Unit 1 An Introduction to Intercultural Communication
单元 1 跨文化交际导论

I Warm up
I 热身

Xiao Li (Chinese tourist guide): You must be very tired. You’re old…
小李（中国导游）：你肯定很累。你老了......

Peter (British visitor): Oh, I’m NOT old, and I’m NOT tired.
彼得（英国访客）：哦，我不老，也不累。

Tips for comment
评论提示

What the tourist guide said is quite courteous in China. It means, “If you are tired, we can take a little rest, since you are getting on in years.” In the West, there is a value placed in being young that many people consciously, or subconsciously, are not willing to accept that they are growing old. The guide gave the impression that he thought the visitor would collapse any minute if he doesn’t rest immediately.
导游说的在中国挺有礼貌的。它的意思是，“如果你累了，我们可以休息一下，因为你已经好几年了。“在西方，年轻人被赋予了一种价值，以至于许多人有意识或潜意识地不愿意接受他们正在变老。导游给人的印象是，他认为如果访客不立即休息，他随时都会崩溃。

The western way of showing concern is generally different from the Chinese way. The Chinese way of showing concern is usually expressed by statement. The western way of showing concern is mainly displayed with question.
西方表达关心的方式通常与中国的方式不同。中国人表达关心的方式通常是通过声明来表达。西方表达关心的方式主要表现为质疑。

This case clearly shows that translation is an intercultural communication, which requires the guide to possess both English cultural knowledge and language competence.
这个案例清楚地表明，翻译是一种跨文化交际，需要导游同时具备英语文化知识和语言能力。

II. Intercultural Communication
II. 跨文化交际

1. What is intercultural communication?
1. 什么是跨文化交际？

Intercultural Communication refers to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds are distinct enough to alter their communication.
跨文化交际是指文化背景截然不同以至于可以改变其交流方式的人们之间的交流。

All of the cases given are intercultural. The following are presented from the most intercultural to the least intercultural:
给出的所有案例都是跨文化的。以下是从最跨文化到最不跨文化的介绍：

Communication between a Chinese university student and an American professor;
中国大学生与美国教授之间的交流;

Communication between a Canadian girl and a South African boy;
一名加拿大女孩和一名南非男孩之间的通信;

Communication between a first-generation Chinese American and a third generation one;
第一代华裔美国人与第三代华裔美国人之间的通信;

Communication between a businessperson from Hong Kong and an artist from Xi’an;
一位来自香港的商人与一位来自习的艺术家之间的交流;

Communication between a teenager from Beijing and a teenager from Shanghai;
一名来自北京的青少年与一名来自上海的青少年之间的交流;

Communication between a father who is a farmer all his life and his son who works as an engineer;
一生都是农民的父亲和做工程师的儿子之间的交流;

Communication between a software technician and a fisherman;
软件技术人员和渔民之间的通信;

Communication between a male manager and a female secretary (supposing they are from the similar cultural and social backgrounds) .
男性经理和女性秘书之间的交流（假设他们来自相似的文化和社会背景）。

2. Why should we take Intercultural Communication?
2. 为什么我们应该参加跨文化交际？

2.1 People are different throughout the world, culturally, religiously, ideologically and racially, actually different in almost every aspect, therefore we are supposed to know about their differences as much as possible, just for a smooth communication.
2.1 世界各地的人们在文化、宗教、意识形态和种族方面都是不同的，实际上几乎在各个方面都不同，因此我们应该尽可能多地了解他们的差异，以便顺利沟通。

2.2 Four trends also make intercultural communication necessary:
2.2 四个趋势也使跨文化交流成为必要：

1) Technological development
1） 技术开发

2) Globalization of Economy
2） 经济全球化

3) Widespread Population Migrations
3） 广泛的人口迁移

4) Development of Multiculturalism
4） 多元文化的发展

2.3 Benefits of intercultural communication:
2.3 跨文化交际的好处：

1) Technological development
1） 技术开发

2) Increased commerce
2） 增加商业

3) healthier communities
3） 更健康的社区

4) Personal growth
4） 个人成长

III. Globalization
三. 全球化

1. Definition of globalization
1. 全球化的定义

In every broad term, globalization is the worldwide integration of economic, technological, political, cultural, and social aspects between countries.
从广义上讲，全球化是国家之间经济、技术、政治、文化和社会方面的全球整合。

2. Forms of globalization
2. 全球化的形式

2.1 economic globalization
2.1 经济全球化

2.2 cultural globalization
2.2 文化全球化

2.3 political globalization
2.3 政治全球化

3. The effects of globalization
3. 全球化的影响

How to face globalization
如何面对全球化

It is both a fact and an opportunity.
这既是事实，也是机遇。

No one nation can meet the challenges of the current global frontier alone.
没有一个国家可以独自应对当前全球前沿的挑战。

We are confronted with newer ways of living in this world together that require our seeing things through the eyes of others and adding knowledge of others to our repertoire.
我们面临着在这个世界上共同生活的新方式，这需要我们通过他人的眼睛看待事物，并将他人的知识添加到我们的曲目中。

The development of a global mind-set has become pivotal for further human progress.
全球思维方式的发展已成为人类进一步进步的关键。

We all have to learn to speak, interact and negotiate with others from another with ease, sensitivity, openness, and respect.
我们都必须学会轻松、敏感、开放和尊重地与他人交谈、互动和谈判。

Unit 2 Culture and Communication
单元 2 文化与传播

I Warm up
I 热身

Tips for comment
评论提示

To answer the questions we have to know the cultural background of his guests and how different it is from the American culture. Suppose the guests were from China and it seems that at least b., d., f., and g. may be considered impolite. If the guests were from some other culture, the answer might be different. So, in the communication, to know some cultural knowledge is necessary.
要回答这些问题，我们必须了解他的客人的文化背景以及它与美国文化有何不同。假设客人来自中国，似乎至少 b.、d.、f. 和 g. 可以被认为是不礼貌的。如果客人来自其他文化，答案可能会有所不同。所以，在交流中，了解一些文化知识是必要的。

II. Culture
二、企业文化

1. Definitions of culture
1. 文化的定义

Culture can be a set of fundamental ideas, practices, and experiences of a group of people that are symbolically transmitted generation to generation through a learning process.
文化可以是一群人的一组基本思想、实践和经验，它们通过学习过程象征性地代代相传。

Analogies of culture
文化类比

Culture is like an iceberg.
文化就像一座冰山。

objective/explicit /surface culture: food, fashion, customs, etc. ( visible, small part)
客观/明确/表面文化：食物、时尚、习俗等（可见、小部分）

Subjective/implicit/deep culture: attitudes, belief, values,etc. (invisible, large part )
主观/隐含/深层文化：态度、信仰、价值观等（无形，大部分）

Culture is also like an“onion”: Culture hides much more than it reveals.
文化也就像一个“洋葱”：文化隐藏的比它揭示的要多得多。

3. Elements of Culture
3. 文化元素

Religion, history, values, social organizations, language… culture is everything.
Religionhistoryvaluessocial organizationsanguage...CUlture 就是一切。

4. Characteristics of Culture
4. 文化特征

4.1 Culture is learned.
4.1 文化是学习的。

4.2 Culture is transmitted from generation to generation.
4.2文化代代相传。

4.3 Culture is based on symbols.
4.3 文化以符号为基础。

4.4 Culture is dynamic. it is ongoing and ever changing.
4.4 文化是动态的。 它是持续的，并且不断变化。

4.5 Culture is an integrated system. the various aspects of culture are interrelated.
4.5 文化是一个综合系统。 文化的各个方面都是相互关联的。

III Communication
III 通信

Definition
Communication is a dynamic process in which people attempt to share their thoughts with other people through the use of symbols in particular settings.
DEfinition
Communication 是一个动态的过程，在这个过程中，人们试图通过在特定环境中使用符号来与他人分享他们的想法。

2. Elements of Communication
2. 沟通要素

2.1 Context: he interrelated conditions of communication.
2.1 背景：相互关联的通信条件。

physical setting: location, time, light...
物理设置：位置、时间、光线......

historical setting: previous communication episodes
历史背景：以前的通信剧集

psychological setting: feelings
心理设定：感情

culture: norms 规范, subculture亚文化
culture： norms 规范， subculture亚文化

Participants
参与者

sender: the one who forms messages and attempt to communicate them to others.
sender：形成消息并尝试将其传达给其他人的人。

receiver: the one who processes the messages sent to you and react to them.
接收者：处理发送给您的消息并对其做出反应的人。

Three variables affecting participants: relationship, gender, and culture.
影响参与者的三个变量：关系、性别和文化。

Messages

meaning: ideas and feelings
含义： 想法和情感

symbols: the words, sounds and actions that communicate meaning
符号：传达含义的文字、声音和动作

encoding: the process of transforming ideas and feelings into symbols and organizing them
编码：将想法和情感转化为符号并组织它们的过程

decoding: the process of transforming messages back into ideas and feelings
解码：将信息转换回想法和感受的过程

channels
渠道

A channel is both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation: sound, sight, smell, taste, touch, or a combination of these five.
渠道既是信息传播的路线，也是交通工具：声音、视觉、嗅觉、味觉、触觉或这五者的组合。

Noise
1) External noise: sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw people's attention away from the intended meaning.
噪音
1） 外部噪音：环境中的景象、声音和其他刺激，将人们的注意力从预期的含义上移开。

2)Internal noise: thoughts an feelings that interfere with the communication process.
2）内部噪音：干扰沟通过程的想法和感觉。

3)semantic noise: unintended meanings aroused by certain verbal symbols can inhibit the accuracy of decoding.
3）语义噪声：某些动词符号引起的意外含义会抑制解码的准确性。

Feedback
It refers to reaction from the message receiver to the message sender.
反馈
它是指消息接收者对消息发送者的反应。

IV. The relationship between culture and communication
四。文化与沟通的关系

Culture and communication are closely related to each other and mutually influence one other.
文化和沟通彼此密切相关，并相互影响。

