题。
4.6.1 Design tools 4.6.1 设计工具
Creating prototypes beyond paper mockups requires using computer programs to prototype a specific interface or app. The simplest approach is to use generalpurpose drawing and drafting applications for this purpose. For example, prototypes have been developed with simple drawing or word-processing tools or even Microsoft PowerPoint presentations of screen drawings manipulated with PowerPoint slideshows and other animation. Other design tools that can be used are Adobe InDesign , Photoshop , or Illustrator . 创建超越纸质模型的原型需要使用计算机程序来原型化特定的界面或应用程序。最简单的方法是使用通用绘图和绘图应用程序来实现这一目的。例如，可以使用简单的绘图或文字处理工具，甚至是使用 Microsoft PowerPoint 展示屏绘图的幻灯片和其他动画来开发原型。其他可用的设计工具包括 Adobe InDesign 、Photoshop 或 Illustrator 。
Dedicated prototyping design tools are specifically designed for the purpose of creating interface mockups rapidly and effortlessly. Since the visual design language varies across different platforms, different tools exist for desktop, mobile, and web. Many design tools use the actual buttons, dropdown menus, and scrollbars used in the interfaces on the specific platform. However, this has the danger of looking "too polished" and suggesting to the user that the interface mockup is final and cannot be changed. To avoid this, design tools such as Balsamiq Mockups (Fig. 6.4 shows Balsamiq being used in a case study by Volvo) use a sketchy, hand-drawn look for the interface elements. Similar to a hastily sketched design on the back of a napkin, the purpose of the hand-drawn look is to convey to the viewer that a design mockup is still a sketch, that it does not represent the final version of the interface, and that it can still be changed with little cost or time investment. 专门的原型设计工具是为了快速、轻松地创建界面模型而专门设计的。由于视觉设计语言在不同平台上有所不同，因此存在着不同的工具用于桌面、移动和Web。许多设计工具使用特定平台上界面中使用的实际按钮、下拉菜单和滚动条。然而，这样做有可能使界面模型看起来“过于精细”，并向用户暗示该界面模型是最终版本，无法更改。为了避免这种情况，设计工具如Balsamiq Mockups（图6.4显示了沃尔沃案例研究中使用Balsamiq）使用了手绘草图风格的界面元素。类似于在餐巾纸背面匆匆画出的设计，手绘风格的目的是向观看者传达设计模型仍然是一张草图，它并不代表界面的最终版本，仍然可以在很少的成本或时间投入下进行更改。
Finally, dedicated design tools-so-called graphical user-interface buildersalso exist for the final implementation phase when the development team is realizing the planned interface. Many of these builders use a drag-and-drop graphical editor where the interaction designer can construct the final interface by assembling existing interface elements from a library of elements. Builders often automatically generate the necessary source code from the graphical specification, requiring the developer only to write his or her own source code to manage the events resulting from the user interaction. 最后，专门的设计工具-所谓的图形用户界面构建器-也存在于最终实施阶段，当开发团队正在实现计划的界面时。这些构建器中的许多使用了拖放图形编辑器，交互设计师可以通过从元素库中组装现有界面元素来构建最终界面。构建器通常会从图形规范自动生成必要的源代码，只需要开发人员编写自己的源代码来管理用户交互产生的事件。
4.6.2 Design guidelines and standards 4.6.2 设计准则和标准
Early in the design process, the interaction design team should generate a set of working guidelines. Two people might work for one week to produce a 10-page document, or a dozen people might work for two years to produce a 300-page document. One component of Apple's success with the original Macintosh was the machine's early and readable guidelines document, which provided a clear set of principles for the many application developers to follow and thus ensured harmony in design across products. Microsoft's Windows User Experience Guidelines, which have been refined over the years, also provide a good starting point and an educational experience for many programmers. 在设计过程的早期，交互设计团队应该制定一套工作指南。两个人可能会工作一周，制作一个 10 页的文档，或者十几个人可能会工作两年，制作一个 300 页的文档。苹果原始 Macintosh 成功的一个组成部分是该机器早期且易读的指南文档，为许多应用程序开发人员提供了一套清晰的原则，从而确保了产品设计的和谐。微软的 Windows 用户体验指南经过多年的完善，也为许多程序员提供了一个良好的起点和教育经验。
These and other guidelines documents are referenced and described briefly in the general reference section at the end of Chapter 1. The Eight Golden Rules of interface design in Section 3.3.4 are also applicable to most interactive systems. 这些和其他指南文档在第一章末尾的一般参考部分中被简要引用和描述。界面设计的八个黄金规则在第 3.3.4 节对大多数交互系统也适用。
Guidelines documents are a powerful tool for interaction design because they 指南文档是交互设计的强大工具，因为它们
Provide a social process for developers; 为开发人员提供社交流程;
Record decisions for all parties to see; 记录所有参与方的决策;
Promote consistency and completeness; 促进一致性和完整性;
Facilitate automation of design; 促进设计自动化;
Allow multiple levels: 允许多个级别:
Rigid standards 严格的标准
Accepted practices 接受的实践
Flexible guidelines 灵活的指导方针
Industry-specific guidelines 行业特定指导方针
Announce policies for: 公布政策：
Education: How to get it? 教育：如何获取？
Enforcement: Who reviews? 执法：谁进行审核？
Exemption: Who decides? 豁免：由谁决定？
Enhancement: How often? 增强：多久一次？
