Elsevier

Human Movement Science 人体运动科学

Volume 52, April 2017, Pages 170-180
第 52 卷，2017 年 4 月，第 170-180 页
Human Movement Science

Full Length Article 全文
Motor skills in kindergarten: Internal structure, cognitive correlates and relationships to background variables
幼儿园运动技能：内部结构、认知相关性和与背景变量的关系

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2017.02.002Get rights and content 获取权利和内容

Highlights 突出

  • •
    The theoretical subdivision in fine and gross motor skills was confirmed empirically.
    精细运动技能和粗大运动技能的理论细分得到了实证证实。
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    Correlations between different motor domains and executive functions are comparable.
    不同运动领域和执行功能之间的相关性具有可比性。
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    Socio-ecological influences on the motor-cognitive performance link are rather small.
    社会生态学对运动认知表现联系的影响相当小。

Abstract 抽象

The present study aimed to contribute to the discussion about the relation between motor coordination and executive functions in preschool children. Specifically, the relation between gross and fine motor skills and executive functions as well as the relation to possible background variables (SES, physical activity) were investigated. Based on the data of N = 156 kindergarten children the internal structure of motor skills was investigated and confirmed the theoretically assumed subdivision of gross and fine motor skills. Both, gross and fine motor skills correlated significantly with executive functions, whereas the background variables seemed to have no significant impact on the executive functions and motor skills. Higher order control processes are discussed as an explanation of the relation between executive functions and motor skills.
本研究旨在为学龄前儿童运动协调与执行功能之间关系的讨论做出贡献。具体来说，研究了粗大和精细运动技能与执行功能之间的关系以及与可能的背景变量 （SES，身体活动） 的关系。根据 N = 156 名幼儿园儿童的数据，调查了运动技能的内部结构，并证实了理论上假设的粗大运动技能和精细运动技能的细分。粗大和精细运动技能都与执行功能显著相关，而背景变量似乎对执行功能和运动技能没有显著影响。讨论了高阶控制过程，以解释执行功能和运动技能之间的关系。