People learn the culture by communication and communication is a reflection of their culture.
人们通过交流来学习文化，而交流是他们文化的反映。

Culture shapes communication, and communication is culture bound.
文化塑造了沟通，而沟通又受文化约束。

The development of human cultures is made possible through communication.
人类文化的发展是通过交流实现的。

The more similarities two cultures share, the less influence culture will have on communication. Therefore, the less messages will be changed during communication. The less the cultures are alike, the greater the influence of culture on communication will be, and the more likely the messages will be changed. Misunderstanding in intercultural communication often arises here.
两种文化的相似性越多，文化对沟通的影响就越小。 因此，通信过程中更改的消息就越少。文化的相似性越低，文化对沟通的影响就越大，信息被改变的可能性就越大。跨文化交际中的误解经常出现在这里。

Unit 3 Cultural Influence on Perception and Values
单元 3 文化对感知和价值观的影响

I Perception
I 感知

Definition:
定义：

Perception(感知) is a process by which we make what we sense into a meaningful experience by selecting, categorizing, and interpreting .
感知（Perception）是一个过程，通过这个过程，我们通过选择、分类和解释将我们的感知转化为有意义的体验。

Human perception is an active process by which we use our sensory organs to sense the world.
人类感知是一个活跃的过程，通过这个过程，我们使用感觉器官来感知世界。

A person’s culture has a strong impact on the perception process.
一个人的文化对感知过程有很大影响。

1.3 Our perceptions are not always accurate.
1.3 我们的感知并不总是准确的。

Stages of the Perception process
感知过程的阶段

2.1 Selection: It is a process in which we screen out what we need from all the stimuli and information around us.（选择：选择是从周围选择的刺激信息中筛选出所需要的信息的过程。)
2.1 选择：这是一个我们从周围的所有刺激和信息中筛选出我们需要的东西的过程。（选择：选择是从周围选择的刺激信息中筛选出所需要的信息的过程。）

2.2 categorization: It is the process during which we need to organize and impose structure on what we observe in a meaningful way. （组织：组织是把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合的过程。）
2.2 分类：在这个过程中，我们需要以有意义的方式对我们观察到的事物进行组织和强加结构。（组织：组织是把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合的过程。）

2.3 Interpretation: It refers to attaching meaning to sense data and is synonymous with decoding.（释义：释义是赋予感觉信息意义的过程，类似于解码过程。）
2.3 解释：它指的是赋予感觉数据意义，与解码同义。（释义：释义是赋予感觉信息意义的过程，类似于解码过程。）

Cultural influence on Perception
文化对感知的影响

As mentioned previously, a person’s culture has a strong impact on the perception process. The perceived meanings of different colors are good examples to show the influence of culture. The subjective nature decides our perceptions are often partial and inaccurate, which can be further illustrated with stereotype and prejudice.
如前所述，一个人的文化对感知过程有很大影响。不同颜色的感知意义是展示文化影响的好例子。主观本质决定了我们的感知往往是片面和不准确的，这可以用刻板印象和偏见进一步说明。

3.1 Stereotypes
3.1 刻板印象

1）Definition
1） 定义

Stereotypes are those overgeneralized and oversimplified beliefs we use to categorize group of people.（Stereotypes may be based on the truth, but they are exaggerated statements regarding our belief about what a group of people are or should be.）
Stereotypes 是我们用来对人群进行分类的那些过度概括和过于简化的信念。（刻板印象可能基于事实，但它们是关于我们对一群人是什么或应该是什么的信念的夸大陈述。）

2）Three ways to form stereotypes
2）形成刻板印象的三种方式

We may form stereotypes in three ways:
我们可以通过三种方式形成刻板印象：

We may categorize people or things by the most obvious characteristics they possess.
我们可以根据人或事物所具有的最明显的特征来对他们进行分类。

We may apply a set of characteristics to a whole group of people.
我们可以将一组特征应用于一整群人。

We may give the same treatment to each of member of the group.
我们可能会对小组中的每个成员给予相同的待遇。

3.2 Prejudice
3.2 偏见

1）Definition
1） 定义

Stereotype develop from a set of oversimplified beliefs into a rigid attitude toward a group of people. Such an attitude based on erroneous beliefs or preconceptions is called prejudice.
刻板印象从一组过于简单的信念发展成对一群人的僵化态度。这种基于错误信念或先入之见的态度被称为偏见。

2）Forms of Prejudice
2） 偏见的形式

Verbal abuse
辱骂

Physical Avoidance
身体回避

Discrimination
歧视

Physical Attack
物理攻击

Massacre
大屠杀e

Conclusion
结论

1）People develop their stereotypes and prejudices gradually through the process of learning and socialization.
1） 人们在学习和社交过程中逐渐形成他们的刻板印象和偏见。

Stereotype and prejudice often occur together.
刻板印象和偏见经常同时出现。

3）To solve the problems of stereotype and prejudice, we can learn the empathy: be open-minded, imaginative in others’ situation and try to understand more.
3） 要解决刻板印象和偏见的问题，我们可以学习同理心：思想开放，对他人情况富有想象力，并尝试更多地理解。

II Values
II 价值观

Definition
定义

Values are social principles, goals, or standards accepted by persons in a culture.
价值观是文化中人们接受的社会原则、目标或标准。

Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong.
价值观涉及一种文化认为的好或坏、对或错。

Values are learned and transmitted by a variety of source (family, media, school, church, state,etc)
价值观是通过各种来源（家庭、媒体、学校、教会、国家等）学习和传递的

They are the core of the culture and relatively stable.
They 是核心文化，相对稳定。

The relationship between communication and values is both mutual and reciprocal.
沟通和价值观之间的关系既是相互的，也是互惠的。

Cultural value orientations
文化价值取向

To study the relationship between cultural values and communication behaviors more systematically, Kluckhohn and Strodbeck (1961) introduced the concept of value orientation. Value orientations are the means society uses to solve the universal problems of daily life. They enables people to understand their own and others’ cultures in intercultural programs. There are four most common model for the study of cultural values orientations, and we mainly focus on two of them.
为了更系统地研究文化价值观与沟通行为之间的关系，Kluckhohn 和 Strodbeck （1961） 引入了价值取向的概念。价值取向是社会用来解决日常生活中普遍问题的手段。它们使人们能够在跨文化项目中了解自己和他人的文化。文化价值取向研究有四种最常见的模型，我们主要关注其中两种。

Hall’s Culture Context Model
Hall的 Culture Context 模型

1）Context: is the environment in which the communication takes place. People communicate differently depending on the context.
1）上下文：是通信发生的环境。人们的交流方式因环境而异。

2）High-context cultures: People in HCC prefer to use indirect communication style and high-context messages in which most of the meaning is implied. Most of the information is in the physical context or is internalized in the people who are a part of the interaction and very little information is is actually coded in the verbal message. People tend to be more aware of their surroundings and their environment and do not rely on verbal communication as their main information source.
2） 高语境文化：HCC 患者更喜欢使用间接沟通方式和高语境信息，其中大部分含义都被暗示了。大多数信息都在物理环境中，或者被内化在作为交互一部分的人中，而很少有信息实际上是编码在口头信息中的。人们往往更了解周围的环境和环境，并且不依赖口头交流作为他们的主要信息来源。

3）Low-context cultures: People in LCC prefer to use a direct communication style and low-context messages, in which the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code. Most of the Information is contained in the verbal message. People tend to directly express their opinions and intend to persuade others to accept their viewpoints.
3）低语气文化：LCC 中的人更喜欢使用直接的通信方式和低语气的消息，其中大部分信息都归属于显式代码。大部分信息都包含在口头消息中。人们倾向于直接表达自己的观点，并打算说服他人接受他们的观点。

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
Hofstede的文化维度

Four dimensions of cultural values:
文化价值的四个维度：

---individualism vs. collectivism
---个人主义与集体主义

---power distance
--- 功率距离

---uncertainty avoidance
---不确定性规避

---masculinity vs. femininity
---男子气概与女性气质

1）Individualism vs Collectivism
1）个人主义与集体主义

Individualism and collectivism can construct the core of the a culture.
个人主义和集体主义可以构建 A 文化的核心。

Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose. Individualistic cultures stress the self and personal achievement. So they are also called the “I”culture. There is more emphasis on “I” than on “we”. Autonomy, variety, pleasure, and individual financial security are sought in the individualism system.
个人主义属于个人之间纽带松散的社会。个人主义文化强调自我和个人成就。所以他们也被称为“我”文化。对“我”的强调比对“我们”的强调更多。在个人主义体系中寻求自主性、多样性、快乐和个人财务安全。

Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups. Collectivism emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence. People place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity, because the basic unit is the in-group or collective. There is a very clear distinction between ingroup and outgroup behaviors. People rely on in-groups In a collectivist culture and expect their in-groups to look after them, but regard out-groups as aliens. In collectivistic cultures people are expected to be interdependent and show conformity to the group’s norms and values. There is more emphasis on “we” than on “I”, so collectivistic cultures are also called “we” culture.
集体主义作为其对立面，属于人们从出生开始就被整合到强大、有凝聚力的内部群体中的社会。 集体主义强调共同利益、一致性、合作和相互依存。人们不重视个人身份，而非常重视群体身份，因为基本单位是内部群体或集体。 内群体行为和外群体行为之间有非常明显的区别。在集体主义文化中，人们依赖内部群体，并期望他们的内部群体照顾他们，但将外部群体视为外来者。在集体主义文化中，人们被期望相互依存并表现出对群体规范和价值观的一致性。比 起“我”，更强调“我们”，所以集体主义文化也被称为“我们”文化。