Guidelines creation (Box 4.3) is often a social process within an organization in order to help gain visibility and build support for the guidelines. Controversial guidelines (for example, on when to use voice alerts) can be reviewed by colleagues or tested empirically. Procedures should be established to distribute the guidelines, to ensure enforcement, to allow exemptions, and to permit enhancements. Effective guidelines documents are living texts that are adapted to changing needs and refined through experience. Acceptance may be increased by a three-level approach of rigid standards, accepted practices, and flexible guidelines. This approach clarifies which items are firmer and which items are susceptible to change. 在组织内创建指南（Box 4.3）通常是一个社会化的过程，旨在帮助增加可见度并获得对指南的支持。有争议的指南（例如何时使用语音警报）可以由同事审查或进行经验测试。应建立程序来分发指南，确保执行，允许豁免，并允许增强。有效的指南文件是活的文本，适应不断变化的需求，并通过经验不断完善。通过采用严格的标准、已接受的做法和灵活的指南的三层方法，可以增加接受度。这种方法澄清了哪些项目更加稳固，哪些项目容易变化。
The creation of a guidelines document at the beginning of an implementation project focuses attention on the interface design and provides an opportunity for discussion of controversial issues. When the development team adopts the guidelines, the implementation proceeds quickly and with few design changes. For large organizations, there may be two or more levels of guidelines to provide organizational identity while allowing projects to have distinctive styles and local control of terminology. Some organizations develop "style guides" to capture this (see, for example, Microsoft, 2014). 在实施项目开始阶段创建指南文件，可以集中注意力于界面设计，并提供讨论有争议问题的机会。当开发团队采纳指南时，实施过程会迅速进行，并且设计变更较少。对于大型组织，可能会有两个或更多级别的指南，以提供组织身份，同时允许项目具有独特的风格和术语的本地控制。一些组织制定“样式指南”来实现这一点（例如，参见 Microsoft，2014）。
BOX 4.3 箱子 4.3
Suggested content in user experience guidelines documents. 用户体验指南文件中建议的内容。
Words, icons, and graphics 单词、图标和图形
Terminology (objects and actions), abbreviations, and capitalization 术语（对象和操作）、缩写和大写
Character set, fonts, font sizes, and styles (bold, italic, underline) 字符集、字体、字号和样式（粗体、斜体、下划线）
Icons, buttons, graphics, and line thickness 图标、按钮、图形和线条粗细
Use of color, backgrounds, highlighting, and blinking 颜色的使用、背景、突出显示和闪烁
Display layout issues 显示布局问题
Menu selection, form fill-in, and dialog-box formats 菜单选择、表单填写和对话框格式
Wording of prompts, feedback, and error messages 提示词、反馈和错误消息的措辞
Justification, white space, and margins 对齐、空白和边距
Data entry and display formats for items and lists 用于项目和列表的数据输入和显示格式
Use and contents of headers and footers 页眉和页脚的使用和内容
Strategies for adapting to very small and very large displays 适应非常小和非常大显示屏的策略
Input and output devices 输入和输出设备
Keyboard, display, cursor control, and pointing devices 键盘、显示器、光标控制和指针设备
Sound, voice feedback, speech I/O, touch input, etc. 声音、语音反馈、语音输入输出、触摸输入等
Response times for a variety of tasks 各种任务的响应时间
Alternatives for users with disabilities 用户残疾人士的替代方案
Action sequences 操作序列
Direct-manipulation clicking, dragging, dropping, and gestures 直接操作点击、拖放和手势
Command syntax, semantics, and sequences 命令语法、语义和顺序
Shortcuts and programmed function keys 快捷键和编程功能键
Touch input for devices such as smartphones, tablets, and large touch displays 诸如智能手机、平板电脑和大型触摸显示器之类的设备的触摸输入
Error handling and recovery procedures 错误处理和恢复程序
Training 培训
Online help, tutorials, and support groups 在线帮助、教程和支持小组
Training and reference materials 培训和参考资料
The "four Es" provide a basis for creating a living document and a lively process: “四个 E”为创建活动文档和生动过程提供了基础
Education. Users need training and a chance to discuss the guidelines. Developers must be trained in the resultant guidelines. 教育。用户需要培训和讨论指南的机会。开发人员必须接受相关指南的培训。
Enforcement. A timely and clear process is necessary to verify that an interface adheres to the guidelines. 执法。必须有及时而清晰的流程来验证界面是否遵守指南。
Exemption. When creative ideas or new technologies are used, a rapid process for gaining exemption is needed. 豁免。当使用创新的想法或新技术时，需要快速获得豁免的流程。
Enhancement. A predictable process for review, possibly annually, will help keep the guidelines up-to-date. 增强。一个可预测的审查流程，可能每年进行一次，将有助于保持指南的最新状态。
While creating and using guidelines documents help ensure success-to the point that we propose our own Eight Golden Rules (Section 3.3.4)-we also want to reiterate our argument from Chapter 3 that the discipline of humancomputer interaction needs to transcend specific guidelines and derive basic theories underlying these phenomena. Our discussion in Section 3.4 presents several both micro-level and macro-level HCI theories to which most practical guidelines can be traced back. While a list of guidelines can be highly useful precisely because they are practical and pragmatic, successful designers remain aware of the underlying theories from where they stem. 在创建和使用指南文件时，有助于确保成功——以至于我们提出了我们自己的八项黄金法则（第 3.3.4 节）——我们还想重申我们在第 3 章中提出的观点，即人机交互学科需要超越具体的指南，并得出潜在这些现象的基本理论。我们在第 3.4 节的讨论中提出了几个微观和宏观人机交互理论，大多数实用指南都可以追溯到这些理论。尽管指南清单可能非常有用，因为它们是实用和务实的，但成功的设计师仍然要意识到它们所源自的基本理论。