Keywords 关键字

Executive functions
Gross motor skills
Fine motor skills
Physical activity

执行功能
粗大运动技能
精细运动技能
体力活动

1. Introduction 1. 引言

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development refers to a close relation between motor and cognitive abilities (Piaget & Inhelder, 1966). According to Piaget, the evolvement of motor skills (e.g. independent locomotion) enables the child to explore the environment and through assimilation and in particular accommodation leads to new and differentiated cognitive concepts. Thus, cognitive development is supported (Schwarzer, 2011). In turn, to successfully master complex motor tasks, a certain level of cognitive development (e.g. perception, attention, memory) is required (Singer, 1981). The assumed relation between motor and cognitive development in different age groups has also been empirically confirmed (Ahnert et al., 2009, Rhemtulla and Tucker-Drob, 2011, Wassenberg et al., 2005). However, only little is known about specific relations among this concept. More precisely, information upon specific motor skills correlating with particular cognitive abilities, upon underlying information processes as well as upon background variables potentially contributing to the correlation is still being called for. To answer those open questions, the present study was conducted. Hence, based on a sample of kindergarten children, interrelations between motor coordination and executive functions and the impacts of home environment factors will be explored. A better understanding of these associations will contribute to well-grounded means to foster young children‘s mental health since motor coordination and related physical activity one the one side (Biddle and Asare, 2011, Tomporowski et al., 2011), and executive functions on the other side (Diamond and Lee, 2012, Moffitt et al., 2011), are known to have substantial impact on an individual‘s mental and cognitive health.
皮亚杰的认知发展理论提到了运动和认知能力之间的紧密关系（皮亚杰&英赫尔德，1966）。根据 Piaget 的说法，运动技能的进化（例如独立运动）使孩子能够探索环境，并通过同化，特别是适应导致新的和差异化的认知概念。因此，认知发展得到支持（Schwarzer，2011）。反过来，要成功掌握复杂的运动任务，需要一定程度的认知发展（例如感知、注意力、记忆力）（Singer，1981）。不同年龄组运动和认知发展之间的假设关系也已得到实证证实（Ahnert et al.， 2009， Rhemtulla and Tucker-Drob， 2011， Wassenberg et al.， 2005）。然而，人们对这个概念之间的具体关系知之甚少。更准确地说，仍然需要有关与特定认知能力相关的特定运动技能、潜在信息过程以及可能有助于相关性的背景变量的信息。为了回答这些悬而未决的问题，进行了本研究。因此，基于幼儿园儿童的样本，将探讨运动协调和执行功能之间的相互关系以及家庭环境因素的影响。 更好地了解这些关联将有助于建立良好的方法来促进幼儿的心理健康，因为一侧是运动协调和相关的身体活动（Biddle 和 Asare，2011 年，Tomporowski 等人，2011 年），另一方面是执行功能（Diamond 和 Lee，2012 年，Moffitt 等人，2011 年），已知对个人的心理和认知健康有重大影响。
To find out more about the associations between specific motor skills and specific cognitive abilities we chose a skill-based approach to classify motor skills. As a core aspect of this approach, individual differences in motor skills are quantified and the common classification in gross and fine motor skills is implied (e.g. Bjorklund and Hernández Blasi, 2012, Gentier et al., 2013, Raisbeck and Diekfuss, 2015). While gross motor skills are usually assessed with tasks involving whole body coordination (e.g. D’Hondt et al., 2014, Lopes et al., 2013), fine motor tasks refer to the control of arm movement and manual dexterity (e.g. Jansen et al., 2015, Roebers et al., 2014). There is empirical evidence that both gross and fine motor skills, are related to school achievement. For one, there are studies confirming a strong correlation between general coordination abilities and school achievement (Planinsec, 2002, Rhemtulla and Tucker-Drob, 2011). For the other, studies report fine motor skills in early kindergarten being predictive for later school achievements (Grissmer et al., 2010, Son and Meisels, 2006). However, most of the studies did not include both, gross and fine motor skills, simultaneously. Thus, it remains unclear whether both aspects are of equal importance for and later school achievement when their impact is estimated together.
为了更多地了解特定运动技能和特定认知能力之间的关联，我们选择了一种基于技能的方法来对运动技能进行分类。作为这种方法的一个核心方面，运动技能的个体差异被量化，并暗示了粗大和精细运动技能的常见分类（例如 Bjorklund 和 Hernández Blasi，2012 年，Gentier 等人，2013 年，Raisbeck 和 Diekfuss，2015 年）。虽然粗大运动技能通常通过涉及全身协调的任务来评估（例如 D'Hondt 等人，2014 年，Lopes 等人，2013 年），但精细运动任务是指对手臂运动和手部灵活性的控制（例如 Jansen 等人，2015 年，Roebers 等人，2014 年).有实证证据表明，粗大技能和精细运动技能都与学业成绩有关。首先，有研究证实一般协调能力与学校成绩之间存在很强的相关性（Planinsec，2002 年，Rhemtulla 和 Tucker-Drob，2011 年）。另一方面，研究报告称，幼儿园早期的精细运动技能可以预测以后的学业成绩（Grissmer et al.， 2010， Son and Meisels， 2006）。然而，大多数研究并未同时包括粗大和精细运动技能。因此，当一起估计这两个方面的影响时，它们是否对以后的学业成绩同等重要，目前尚不清楚。
Further, to date not much is known about the mechanisms and information processes underlying the documented associations between motor skills and cognitive abilities or school achievement. To our knowledge, only one study so far addressed the issue and reports the correlation between school achievement and fine motor skills being mediated by executive functions (Roebers et al., 2014). Thereby, executive functions is an umbrella term for higher order cognitive processes. They are crucial for goal-orientated, flexible and self-regulated information processing, especially in new and challenging situations. Executive functions are commonly divided into three distinct but strongly related dimensions: (a) shifting/switching between multiple tasks, mental sets, rules or operations (b) Inhibition of pre-potent, dominant or automatic responses (c) updating in the sense of retaining and manipulating relevant information in working memory (Miyake et al., 2000). Using a latent-variable structural equation approach, the above-mentioned recent longitudinal study documented a significant association between fluid intelligence and fine motor skills. Furthermore, both served as predicting factors for later school achievement. However, when taking executive functions into account, there was no remarkable change for the cross-sectional associations. But, later school achievement was now predicted mainly through executive functions (Roebers et al., 2014). These results suggest that executive functions and fine motor skills share information processes that partly serve as explanation for the motor-cognitive performance link.
此外，迄今为止，人们对运动技能与认知能力或学校成绩之间有记录的关联背后的机制和信息过程知之甚少。据我们所知，到目前为止，只有一项研究解决了这个问题，并报告了学校成绩与执行功能介导的精细运动技能之间的相关性（Roebers et al.， 2014）。因此，执行功能是高阶认知过程的总称。它们对于以目标为导向、灵活和自我调节的信息处理至关重要，尤其是在新的和具有挑战性的情况下。执行功能通常分为三个不同但密切相关的维度： （a） 在多个任务、心理设置、规则或操作之间转换/切换 （b） 抑制前效、主导或自动反应 （c） 在工作记忆中保留和操纵相关信息的意义上的更新（Miyake et al.， 2000).使用潜在变量结构方程方法，上述最近的纵向研究记录了流体智力与精细运动技能之间的显着关联。此外，两者都是以后学业成绩的预测因素。然而，当考虑到执行功能时，横断面关联没有显着变化。但是，现在主要通过执行功能来预测以后的学业成绩（Roebers et al.，2014）。这些结果表明，执行功能和精细运动技能共享信息过程，部分可以解释运动-认知表现联系。
In a longitudinal study of Cameron et al. (2012), positive correlations were also found for gross motor skills of 3–4 year old children and academic skills such as mathematics, reading and word comprehension assessed one year later in kindergarten. However, gross motor skills were no significant predictor for later kindergarten achievement in a regression model where background variables, executive functions and motor skills were included together. Similarly, in the longitudinal study of Grissmer et al. (2010) gross motor skills of 5–6 year old children were no significant predictor for later school achievement in fifth grade. In both studies gross motor skills were assessed with a screening instrument that contains six tasks adding up to an overall sum score. This sum score was used to predict later school achievement; unfortunately, both longitudinal studies did not look at specific relations between the different gross motor tasks and later achievement. In fact, only a handful of cross sectional studies focused on the specific relation between gross motor skills and executive functions in young children. In these cross-sectional studies some specific gross motor skills (e.g., jumping sideways) revealed significant relations with executive functions. This was in particular the case for inhibition and shifting (Roebers & Kauer, 2009). Thus, given the lack of consistent and convincing empirical evidence, it still remains unclear whether the association found for fine motor skills and executive functions is comparably apparent for gross motor skills and executive functions. This aspect will also be targeted in the present study.
在 Cameron 等人（2012 年）的一项纵向研究中，还发现 3-4 岁儿童的粗大运动技能与一年后在幼儿园评估的数学、阅读和单词理解等学术技能呈正相关。然而，在回归模型中，粗大运动技能不是以后幼儿园成绩的显着预测因子，其中背景变量、执行功能和运动技能一起包括在内。同样，在 Grissmer 等人 （2010） 的纵向研究中，5-6 岁儿童的粗大运动技能对五年级以后的学习成绩没有显着预测因素。在这两项研究中，粗大运动技能都使用包含六项任务的筛选工具进行评估，总分相加。这个总分用于预测以后的学业成绩;不幸的是，两项纵向研究都没有关注不同粗大运动任务与后来成就之间的具体关系。事实上，只有少数横断面研究侧重于幼儿粗大运动技能和执行功能之间的具体关系。在这些横断面研究中，一些特定的粗大运动技能（例如，侧向跳跃）揭示了与执行功能的显着关系。抑制和转移尤其如此（Roebers & Kauer， 2009）。因此，鉴于缺乏一致且令人信服的实证证据，目前尚不清楚发现的精细运动技能和执行功能的关联是否与粗大运动技能和执行功能相当明显。这方面也将在本研究中针对。
Comparing results from studies on gross motor skills with the ones on fine motor skills is challenging. This is because executive functions as well as motor skills were assessed with different tasks respectively. A simultaneous approach, where both dimensions have been assessed within the same study, has only rarely been implemented to date. This is unfortunate because based on such studies recommendations to support the development of motor skills and executive functions could be derived. Especially in young children who naturally engage more in gross motor coordination than in fine motor coordination, evidence on the relations with indicators of cognitive performance are being called for (Diamond & Lee, 2012).
将粗大运动技能的研究结果与精细运动技能的研究结果进行比较是具有挑战性的。这是因为执行功能和运动技能分别通过不同的任务进行评估。迄今为止，很少实施同步方法，即在同一研究中评估两个维度。这是很遗憾的，因为根据这些研究，可以得出支持运动技能和执行功能发展的建议。特别是在自然参与粗大运动协调比精细运动协调更多的幼儿中，需要证据证明与认知表现指标的关系（Diamond & Lee，2012）。
Today, a neuropsychological approach usually serves as explanation for the link between motor skills and executive functions. More precisely, it is known that the same brain areas are activated during motor as well as executive function tasks (Diamond, 2000); namely, the cerebellum, the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia and the striatum. This view is not only supported by studies using neuro-imaging approaches, but also by studies done with patients suffering from brain injuries that lead to cognitive as well as motor deficits (Diamond, 2000, Hayes et al., 1998).
今天，神经心理学方法通常用来解释运动技能和执行功能之间的联系。更准确地说，众所周知，相同的大脑区域在运动和执行功能任务中被激活（Diamond，2000）;即小脑、前额叶皮层、基底神经节和纹状体。这一观点不仅得到使用神经影像学方法的研究的支持，而且也得到了对导致认知和运动缺陷的脑损伤患者所做的研究的支持（Diamond，2000 年，Hayes 等人，1998 年）。
Even though this neuropsychological view seems plausible and has been empirically confirmed, a more general, socio-ecological view should be taken into account as well. Particularly, familial background variables should be considered. Executive functions as well as motor abilities are mainly driven by heredity (Friedman et al., 2008, Singer, 2009). Nevertheless, the interaction between the genetic dispositions and the child’s environment, partly arranged by parents, should not be underestimated. This is because it will substantially affect the child’s development in motor skills as well as in executive functions. In fact, studies have shown that socio-economic status and the child’s physical activity level are related to executive functions (Best, 2010, Etnier and Chang, 2009, Noble et al., 2007) and motor skills (Fisher et al., 2005, Piek et al., 2008, Wrotniak et al., 2006). When additionally taking into account the familial movement socialization, the physical activity level of parents may serve as potential influence factor. This is because the child’s physical activity level was found to positively correlate with the parents’ one (Ahnert, 2005) and is assumed to partly explain the relation between motor skills and executive functions. Just as well, differences in physical fitness among children may also partially explain the mentioned relation. More precisely, performances in motor tasks are known to be influenced by different basic motor abilities (Roth & Roth, 2009) who in turn are related to executive functions and school achievement. This is in particular the case for aerobic fitness and strength (Buck et al., 2008, Chomitz et al., 2009, Dwyer et al., 2001, van der Niet et al., 2014). Similarly, unstructured leisure time activities seem to be predictive for executive functioning (Barker et al., 2014) and thus a potential indirect influence factor for physical and mental health. However, to date, the number of studies that have systematically focused on the influence of such individual and environmental factors on the relation between motor skills and executive functions is rather small.
尽管这种神经心理学观点似乎是合理的并且已经得到实证证实，但也应该考虑更普遍的社会生态观点。特别是，应考虑家族背景变量。执行机能和运动能力主要由遗传驱动（Friedman et al.， 2008， Singer， 2009）。然而，遗传倾向与儿童环境之间的相互作用，部分是由父母安排的，不应被低估。这是因为它会严重影响孩子在运动技能和执行功能方面的发展。事实上，研究表明，社会经济地位和儿童的身体活动水平与执行功能（Best，2010 年，Etnier 和 Chang，2009 年，Noble 等人，2007 年）和运动技能（Fisher 等人，2005 年，Piek 等人，2008 年，Wrotniak 等人，2006 年）有关).当额外考虑家庭运动社会化时，父母的身体活动水平可能成为潜在的影响因素。这是因为发现孩子的身体活动水平与父母的身体活动水平呈正相关（Ahnert，2005），并被认为部分解释了运动技能和执行功能之间的关系。同样，儿童身体素质的差异也可以部分解释上述关系。 更准确地说，已知运动任务的表现受到不同基本运动能力的影响（Roth & Roth，2009），而这些能力反过来又与执行功能和学业成绩有关。有氧适能和力量尤其如此（Buck 等人，2008 年，Chomitz 等人，2009 年，Dwyer 等人，2001 年，van der Niet 等人，2014 年）。同样，非结构化的闲暇时间活动似乎可以预测执行功能（Barker et al.， 2014），因此是身心健康的潜在间接影响因素。然而，迄今为止，系统地关注此类个体和环境因素对运动技能和执行功能之间关系影响的研究数量相当少。
In the present paper, the association between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions will be examined simultaneously. Executive functions and motor skills will be assessed with commonly used tasks and their relation to each other will be described and compared. To check for possible correlations, a latent variable approach and structural equitation modelling techniques are used. With this approach, only shared variances of the chosen constructs are taken into account, thus enabling to estimate the links among the latent variables on the level of their theoretical constructs. Based on the current literature and on theoretical assumptions, we expect significant correlations between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions in kindergarten children. In addition to the commonly used neuropsychological explanation for the relation between motor skills and executive functions, the influence of some individual and background variables shall also be taken into account. However, the neuropsychological and the socio- ecological views shall not be tested against each other. Rather, aspects of motor skills for which a general socio-ecological view is sufficient shall be distinguished from those aspects calling for a specific neuropsychological view. Thus, an additional aim of the study is to provide a better understanding of those associations. More precisely, the relation between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions with specific individual and background variables (also under control of age) shall be described.
在本文中，将同时研究粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间的关联。执行功能和运动技能将通过常用任务进行评估，并描述和比较它们之间的关系。为了检查可能的相关性，使用了潜在变量方法和结构均衡建模技术。使用这种方法，仅考虑所选结构的共享方差，从而能够在其理论结构的水平上估计潜在变量之间的联系。根据目前的文献和理论假设，我们预计幼儿园儿童的粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间存在显着相关性。除了对运动技能和执行功能之间关系的常用神经心理学解释外，还应考虑一些个体和背景变量的影响。然而，神经心理学和社会生态学观点不应相互检验。相反，一般社会生态学观点就足够的运动技能方面应与需要特定神经心理学观点的方面区分开来。因此，该研究的另一个目的是更好地了解这些关联。更准确地说，应描述粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能与特定个体和背景变量（也在年龄控制下）之间的关系。