Key concepts relative to individualism and collectivism
与个人主义和集体主义相关的关键概念

2）Power distance权利差距

The dimension of power distance specifies to what extent a culture adapts to inequalities of power distribution in relationships and organizations. To make it simple, power distance is the social distance between the highest and lowest members of society.
权力距离的维度指定了文化在多大程度上适应关系和组织中权力分配的不平等。简单来说，权力距离是社会最高层和最低层成员之间的社会距离。

3）Uncertainty avoidance不确定性规避
3）uncertainty avoidanceuncertainty规避

Uncertainty avoidance indicates the extent to which a society feels threatened by ambiguous （模棱两可的）situation and tries to avoid them by providing rules, believing in absolute truths, and refusing to tolerate deviance（异常）.
不确定性回避表示一个社会在多大程度上感到受到模棱两可的（模棱两可）情况的威胁，并试图通过提供规则、相信绝对真理和拒绝容忍偏差（异常）来避免它们。

4）Masculinity vs Femininity 男性气质与女性气质文化

The dimension of masculinity and femininity refers to the extent to which stereotypically masculine and feminine traits prevail in the culture.
男性气质和女性气质的维度是指刻板印象中的男性和女性特征在文化中占主导地位的程度。

In masculine cultures, social gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.”
在男性文化中，社会性别角色明显不同：男性应该自信、强硬，并专注于物质上的成功;女性应该更谦虚、温柔，并关心生活质量。“

In feminine cultures, social gender roles overlap:both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.”
在女性文化中，社会性别角色重叠：男性和女性都应该谦虚、温柔、关心生活品质。

Unit 4 Cultural Diversity
单元 4 文化多样性

In-class Reading I
课堂阅读 I

Different Lands, Different Friendship
不同的土地，不同的友谊

Few Americans stay put for a lifetime. We move from town to city to suburb, from high school to college in a different state, from a job in one region to a better job elsewhere, from the home where we raise our children to the home where we plan to live in retirement. With each move we are forever making new friends, who become part of our new life at that time.
很少有美国人会一辈子留在原地。我们从一个城镇搬到另一个城市到郊区，从高中搬到另一个州的大学，从一个地区的工作搬到其他地方更好的工作，从我们抚养孩子的家搬到我们计划退休后的家。每一次搬家，我们都在结交新朋友，他们当时成为我们新生活的一部分。

For many of us the summer is a special time for forming new friendships. Today millions of Americans vacation abroad, and they go not only to see new sights but also--in those places where they do not feel too strange-- with the hope of meeting new people. No one really expects a vacation trip to produce a close friend. But surely the beginning of a friendship is possible? Surely in every country people value friendship?
对于我们中的许多人来说，夏天是建立新友谊的特殊时刻。今天，数以百万计的美国人出国度假，他们不仅去看新景点，而且去那些他们不会觉得太陌生的地方，希望能结识新朋友。没有人真的期望假期旅行能产生一个亲密的朋友。但友谊的开始肯定是可能的吗？每个国家的人们肯定都重视友谊吗？

They do. The difficulty when strangers from two countries meet is not a lack of appreciation of friendship, but different expectations about what constitutes friendship and how it comes into being. In those European countries that Americans are most likely to visit, friendship is quite sharply distinguished from other, more casual relations, and is differently related to family life. For a Frenchman, a German or an Englishman friendship is usually more particularized and carries a heavier burden of commitment.
他们确实如此。当来自两个国家的陌生人相遇时，困难不在于缺乏对友谊的欣赏，而是对友谊的构成以及友谊如何形成的不同期望。在美国人最有可能访问的那些欧洲国家，友谊与其他更随意的关系截然不同，并且与家庭生活的关系也不同。对于法国人来说，德国人或英国人的友谊通常更具体，并承担着更沉重的承诺负担。

But as we use the word, “friend” can be applied to a wide range of relationships--to someone one has known for a few weeks in a new place, to a close business associate, to a childhood playmate, to a man or woman, to a trusted confidant. There are real differences among these relations for Americans--a friendship may be superficial, casual, situational or deep and enduring. But to a European, who sees only our surface behavior, the differences are not clear.
但是，当我们使用这个词时，“朋友”可以应用于广泛的关系——一个人在新地方认识几周的人，一个亲密的商业伙伴，一个儿时的玩伴，一个男人或女人，一个值得信赖的知己。对美国人来说，这些关系之间存在真正的差异——友谊可能是肤浅的、随意的、情境性的，也可能是深刻而持久的。但对于只看到我们表面行为的欧洲人来说，差异并不明显。

As they see it, people known and accepted temporarily, casually, flow in and out of Americans homes with little ceremony and often with little personal commitment. They may be parents of the children’s friends, house guests of neighbors, members of a committee, business associates from another town or even another county. Coming as a guest into an American home, the European visitor finds no visible landmarks. The atmosphere is relaxed. Most people, old and young, are called by first names.
在他们看来，人们是暂时的、随意的、偶然地进出美国人的家，几乎没有仪式，而且往往没有什么个人承诺。他们可能是孩子朋友的父母、邻居的房客、委员会成员、来自另一个城镇甚至另一个县的商业伙伴。 作为客人来到美国住宅，这位欧洲访客没有发现任何可见的地标。气氛很轻松。大多数人，无论老少，都用名字来称呼。

Who, then, is a friend?
那么，谁是朋友呢？

Even simple translation from one language to another is difficult. “You see, “ a Frenchman explains, “if I were to say to you in France, ‘This is my good friend’, that person would not be as close to me as someone about whom I said only ‘This is my friend.’ Anyone about whom I have to say more is really less.”
即使是从一种语言到另一种语言的简单翻译也很困难。 “你看，”一个法国人解释说，“如果我在法国对你说，这是我的好朋友，那个人不会像我只说这是我的朋友的人那样亲近我。 我必须说得更多的人真的是少。“

In France, as in many European countries, friends generally are of the same sex, and friendship is seen as basically a relationship between men. Frenchwomen laugh at the idea that “women can’t be friends.” but they also admit sometimes that for women “it's a different thing.” And many French people doubt the possibility of a friendship between a man and a woman. There is also the kind of relationship within a group-men and women who have worked together for a long time, who may be very close, sharing great loyalty and warmth of feeling. They may call one another copains -- a word that in English becomes"friends"but has more the feeling of "pals" or "buddies.” In French eyes this is not friendship, although two members of such a group may well be friends.
在法国，就像在许多欧洲国家一样，朋友通常是同性，友谊基本上被视为男性之间的关系。法国女性嘲笑“女人不能成为朋友。“但他们有时也承认，对于女性来说，”这是另一回事。“许多法国人怀疑一男一女之间可能存在友谊的可能性。在群体中还有一种关系——一起工作了很长时间的男人和女人，他们可能非常亲密，分享着极大的忠诚和温暖的感情。他们可能会互相称呼对方为 copains——这个词在英语中变成了“朋友”，但更多的是“朋友”或“朋友”的感觉。“在法国人眼中，这不是友谊，尽管这样一个群体中的两个成员很可能是朋友。

For the French, friendship is a one-to-one relationship that demands a keen awareness of the other person's intellect, temperament and particular interests. A friend is someone who draws out your own best qualities, with whom you sparkle and become more of whatever the friendship draws upon. Your political philosophy assumes more depth, appreciation of a play becomes sharper, taste in food or wine Is accentuated, enjoyment of a sport is intensified.
对于法国人来说，友谊是一种一对一的关系，需要对对方的智力、气质和特殊兴趣有敏锐的了解。朋友是能激发你自己最好的品质的人，和他一起闪闪发光，变得更像友谊所依赖的任何东西。你的政治哲学更深入，对戏剧的欣赏变得更敏锐，食物或葡萄酒的品味得到强调，对运动的享受得到加强。

And French friendships are compartmentalized. A man may play chess with a friend for thirty years without knowing his political opinions, or he may talk politics with him for as long a time without knowing about his personal life. Different friends fill different niches in each person's life. These friendships are not made part of family life. A friend is not expected to spend evenings being nice to children or courteous to a deaf grandmother. These duties, also serious and enjoined, are primarily for relatives. Men who are friends may meet in a cafe. Intellectual friends may meet in larger groups for evenings of a conversation. Working people may meet at the little bistro where they drink and talk, far from the family. Marriage does not affect such friendships; wives do not have to be taken into account.
法国的友谊是分开的。一个人可能和朋友下棋三十年，却不知道他的政治观点，或者他可能和他谈论政治很长一段时间，却不知道他的个人生活。不同的朋友在每个人的生活中占据着不同的位置。这些友谊不是家庭生活的一部分。朋友不应该在晚上对孩子友好或对聋哑的祖母有礼貌。这些职责，也是严肃的和被禁止的，主要是给亲属的。朋友可以在咖啡馆见面。知识分子的朋友可能会在晚上以更大的团体见面交谈。上班族可能会在远离家人的小酒馆里见面，在那里他们喝酒聊天。婚姻不会影响这种友谊;妻子不必被考虑在内。

In the past in France, friendships of this kind seldom were open to any but intellectual women. Since most women's lives centered on their homes, their warmer relations with other women often went back to their girlhood. The special relationship of friendship is based on what the French value most —on the mind, on compatibility of outlook, on vivid awareness of some chosen area of life.
在过去，在法国，这种友谊很少向任何人开放，只有知识分子女性。由于大多数女性的生活都以家庭为中心，因此她们与其他女性的友好关系往往可以追溯到她们的少女时代。这种特殊的友谊关系是建立在法国人最看重的东西之上的——思想、观点的相容性、对生活某些特定领域的生动认识。

Friendship heightens the sense of each person’s individuality. Other relationships commanding as great loyalty and devotion have a different meaning. In World War II the first resistance groups formed in Paris were built on the foundation of les copains. But significantly, as time went on these little groups, whose lives rested on another’s hands, called themselves “families.” Where each had a total responsibility for all, it was kinship ties that provided the model. And even today such ties, crossing every line of class and personal interest remain binding on the survivors of these small, secret bands.
友谊增强了每个人的个性。其他要求极大的忠诚和奉献的关系具有不同的含义。在第二次世界大战中，在巴黎成立的第一个抵抗组织建立在 les copains 的基础上。但值得注意的是，随着时间的推移，这些生活依赖于他人的小团体称自己为“家庭”。“每个人都对所有人负有全部责任，亲属关系提供了模式。即使在今天，这种跨越阶级和个人利益界限的纽带仍然对这些小而秘密的乐队的幸存者具有约束力。