4.6.3 Interaction design patterns 4.6.3 交互设计模式
Design patterns, originally proposed for urban planning (Alexander, 1977) and later software engineering (Freeman et al., 2004), are best-practice solutions to commonly occurring problems specified in such a way that they can be reused and applied to slightly different variations of a problem over and over again. Regardless of discipline, patterns help address a common problem for novice designers: They have very little experience of past work to draw upon when tackling a new problem. In this way, design patterns constitute valuable experience-in-a-can, ready to be used when needed. 设计模式最初是为城市规划（Alexander，1977）提出的，后来又被应用到软件工程（Freeman 等人，2004），它们是对常见问题的最佳实践解决方案，以一种可以被重复使用并应用于问题的稍微不同变体的方法规定的。无论学科如何，模式都有助于解决初级设计师的常见问题：在解决新问题时，他们很少有过去工作的经验可供借鉴。这样，设计模式构成了宝贵的经验宝库，随时可根据需要使用。
While software engineering design patterns are quite technical in nature, they are particularly useful for the interaction designer with a software engineering bent; see, for example, Freeman et al. (2004) for details. In fact, user-interface toolkits were one of the original inspirations for software engineering design patterns, and, accordingly, many of the original 23 design patterns deal directly with user interfaces, such as Decorator, Composite, and Command. As a result, several of these patterns are manifested in modern user-interface toolkits. 虽然软件工程设计模式在性质上相当技术性，但对于具有软件工程倾向的交互设计师来说尤其有用；例如，有关详细信息，请参见 Freeman 等人（2004）。事实上，用户界面工具包是软件工程设计模式的最初灵感之一，因此，最初的 23 个设计模式中的许多都直接涉及用户界面，例如装饰者、组合和命令。因此，现代用户界面工具包中体现了几种这样的模式。
The fact that patterns were originally used to solve problems in urban planning demonstrates that the pattern concept transcends specific disciplines, and the idea has further been applied to areas such as pedagogy, game design, communication policy, visualization, and even chess strategy. Analogously, a pattern approach to interaction design would suggest reusable solutions to commonly occurring problems in user-interface and interaction design. While an exhaustive discussion of this topic would likely require an entire book of its own (Tidwell, 2005), here is a list of a few useful interaction design patterns along these lines: 最初用于解决城市规划问题的事实表明，模式概念超越了特定领域，并进一步应用于教学法、游戏设计、通信政策、可视化，甚至国际象棋策略等领域。类似地，交互设计的模式方法将提出可重复使用的解决方案，来解决用户界面和交互设计中常见的问题。虽然对这个主题的详尽讨论可能需要专门撰写一本书（Tidwell, 2005），这里列举了一些有用的交互设计模式：
Model-Viez-Controller (MVC). A so-called architectural pattern for implementing user interfaces, MVC governs how information should flow 模型-视图-控制器（MVC）。被称为用户界面实现的体系结构模式，MVC 规定了信息应该如何在界面的三个特定组件之间流动
between three specific components in the interface: models that represent the state (e.g., a string for an input field or a number for a dial), views that render the state on the display (e.g., the text box or the spinner), and controllers that change the models (e.g., editing the string or increasing/ decreasing the number) as well as the views (e.g., scrolling through a long document). 代表状态的模型（例如，输入字段的字符串或数值调节器的数字）、将状态呈现在显示器上的视图（例如，文本框或调节器）以及更改模型（例如，编辑字符串或增加/减少数字）和视图（例如，浏览长文档）的控制器。
Document interface. Many applications, particularly those designed for personal computers, allow opening more than one document at the same time. Document interface patterns capture different ways of managing multiple documents for an application: 文档界面。许多应用程序，特别是那些为个人计算机设计的应用程序，允许同时打开多个文档。文档界面模式捕捉了应用程序管理多个文档的不同方式：
Single document interface (SDI). The simplest document interface pattern, each document opens a new instance of the application. Mobile apps and web applications tend to be built using this pattern. 单文档界面（SDI）。最简单的文档界面模式，每个文档都会打开一个新的应用程序实例。移动应用程序和 Web 应用程序倾向于使用这种模式构建。
Multiple document interface (MDI). Here each document opens an internal window in the main frame, allowing for a single application window even for multiple open documents. Common in personal computer applications. 多文档界面（MDI）。在这里，每个文档在主框架中打开一个内部窗口，即使有多个打开的文档，也可以使用单个应用程序窗口。在个人计算机应用程序中很常见。
Tabbed document interface (TDI). A compromise between SDI and MDI, the tabbed document interface pattern places multiple open documents in tabs in a single instance of the application. Most web browsers use TDI. 分页文档界面（TDI）。分页文档界面模式是单文档界面（SDI）和多文档界面（MDI）之间的一种折中方案，它将多个打开的文档以标签形式放在应用程序的一个实例中。大多数网络浏览器都使用 TDI。
Web application page architecture. Designing a web application is subtly different than designing an application for a personal computer or a mobile device. The page architecture is one of the most important interaction design aspects here: Web 应用程序页面架构。设计 Web 应用程序与设计个人计算机或移动设备应用程序有微妙的差别。页面架构是其中最重要的交互设计方面之一：