2. Method 2. 方法

2.1. Sample 2.1. 示例

The sample consisted of 156 kindergarten children (51% girls). The mean age was 6 years and 5 months (SD = 4 months; range: 68–87 months). The children were recruited from 13 different kindergartens in Bern and its surrounding areas. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences of the University of Bern, Switzerland (Approval No. 2013-12-733209) and the participation was confirmed by the parents’ written permission. Furthermore, before every session, the children were given free choice for participation.
样本包括 156 名幼儿园儿童 （51% 为女孩）。平均年龄为 6 岁零 5 个月 （SD = 4 个月;范围：68-87 个月）。这些孩子是从伯尔尼及其周边地区的 13 所不同的幼儿园招募的。该研究得到了瑞士伯尔尼大学哲学与人文科学学院伦理委员会的批准（批准号 2013-12-733209），并得到了父母的书面许可确认参与。此外，在每次课程之前，孩子们都可以自由选择参与。

2.2. Procedure 2.2. 操作步骤

The assessments were divided into two sessions, one for the motor tasks and one for the cognitive tasks. The two sessions were realized on two different days within one week, with the order of the tasks varying unsystematically. The motor tasks as well as the strength and endurance tasks were assessed in a circuit. The circuit lasted about 40 min, was held in the kindergarten’s gym in groups of five. The six–minutes-run was done together and thus first up. Afterwards, five stations had to be completed individually, including motor tasks and the standing long jump. Each child started at a different station and then passed the circuit one station after the other. For the cognitive tasks, the children were tested individually during the morning hours for about 30 min in a quiet room of the kindergarten. The computer-based tasks were administered on a laptop using e-prime software (Psychology Software Tools, Pittsburgh, PA) and their order was counterbalanced. Skilled psychologists and psychology master students were responsible for the testing. The physical activity levels of the child and its parents as well as their socio-economic status were assessed using a questionnaire. The parents were asked to fill out their own part of the questionnaire, as well as to help the children to fill out the part referring to the child’s physical activity. The questionnaires were distributed in the first assessment session and the children were asked to bring them back within the next two weeks. The teachers assisted with reminding children and parents to complete and return the questionnaires. The return rate was 75%.
评估分为两个阶段，一个用于运动任务，一个用于认知任务。这两次会议在一周内的两个不同的日子完成，任务的顺序不系统地变化。在电路中评估运动任务以及力量和耐力任务。巡回赛持续了大约 40 分钟，以 5 人一组的形式在幼儿园的体育馆举行。六分钟的跑步是一起完成的，因此是第一次。之后，必须单独完成五个站点，包括运动任务和立定跳远。每个孩子从不同的站点开始，然后一个接一个地通过电路。对于认知任务，孩子们在早上在幼儿园的一个安静的房间里接受了大约 30 分钟的单独测试。使用 e-prime 软件（Psychology Software Tools，宾夕法尼亚州匹兹堡）在笔记本电脑上管理基于计算机的任务，并且它们的顺序被抵消。熟练的心理学家和心理学硕士生负责测试。使用问卷评估儿童及其父母的身体活动水平以及他们的社会经济地位。要求家长填写他们自己的问卷部分，并帮助孩子们填写涉及孩子身体活动的部分。问卷在第一次评估会议上分发，并要求孩子们在接下来的两周内将它们带回来。老师协助提醒孩子和家长完成并返回问卷。退货率为 75%。

2.3. Material 2.3. 材料

2.3.1. Fine motor skills 2.3.1. 精细运动技能

Fine motor skills were assessed with the manual dexterity subscale of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (M-ABC-2, German Version; Petermann, 2009). This subscale includes two speed tasks (threading beads, posting coins) and one precision task (drawing trail). All tasks were conducted according to the test manual‘s instructions. For the threading beads task, the dependent variable was defined as being the time needed for task completion with the dominant hand. For the posting coins task, the time needed to complete two trials, one with the dominant and one with the non-dominant hand, served as dependent variable. For the drawing trail task, the amount of errors was used as dependent variable. The internal consistency for fine motor tasks was α = 0.65.
使用儿童运动评估组合 2（M-ABC-2，德文版;Petermann，2009 年）。该分量表包括两个速度任务（穿珠、投币）和一个精确任务（绘图轨迹）。所有任务均按照测试手册的说明进行。对于穿线珠任务，因变量定义为用惯用手完成任务所需的时间。对于过账硬币任务，完成两次试验所需的时间，一次是惯用手，一次是非惯用手，作为因变量。对于绘图轨迹任务，误差量用作因变量。精细运动任务的内部一致性为α = 0.65。

2.3.2. Gross motor tasks 2.3.2. 粗大运动任务

To assess gross motor skills, three whole body coordination tasks were used; two speed tasks (jumping sideways, moving sideways) and one precision task (one-leg-stand). While the speed tasks originate from a test of body coordination (“Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder”; Kipphard & Schilling, 2007), the one-leg-stand is part of the above-mentioned M-ABC-2. Corresponding dependent variables were defined as follows: The amount of jumps/sideway movements out of two trials each for the speed tasks, and time in seconds (max. 30 s) for the one-leg-stand. Thereby, two trials with the left and two trials with the right leg were conducted, of which the better trial of each leg was used, building a sum score. The internal consistency for gross motor tasks was α = 0.63.
为了评估粗大运动技能，使用了三项全身协调任务;两个速度任务（侧身跳跃、侧向移动）和一个精确任务（单腿站立）。而速度任务则源于对身体协调性的测试（“Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder”;Kipphard & Schilling，2007），单腿支架是上述M-ABC-2的一部分。相应的因变量定义如下：速度任务两次试验中跳跃/侧向移动的量，以及单腿站立的时间（以秒为单位）（最长 30 秒）。因此，进行了 2 次左腿试验和 2 次右腿试验，其中使用了每条腿的更好试验，建立了总分。粗大运动任务的内部一致性为 α = 0.63。