In Germany, in contrast with France, friendship is much more articulately a matter of feeling. Adolescents, boys and girls, form deeply sentimental attachments, walk and talk together-not so much to polish their wits as to share their hopes and fears and dreams, to form a common front against the world of school and family and to join in a kind of mutual discovery of each other's and their own inner life. Within the family, the closest relationship over a lifetime is between brothers and sisters. Outside the family, men and women find in their closest friends of the same sex the devotion of a sister, the loyalty of a brother. Appropriately, in Germany, friends usually are brought into the family. Children call their father's and their mother’s friends “uncle” and “aunt.” Between French friends, who have chosen each other for the congeniality of their point of view, lively disagreement and sharpness of argument are the breath of life. But for Germans, whose friendships are based on mutuality of feeling, deep disagreement on any subject that matters to both is regarded as a tragedy. Like ties of kinship, ties of friendship are meant to be irrevocably binding. Young Germans who come to the United States have great difficulty in establishing such friendship with Americans. We view friendship more tentatively, subject to changes in intensity as people move, change their Jobs, marry or discover new interests.
与法国相反，在德国，友谊更清楚地是一种感情问题。青少年，无论男孩还是女孩，都形成了深深的情感依恋，一起走路和交谈——与其说是为了磨练他们的智慧，不如说是为了分享他们的希望、恐惧和梦想，为了形成一个共同的阵线，反对学校和家庭的世界，并加入一种对彼此和他们自己的内心生活的共同发现。在家庭内部，一生中最亲密的关系是兄弟姐妹之间的关系。在家庭之外，男人和女人在他们最亲密的同性朋友身上发现了姐妹的忠诚，兄弟的忠诚。在德国，通常会把朋友带到家里。孩子们称他们父亲和他们母亲的朋友为“叔叔”和“阿姨”。“ 法国朋友之间，他们因为观点的契合而选择彼此，热烈的分歧和尖锐的争论是生命的气息。但对于德国人来说，他们的友谊建立在相互的感情基础上，在任何对双方都很重要的话题上存在深刻的分歧被认为是一场悲剧。就像亲属关系一样，友谊纽带也意味着具有不可撤销的约束力。来到美国的年轻德国人很难与美国人建立这种友谊。我们更试探性地看待友谊，随着人们搬家、换工作、结婚或发现新的兴趣，友谊的强度会发生变化。

English friendships follow still a different pattern. Their basis is shared activity. Activities at different stages of life may be of very different kinds--discovering a common interest in school, serving together in the armed forces, taking part in a foreign mission, staying in the same country house during a crisis. In the midst of the activity, whatever it may be, people fall into steps -- sometimes two men or two women, sometimes two couple,
英国的友谊仍然遵循不同的模式。它们的基础是共享活动。人生不同阶段的活动可能非常不同——在学校发现共同的兴趣、一起在军队服役、参加外国任务、在危机期间住在同一个乡间别墅。在活动中，无论是什么，人们都会分步走下去——有时是两个男人或两个女人，有时是两对夫妇。

sometimes three people -- and find that they walk or play a game or tell stories or serve on a tiresome and exacting committee with the same easy anticipation of what each will do day by day or in some critical situation. Americans who have made English friends comment that, even years later, “you can take up just where you left off.” Meeting after a long interval, friends are like a couple who begin to dance again when the orchestra strikes up after a pause. English friendships are formed outside the family circle, but they are not, as in Germany, contrapuntal to the family nor are they, as in France, separated from the family. And a break in English friendship comes not necessarily as a result of some irreconcilable difference of viewpoint or feeling but instead as a result of misjudgment, where one friend seriously misjudges how the other will think or feel or act. So that suddenly they are out of step.
有时三个人 -- 发现他们走路、玩游戏、讲故事或在一个令人厌烦和严格的委员会中服务，同样轻松地预测每个人每天或在某些危急情况下将要做什么。结交过英国朋友的美国人评论说，即使在多年后，“你也可以从你离开的地方继续。“在长时间的间隔后见面，朋友们就像一对情侣，当管弦乐队在停顿后响起时，他们又开始跳舞。英国的友谊是在家庭圈子之外形成的，但它们不像德国那样与家庭对立，也不像法国那样与家庭分离。而英语友谊的破裂不一定是由于某种不可调和的观点或感情分歧的结果，而是由于误判的结果，即一个朋友严重误判了另一个朋友的想法、感受或行为。所以突然之间，他们就失去了步调。

What then, is friendship? Looking at these different styles, including our own. each of which is related to a whole way of life, are there common elements? There is the recognition that friendship, in contrast with kinship, invokes freedom of choice. A friend is someone who chooses and is chosen. Related to this is the sense each friend gives the other of being a special individual, on whatever grounds this recognition is based. And between friends there is inevitably a kind of equality of give-and-take. These similarities make the bridge between societies possible, and the American's characteristic openness to different styles of relationship makes it possible for him to find new friends abroad with whom he feels at home.
那么，友谊是什么呢？看看这些不同的风格，包括我们自己的风格。每一项都与整个生活方式有关，有共同的元素吗？人们认识到，与亲属关系相反，友谊需要有选择的自由。朋友是选择并被选择的人。与此相关的是每个朋友都认为对方是一个特殊的个体，无论这种认可是基于什么原因。朋友之间不可避免地存在着一种平等的给予和索取。这些相似之处使社会之间的桥梁成为可能，而美国人对不同类型关系的开放态度使他有可能在国外找到新朋友，与他们在一起有宾至如归的感觉。

(Adapted from Margaret Mead & R. Metraux, “Different Lands, Different Friendships”)
（改编自Margaret Mead & R. Metraux，“不同的土地，不同的友谊”））

In-class Reading II
课堂阅读 II

Identifying Difference: Family Structure
识别差异：家庭结构

Family structure is the core of any culture. This unit probably varies more among cultures than any other variable.
家庭结构是任何文化的核心。这个单位在不同文化之间的差异可能比任何其他变量都大。

A major function of the family is to socialize new members of a culture. As children are raised in a family setting they learn to become members of the family as well as members of the larger culture. The family provides the model for all other relationships in society. Through the observations and modeling of the behavior of other family members, children learn about the family and society including the values of the culture.
家庭的一个主要功能是使一种文化的新成员进行社交。当孩子在家庭环境中长大时，他们学会成为家庭的一员以及更大文化的成员。家庭为社会中的所有其他关系提供了模式。通过对其他家庭成员行为的观察和建模，孩子们了解家庭和社会，包括文化的价值观。

Family structure and their inherent relationships and obligations are a major source of cultural difference.
家庭结构及其固有的关系和义务是文化差异的主要来源。

The family is the center of most traditional Asians lives. Many people worry about their families’ welfare, reputation, and honor. Asian families are often extended, including several generations related by blood or marriage living in the same home. An Asian person's misdeeds are not blamed just on the individual but also on the family- including the dead ancestors.
家庭是大多数传统亚洲人生活的中心。许多人担心他们的家庭福利、声誉和荣誉。亚洲家庭通常是扩展的，包括住在同一家的几代血缘或婚姻关系。亚洲人的恶行不仅归咎于个人，还归咎于家庭——包括已故的祖先。

Traditional Chinese, among many other Asians, respect their elders and feel a deep sense of duty toward them. Children repay their parents' sacrifices by being successful and supporting them in old age. This is accepted as a natural part of life in China. In contrast, taking care of aged parents is often viewed as a tremendous burden in the United States, where aging and family support are not honored highly.
与许多其他亚洲人一样，传统的中国人尊重他们的长辈，并对他们有深深的责任感。孩子们通过成功和支持他们晚年来回报父母的牺牲。这在中国被认为是生活的自然组成部分。相比之下，在美国，照顾年迈的父母通常被视为一个巨大的负担，老龄化和家庭支持并未得到高度重视。

Filipinos, the most Americanized of the Asians, are still extremely family-oriented. They are dedicated to helping their children and will sacrifice greatly for their children to get an education. In turn, the children are devoted to their parents, who often live nearby. Grown children who go away and leave the country for economic reasons typically send large parts of their salary home to their parents and the rest of the family.
菲律宾人是亚洲人中最美国化的，他们仍然非常注重家庭。他们致力于帮助自己的孩子，并将为孩子接受教育做出巨大牺牲。反过来，孩子们也对他们的父母很忠诚，他们通常住在附近。由于经济原因而离开该国的成年子女通常会将大部分工资寄回家给父母和家人。

The Vietnamese family consists of people currently alive as well as the spirits of the dead and of the as-yet unborn. Any decisions or actions are done from family considerations, not individual desires. People’s behavior is judged on whether it brings shame or pride to the family. Vietnamese children are trained to rely on their families, to honor elderly people, and to fear foreigners. Many Vietnamese think that their actions in this life will influence their status in the next life.
越南家庭由目前在世的人以及死者和尚未出生的人的灵魂组成。任何决定或行动都是出于家庭考虑，而不是个人愿望。人们的行为是根据它给家庭带来羞耻还是自豪来评判的。越南儿童被训练要依靠家人，尊重老人，害怕外国人。许多越南人认为他们今生的行为会影响他们来世的地位。

Fathers in traditional Japanese families are typically stern and aloof. Japanese college students in one study said they would tell their fathers just about as much as they would tell a total stranger. The emotional and communication barrier between children and fathers in Japan appears very strong after children have reached a certain age.
传统日本家庭的父亲通常是严厉和冷漠的。在一项研究中，日本大学生表示，他们告诉父亲的语气和告诉一个完全陌生的人一样多。在日本，孩子和父亲之间的情感和沟通障碍在孩子达到一定年龄后显得非常强烈。