Multi-page application (MPA). The traditional way of building a web application is to use multiple pages, one for each specific function in the application. This mimics dialog boxes in desktop applications and is easy to implement by the very nature of HTML and the web, which is organized into separate pages but requires reloading for each page and may thus cause disruption in the user experience. 多页面应用程序（MPA）。构建 Web 应用程序的传统方式是使用多个页面，每个页面用于应用程序中的特定功能。这模仿了桌面应用程序中的对话框，并且由于 HTML 和 Web 的本质，即组织成单独的页面但需要重新加载每个页面，可能会导致用户体验中断。
Single-page application (SPA). These applications fit on a single webpage, thus mimicking a desktop application, and require no reloading or mode changes, thereby making the user experience fluid and uninterrupted. Instead of page loads, the application state changes dynamically through communication with the web server using modern web technologies such as JavaScript, HTML, and CSS. 单页应用程序（SPA）。这些应用程序适合于单个网页，因此模仿桌面应用程序，并且不需要重新加载或模式更改，从而使用户体验流畅且不间断。应用程序状态通过使用现代 Web 技术（如 JavaScript、HTML 和 CSS）与 Web 服务器进行通信动态更改，而不是页面加载。
Further discussion of interaction design patterns is beyond the scope of this book. The reader may want to refer to Tidwell (2005) for more on this topic. Also of interest is Schell and O'Brien's review (2015) of 13 so-called anti-patternsstraightforward or seemingly good ideas that ultimately do not tend to work out-in the context of user experience. 交互设计模式的进一步讨论超出了本书的范围。读者可能希望参考 Tidwell（2005）有关此主题的更多信息。同样值得关注的是 Schell 和 O'Brien（2015）对 13 种所谓的反模式的审查-直截了当或看似不错的想法，最终并不会在用户体验的背景下起作用。
4.7 Social Impact Analysis 4.7 社会影响分析
Interactive systems often have a dramatic impact on large numbers of users. To minimize risks, a thoughtful statement of anticipated impacts circulated among stakeholders can be a useful process for eliciting productive suggestions early in the development when changes are easiest. 互动系统往往对大量用户产生重大影响。为了降低风险，在开发初期时，将预期影响的详细说明传达给利益相关者可以是一个有益的过程，从而在改变最容易的时候获得有建设性的建议。
Governments, utilities, and publicly regulated industries increasingly require information systems to provide services. However, some critics have strong negative attitudes toward modern technologies and see only a hopeless technological determinism: "Technopoly eliminates alternatives to itself. It consists in the deification of technology, which means that the culture seeks its authorization in technology, finds its satisfactions in technology, and takes its orders from technology" (Postman, 1993). 政府、公用事业和公共监管行业越来越需要信息系统来提供服务。然而，一些批评者对现代技术持有强烈的消极态度，只看到了一种无望的技术决定论："技术宗教化了自己，它意味着文化在技术中寻求授权，通过技术获得满足，并从技术中得到指令" (Postman, 1993)。
Postman's endless fears do not help us to shape more effective technology or to prevent damage from technology failures. However, constructive criticism and guidelines for design could be helpful in reversing the long history of incorrect credit histories, dislocation through de-skilling or layoffs, and deaths from flawed medical instruments. Current concerns focus on privacy invasion from surveillance systems, government attempts to restrict access to information, and voting fraud because of poor security. While guarantees of perfection are not possible, policies and processes can be developed that will more often than not lead to satisfying outcomes. 邮递员无休止的恐惧并不能帮助我们塑造更有效的技术，也不能防止技术故障造成的损害。然而，建设性的批评和设计指南可能有助于扭转长期以来不正确的信用记录、通过降低技能或裁员造成的错位以及因有缺陷的医疗器械导致的死亡。当前的关注焦点是来自监视系统的侵犯隐私、政府试图限制信息获取以及由于安全性不佳而导致的选举舞弊。虽然无法保证完美，但可以制定政策和流程，通常会导致令人满意的结果。
A social impact statement, similar to an environmental impact statement, might help to promote high-quality systems in government-related applications (reviews for private-sector corporate projects would be optional and selfadministered). Early and widespread discussion can uncover concerns and enable stakeholders to state their positions openly. Of course, there is the danger that these discussions will elevate fears or force designers to make unreasonable compromises, but these risks seem reasonable in a well-managed project. An outline for a social impact statement might include these sections (Shneiderman and Rose, 1996): 社会影响声明，类似于环境影响声明，可能有助于促进政府相关应用的高质量系统（私营企业企业项目的审查是可选的和自行管理的）。早期和广泛的讨论可以发现关切，并使利益相关者公开陈述其立场。当然，存在这样的危险，即这些讨论可能引起恐惧或迫使设计者做出不合理的妥协，但在一个良好管理的项目中，这些风险似乎是合理的。社会影响声明的大纲可能包括这些部分（Shneiderman and Rose, 1996）：
Describe the new system and its benefits. 描述新系统及其益处。
Convey the high-level goals of the new system. 传达新系统的高级目标。
Identify the stakeholders. 确定利益相关者。
Identify specific benefits. 确定具体的好处。
Address concerns and potential barriers. 处理关注点和潜在障碍。
Anticipate changes in job functions and potential layoffs. 预期工作职能变化和潜在裁员。
Address security and privacy issues. 处理安全和隐私问题。
Discuss accountability and responsibility for system misuse and failure. 讨论系统滥用和故障的责任和责任。
Avoid potential biases. 避免潜在偏见。
Weigh individual rights versus societal benefits. 权衡个人权利与社会利益。
Assess tradeoffs between centralization and decentralization. 评估集中与分权之间的权衡。
Preserve democratic principles. 保护民主原则。
Ensure diverse access. 确保多样化的获取途径。