2.3.3. Executive functions
2.3.3. 执行函数

While inhibition and shifting were assessed with an adapted version of the flanker task (Eriksen & Eriksen, 1974), the updating component was assessed with the backwards colour recall task (Schmid et al., 2008, Zoelch et al., 2005). The internal consistency for executive functions tasks was α = 0.60.
虽然抑制和移位是通过侧翼任务的改编版本来评估的（Eriksen & Eriksen，1974），但更新部分是通过向后的颜色回忆任务来评估的（Schmid et al.， 2008， Zoelch et al.， 2005）。执行功能任务的内部一致性为 α = 0.60。
For the inhibition task, a row of five red fish was presented to the children who were asked to feed the central target fish as fast as possible. This would be done by either pressing the left (when the mouth of the target fish was showing to the left) or the right response button (when the target fish’s mouth was showing to the right), unaffected by the flanking outer fish. The task started off with a pure block, meaning all fish had the same orientation. The block consisted of four practice trials followed by 20 experimental trials, all with stimulus duration of 3000 ms and interstimuli intervals varying between 800 and 1400 ms. A standard block followed, consisting of six practice trials and 48 experimental trials. While two thirds of the trials were congruent (flanking fish and target fish have same orientation), one third of the trials showed an incongruent pattern (target fish have opposite orientation). The stimulus duration in this block was set at 3500 ms, interstimuli intervals again varying between 800 and 1400 ms. The dependent variable was defined as being the accuracy (percentage of correct responses) for incongruent trials (Roebers & Kauer, 2009).
对于抑制任务，将一排五条红鱼呈现给孩子们，他们被要求尽快喂食中心目标鱼。这可以通过按左键（当目标鱼的嘴巴向左显示时）或右响应按钮（当目标鱼的嘴巴向右显示时）来完成，不受侧翼外侧鱼的影响。任务从一个纯块开始，这意味着所有鱼都有相同的方向。该块包括 4 次实践试验和 20 次实验试验，所有试验的刺激持续时间为 3000 毫秒，刺激间隔在 800 到 1400 毫秒之间变化。随后是一个标准块，包括 6 次实践试验和 48 次实验试验。虽然三分之二的试验是一致的（侧翼鱼和目标鱼的方向相同），但三分之一的试验显示出不一致的模式（目标鱼的方向相反）。该块中的刺激持续时间设置为 3500 毫秒，刺激间隔再次在 800 到 1400 毫秒之间变化。因变量被定义为不一致试验的准确性（正确回答的百分比）（Roebers & Kauer，2009）。
To assess shifting, two additional blocks (reversed and mixed) were added to the standard block. The reversed block served as a means to introduce a new rule. More precisely, besides the fish having changed colour to yellow, the children were now asked to feed the four outer fish (which all had the same orientation), again, unaffected by the orientation of the central fish. The central fish was either congruent (same orientation) or incongruent (opposite orientation). After six practice trials, 16 experimental trials followed (1/2 congruent, 1/2 incongruent). This block was only used as practice to introduce the new rule and therefore, data of this block was no used for the analyses reported below. The last block was the mixed block, meaning that red as well as yellow fish were presented, asking the children to switch between the rules flexibly. Eight practice trials were followed by 40 experimental trials (1/2 congruent, 1/2 incongruent, 20 with yellow and 20 with red fish). Congruent and incongruent trials were presented randomly. Stimulus duration for these two blocks was set at 7000 ms. The dependent variable for shifting was defined as the percentage of correct answers in the mixed block (Roebers & Kauer, 2009).
为了评估移位，将两个额外的区组（反向和混合）添加到标准区组中。反向块是引入新规则的一种手段。更准确地说，除了鱼的颜色变为黄色之外，孩子们现在还被要求喂食外面的四条鱼（它们都有相同的方向），同样不受中心鱼的方向的影响。中央鱼要么是全等的（相同的方向），要么是不一致的（相反的方向）。经过 6 次实践试验后，随后进行了 16 次实验试验（1/2 次一致，1/2 次不一致）。该块仅用作引入新规则的练习，因此，该块的数据未用于下面报告的分析。最后一个块是混合块，这意味着呈现了红色和黄色的鱼，要求孩子们灵活地在规则之间切换。8 次实践试验之后是 40 次实验试验（1/2 一致，1/2 不一致，20 次黄色鱼和 20 次红色鱼）。随机介绍一致和不一致的试验。这两个块的刺激持续时间设置为 7000 毫秒。移位的因变量被定义为混合区组中正确答案的百分比（Roebers & Kauer，2009）。
In the backward colour recall task, the children had to remember a sequence of differently coloured discs and recall them in reversed order. The task was embodied in a cover story about a dwarf and started with a sequence of two items. Whenever the child recalled at least three trials out of six correctly, the number of items was increased by one. Discs were presented for one second on the screen and interstimuli interval was set at 500 ms. The total amount of correct recalled trials served as dependent variable (Röthlisberger, Neuenschwander, Michel, & Roebers, 2010).
在颜色倒退回忆任务中，孩子们必须记住一系列不同颜色的圆盘，并以相反的顺序回忆它们。这项任务体现在关于一个侏儒的掩盖故事中，从两个项目的序列开始。每当孩子正确回忆起六次试验中的至少三次时，项目的数量就会增加 1 次。光盘在屏幕上显示一秒钟，刺激间隔设置为 500 毫秒。正确回忆的试验总数作为因变量（Röthlisberger， Neuenschwander， Michel， & Roebers， 2010）。

2.3.4. Individual and background variables
2.3.4. 单个变量和背景变量

To assess physical fitness, two tasks were used. While the standing long jump served as measure for strength, the six-minutes-run was used as a measure for aerobic endurance (Bös, 2001). For the standing long jump task, the child had to jump as far as possible using both feet. The better (wider) jump out of two was used as dependent variable. As for the six-minutes-run, the children needed to run as many rounds of 54 m of length as possible. Here, the dependent variable was defined as being the distance ran in meters.
为了评估身体素质，使用了两项任务。虽然立定跳远是力量的衡量标准，但六分钟的跑步被用作有氧耐力的衡量标准（Bös，2001 年）。对于立定跳远任务，孩子必须用双脚尽可能地跳得更远。两个中更好（更宽）的跳跃被用作因变量。至于 6 分钟的跑步，孩子们需要尽可能多地跑 54 米长的回合。在这里，因变量定义为以米为单位的跑步距离。
SES as well as physical activity of the children and their parents during leisure time was assessed by questionnaire. For the parents’ level of physical activity, questions were taken from a German questionnaire of physical activity (“Bewegungs- und Sportaktivität Fragebogen”; Fuchs, 2012). Thereby, the dependent variable was a z-transformed sum score of physical activity in leisure time and sports activity in leisure time (minutes per week) of the mother and the father. To measure physical activity level of the children, the Motorik-Modul (MoMo; Bös et al., 2004) was used. In order to assess physical activity in everyday life, in organized sports and in leisure time sports, three subscales were applied. We built z-scores of the three subscales and by adding them to a sum score, they served as dependent variable for the physical activity level of the child. The education of the parents, the income per month as well as the subjective satisfaction with their income were also assessed by questionnaire, z-transformed and added up in a sum score for SES (Alsaker et al., 2008, Schick et al., 2006). The return rate of the questionnaire was 76%. Due to some missing values the n of the background variables varies unsystematically between 110 and 119.
通过问卷调查评估 SES 以及儿童及其父母在闲暇时间的身体活动。对于父母的身体活动水平，问题取自德国身体活动问卷（“Bewegungs- und Sportaktivität Fragebogen”;Fuchs，2012 年）。因此，因变量是母亲和父亲的闲暇时间身体活动和闲暇时间（每周分钟）的运动活动的 z 转换总分。为了测量儿童的身体活动水平，Motorik-Modul （MoMo;Bös et al.， 2004）被使用。为了评估日常生活、有组织的运动和休闲运动中的身体活动，应用了三个分量表。我们建立了三个分量表的 z 分数，并将它们与总分相加，它们作为儿童身体活动水平的因变量。父母的教育程度、每月收入以及对他们收入的主观满意度也通过问卷进行评估，进行 z 转换并加以 SES 的总分（Alsaker 等人，2008 年，Schick 等人，2006 年）。问卷返回率为 76%。由于一些缺失值，背景变量的 n 在 110 和 119 之间不系统地变化。

2.4. Statistical analysis
2.4. 统计分析

For the purpose of identical metrics, all dependent variables were z-transformed. Additionally, some measures needed to be reversed. As a result, higher values always corresponded with superior performance. Values that deviated more than ±3 standard deviations of the sample’s mean were replaced with the value equivalent to the third standard deviation. Further, for variables that entered the confirmatory factor analyses, missing values (0.2%) were imputed. As the MCAR test (Little, 1988) was not significant (χ2(12) = 10.919; p = 0.536), the values were missing completely at random. The expectation maximization method was used to replace the missing values. The confirmatory factor analyses were conducted with AMOS 22 (Arbuckle, 2013). Model fit was considered as good, if the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) were greater than 0.95. Further, the Root-Mean-Square (RMSEA) needed to be smaller or equal 0.06 and the normed χ2 below 2 (Byrne, 2001, Hu and Bentler, 1998).
为了实现相同的指标，所有因变量都进行了 z 转换。此外，一些措施需要撤销。因此，较高的值总是与卓越的性能相对应。偏离样本平均值 ±3 个标准差以上的值将替换为等于第三个标准差的值。此外，对于进入验证性因素分析的变量，估算了缺失值 （0.2%）。由于 MCAR 检验 （Little， 1988） 不显著 （χ2（12） = 10.919;p = 0.536），这些值完全随机缺失。期望最大化方法用于替换缺失值。使用 AMOS 22 （Arbuckle， 2013） 进行验证性因子分析。如果 Tucker-Lewis 指数 （TLI） 和比较拟合指数 （CFI） 大于 0.95，则认为模型拟合良好。此外，均方根 （RMSEA） 需要小于或等于 0.06，规范 χ2 小于 2（Byrne，2001，胡 和 Bentler，1998）。
Two confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to check for the chosen tasks to truly capture empirically separable abilities; namely fine motor skills and gross motor skills. At the same time, the correlation between motor skills and executive functions on the level of latent variables was examined. To test for possible associations with individual and background variables, bivariate as well as partial correlations (under control of age) were calculated.
进行了两项验证性因素分析，以检查所选任务是否真正捕捉了经验上可分离的能力;即精细运动技能和粗大运动技能。同时，研究了运动技能和执行功能在潜在变量水平上的相关性。为了检验与个体和背景变量的可能关联，计算了双变量和部分相关性（在年龄控制下）。