Traditional Latin Americans are as family-centered as the traditional Asians. The family is the number one priority, the major frame of reference. Latin Americans believe that family members must help each other. Children in Latin America (of whom there are many, due to high fertility rates)are taught to respect authority and are given many responsibilities at home. The Latin American family emphasizes authority with the males and older people being the most important. The family in most parts of Latin America includes many relatives, who remain in close contact. Family connections are the main way to get things done; dropping names (mentioning the names
传统的拉丁美洲人和传统的亚洲人一样以家庭为中心。家庭是第一要务，是主要的参考框架。拉丁美洲人认为，家庭成员必须互相帮助。拉丁美洲的儿童（由于高生育率，其中有很多）被教导要尊重权威，并在家里被赋予许多责任。拉丁美洲家庭强调权威，男性和老年人是最重要的。拉丁美洲大部分地区的家庭包括许多亲戚，他们仍然保持着密切的联系。家庭联系是完成工作的主要方式;删除名称（提及名称

of important people the family knows) is often necessary to accomplish even simple things.
家人认识的重要人物）往往是完成即使是简单的事情所必需的。

Although there has been much talk about “family values" in the United States, the family is not a usual frame of reference for decisions in U. S mainstream culture. Family connections are not so Important to most people. Dropping the names of wealthy or famous people the family knows is done in the United States. but it is not viewed positively. More important is a person’s own individual “track record” of personal achievement.
尽管在美国有很多关于“家庭价值观”的讨论，但在美国主流文化中，家庭并不是一个通常的决策参考框架。家庭关系对大多数人来说并不那么重要。删除家人认识的富人或名人的名字在美国是完成的。但它并没有被积极看待。更重要的是一个人自己的个人 个人成就“记录”。

Thus, many cultural differences exist in family structures and values. In some cultures, the family is the center of life and the main frame of reference for decisions. In other cultures. the individuals, not the family, is primary. In some cultures, the family's reputation and honor depend on each person’s actions: in other cultures. individuals can act without permanently affecting the family life. Some cultures value old people, while other cultures look down on them.
因此，家庭结构和价值观中存在许多文化差异。在某些文化中，家庭是生活的中心和决策的主要参考框架。在其他文化中。个人，而不是家庭，是首要的。在某些文化中，家庭的声誉和荣誉取决于每个人的行为：在其他文化中。个人可以在不永久影响家庭生活的情况下采取行动。一些文化重视老年人，而另一些文化则看不起他们。

(Adapted from R. L. Oxford & R. C. Scarcella, “A Few Family Structures and Values Around the Globe”)
（改编自R. L. Oxford & R. C. Scarcella，“全球的一些家庭结构和价值观”））

Unit 5 Culture and Verbal Communication
单元 5 文化和语言交流

(Verbal communication: the communication that involves the use of words, oral communication.
（Verbal communication：涉及使用文字的交流，口头交流。

Nonverbal communication: the communication that does not involve the use of words, sometimes called body language, NVC for short.)
非语言交流：不涉及使用语言的交流，有时称为肢体语言，简称 NVC。）

I Language and Culture
I 语言与文化

The Structure of Human Language
人类语言的结构

1.1 Definition
1.1 定义

1) Language is a set of shared symbols or signs that a cooperative group of people has mutually agreed to use to help them create meaning.
1） 语言是一组共同的符号或符号，一群合作的人已经同意使用它们来帮助他们创造意义。

2) Linguistics is the scientific study of human language, and it is comprised of five areas of study: morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Among them, semantics and pragmatics have special importance for intercultural communication.
2） 语言学是人类语言的科学研究，它由五个研究领域组成：形态学、音系学、句法、语义学和语用学。其中，语义学和语用学对跨文化交际具有特殊的重要性。

Subbranches of linguistic study
语言学研究的子分支

Morphology: the study of words and word building.
形态学：单词的研究和单词构建。

Phonology: the study of the sounds of human language and their patterns.
音系学：研究人类语言的声音及其模式。

Syntax: the study of the structure of sentences and phrases.
句法 （Syntax） 对句子和短语结构的研究。

Semantics: the study of meaning and reference in human language.
语义学人类语言中的意义和引用的研究。

Linguistic meaning--- dictionary meaning or the meaning or meanings of an expression in the language.
语言含义---字典含义或语言中表达的含义。

Speaker’s meaning--- the intention of the speaker (pragmatics)
说话人的意思---说话人的意图 （pragmatics）

Pragmatics: the study of the effect of language on human behavior.
语用学 研究语言对人类行为的影响。

In order to improve verbal communication, people should pay attention to choice of words & expression, organization of message ,clarity of pronunciation and intercultural awareness.
为了提高口头交流，人们应该注意词语的选择和表达方式，信息的组织性，发音的清晰度和跨文化意识。

2.Characteristics of Language
2.语言的特点

Language is symbolic; The same reality can be represented by different symbols. Different language systems use different symbols to stand for the same reality.
语言是象征性的;相同的现实可以用不同的符号来表示。不同的语言系统使用不同的符号来代表相同的现实。

Language is rule-governed. Every structural level of human language is regulated by its own grammatical rules and principles. For example, in Chinese the “you” in the expression of “How are you” should be put at the beginning of the sentence.
语言受规则支配。人类语言的每一个结构层次都受其自身语法规则和原则的约束。例如，在中文中，“How are you”表达中的“you”应该放在句子的开头。

Language is subjective. Meanings of the language reside in people, not in words. Asking students to define “love” or “happiness”, we may produce 20 different meanings for each term from the students. The meanings of a language are dependent on culture experience rather than on the words themselves.
语言是主观的。语言的意义在于人，而不是语言。要求学生定义“爱”或“幸福”，我们可能会从学生那里为每个术语产生 20 种不同的含义。语言的含义取决于文化体验，而不是单词本身。

Language is dynamic. No language is fixed or unvarying; in order to survive, all language must constantly undergo changes and variations.
语言是动态的。没有语言是固定的或不变的;为了生存，所有语言都必须不断地发生变化和变化。

3. Variations of Human Language
3. 人类语言的变体

Variations refer to the differences in the pronunciation, spelling, or usage of the same language by different groups of people.
变体是指不同人群对同一语言的发音、拼写或使用的差异。

Many kinds of language variations have been identified by scholars: dialects, lingua franca, pidgin, jargon, argot and taboo.
学者们已经确定了许多种类的语言变体：方言、通用语、洋泾浜、行话、argot 和禁忌。

Dialects
方言

When groups of people speak the same language system differently, they may be said to speak different dialects of the language. In other words, dialect is a form of language peculiar to a group of people, as distinguished from the literary language of the whole group.
当一群人以不同的方式说相同的语言系统时，可以说他们说该语言的不同方言。换句话说，方言是一群人特有的一种语言形式，与整个群体的文学语言不同。

lingua Franca
林瓜语 Franca

Lingua franca often develops in an area where groups of people speak diverse languages. When a given language known to all the participants is used by common agreement for the purpose of communication, this language is called lingua franca. English has been called “the lingua franca of the whole world.”French, at one time, was “the lingua franca of diplomacy.”
通用语通常在一群人说不同语言的地区发展。当所有参与者都知道的给定语言被一致使用用于交流目的时，这种语言称为通用语。英语被称为“全世界的通用语言”。“法语曾一度是'外交的通用语言。“

Pidgin
混杂语言

Pidgin languages, also called contact or marginal languages, have most often developed as a result of colonization in military-occupied areas. Pidgins have no native speakers. The linguistic and grammatical structure of pidgin languages is always simple and based on one or two other languages.
洋泾浜语，也称为接触语言或边缘语言，通常是由于军事占领区的殖民化而发展起来的。洋泾浜没有母语人士。洋泾浜语的语言和语法结构总是简单的，并且基于一两种其他语言。

Jargon
行话

Jargon refers to the special or technical vocabularies developed to meet the special needs of particular professions such as medicine and law.
行话是指为满足医学和法律等特定专业的特殊需求而开发的特殊或技术词汇。

Argot
隐语

Argot is a language that is peculiar to itself. It is a language in which the meaning of a word is changed or reversed. It is a more or less secret or unique series of vocabulary words and tends to be used by nondominant groups such as gays, prisoners, gang members.
Argot 是一种自有的语言。它是一种改变或颠倒单词含义的语言。它是或多或少秘密或独特的词汇系列，往往被非主导群体使用，例如同性恋者、囚犯、帮派成员。

Taboo
禁忌

Words that are not polite for a society are considered taboo.
对社会不礼貌的词被认为是禁忌。

All cultures have taboos related to the use of language. To the Chinese, the number 4 is taboo because it sounds like the word for “death.”In the United States we are taught that it is impolite to ask a person’s age, sexual orientation, or religion, and to refrain from arguing about politics. What is funny in one culture can be offensive in another.
所有文化都有与语言使用相关的禁忌。对中国人来说，数字 4 是禁忌，因为它听起来像是“死亡”这个词。“在美国，我们被教导说，询问一个人的年龄、性取向或宗教信仰，并避免就政治争论是不礼貌的。在一种文化中有趣的东西在另一种文化中可能会令人反感。

4. Relationship between Language and Culture
4. 语言与文化的关系

The relationship between culture and language has been studied for many decades, but scholars from different disciplines still have not reached consensus on the degree to which culture and language are related to each other. The argument proposes that language either determines or only reflects our attitude, beliefs, or culture.
文化与语言之间的关系已经研究了几十年，但来自不同学科的学者仍然没有就文化和语言之间的关联程度达成共识。 该论点提出，语言要么决定要么仅反映我们的态度、信仰或文化。