Promote simplicity and preserve what works. 促进简单化并保留有效的部分。
Outline the development process. 概述开发流程。
Present an estimated project schedule. 提出预计项目进度表。
Propose a process for making decisions. 提出决策制定流程。
Discuss expectations of how stakeholders will be involved. 讨论利益相关者参与的期望。
Recognize needs for more staff, training, and hardware. 识别对更多员工、培训和硬件的需求。
Propose a plan for backups of data and equipment. 提出数据和设备备份计划。
Outline a plan for migrating to the new system. 概述迁移到新系统的计划。
Describe a plan for measuring the success of the new system. 描述衡量新系统成功的计划。
A social impact statement should be produced early enough in the development process to influence the project schedule, system requirements, and budget. It can be developed by the system design team, which might include end users, managers, internal or external software developers, and possibly clients. Even for large systems, the social impact statement should be of a size and complexity that make it accessible to users with relevant backgrounds. 社会影响说明应在开发过程的早期阶段就出现，以影响项目进度、系统需求和预算。它可以由系统设计团队编制，其中可能包括最终用户、管理人员、内部或外部软件开发人员，以及可能的客户。即使对于大型系统，社会影响说明也应具有适合具备相关背景的用户的大小和复杂度，以让其易于理解。
After the social impact statement is written, it should be evaluated by the appropriate review panel as well as by managers, other designers, end users, and anyone else who will be affected by the proposed system. Potential review panels include federal government units (for example, the General Accounting Organization or Office of Personnel Management), state legislatures, regulatory agencies (for example, the Securities and Exchange Commission or the Federal Aviation Administration), professional societies, and labor unions. The review panel will receive the written report, hold public hearings, and request modifications. Citizen groups also should be given the opportunity to present their concerns and to suggest alternatives. 写完社会影响声明后，应由适当的审查小组以及经理、其他设计师、最终用户以及任何其他将受拟议系统影响的人进行评估。潜在的审查小组包括联邦政府单位（例如，总会计机构或人事管理办公室）、州立法机构、监管机构（例如，证券交易委员会或联邦航空管理局）、专业协会和工会。审查小组将收到书面报告，举行公开听证会，并要求修改。公民团体也应有机会提出他们的关切并提出替代方案。
Once the social impact statement is adopted, it must be enforced. A social impact statement documents the intentions for the new system, and the stakeholders need to see that those intentions are backed up by actions. Typically, the review panel is the proper authority for enforcement. 一旦社会影响声明被采纳，就必须加以执行。社会影响声明记录了新系统的意图，利益相关者需要看到这些意图得到行动的支持。通常，审查小组是执行的适当机构。
The effort, cost, and time involved should be appropriate to the project, while facilitating a thoughtful review. The process can offer large improvements by preventing problems that could be expensive to repair, improving privacy protection, minimizing legal challenges, and creating more satisfying work 参与的工作量、成本和时间应该适合项目，同时促进深思熟虑的审查。该过程可以通过防止可能昂贵的修复问题、改善隐私保护、减少法律挑战和创造更令人满意的工作环境来提供大幅改进。
environments. Information-system designers take no Hippocratic Oath, but pledging themselves to strive for the noble goal of excellence in design can win respect and inspire others. 信息系统设计师没有医生的誓言，但致力于追求设计卓越的崇高目标可以赢得尊重并激励他人。
4.8 Legal Issues 4.8 法律问题
As user interfaces have become more prominent in society, serious legal issues have emerged. Every developer of software and information should review legal issues that may affect design, implementation, deployment, marketing, and use. This section merely touches upon the most important such concerns. For more information, Baase (2013) gives an in-depth overview of such social, legal, philosophical, ethical, political, constitutional, and economic implications of computing. 随着用户界面在社会中的重要性不断增加，出现了严重的法律问题。每个软件和信息开发者都应该审查可能影响设计、实施、部署、营销和使用的法律问题。本节仅仅触及了最重要的这样的问题。关于更多信息，Baase (2013) 提供了计算机相关社会、法律、哲学、伦理、政治、宪法和经济影响的深入概述。
Privacy and security are always a concern whenever computers are used to store data or to monitor activity. Medical, legal, financial, and other data often have to be protected to prevent unapproved access, illegal tampering, inadvertent loss, or malicious mischief. Recently implemented privacy assurance laws such as those imposed on the medical and financial communities can lead to complicated, hard-to-understand policies and procedures. Physical security measures to prohibit access are fundamental; in addition, privacy protection can involve user-interface mechanisms for controlling password access, identity checking, and data verification. Effective protection provides a high degree of privacy with a minimum of confusion and intrusion into work. Website developers should provide easily accessible and understandable privacy and security policies. 隐私和安全始终是使用计算机存储数据或监控活动时要考虑的问题。医疗、法律、金融和其他数据通常需要受保护，以防止未经批准的访问、非法篡改、意外丢失或恶意破坏。最近实施的隐私保障法律，如对医疗和金融社区施加的法律，可能导致复杂、难以理解的政策和程序。禁止访问的物理安全措施是基本的；此外，隐私保护可能涉及用户界面机制来控制密码访问、身份验证和数据验证。有效的保护可以在最少的混乱和对工作的侵入下提供高度的隐私。网站开发人员应该提供易于访问和理解的隐私和安全政策。