3. Results 3. 结果

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the motor tasks and the executive functions tasks. Thereby, a broad variation in the used tasks is clearly recognizable. From Appendix A you can learn that all gross motor and all fine motor tasks correlated positively with the executive functions tasks. Thereof, 32 out of a total of 35 correlations reached statistical significance. While Pearson correlations are presented above the principal diagonal, partial correlations controlling for chronological age are shown below. As becomes obvious through the illustration, the overall pattern of correlations is not substantially affected by chronological age. More precisely, there are only small changes and 31 out of 35 correlations remain statistically significant.
表 1 显示了运动任务和执行功能任务的描述性统计数据。因此，可以清楚地识别出所用任务的广泛差异。从附录 A 中，您可以了解到所有粗大运动和所有精细运动任务都与执行功能任务呈正相关。其中，总共 32 个相关性中有 35 个达到统计显著性。虽然 Pearson 相关性显示在主对角线上方，但控制实际年龄的偏相关如下所示。从插图中可以明显看出，整体相关性模式并未受到实际年龄的实质性影响。更准确地说，只有很小的变化，35 个相关性中有 31 个仍然具有统计显著性。

Table 1. Mean (M), standard deviation (SD), minimum (Min) and maximum (Max) of the raw scores of the gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive function tasks.
表 1.粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能任务的原始分数的平均值 （M）、标准差 （SD）、最小值 （Min） 和最大值 （Max）。

Empty CellMSDMin 最小值Max 麦克斯
Gross motor skills 粗大运动技能
 One-leg-stand 单脚支架46.9914.7312.0060.00
 Jumping sideways 侧向跳跃38.1910.678.0069.00
 Moving sideways 横向移动31.465.7617.0044.00

Fine motor skills 精细运动技能
 Threading beads 穿线珠38.368.0626.4990.00
 Posting coins 过账硬币37.753.9228.2754.89
 Drawing trail 绘图轨迹3.933.120.0016.00

Executive functions 执行功能
 Inhibition 抑制0.880.170.141.00
 Switching 开关0.840.130.331.00
 Updating 更新9.134.240.0018.00
Note. N = 156. Metrics: threading beads, posting coins, one-leg stand = seconds; drawing trail = errors; jumping sideway = amount of jumps; moving sideways = amount of correct sideway movements; inhibition, switching = percent of correct trials; updating = total amount of correct recalled trials.
注意。N = 156 的指标：穿珠子、投币、单腿支架 = 秒;绘图轨迹 = 错误;Jumping sideway = 跳跃次数;moving sideways = 正确的横向移动量;抑制、转换 = 正确试验的百分比;更新 = 正确召回的试验总数。
In a next step, a confirmatory factor analysis was used to look at the associations on the level of latent variables. For this purpose, the three whole body coordination tasks were used to build the latent variable gross motor skills and three manual dexterity tasks to build the latent variable fine motor skills. As shown in Fig. 1A, factor loadings of all indicators on their construct were significant. The correlation of the two latent motor variables is very strong (r = 0.89; p < 0.001). In order to proof for such high correlation, a single factor model was tested additionally, mapping all indicators onto one single latent common motor factor variable (Fig. 1B). For this model as well, all indicators loaded significantly on the latent variable. By comparing the theoretically assumed two factorial model with the single factor model, it occurs that the two factorial model fits the data slightly better [χ2(8) = (p < 0.01); χ2normed = 1.36; CFI = 99; RMSEA = 0.05; TLI = 0.97; AIC = 36,848]. Because the AIC of the two factorial model was slightly lower and also theoretically derived, we refer to this model for further analysis. Another advantage in doing so is that associations with other constructs can be considered individually gross- and fine motor skills.
下一步，使用验证性因子分析来查看潜在变量水平上的关联。为此，使用三个全身协调任务来构建潜在可变粗大运动技能，使用三个手部灵巧任务来构建潜在可变精细运动技能。如图 1 A 所示 ，所有指标在其构建体上的因子载荷都显著。两个潜在运动变量的相关性非常强 （r = 0.89;p < 0.001）。为了证明如此高的相关性，还测试了一个单因素模型，将所有指标映射到一个潜在的共同运动因素变量（图 1B）。对于此模型，所有指标都显著加载了 latent 变量。通过将理论上假设的双因子模型与单因子模型进行比较，发现双因子模型对数据的拟合度略高 [χ2（8） = （p < 0.01）;χ2标准化 = 1.36;CFI = 99;RMSEA = 0.05;TLI = 0.97;总投资额 = 36,848]。由于双因子模型的 AIC 略低，并且也是理论推导的，因此我们参考该模型进行进一步分析。这样做的另一个好处是，与其他结构的关联可以被视为单独的粗大和精细运动技能。
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Fig. 1. Single and two factorial model of motor coordination. Note. Two factorial model (A) and single factorial model (B).
图 1.运动协调的单因子和双因子模型。笔记。双因子模型 （A） 和单因子模型 （B）。

To illustrate the association between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions, another confirmatory factor analysis was conducted. For this purpose, a third latent variable was built (for executive functions). The corresponding loadings of the indicators illustrated in Fig. 2 were statistically significant. Overall the model fit was good [χ2(24) = 33,43 (p < 0.01); χ2normed = 1.393; CFI = 97; RMSEA = 0.05; TLI = 0.96; AIC = 75,43] Interestingly, the relation between gross motor skills and executive functions appeared to be slightly higher than the one between fine motor skills and executive functions.
为了说明粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间的关联，进行了另一项验证性因素分析。为此，构建了第三个潜在变量（用于执行功能）。图 2 中所示指标的相应载荷具有统计学意义。总体而言，模型拟合良好 [χ2（24） = 33,43 （p < 0.01）;χ2标准化 = 1.393;CFI = 97;RMSEA = 0.05;TLI = 0.96;有趣的是，粗大运动技能和执行功能之间的关系似乎略高于精细运动技能和执行功能之间的关系。
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Fig. 2. Note. Intercorrelations between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions.
图 2.注意。 粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间的相互关联。

Lastly, an explorative analysis of the relation between gross motor skills, fine motor skills, executive functions and the chosen individual and background variables was conducted. The descriptive statistics of those individual and background variables are shown in Appendix B. We built sum scores for gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions out of the three corresponding tasks. Afterwards, Pearson correlations between the sum scores and the individual and background variables were calculated. Because chronological age also correlated with most of those variables, partial correlations controlling for age were calculated additionally. Pearson correlations and the partial correlations (separated by a slash) are shown in Table 2. When considering the individual variables aerobic endurance (six-minutes-run) and strength (standing long jump) in the upper part of the table, it is striking that those measures share significant amounts of variance with gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions. In the lower part of the table, correlations with physical activity level of family members and the SES are shown. All age independent correlations with the considered background variables were negligible. However, concerning physical activity level, significant correlations were found. More precisely, the child’s level of physical activity level correlated with the one of its parents (father: r = 0.37; p < 0.001; mother: r = 0.28; p < 0.01) also under control of age (father: r = 0.30; p < 0.01; mother: r = 0.29; p < 0.01).
最后，对粗大运动技能、精细运动技能、执行功能与所选个体和背景变量之间的关系进行了探索性分析。这些个体和背景变量的描述性统计显示在附录 B 中，我们从三个相应的任务中建立了粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能的总分。之后，计算总分与单个和背景变量之间的 Pearson 相关性。因为实际年龄也与大多数这些变量相关，所以额外计算了控制年龄的偏相关。皮尔逊相关性和偏相关（用斜线分隔）如表 2 所示。当考虑表格上部的单个变量有氧耐力（六分钟跑步）和力量（立定跳远）时，令人惊讶的是，这些指标与粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能有很大的差异。在表格的下部，显示了与家庭成员的身体活动水平和 SES 的相关性。与所考虑的背景变量的所有年龄无关相关性都可以忽略不计。然而，关于身体活动水平，发现了显着的相关性。更准确地说，孩子的身体活动水平与其父母的水平相关（父亲：r = 0.37;p < 0.001;母亲： r = 0.28;p < 0.01） 也受到年龄的控制 （父亲： r = 0.30;p < 0.01;母亲：r = 0.29;p < 0.01）。