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Sapir and Whorf are two American anthropologists. To them, language influenced or even determined the ways in which people thought. They formed the possibility such a relationship between language and the way people experience the world into a hypothesis. The hypothesis has been interpreted in two ways.
Sapir 和 Whorf 是两位美国人类学家。对他们来说，语言影响甚至决定了人们的思维方式。他们把语言和人们体验世界的方式之间的这种关系形成了一个假设的可能性。这个假设以两种方式进行了解释。

One is known as determinism. In this view, our language determines our thinking. This strong version has been rejected as it runs counter to the fact that people of different cultural backgrounds can understand each other.
一种被称为决定论。在这种观点中，我们的语言决定了我们的思维。这个强有力的版本被拒绝了，因为它与不同文化背景的人们可以相互理解的事实背道而驰。

The other interpretation, known as the relativism, holds that culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the experienced world.
另一种解释被称为相对主义，认为文化影响我们通过语言思考的方式，尤其是在我们对经验世界的分类中。

Conclusion
结论

Although no agreement among scholars has been reached about whether language determines or only reflects culture, the close relationship between the two concepts is recognized. Language is a bridge people can use to learn or understand cultural values. Language, as a product of man’s social life, is part of culture.
尽管学者们对于语言是决定文化还是仅反映文化没有达成共识，但这两个概念之间的密切关系是公认的。语言是人们可以用来学习或理解文化价值观的桥梁。 语言作为人类社会生活的产物，是文化的一部分。

To be competent in intercultural communication we need to be aware of both the cultural values and the language expressions of our cultural counterparts. The comparison and contrast of different cultures help understand one’s own culture and other cultures, which will ultimately enhance the effect of intercultural communication.
要胜任跨文化交际，我们需要了解文化价值观和文化对应物的语言表达方式。 不同文化的比较和对比有助于了解自己的文化和其他文化，最终会增强跨文化交际的效果。

II. Translation and culture
二.翻译和文化

1. Interpreting and Translating
1. 口译和笔译

The work of interpreters and translators is instrumental to the success of increased communication activities across cultural boundaries
口译和笔译的工作有助于增加跨文化界限的交流活动的成功

1.1 The term “translating” is often used in a broad sense to refer to changing messages, written or signed, from one language to another. However, in professional settings, “translation” is taken to mean working with written messages.
1.1 “翻译”一词通常从广义上指将书面或签名的信息从一种语言更改为另一种语言。然而，在专业环境中，“翻译”是指处理书面信息。

1.2 “Interpretation”, on the other hand, implies changing oral or signed messages from one language into another.
1.2 另一方面，“口译”是指将口头或手语信息从一种语言更改为另一种语言。

2. Cultural Considerations in Interpretation and Translation
2.口译和笔译中的文化考虑

The process of translation and interpretation is much more complicated than merely taking a word from one language and replacing it with one from another language. There are numerous cultural considerations that come into play.
笔译和口译的过程比仅仅从一种语言中取一个词并用另一种语言中的一个词替换它要复杂得多。有许多文化因素在起作用。

Often, there is no single word equivalency or the word may have a different meaning in another language. Translation tasks can also require an extensive awareness of cultural factors.
通常，没有单个单词的等效性，或者该单词在另一种语言中可能具有不同的含义。 Translation 任务也可能需要对文化因素有广泛的认识。

III. Language and communication
三.语言和沟通

The tone of voice, the speaker's intention, and the verbal content reflect our way of speaking, our verbal style, which in turn reflects our cultural and personal values and sentiments. verbal style frames “how” a message should be interpreted.
语气、说话者的意图和语言内容反映了我们的说话方式、我们的语言风格，这反过来又反映了我们的文化和个人价值观和情感。verbal style 规定了应该 “如何” 解释消息。

1. Direct and Indirect vs Verbal Interaction Styles
1.直接和 Ind直立与语言交互方式

The direct and indirect styles differ in the extent to which communicators reveal their intentions through their tone of voice and the straightforwardness of their content message.
直接和间接风格的不同之处在于 communicat或s 通过他们的语气和内容信息的直截了当程度来揭示他们的意图。

1.1 In the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker's intentions and are enunciated in a forthright tone of voice.
1.1 在直接动词风格中，陈述清楚地揭示了说话者的意图，并以直率的语气表达。

1.2 In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to camouflage the speaker's actual intentions and are carried out with more nuanced tone of voice.
1.2 另一方面，在间接口头风格中，口头陈述往往掩盖说话者的实际意图，并以更微妙的语气进行。

2. Person-Oriented and Status-Oriented Verbal Styles
2.以人为本和以地位为导向的动词风格

2.1 The person-oriented verbal style is iividual-centered verbal mode that emphssizes the importance of informality and role suspension.
2.1 以人为本的口头风格是以个人为中心的口头模式，强调了非正式和角色暂停的重要性。

2.2 The status-oriented verbal style is a role-centered verbal mode that emphasizes formality and large power distance. (While low-context cultures tend to emphasize the use of the person-oriented verbal style, high-context cultures tend to value the status-oriented verbal mode.)
2.2 地位导向型口头表达风格是一种以角色为中心的口头表达模式，强调形式化和大权力距离。（虽然低语境文化倾向于强调使用以人为本的言语方式，但高语境文化倾向于重视以地位为导向的言语模式。）

3. Self-enhancement and self-effacement verbal style
3. Self-enhancement 和 self-mefacement 动词风格

3.1 The self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about one's accomplishments and abilities.
3.1 自我提升的口头风格强调吹嘘自己的成就和能力的重要性。

3.2 The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations, modest talk, and the use of self-deprecation concerning one's effort or performance.
3.2 另一方面，自我贬低的口头风格强调通过言语克制、犹豫、谦虚的谈话以及对自己的努力或表现使用 s elf 贬低来谦卑自己的重要性。

4. Conclusion
4. 结论

In individualistic cultures, people tend to prefer direct talk, person-oriented verbal interaction, verbal self-enhancement and talkativeness. In contrast, in collectivistic cultures, people tend to employ indirect talk, status-oriented verbal interaction, verbal self-effacement and silence in their communication.
在个人主义文化中，人们往往更喜欢直接交谈、以人为本的口头互动、口头自我提升和健谈。相比之下，在集体主义文化中，人们倾向于在交流中采用间接对话、以地位为导向的口头互动、口头自我贬低和沉默。

Unit 6 Culture and Nonverbal Communication
单元 6 文化与非语言交际

When you speak to somebody, you are not only communicating verbally . Generally speaking, oral communication is accompanied by eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, etc. all of which are nonverbal means of communicating.
当你与某人交谈时，你不仅仅是在口头交流。一般来说，口头交流伴随着眼神交流、面部表情、手势等，这些都是非语言的交流方式。

According to some communication theorists, in face-to-face communication less than 30% of the information is communicated through speaking, and over 70% of the message is sent by nonverbal means. Most people are not fully aware of importance of nonverbal communication because traditional language studies emphasized verbal and written language. As a matter of fact, in some types of communication people express even more nonverbally than verbally.
根据一些传播理论家的说法，在面对面的交流中，只有不到 30% 的信息是通过口语传达的，而超过 70% 的信息是通过非语言方式发送的。大多数人并不完全意识到非语言交流的重要性，因为传统语言研究强调口头和书面语言。事实上，在某些类型的交流中，人们的非语言表达甚至比口头表达更多。

I The nature of nonverbal communication
I 非语言交流的本质

1. Definition: All intentional and unintentional stimuli between communicating parties, other than the spoken word, are considered to be nonverbal communication. It is sometimes called body language and NVC for short. Nonverbal, because it does not involve the use of words.
1.定义：除口语外，交流各方之间的所有有意和无意刺激都被认为是非语言交流。它有时被称为肢体语言和简称 NVC。非语言的，因为它不涉及单词的使用。

Examples: the quality of a voice, the blinking of our eyes, the blushing of our face , crossed arms and other gestures.
示例：声音的质量、眨眼、脸红、交叉双臂和其他手势。

2. Nonverbal VS Verbal communication
2. 非语言 VS 语言交流

Similarity: both use symbols to represent something.
相似性：两者都使用符号来表示某物。

2.2 Differences:
2.2 差异：

First, we can consciously control the flow of our verbal messages, but not so easily the incidence of our nonverbal messages. Our nonverbal behaviors in large part are controlled by biological necessity. For example, the shivering of our hands when we are scared.
首先，我们可以有意识地控制我们语言信息的流动，但不要那么容易控制我们非语言信息的发生。我们的非语言行为在很大程度上是由生物学的需要控制的。例如，当我们害怕时，我们的手会颤抖。

Second ,verbally we express ourselves word by word and sentence by sentence; nonverbally several communications may happen at once. For example, in the public speaking class we are required to make a speech in front of classmates. The speaker may be so nervous that her hands may be shivering, her face may blush, and her heart may beat more rapidly, but at the same time she tries to keep smiling. All these nonverbal cues happening simultaneously indicate stage fright.
其次，我们逐字逐句地口头表达自己;不n口头上可以同时进行几次交流。例如，在公开演讲课上，我们被要求在同学面前发表演讲。说话者可能会非常紧张，以至于她的手可能会颤抖，她的脸可能会红，她的心跳可能会更快，但与此同时，她会努力保持微笑。所有这些同时发生的非语言暗示都表明怯场。

Third, only part of nonverbal communication is available.
第三，只有部分非语言交流可用。

Fourth, we learn nonverbal communication much earlier in our life than verbal communication.
第四，我们在生活中学习非语言交流的时间比语言交流要早得多。

Finally, nonverbal communication can be more emotional than verbal communication.
最后，非语言交流可能比语言交流更情绪化。

3. Functions of nonverbal communication
3. 非语言交流的功能

In addition to the transmission of our feelings and emotions, nonverbal messages also serve five major functions in the communication process:
除了传递我们的感受和情绪外，非语言信息在沟通过程中还发挥着五大功能：

repetition
重复

replacement
更换

emphasis
强调

contradiction
矛盾

regulation
调节

In most communication settings both verbal and nonverbal communication are working in combination rather than in isolation.
在大多数交流环境中，语言和非语言交流都是结合而不是孤立地工作。