A second concern encompasses safety and reliability. User interfaces for aircraft, automobiles, medical equipment, military systems, utility control rooms, and the like can affect life-or-death decisions. If air traffic controllers are confused by the situation display, they can make fatal errors. If the user interface for such a system is demonstrated to be difficult to understand, it could leave the designer, developer, and operator open to a lawsuit alleging improper design. Designers should strive to make high-quality and well-tested interfaces that adhere to state-of-the-art design guidelines and requirements. Accurate records documenting testing and usage will protect designers in case problems arise.重试错误原因
A third issue is copyright or patent protection for software (Lessig, 2006; Samuelson and Schultz, 2007; McJohn, 2015). Software developers who have spent time and money developing a package are understandably frustrated when potential users make illegal copies of the package rather than buying it. Technical schemes have been tried to prevent copying, but clever hackers can usually circumvent the barriers. It is unusual for a company to sue an individual重试错误原因
for copying a program, but cases have been brought against corporations and universities. There is also a vocal community of developers, led by the League for Programming Freedom, that opposes software copyright and patents, believing that broad dissemination is the best policy. An innovative legal approach, Creative Commons , enables authors to specify more liberal terms for others to use their works. The open source software movement has enlivened these controversies. The Open Source Initiative describes the movement as follows: "When programmers can read, redistribute, and modify the source code for a piece of software, the software evolves. People improve it, people adapt it, people fix bugs. And this can happen at a speed that, if one is used to the slow pace of conventional software development, seems astonishing." Some open source products, such as the Linux operating system and the Apache web server, have become successful enough to capture a substantial portion of the market share. 对于复制程序，但已经有公司和大学被提起诉讼。还有一群开发者，由编程自由联盟领导，反对软件版权和专利，认为广泛传播是最佳政策。一种创新的法律方法，创意共用，使作者能够为他人使用其作品指定更自由的条款。开源软件运动使这些争议变得更加活跃。开源倡议描述了该运动如下：“当程序员可以阅读、重新分发和修改软件的源代码时，软件就会不断发展。人们改进它，人们适应它，人们修复错误。这一切可以以一种速度发生，如果一个人习惯于传统软件开发的缓慢步伐，那将会令人惊讶。”一些开源产品，如Linux操作系统和Apache网络服务器，已经成功到足以占据市场份额的相当大部分。
A fourth concern is with copyright protection for online information, images, or music. If customers access an online resource, do they have the right to store the information electronically for later use? Can the customer send an electronic copy to a colleague or friend? Who owns the "friends" list and other shared data in social networking sites? Do individuals, their employers, or network operators own the information contained in e-mail messages? The expansion of the web, with its vast digital libraries, has raised the temperature and pace of copyright discussions. Publishers seek to protect their intellectual assets, while librarians are torn between their desire to serve patrons and their obligations to publishers. If copyrighted works are disseminated freely, what incentives will there be for publishers and authors? If it is illegal to transmit any copyrighted work without permission or payment, science, education, and other fields will suffer. The fair use doctrine of limited copying for personal and educational purposes helped cope with the questions raised by photocopying technologies. However, the perfect rapid copying and broad dissemination permitted by the Internet demand a thoughtful update (Samuelson, 2003; Lessig, 2006). 第四个关注点是关于在线信息、图片或音乐的版权保护。如果客户访问在线资源，他们有权将信息以电子形式存储以供以后使用吗？客户是否可以将电子副本发送给同事或朋友？社交网络站点中的“好友”列表和其他共享数据归谁所有？个人、雇主或网络运营商是否拥有电子邮件中包含的信息？网络的扩展和庞大的数字图书馆提高了版权讨论的温度和速度。出版商致力于保护他们的知识产权，而图书馆员则在为读者提供服务和履行对出版商的义务之间犹豫不决。如果版权作品自由传播，出版商和作者将没有什么动力。如果未经许可或付费传输任何受版权保护的作品被认为是非法的，科学、教育和其他领域将受到影响。有限的个人和教育目的的限制复制的公平使用原则帮助应对了由复印技术引发的一系列问题。 然而，互联网所允许的完美快速复制和广泛传播需要深思熟虑的更新（Samuelson，2003 年；Lessig，2006 年）。
A fifth issue is freedom of speech in electronic environments. Do users have a right to make controversial or potentially offensive statements through e-mail or social media? Are such statements protected by freedom of speech laws, such as the U.S. First Amendment? Are networks similar to street corners, where freedom of speech is guaranteed, or are networks similar to television broadcasting, where community standards must be protected? Should network operators be responsible for or prohibited from eliminating offensive or obscene jokes, stories, or images? Controversy has raged over whether Internet service providers have a right to prohibit e-mail messages that are used to organize consumer rebellions against themselves. Another controversy emerged over whether a network operator has a duty to suppress racist e-mail remarks or postings to a social media platform. For example, Twitter has been commonly 第五个问题是电子环境中的言论自由。用户是否有权利通过电子邮件或社交媒体发表有争议或潜在冒犯性言论？这些言论是否受到言论自由法律的保护，比如美国的第一修正案？网络是否类似于街角，言论自由得到保障，还是类似于电视广播，社区标准必须得到保护？网络运营商是否应该负责或被禁止消除冒犯或淫秽的笑话、故事或图像？争议一直存在，关于互联网服务提供商是否有权禁止用于组织反对自己的消费者叛乱的电子邮件。另一个争议是关于网络运营商是否有责任压制种族主义的电子邮件言论或在社交媒体平台上发布的帖子。例如，Twitter 已经成为常见的。