Table 2. Pearson correlations of the manifest variables.
表 2.显现变量的 Pearson 相关性。

Empty CellGross motor skills 粗大运动技能Fine motor skills 精细运动技能Executive functions 执行功能
Individual variables 单个变量
 Six minutes run 6 分钟跑步0.31***/0.35***
0,31/0,35		0.18*/0.10
0.18*/0.10		0.27***/0.17
0.27/0 的。17
 Standing long jump 立定跳远0.46***/0.44***
0.46/0.44		0.23**/0.20*0.17*/0.21*

Background variables 背景变量
 Physical activity child 体能活动 儿童0.11/0.12−0.07/−0.100.10/0.16
 Physical activity mother 体能活动妈妈0.09/0.10−0.04/−0.050.04/0.11
 Physical activity father 体育活动爸爸0.12/0.120.02/−0.02−0.05/0.04
SES0.17/0.140.08/−0.020.23*/0.19
Note. Pearson correlations, after the slash controlled for age.
笔记。Pearson 相关性，在斜杠控制年龄之后。
***
p < 0.001. p < 0.001。
**
p < 0.01. p < 0.01。
*
p < 0.05. p < 0.05。

4. Discussion 4. 讨论

The aim of the study was to look into the relations between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions on the level of latent variables. It was a matter of particular concern to analyse the relation between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions simultaneously. For a better understanding, the associations with individual (aerobic endurance and strength) and background variables (SES and physical activity) was also taken into account.
该研究的目的是在潜在变量水平上研究粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间的关系。同时分析粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间的关系是一个特别令人担忧的问题。为了更好地理解，还考虑了与个人 （有氧耐力和力量） 和背景变量 （SES 和身体活动） 的关联。
A confirmatory factor analysis was used to test whether the chosen motor tasks truly measure two empirically distinct, motor factors. Thereby, the theoretically based and commonly seen separation of the two factors gross motor skills and fine motor skills in kindergarten children showed a satisfactory model fit. Because both factors (gross and fine motor skills) represent partial aspects of the same higher order construct (common motor factor), no strict segregation of the two aspects was expected. Despite the correlation between the two factors being very high, the model fit was still slightly better and with regard to content more differentiated compared to a one factor solution.
验证性因素分析用于测试所选运动任务是否真正测量两个经验上不同的运动因素。因此，幼儿园儿童粗大运动技能和精细运动技能这两个因素在理论上和常见的分离显示出令人满意的模型拟合。因为这两个因素（粗大和精细运动技能）都代表了同一高阶结构（共同运动因素）的部分方面，所以预计不会严格分离这两个方面。尽管两个因素之间的相关性非常高，但与单因素解决方案相比，模型拟合度仍然略好，并且在内容方面更具差异性。
Those results indicate that the chosen test share a substantial amount of common variance. This suggests that the different motor skills are interrelated. It is possible that subcomponents of general motor skills only differentiate more clearly later in the course of development. Thus, it may be the case that in early childhood all motor tasks (whole body coordination and manual dexterity tasks) contain a common, overall factor, despite obvious differences in task quality and task demands. Especially for the examined age range, environmental factors may promote the differentiation in gross and fine motor skills. More precisely, when entering primary school, the opportunity to practice fine motor skills clearly increases and is obviously supported by many school activities (McHale & Cermak, 1992). Just as well, physical education in school or the participation in a sports team enables children to practice and further develop their gross motor skills (Fransen et al., 2012). Profound knowledge on the development of motor skills is very interesting in theory, but there is also a practical relevance to it (e.g., for physical education, for promoting healthy development, or the diagnosis and treatment of motor coordinative developmental disorders). Thus, to investigate the differences of developmental trajectories between gross and fine motor skills would be interesting for future research. Likewise, the influence of different environmental factors in the sense of exercise possibilities should be taken into consideration.
这些结果表明，所选测试具有大量的公共方差。这表明不同的运动技能是相互关联的。一般运动技能的子组成部分可能只会在发展过程的后期更明显地区分。因此，尽管任务质量和任务需求存在明显差异，但在儿童早期，所有运动任务（全身协调和手部灵巧任务）可能都包含一个共同的整体因素。特别是对于所检查的年龄范围，环境因素可能会促进粗大和精细运动技能的差异。更准确地说，当进入小学时，练习精细动作技能的机会明显增加，并且显然得到了许多学校活动的支持（McHale & Cermak，1992）。同样，学校的体育教育或参加运动队使孩子们能够练习并进一步发展他们的粗大运动技能（Fransen et al.， 2012）。关于运动技能发展的深刻知识在理论上非常有趣，但也具有实际意义（例如，用于体育教育、促进健康发育或运动协调发育障碍的诊断和治疗）。因此，研究粗大运动技能和精细运动技能之间发展轨迹的差异对未来的研究将很有趣。同样，应考虑不同环境因素对运动可能性的影响。
In line with previous studies, a significant correlation between fine motor skills and executive functions was found. However, contrary to current literature, the relation between gross motor skills and executive functions was slightly higher than the relation between fine motor skills and executive functions. This finding can possibly be explained with the chosen method of assessing executive functions. More precisely, in other recent studies, either teacher ratings (Grissmer et al., 2010) or the “Head-Toes-Knee-Shoulders” task (Cameron et al., 2012), a very general, behavioural measure for executive functions (Ponitz et al., 2009, Ponitz et al., 2008), were used. What concerns the present study, the quantification of cognitive self-regulation with standardised and computerized tests seems to us like a methodological advantage. Consequently, the present results indicate that the correlation between gross motor skills and some aspects of self-regulation have been underestimated in previous studies.
与以前的研究一致，发现精细运动技能和执行功能之间存在显着相关性。然而，与目前的文献相反，粗大运动技能与执行功能之间的关系略高于精细运动技能与执行功能之间的关系。这一发现可能可以用所选的评估执行功能方法来解释。更准确地说，在最近的其他研究中，要么是教师评分（Grissmer et al.， 2010）要么是“头-脚趾-膝盖-肩膀”任务（Cameron et al.， 2012），这是一种非常通用的执行功能行为测量（Ponitz et al.， 2009， Ponitz et al.， 2008）。与本研究有关的是，通过标准化和计算机化测试量化认知自我调节在我们看来似乎是一种方法论优势。因此，目前的结果表明，粗大运动技能与自我调节的某些方面之间的相关性在以前的研究中被低估了。
The maturation of prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia and other connecting structures serves as a possible explanation for the relation between gross motor skills, fine motor skills and executive functions. Neuro-imaging studies showed that the same cortical areas are activated during motor coordinative as well as during executive functions tasks (Diamond, 2000). To master motor tasks (no matter its nature, whole body coordination or manual dexterity), central executive abilities are needed and used (Roebers & Kauer, 2009). For example, to insert coins or move sideways, different sub-goals need to be remembered (to post as fast as possible; to hold the box with one hand – to stand with both feet on the board; to move the board with both hand) and the children have to plan ahead (to specify an order in which the coins will be posted – to plan the exact point when they move to the other board). Furthermore, the children also have to recall and use their strategies. Due to the presented findings, we conclude that to date the literature’s focus has been on the relation between manual dexterity skills and executive functions. Thereby it was neglected that empirical evidence as well as the neuropsychological explanation also hold for gross motor skills. The focus on fine motor skills was probably due to its more obvious relevance for school readiness (e.g., Grissmer et al., 2010). However, as from our point of view, gross motor skills should also be taken into account. One important and practically relevant advantage of gross motor skills is that individual differences or abnormalities in the development may become obvious an earlier stage making prevention possible. Thus, recommendations for specific activities or empirically based intervention/prevention programs could be deducted that support further development.
前额叶皮层、小脑、基底神经节和其他连接结构的成熟可以解释粗大运动技能、精细运动技能和执行功能之间关系。神经影像学研究表明，在运动协调和执行功能任务期间，相同的皮质区域被激活（Diamond，2000 年）。要掌握运动任务（无论其性质，全身协调或手部灵活性如何），都需要并使用中央执行能力（Roebers & Kauer），2009）。例如，要投硬币或侧向移动，需要记住不同的子目标（尽可能快地投递;用一只手握住盒子 - 双脚站在棋盘上;用双手移动棋盘），孩子们必须提前计划（指定硬币的投递顺序 - 计划他们移动到另一个棋盘的确切位置）。此外，孩子们还必须回忆和使用他们的策略。由于提出的发现，我们得出结论，迄今为止，文献的重点一直是手部灵巧技能和执行功能之间的关系。因此，人们忽略了经验证据和神经心理学解释也适用于粗大运动技能。对精细运动技能的关注可能是由于它与入学准备的相关性更明显（例如，Grissmer et al.， 2010）。然而，从我们的角度来看，粗大运动技能也应该被考虑在内。 粗大运动技能的一个重要且实际相关的优势是，个体差异或发育异常可能在早期阶段变得明显，从而使预防成为可能。因此，可以扣除支持进一步发展的特定活动或基于经验的干预/预防计划的建议。
Based on previous studies stating a relation between executive functions and fine motor skills as well as school achievement (Grissmer et al., 2010, Roebers et al., 2014), it stands to reason that the support of fine motor skills may enhance school readiness of young children. However, the hereby given evidence of a substantial relation between gross motor skills and executive functions (over and above fine motor skills) suggests that school readiness could also be enhanced in an indirect way through playful, gross motor exercises. This opportunity would provide a change to the usual scholastic work at the desk and above all would probably be more in the nature of young, lively and physically active children. More profound knowledge on the exact nature of the relationship could allow to integrate fine and gross motor in the daily routines in kindergarten, and thus serve as further contribution in enhancing school readiness of young children.
根据先前的研究，执行功能与精细运动技能以及学校成绩之间的关系（Grissmer et al.， 2010， Roebers et al.， 2014），有理由认为，精细运动技能的支持可能会提高幼儿的入学准备。然而，特此给出的粗大运动技能和执行功能（超过精细运动技能）之间存在实质性关系的证据表明，也可以通过有趣的粗大运动练习间接地提高入学准备。这个机会将改变通常在书桌前的学术工作，最重要的是，可能会更符合年轻、活泼和身体活跃的孩子的天性。对这种关系的确切性质有更深入的了解，可以将精细运动和粗大运动融入幼儿园的日常生活中，从而为提高幼儿的入学准备做出进一步的贡献。