II The structure of Nonverbal communication
II 非语言交流的结构

The elements of nonverbal messages include hand gestures, eye contact, posture and stance, facial expressions, odors, clothing, hair style, walking behavior, interpersonal distance, touching, architecture… For the purposes of study, we classify these elements into four categories: kinesics, proxemics, paralanguage, and chronemics.
非语言信息的元素包括手势、眼神交流、姿势和姿势、面部表情、气味、服装、发型、行走行为、人际距离、触摸、建筑...... 为了研究目的，我们将这些元素分为四类：运动学、接近学、副语言和计时学。

1. Kinesics
1. 运动学

Kinesics is the study of body movements and activities in human communication. It is also called body language. There are four most common body activities, facial expressions, eye contact, hand gestures, and touch.
运动学是研究人类交流中身体运动和活动的学科。它也被称为肢体语言。 有四种最常见的身体活动，面部表情、眼神交流、手势和触摸。

1.1 Facial Expressions
1.1 面部表情

Facial expressions are the most obvious and important source of nonverbal communication. Across cultures. the same facial expression may acquire different meanings. For example, we tend to consider smiling as a universal nonverbal cue that symbolizes a happy feeling. In Japan, however, smiling serves another purpose, To the Japanese, the smile not only expresses happiness and affection but is also a way to avoid embarrassment and unpleasantness.
面部表情是非语言交流最明显和最重要的来源。跨文化。相同的面部表情可能会获得不同的含义。例如，我们倾向于将微笑视为象征快乐感觉的普遍非语言暗示。然而，在日本，微笑还有另一个目的，对日本人来说，微笑不仅表达快乐和深情，而且还是避免尴尬和不愉快的一种方式。

1.2 Eye Contact
1.2 眼神交流

The use of eye contact follows some unstated rules, However, these rules may vary in different cultures. Cross-culturally. the misinterpretation of the use of eye contact can lead to serious misunderstanding. For example, in North America it is impolite for a man to gaze at women, but Italian men may gaze at women all the time and the women don't feel offended. People in the Middle East, especially Arabs, also consider gazing away to show respect in communication, Direct eye contact is a taboo or an insult in many Asian cultures.
眼神交流的使用遵循一些未规定的规则，但是，这些规则在不同的文化中可能会有所不同。 Cross-文化上。对眼神交流的误解会导致严重的误解。例如，在北美，男人凝视女性是不礼貌的，但意大利男性可能会一直凝视着女性，而女性不会感到被冒犯。中东人，尤其是阿拉伯人，也认为在交流中凝视以表示尊重，直接的眼神交流在许多亚洲文化中是一种禁忌或侮辱。

Hand Gestures
手势

Lots of these hand gestures are culturally determined. For example, the thumb held upright with a closed fist also has various meanings. To North Americans it means "Okay”; to the Chinese it means "excellent " or "number one"; to the Japanese it represents boss father, or husband (the little-finger up sign is use to represent mistress, woman, or wife), and to people in the Middle East it is an obscene gesture.
这些手势的 lots 是由文化决定的。例如，用紧握的拳头直立的拇指也有多种含义。对北美人来说，它的意思是 “好的”;对中国人来说，它的意思是 “优秀 ”或 “第一”;对日本人来说，它代表老板、父亲或丈夫（竖起小手指的手势用来代表情妇、女人或妻子），而对中东人来说，它是一个淫秽的手势。

Touch
触摸

Argyle (1975) identified many types of touch commonly used in the Western world, including patting, slapping, punching, pinching, stroking, shaking, kissing, licking, holding, guiding…Touch is used not only to convey caring and nurturance but also to signify different relationship.
Argyle （1975） 确定了西方世界常用的许多类型的触摸，包括拍打、拍打、拳打、捏、抚摸、摇晃、亲吻、舔、握、引导......触摸不仅用于传达关怀和养育，还用于表示不同的关系。

2. Proxemics
2. 接近

Proxemics refers to the study of how human beings and animals use space in communication process. According to Hall there are three kinds of space:
Proxemics 是指研究人类和动物在交流过程中如何使用空间。根据 Hall 的说法，有三种空间：

2.1 Fixed feature space: those unmovable structural arrangements around us. Eg, a house, the wall
2.1 固定特征空间：我们身边那些不可移动的结构性安排。例如，房子、墙

2.2 Semifixed feature space: the arrangement of movable objects that we don’t move unless a special need arises. Eg, the furniture
2.2 半固定特征空间：除非有特殊需要，否则我们不会移动的可移动物体的排列。例如，家具

2.3 Informal space: the distance between the interactants in communication. According to Hall, informal space directly affects the way we communicate with other. And he classified American cultural interpersonal distance into 8 categories, which can be further classified into four.
2.3 非正式空间：交流中交互者之间的距离。根据 Hall 的说法，非正式空间直接影响我们与他人交流的方式。他将美国文化人际距离分为 8 类，又可以进一步分为 4 类。

different interpersonal distances
不同的人际距离

Intimate space: from 0 to 18 inches. For two persons of close relationship as in a family is required to occupy intimate space. Hugging, kissing, and holding hands together are included in this category．
私密空间：从0 到 18 英寸。对于两个关系密切的人，就像在一个家庭中一样，需要占据私密空间。 拥抱、亲吻和牵手都属于此类别。

Personal space: from 1 or 1.5 feet to 4 feet. When two good friends stay together, they probably will take Personal space.
个人空间：从1 英尺或 1.5 英尺到 4 英尺。当两个好朋友在一起时，他们可能会占用个人空间。

Social space: 4 to 12 feet. Social distance is more businesslike and formal．
社交空间4 到 12 英尺。 社交距离更像是商务和正式的。

Public space: beyond 12 feet. It typically describes a public speaking situation Public distance is used by actors，politicians，and leaders before a large group．
公共空间：超过 12 英尺。它通常描述公开演讲情况 公共距离被演员、政治家和领导人在一大群人之前使用。

The use of informal space varies cross-culturally. For example, while North Americans feel most comfortable an arm's length apart in interactions, Latin Americans tend to keep a much closer distance, and the Japanese and Chinese prefer to keep somewhat greater distance. Differences in using informal space often cause misunderstanding in intercultural communication.
非正式空间的使用因文化而异。例如，虽然北美人在互动中保持一臂距离最舒服，但拉丁美洲人往往保持更近的距离，而日本人和中国人更喜欢保持更大的距离。使用非正式空间的差异经常导致跨文化交流中的误解。

3. Paralanguage
3. 副语言

Paralanguage refers to the study of voice or the use o f vocal signs in communication. Comprised of all the sounds we produce with our voices that are not words, paralanguage forms the border between verbal and nonverbal communication. Vocal cues can be used to detect the emotional state of the speaker in communication. They not only reflect the degree of liking communicated but also suggest the personality of the speaker. For example, we tend to think that persons are more dynamic if they increase the rate, loudness, and Pitch of the speech.
副语言是指对声音的研究或在交流中使用声音符号。副语言由我们用声音产生的所有非文字声音组成，构成了语言和非语言交流之间的边界。声音线索可用于检测说话者在交流中的情绪状态。它们不仅反映了所传达的喜欢程度，还暗示了说话者的个性。例如，我们倾向于认为，如果人们提高语音的语速、响度和音调，他们就会更有活力。

4. Chronemics
4.编年史

Chronemic is the study of how we use time in communication.
计时学是研究我们如何在交流中使用时间的学科。

Present, Past, and Future Time Orientation
现在、过去和未来时间方向

Past Time Orientation
过去时间定向

Past-oriented cultures emphasize tradition and history. People having this orientation evaluate daily or business plans based on the degree to which their plans fit with customs and traditions. Innovation and change tend to discouraged. China is an example of a past-oriented culture.
以过去为导向的文化强调传统和历史。有这种取向的人根据他们的计划与习俗和传统的契合程度来评估日常或商业计划。创新和变革往往令人沮丧。中国是以过去为导向的文化的一个例子。

Present Time Orientation
当前时间方向

Present-oriented cultures consider the present as the only precious moment: seize the day. We should enjoy today and not worry about tomorrow. The bus schedules in the Bahamas illustrate a present-time orientation. There the individual drivers set arrival and departure times, taking breaks whenever they feel like it.
以现在为导向的文化将当下视为唯一宝贵的时刻：抓住这一天。我们应该享受今天，而不是担心明天。巴哈马的公交车时刻表说明了现在的方向。在那里，各个司机设置到达和离开时间，随时休息。

Future Time Orientation
未来时间定向

Future-oriented cultures emphasize planning in order to achieve goals. Changes and innovations are encouraged. The United States tends to be present-and near-future-oriented. The Japanese are future-oriented people, as clearly shown by their system of life-long employment.
面向未来的文化强调为了实现目标而进行规划。鼓励变革和创新。美国往往以现在和不久的将来为导向。日本人是面向未来的人，他们的终身就业制度清楚地表明了这一点。

Monochronic and Polychronic Time Orientation
单时和多时时间取向

Monochronic Time Orientation
单时时间定向

According to Hall(1994), monochronic-time-oriented cultures tend to treat time as something fixed in nature. Time is like the air surrounding us, which we cannot escape. Thus, time is lineal, segmented and manageable. People in monochronic time oriented cultures tend to do one thing at a time and to follow precise scheduling. In social interactions making appointments and meeting deadlines are common practice. Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and the United States are some examples of monochronic-time-oriented cultures.
根据 Hall（1994） 的说法，面向时间的文化倾向于将时间视为本质上固定的东西。时间就像我们周围的空气，我们无法逃避。因此，时间是线性的、分段的和可管理的。在单时性时间导向的文化中，人们倾向于一次做一件事，并遵循精确的时间表。在社交互动中，预约和按时完成是常见的做法。奥地利、德国、瑞士和美国是单时时间导向文化的一些例子。