used by racists, bullies, and terrorist organizations. If libelous statements are transmitted, can a person sue the network operator as well as the source? Should designers build systems where the default is to "opt out" of lists and users have to explicitly "opt in" by making a selection from a dialog box? 被种族主义者、恶霸和恐怖组织使用。如果传播诽谤性言论，一个人可以起诉网络运营商以及信息来源吗？设计师应该构建默认为“选择退出”列表的系统，用户必须通过从对话框中进行选择来明确“选择加入”吗？
Other legal concerns include adherence to laws requiring equal access for users with disabilities and attention to changing laws in countries around the world. Do Yahoo! and eBay have to enforce the laws of every country in which they have customers? These and other issues mean that developers of online services must be sure to consider all the legal implications of their design decisions. 其他法律问题包括遵守要求为残障用户提供平等访问权的法律以及关注世界各国法律的变化。Yahoo! 和 eBay 是否必须执行每个拥有客户的国家的法律？这些以及其他问题意味着在线服务的开发人员必须确保考虑他们设计决策的所有法律影响。
The Internet Association (http://internetassociation.org/), the spiritual successor to the venerable NetCoalition, is a collective political lobbying organization in Washington, DC, that monitors many of the legal issues raised here. Founded by Amazon, eBay, Facebook, and Google, its website is an excellent source for information about privacy legislation and related issues. For the international level, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (https://www.eff.org/), founded in 1990, is a non-profit digital rights group providing support to individuals fighting corporations and governments against baseless or misdirected legal threats. There are also many other legal issues to be aware of today, including anti-terrorism, counterfeiting, spam, spyware, liability, Internet taxation, and others. These issues certainly require your attention, and legislation may eventually be needed. 互联网协会（http://internetassociation.org/）是可崇敬的 NetCoalition 的精神继承者，是位于华盛顿的集体政治游说组织，监测了许多在这里提出的法律问题。由亚马逊、eBay、Facebook 和 Google 创立，它的网站是关于隐私立法和相关问题的信息来源。对于国际层面而言，成立于 1990 年的电子前线基金会（https://www.eff.org/）是一个非营利性数字权利组织，为与公司和政府对抗毫无根据或误导的法律威胁的个人提供支持。今天还有许多其他法律问题需要注意，包括反恐、伪造、垃圾邮件、间谍软件、责任、互联网税收等等。这些问题肯定需要您的关注，可能最终需要立法。
Practitioner's Summary 实践者摘要
Interaction design is maturing rapidly, with once-novel ideas becoming standard practices. Design has increasingly taken center stage in organizational and product planning. Development frameworks such as user-centered, participatory, and agile design help by offering validated processes with predictable schedules and meaningful deliverables. Specific design methods such as surveys, focus groups, and ethnographic observation can provide information to guide requirements analysis. Usage logs provide valuable data about task frequencies and sequences. Scenario writing helps to bring common understanding of design goals, is useful for managerial and customer presentations, and helps to plan usability tests. For interfaces developed by governments, public utilities, and regulated industries, an early social impact statement can elicit public discussion that is likely to identify problems and produce interfaces that have high overall societal benefits. Designers and managers should obtain legal advice to ensure adherence to laws and protection of intellectual property. 交互设计正在迅速成熟，曾经新颖的想法已成为标准实践。设计越来越成为组织和产品规划的核心。用户为中心的、参与式和敏捷式的开发框架通过提供经过验证的流程、可预测的时间表和有意义的可交付成果而有所帮助。调查、焦点小组和人种学观察等特定设计方法可以提供信息以指导需求分析。使用日志提供有关任务频率和顺序的宝贵数据。场景编写有助于达成对设计目标的共识，对于管理和客户的演示很有用，并有助于规划可用性测试。对于政府、公用事业和受监管行业开发的界面，早期的社会影响声明可以激发公共讨论，很可能会识别问题并产生具有高整体社会效益的界面。设计师和经理应寻求法律建议，以确保遵守法律并保护知识产权。
Researcher's Agenda 研究者的议程