Another aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between executive functions, motor skills and specific individual and background variables. In this context, a positive correlation was found for physical fitness variables (aerobic endurance and strength) and executive functions, gross motor as well as fine motor skills. However, it seems that those relations are affected by chronological age. More precisely, while the correlation between fine motor skills and standing long jump remained significant after controlling for age, the correlation between fine motor skills and aerobic endurance did no longer reach significance. A possible explanation for this result is that the coordinative aspect of the standing long jump task is higher than for the six-minutes-run. Overall, general cognitive control processes provide an explanation for the mentioned associations between aerobic fitness, motor skills and executive functions (Roebers & Kauer, 2009). It is generally assumed that the relationship between aerobic fitness and executive functions is mediated by neuronal activation (Hillman, Castelli, & Buck, 2005). This assumption is further supported by current findings concerning the relationship between fitness and executive functions in children (Buck et al., 2008, van der Niet et al., 2014). Literature as well as the findings of the present study suggest that all three domains (executive functions, motor skills and physical fitness) share proportions of the same higher order cognitive processes which in turn provides a possible explanation for the reported relations between the different domains. Thus, central executive abilities appear necessary not only in motor tasks, but in fitness tasks also. More precisely, in fitness tasks children have to maintain their goals (e.g., to run as fare as possible in 6 min). They have to plan how to do best (e.g., to run the same pace from the beginning until the end). Moreover, they have to implement their strategies even in case of distraction (e.g., not to be influenced of children who run faster). The delineation and identification of such higher order cognitive control processes (e.g., planning, monitoring, goal-orientation) should necessarily be taken into account in future research. Because different domains seem to be fundamentally affected by such higher order cognitive control processes, differentiated knowledge concerning those processes is of theoretical as well as practical relevance.
本研究的另一个目的是探讨执行功能、运动技能与特定个体和背景变量之间的关系。在这种情况下，发现体能变量（有氧耐力和力量）和执行功能、粗大运动以及精细运动技能呈正相关。然而，这些关系似乎受到实际年龄的影响。更准确地说，虽然在控制年龄后，精细运动技能和站立跳远之间的相关性仍然显着，但精细运动技能和有氧耐力之间的相关性不再显着。对这一结果的一个可能的解释是，立定跳远任务的协调性高于六分钟的跑步。总的来说，一般的认知控制过程为上述的有氧健身、运动技能和执行功能之间的关联提供了解释（Roebers & Kauer， 2009）。通常假设有氧健身和执行功能之间的关系是由神经元激活介导的（Hillman， Castelli， & Buck， 2005）。目前关于儿童健康与执行功能之间关系的发现进一步支持了这一假设（Buck et al.， 2008， van der Niet et et al.， 2014）。文献以及本研究的结果表明，所有三个领域（执行功能、运动技能和身体健康）共享相同的高阶认知过程的比例，这反过来又为不同领域之间报告的关系提供了可能的解释。 因此，中枢执行能力不仅在运动任务中是必需的，而且在健身任务中也是必要的。更准确地说，在健身任务中，孩子们必须保持他们的目标（例如，在 6 分钟内尽可能多地跑步）。他们必须计划如何做到最好（例如，从头到尾保持相同的配速）。此外，即使在分心的情况下，他们也必须实施他们的策略（例如，不要被跑得更快的孩子影响）。在未来的研究中，必须考虑这种高阶认知控制过程（例如，计划、监测、目标导向）的描述和识别。因为不同的领域似乎从根本上受到这种高阶认知控制过程的影响，所以关于这些过程的差异化知识具有理论和实践意义。
In respect of background variables, one small but significant correlation between SES and executive functions was found. This result is in line with findings of previous studies (Noble et al., 2007, Röthlisberger et al., 2010). However, after controlling for age, the correlation between SES and executive functions did no longer reach significance. This suggests that the link was –at least to some extend – driven by albeit small age differences. Thus, no significant correlation was found for motor skills and SES, a result comparable to the findings of Röthlisberger et al. (2010) who reported no significant correlation between SES and fine motor skills. In general, the relation between motor skills and SES is reported as being small (Kemper, 1982, Kretschmer and Giewald, 2001, Scheid, 1989), assumably because SES represents a too global indicator (Scheid, 2009). For this reason, we conclude that the SES has no significant influence on the relation between motor skills and executive functions for the tested age group.
关于背景变量，发现 SES 和执行功能之间存在一个小而显著的相关性。这一结果与以前的研究结果一致（Noble et al.， 2007， Röthlisberger et al.， 2010）。然而，在控制了年龄后，SES 与执行功能之间的相关性不再显著。这表明，这种联系——至少在某种程度上——是由尽管很小的年龄差异驱动的。因此，没有发现运动技能和 SES 的显着相关性，这一结果与 Röthlisberger 等人（2010 年）的发现相当，后者报告 SES 和精细运动技能之间没有显着相关性。一般来说，据报道，运动技能和 SES 之间的关系很小（Kemper， 1982， Kretschmer 和 Giewald， 2001， Scheid， 1989），这可能是因为 SES 代表了一个过于全球化的指标（Scheid， 2009）。出于这个原因，我们得出结论，SES 对测试年龄组的运动技能和执行功能之间的关系没有显着影响。
The lack of correlation between motor skills, executive functions and the physical activity level of the family members was rather unexpected. However, it appears that physical activity behaviours of the parents influences the one of their child. This assumption is based on data of a classical study of Moore et al. (1991), showing that children with physically active parents were more active than those with less active parents. Altogether, we conclude that the influence of the physical activity level on gross and fine motor skills is rather small in kindergarten children. Even if former studies found significant correlations between physical activity and a common motor factor, the correlations were small and only of importance when the intensity of the physical activity was high (Fisher et al., 2005, Wrotniak et al., 2006). Moreover, the relation between executive functions and physical activity was not significant in the present study leading to the conclusion that the relation between motor skills and executive functions is not fundamentally affected by physical activity level of young children. Nevertheless, in certain circumstances, physical exercise is assumed to promote executive functions (Davis et al., 2007, Jäger et al., 2014, Tomporowski et al., 2011). For this reason, the effect of physical activity, also in the context of socialization, should not be left underestimated. Thus, despite the fact that the correlations with the background variables were not significant (after controlling for age) most of them at least pointed into the expected direction. Hence, the influence of environmental factors should not be neglected, because as a whole they could have a cumulative influence on the relation between motor skills and executive functions.
运动技能、执行功能和家庭成员的身体活动水平之间缺乏相关性是相当出乎意料的。然而，父母的身体活动行为似乎会影响他们孩子的身体活动。这一假设是基于 Moore et al. （1991） 的一项经典研究的数据，该研究显示，父母身体活跃的孩子比父母不太活跃的孩子更活跃。总而言之，我们得出结论，身体活动水平对幼儿园儿童的粗大和精细运动技能的影响相当小。即使以前的研究发现身体活动与共同的运动因素之间存在显着相关性，但这种相关性很小，并且仅在身体活动的强度较高时才重要（Fisher 等人，2005 年，Wrotniak 等人，2006 年）。此外，在本研究中，执行功能与身体活动之间的关系并不显着，从而得出结论，运动技能和执行功能之间的关系从根本上不受幼儿身体活动水平的影响。然而，在某些情况下，体育锻炼被认为可以促进执行功能（Davis et al.， 2007， Jäger et al.， 2014， Tomporowski et al.， 2011）。出于这个原因，不应低估体育活动的影响，即使在社会化的背景下也是如此。因此，尽管与背景变量的相关性并不显著（在控制了年龄之后），但它们中的大多数至少指向了预期的方向。 因此，环境因素的影响不容忽视，因为它们作为一个整体可能会对运动技能和执行功能之间的关系产生累积影响。
Even though a wide range of aspects concerning child development have been accounted for in the presented study, there is one particular limitation to be noted. Even if not being a central concern, the multi-dimensional nature of executive functions was assessed with only one test for each dimension respectively. Consequently, no profound analyses and results within the construct of executive functions could be made. Likewise, we cannot rule out that a very low SES could have an influence on motor performance (as very low SES children might not have access to physical activities) and consequently on the motor cognitive performance link. This is because a low SES in Switzerland is probably not comparable to a very low SES in less developed countries. Nevertheless, to address the issue of access to physical activities, we built two SES groups, one group with high SES (N = 36; M = 2.45; SD = 0.55; Range = 1.34–3.03) and one with low SES (N = 36; M = −2.75; SD = 1.21; Range = −4.85–−0.92). The physical activity level of children with the highest SES did not differ from children with the lowest SES (t(69) = 1.04; p = 0.30; d = 0.25).Therefore, we can assume that there were no systematic differences in children‘s access to play or to formal and informal sports participation. Of course, this does not rule out the possibility that children with a low SES in less developed counties have less access to play or sports participation than children with high SES. Consequently, a low SES could still have an indirect or direct influence on motor performance. Further research in this direction is desirable. Moreover, a broader picture of the developmental environment of kindergarten children, including differentiated information about physical activity socialization, would allow for a more detailed evaluation of theoretically different models of motor and cognitive development.
尽管本研究已经考虑了有关儿童发展的广泛方面，但有一个特别的局限性需要注意。即使不是核心问题，执行功能的多维性质也分别通过每个维度的一次测试来评估。因此，无法在执行功能的构建中做出深入的分析和结果。同样，我们不能排除非常低的 SES 可能会对运动表现产生影响（因为非常低的 SES 儿童可能无法进行体育活动），从而影响运动认知能力。这是因为瑞士的低 SES 可能无法与欠发达国家的极低 SES 相提并论。尽管如此，为了解决获得体育活动的问题，我们建立了两个 SES 组，一组具有高 SES （N = 36;M = 2.45;SD = 0.55;范围 = 1.34–3.03）和低 SES （N = 36;M = −2.75;SD = 1.21;范围 = −4.85–−0.92）。SES 最高儿童的身体活动水平与 SES 最低的儿童没有差异 （t（69） = 1.04;p = 0.30;d = 0.25）。因此，我们可以假设儿童在玩耍或正式和非正式体育参与方面没有系统性差异。当然，这并不排除欠发达县 SES 低儿童比 SES 高儿童更难玩耍或参与体育运动的可能性。因此，低 SES 仍可能对电机性能产生间接或直接影响。在这个方向上进行进一步的研究是可取的。 此外，更广泛地了解幼儿园儿童的发育环境，包括有关体育活动社会化的差异化信息，将允许对理论上不同的运动和认知发展模型进行更详细的评估。
In summary, the present study shows a specific correlation between executive functions and two areas of motor skills. This relation seems not fundamentally affected by either SES nor the level of physical activity. Additionally, certain significant correlations between fitness, motor skills and executive functions were found. A possible explanation for those associations lies in higher order cognitive skills, as for example goal- orientation, planning abilities and strategy use. The direct measurement of such constructs represents a great challenge for future research.
总之，本研究显示了执行功能与运动技能的两个领域之间的特定相关性。这种关系似乎从根本上不受 SES 或身体活动水平的影响。此外，发现健身、运动技能和执行功能之间存在某些显着相关性。对这些关联的一个可能的解释在于高阶认知技能，例如目标导向、规划能力和策略使用。直接测量此类结构对未来的研究来说是一个巨大的挑战。