Polychronic Time Orientation
多时时间定向

Polychronic-time-oriented cultures do not emphasize scheduling by separating time into discrete. fixed segments. Instead, they treat time as a less tangible medium in which many things can be done simultaneously. Thus, in these cultures, Personal interaction and relationship development are far more important than making appointments or meeting deadlines, Africans, Arabs, Greeks, Mexicans, Native Hawaiians, Portuguese, and Spanish are generally included in this category. Misunderstandings or conflicts may occur between people from monochromic and polychoronic-time-oriented cultures.
多时性面向时间的区域性不强调通过将时间分成离散来进行调度。固定段。相反，他们将时间视为一种不太有形的媒介，其中许多事情可以同时完成。因此，在这些文化中，个人互动和关系发展远比约会或按时完成任务重要，非洲人、阿拉伯人、希腊人、墨西哥人、夏威夷原住民、葡萄牙人和西班牙人通常属于这一类。来自单色和多球体时间导向文化的人之间可能会发生误解或冲突。

Unit 7 Intercultural Adaptation
单元 7 跨文化适应

I Intercultural adaptation
I 跨文化适应

1. definition
1. 定义

Intercultural adaptation refers to the process of acclimatizing to the demands of a new cultural environment. It is the process of increasing our level of fitness to meet the demands of a new cultural environment In other words, intercultural adaptation is a process of dealing with adjustment within a host culture.
跨文化适应是指 适应新文化环境要求的过程。 这是提高我们的适应水平以满足新文化环境需求的过程换句话说，跨文化适应是处理东道国文化内部适应的过程。

2. Stages of intercultural adaptation
2.跨文化适应的阶段

2.1 Stage 1: everything is beautiful:
2.1 第一阶段：一切都很美好：

When you arrive in the new culture, you feel a sense of excitement, pleasure, and self-satisfaction for making the decision to come to this beautiful place. During this phase, nearly everything appears wonderful. The food is exciting; the people seem friendly. Studies indicate that this stage varies significantly from a short time to months. However, this stage of ecstasy is lost to a second stage of frustration, anger, depression, or denial.
当您到达新文化时，您会为决定来到这个美丽的地方而感到兴奋、愉悦和自我满足。在这个阶段，几乎所有事情都显得精彩纷呈。食物令人兴奋;人们看起来很友好。研究表明，这个阶段从短时间到几个月都有很大差异。然而，这个狂喜阶段会迷失到沮丧、愤怒、抑郁或否认的第二阶段。

2.2 Stage 2: everything is awful
2.2 第二阶段：一切都很糟糕

The honeymoon is over! Now, things have gone sour. After a while you begin to feel more anxious, restless, impatient, and disappointed. This period of adaptation is marked by a loss of social cues and a time of convenience that you had not experienced earlier. The confusion heightens with the unfamiliar smells, sounds, food, and cultural customs. Not only do some of the physical symptoms set in at this stage, but depression, loneliness, and fear pervade your attitudes and feelings.
蜜月结束了！现在，事情已经变坏了。一段时间后，您开始感到更加焦虑、不安、不耐烦和失望。这段适应期的特点是失去了社交线索和您以前从未经历过的便利时期。陌生的气味、声音、食物和文化习俗加剧了混乱。不仅一些身体症状在这个阶段出现，而且抑郁、孤独和恐惧也弥漫在你的态度和感受中。

The"everything is awful " stage can last from a few weeks up to several months. Some people never experience this stage at all, though others experience it more seriously.
“一切都很糟糕 ”阶段可以持续几周到几个月。有些人根本没有经历过这个阶段，但有些人经历得更严重。

2.3 Stage 3: everything is ok
2.3 第 3 阶段：一切都还好

After several months in the new culture, you may find that you view both the negative and the positive in a balanced manner. You finally have learned a lot more about the culture, and while you still do not like some things, you now like more than a few months ago. You can accept yourself and others around you. Congratulations! You have just made it through culture shock.
在新文化中度过几个月后，你可能会发现你以平衡的方式看待消极和积极。你终于对这种文化有了更多的了解，虽然你仍然不喜欢某些东西，但你现在喜欢几个月前的东西。你可以接受自己和周围的人。祝贺！你刚刚度过了文化冲击。

U-curve (an illustration of intercultural adaptation)
U 形曲线（跨文化适应的例证）

3. Reentry
3. 再入

3.1 People who have spent considerable time outside of their home culture may experience a similar process when they return to their native countries, although the stages are often shorter and less intense.
3.1 在家乡文化之外度过了相当长时间的人在返回本国时可能会经历类似的过程，尽管阶段通常更短且强度更低。

Culture reentry is a cultural vertigo because of the dizzy feeling people experienced when returning from overseas to find that the home culture is no longer the same.
文化再入境是一种文化眩晕，因为人们从海外回来时发现家乡文化不再相同时所经历的头晕目眩的感觉。

3.3 The cycle of reentry stress is similar to the cycle of entry stress experienced upon first arrival in a new culture. Thus, a W-curve best represents a model for understanding the entry/reentry cycle.
3.3 再进入压力的周期类似于初次进入新文化时所经历的进入压力周期。因此，W 曲线最能代表理解进入/再进入周期的模型。

II. Culture shock
二.文化冲击

1. Definition
1. D效果

Culture shock refers to the transition period and the accompanying feelings of stress and anxiety a person experience during the early period upon entering a new culture. It takes various forms: language shock, role shock, transition shock, culture fatigue, education shock, adjustment stress, culture distance.
文化冲击是指一个人在进入新文化的早期经历的过渡期以及伴随的压力和焦虑感。 它有多种形式：语言冲击、角色冲击、过渡冲击、文化疲劳、教育冲击、适应压力、文化距离。

How to survive culture shock?
如何在文化冲击中生存？

Overall, adapting to new cultures involves first working through culture shock. The following suggestions should assist you not only in culture shock but also in longer-range adaptation.
总的来说，适应新文化首先需要克服文化冲击。以下建议不仅可以帮助您应对文化冲击，还可以帮助您进行更长期的适应。

Do not become over-reactionary. Patience goes a long way, if you control your emotions, you can more easily see yourself and others.
不要变得过度反应。耐心大有帮助，如果你控制住自己的情绪，你就能更容易地看到自己和他人。

Meet new people. Force yourself to go out of your way to meet others. By engaging in these new friendships, you gradually gain personal confidence and ultimately learn a lot more about the culture.
结识新朋友。强迫自己不遗余力地去认识别人。通过建立这些新的友谊，您会逐渐获得个人自信，并最终对文化有更多的了解。

Try new things. Being creative and trying new foods, clothes, and so on can assist you in meeting the stress of the new culture.
尝试新事物。发挥创造力并尝试新的食物、衣服等可以帮助您应对新文化的压力。

Give yourself periods of rest and thought. Adapting to a new culture is like being in school for several hours a day-it is hard, mental work. Like any other serious learning endeavor, you need time to rest properly. Also you need time to reflect and put your thoughts together.
给自己一些休息和思考的时间。适应新文化就像每天在学校呆几个小时——这是一项艰苦的脑力劳动。像任何其他严肃的学习努力一样，您需要时间适当休息。此外，您需要时间来反思并将您的想法放在一起。

Work on your self-concept. The mind can be directed toward positive or negative thoughts. While this idea may seem oversimplified at first, try feeding yourself a diet of positive thoughts. Tell yourself that you are really not so bad and that most others go through the same experiences that you face during culture shock.
努力实现你的自我概念。思想可以指向积极或消极的想法。虽然这个想法乍一看似乎过于简单，但请尝试给自己提供积极的想法。告诉自己，你真的没有那么糟糕，而且大多数人都经历过你在文化冲击期间面临的相同经历。

Write. Sometimes writing in a diary can release tension an frustration.
写。有时写日记可以释放紧张和挫败感。

Observe body language and learn the verbal language. Take time to learn as much of the host culture's language as possible.
观察肢体语言，我获得口头语言。花时间尽可能多地学习东道国文化的语言。

III Ethnocentrism
二、 一、民族中心主义

1. Definition
1.定义

Ethnocentrism refers to a bias leading people to fudge another culture’s habits and practices as right or wrong, good or bad according to their own cultural attitudes, beliefs and values.
种族中心主义是指一种偏见，导致人们根据自己的文化态度、信仰和价值观，将另一种文化的习惯和做法捏造为对或错、好或坏。

It is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. People with ethnocentrism often view one’s own communication style is natural, while evaluate other styles negatively.
人们倾向于认为一个人的种族或文化群体是最重要的，而所有其他群体都是根据自己的群体来衡量的。 具有民族中心主义的 P eolist 经常认为自己的沟通方式是自然的，而对其他风格则持负面评价。

2. Consequences of ethnocentrism
2. C民族中心主义的后果

Blindness toward differences between cultures
对不同文化之间的差异视而不见

Elicit a defensive reaction
引发防御反应

Mutual negative evaluation
相互负面评价

Recriminatory interaction
Recrimitatory interaction （反感知交互）

Block communication
B锁通讯

Solution
溶液

3.1 Be aware that he or she is evaluating the other, often on ethnocentric grounds.
3.1 请注意，他或她正在评估他人，通常是基于种族中心主义的立场。

Overcome the tendency to stereotype and generate negative evaluations by approaching every cross-cultural situation as a kind of experiment: using available generalizations about the other culture,formulate a hypothesis and watch carefully, act tentatively, test it for accuracy.
通过将每一种跨文化情况作为一种实验来克服刻板印象和产生负面评价的倾向：你对其他文化进行可用的概括，制定一个假设并仔细研究，试探性地行动，测试它的准确性。

Avoid stereotype, pay attention to variations ( gender, ethnic groups, generation)
避免刻板印象，注意变化（性别、种族、世代）

Increase cultural awareness.
提高文化意识。