Human-computer interaction guidelines are often based on best-guess judgments rather than on empirical data. More research could lead to refined standards that are more complete and dependable and to more precise knowledge of how much improvement can be expected from a design change. Deriving the underlying micro- and macro- theories from which practical guidelines are drawn would have far-reaching consequences for interaction design. In particular, because technology is continually changing, we will never have a stable and complete set of guidelines, but such scientific theories will allow us to retain reliability and quality of interface design. It would also enable evolving design processes, ethnographic methods, participatory design activities, scenario writing, and social impact statements to address emergent issues such as international diversity, special populations such as children or older adults, and long-term studies of actual usage. Thoughtful case studies of design processes would lead to their refinement and promote more widespread application. Creative processes are notoriously difficult to study, but well-documented examples of success stories will inform and inspire. 人机交互指南通常是基于最佳猜测判断而非实证数据。更多研究可能导致更完整和可靠的修订标准，以及对设计变更能带来多大改进的更精确了解。从实践指南中汲取的基础微观和宏观理论将对交互设计产生深远影响。特别是由于科技不断变化，我们永远不可能有一个稳定和完整的指南集，但这样的科学理论将使我们能够保持界面设计的可靠性和质量。这还将使不断发展的设计流程、民族志方法、参与式设计活动、情景写作和社会影响报告能够应对国际多样性、儿童或老年人等特殊人群以及实际使用的长期研究等新兴问题。深入的设计过程案例研究将有助于其完善并促进更广泛的应用。 创意过程众所周知地难以研究，但成功案例的充分记录将启发和激励。
Discussion Questions 讨论问题
You are the new Chief Design Officer (CDO) of a start-up, DTUI Inc. The project is to design a system for selling pottery. The aim is to develop an interface that meets the needs of both the potters and the customers. Describe in detail a design methodology of four stages to facilitate the proper design of such a system. 你是初创公司 DTUI Inc. 的新任首席设计官（CDO）。该项目是设计一个销售陶器的系统。旨在开发一个既满足陶工又满足顾客需求的界面。详细描述一个包含四个阶段的设计方法论，以促进这样一个系统的正确设计。
Write your answer in the form of a management plan for this project. For each stage, indicate the number of weeks that should be allocated. Hint: Note the four phases of the design process: 将你的答案以此项目的管理计划形式写出。对每个阶段，指示应该分配的周数。提示：注意设计过程的四个阶段：
Requirements analysis 需求分析
Preliminary (conceptual) and detailed design 初步（概念）和详细设计
Build and implementation 构建和实施
Evaluation 评估
For questions 2-4, refer to the following scenario: 对于问题 2-4，请参考以下情景：
The State of Maryland is developing a web-voting interface. For selecting the candidates, one design (RB) is a set of radio buttons and another is (CB) a 马里兰州正在开发网络投票界面。用于选择候选人的一个设计（RB）是一组单选按钮，另一个设计（CB）是一个组合框（在选择滚动箭头图标时下拉），两者都使用标准字体，大小为 10 点。
combo-box (drops down when selecting the scroll arrow icon), both using standard fonts at 10-point size. 当有四名候选人时比较这两种设计，并预测性能和错误率的相对速度。通过深思熟虑的论点支持你的选择。
Compare these two designs when there are four candidates and predict the relative speed of performance and error rates. Support your choice by a thoughtful argument.
An expert reviewer complains that both designs may work with young users who are familiar and expert in using a mouse, but that there will be problems for elderly and motor-impaired users who have difficulty controlling a mouse. The reviewer recommends a new design that includes a larger font (20-point size) and a numbered list to allow selection by keyboard easily. Describe a participatory design or social impact statement process that might clarify this issue with elderly users. 一个专家评论者抱怨说，这两个设计在熟悉和精通使用鼠标的年轻用户中可能都有效，但对于年长和运动障碍的用户来说，可能会存在控制鼠标的困难问题。评论者建议采用一种新设计，其中包括更大的字体（20 点字体）和一个编号列表，以便使用键盘进行选择。描述一个可能与年长用户澄清这个问题的参与性设计或社会影响声明过程。
Design an experiment to help resolve the issue brought up in question 3. Assume you have substantial resources and access to subjects. 设计一个实验来帮助解决第 3 个问题中提出的问题。假设您拥有充足的资源和可接触的实验对象。
What is user-centered design? What are its benefits? 什么是用户中心设计？它有什么好处？
Consider a system that does not yet exist; for example, a totally automated fast-food restaurant, where customers order via touch screen interactions, pay by swiping their debit or credit cards, and then pick up their foodanalogous to the self-check-out at some supermarkets, but even more extreme. Discuss how you would conduct a contextual inquiry for a system that does not yet exist. 考虑一个尚不存在的系统；例如，一个完全自动化的快餐店，顾客通过触摸屏进行点餐，通过刷卡支付，然后取走他们的食物，类似于一些超市的自助结账，但更加极端。讨论一下你将如何对一个尚不存在的系统进行情境查询。
CASE STUDY: Evaluate an existing system where you would propose improvements to the user interface. For example, visit the local mass transit station (e.g., the subway) and observe users purchasing tickets. If possible, interview users regarding their preferences for improvements in usability. One method to facilitate user cooperation may be to solicit fellow students or colleagues who are new to your community and have not yet taken a ride on the subway system. Plan for contextual interviews by developing questionnaires. Conduct the contextual interviews, then tabulate the results and analyze them with an eye to understanding the demographics and skills of the user community. Then follow the remaining steps outlined in this list, eventually developing storyboards and prototypes to evaluate with users. 案例研究:评估现有系统，提出改进用户界面的建议。例如,参观当地的大众运输站(e.g., 地铁)，观察用户购票的情况。如果可能，采访用户，了解他们对可用性改进的偏好。为促进用户合作的方法之一可能是向新来你社区的学生或同事征求意见，他们还没乘坐过地铁系统。通过制定问卷计划进行情境访谈。进行情境访谈,然后将结果汇总并分析，重点了解用户社区的人口统计和技能。然后按照此列表中概述的剩余步骤进行，并最终制定故事板和原型，以与用户进行评估。