Acknowledgements 确认

This work was partially financed by the Center for Cognition, Learning and Memory (University of Bern) and the Jacob’s Foundation Zürich. We like to thank all participating children, their parents and teachers, and the participating schools for their cooperation. We also wish to thank the student research assistants and master students for their assistance in collecting the data.
这项工作由认知、学习和记忆中心（伯尔尼大学）和苏黎世雅各布基金会部分资助。我们要感谢所有参与的孩子、他们的家长和老师，以及参与学校的合作。我们还要感谢学生研究助理和硕士生在收集数据方面的帮助。

Appendix A. 附录 A.

Pearson correlations of the manifest variables.

Empty CellEmpty Cell123456789
1Threading beads10.56∗∗0.30∗∗0.35∗∗0.35∗0.45∗∗0.37∗∗0.26∗∗0.25∗∗
2Posting coins0.52∗∗10.30∗∗0.35∗∗0.40∗∗0.48∗∗0.33∗∗0.36∗∗0.31∗∗
3Drawing trail0.27∗∗0.28∗∗10.35∗∗0.30∗∗0.20∗0.150.150.19∗
4One-leg-stand0.33∗∗0.33∗∗0.34∗∗10.33∗∗0.31∗∗0.26∗∗0.080.24∗∗
5Jumping sideways0.31∗∗0.38∗∗0.29∗∗0.32∗∗10.45∗∗0.30∗∗0.40∗∗0.24∗∗
6Moving sideways0.41∗∗0.44∗∗0.18∗0.29∗∗0.43∗∗10.35∗∗0.36∗∗0.26∗∗
7Inhibition0.34∗∗0.30∗∗0.130.25∗∗0.28∗∗0.32∗∗10.49∗∗0.31∗∗
8Switching0.25∗∗0.35∗∗0.140.070.39∗∗0.35∗∗0.48∗∗10.22∗∗
9Updating0.23∗∗0.29∗∗0.170.23∗∗0.23∗∗0.24∗∗0.29∗∗0.21∗∗1
Note: Above the diagonal, Pearson correlations, below the diagonal, partial correlations controlled for age, ∗∗p < 0.01, ∗p < 0.05.

显现变量的 Pearson 相关性。

：
空细胞空细胞123456789
1串焊珠10.56∗∗0.30∗∗0.35∗∗0.35∗0.45∗∗0.37∗∗0.26∗∗0.25∗∗
2过币0.52∗∗10.30∗∗0.35∗∗0.40∗∗0.48∗∗0.33∗∗0.36∗∗0.31∗∗
3绘图轨迹0.27∗∗0.28∗∗10.35∗∗0.30∗∗0.20∗0.150.150.19∗
4单腿支架0.33∗∗0.33∗∗0.34∗∗10.33∗∗0.31∗∗0。26∗∗0.080.24∗∗
5侧向跳跃0.31∗∗0.38∗∗0.29∗∗0.32∗∗10.45∗∗0.30∗∗0.40∗∗0.24∗∗
6横盘整理0.41∗∗0.44∗∗0.18∗0.29∗∗0.43∗∗10.35∗∗0.36∗∗0.26∗∗
7抑制0.34∗∗0.30∗∗0.130.25∗∗0.28∗∗0.32∗∗10.49∗∗0.31∗∗
8切换0.25∗∗0.35∗∗0.140.070.39∗∗0.35∗∗0.48∗∗10.22∗∗
9更新0.23∗∗0.29∗∗0.170.23∗∗0.23∗∗0.24∗∗0.29∗∗0.21∗∗1
注：对角线上方为 Pearson 相关性，对角线下方为控制年龄的偏相关，∗∗p < 0.01，∗p < 0.05。

Appendix B. 附录 B.

Sample size (N), mean (M), standard deviation (SD), minimum (Min) and maximum (Max) of the individual and background variables.

Empty CellNMSDMinMax
Individual variables
6-min-rum156863.33177.97504.001578.00
Standing long jump156107.8516.5766153.00
Background variables
Physical activity child119−0.051.66−4.14.09
Physical activity mother114−0.051.19−1.365.76
Physical activity father111−0.031.34−1.785.73
SES1100.002.28−4.853.03
Note: SES = socio-economic status; units: 6-min-run = meters; standing long jump = width cm; physical activity and SES = sum scores.

单个变量和背景变量的样本量 （N）、平均值 （M）、标准差 （SD）、最小值 （Min） 和最大值 （Max）。

元
空单元格NMSD最小最大值
单个变量
6 min-rum156863.33177.97504.001578.00
立定跳远156107.8516.5766153.00
背景变量
体力活动 儿童119−0.051.66−4.14.09
体力活动 母亲114−0.051.19−1.365.76
体力活动 父亲111−0.031.34−1.785.73
SES1100.002.28−4.853.03
注：SES = 社会经济地位;单位：6 分钟跑步 = 米;立定跳 远 = 宽度 cm;身体活动和 SES = 总分。

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