When one looks at a computer system that is doing a very complex job, he sees on the surface a machine that can execute some extremely sophisticated processes. If he is a layman, his concept of what provides this sophisticated capability may endow the machine with a mysterious power to sweep information through perceptive and intelligent synthetic thinking devices. Actually, this sophisticated capability results from a very clever organizational hierarchy so that pursuit of the source of intelligence within this system would take one down through layers of functional and physical organization that become successively more primitive.
当人们观察一个能够完成非常复杂任务的计算机系统时,他们会看到表面上的机器可以执行一些非常复杂的过程。如果他是一个门外汉,他对提供这种复杂能力的概念可能会赋予机器一种神奇的力量,可以穿透感知并进行智能合成思维。实际上,这种复杂能力是由一个非常巧妙的组织层次所产生的,所以要找到这个系统中智能的源泉,需要一路探索从功能上和物理上都变得越来越基础的层次。2c1a

To be more specific, we can begin at the top and list the major levels down through which we would pass if we successively decomposed the functional elements of each level in search of the "source of intelligence." A programmer could take us down through perhaps three levels (depending upon the sophistication of the total process being executed by the computer) perhaps depicting the organization at each level with a flow chart. The first level down would organize functions corresponding to statements in a problem-oriented language (e.g., ALGOL or COBOL), to achieve the desired over-all process. The second level down would organize lesser functions into the processes represented by first-level statements. The third level would perhaps show how the basic machine commands (or rather the processes which they represent) were organized to achieve each of the functions of the second level.
更具体地说,我们可以从最高层开始,列出逐级分解每层功能元素以寻找"智能源"时要经历的主要层次。程序员可以带我们经历大约三个层次(取决于电脑执行的总体过程的复杂程度),并用流程图描述每个层次的组织情况。第一个下层组织的功能对应于问题导向语言(如 ALGOL 或 COBOL)中的语句,以实现所需的整体过程。第二个下层组织次级功能到第一层语句所代表的过程。第三层也许会展示如何组织基本机器命令(或者说它们所代表的过程)来实现第二层的各种功能。2c1b

Then a machine designer could take over, and with a block diagram of the computer's organization he could show us (Level 4) how the different hardware units (e.g., random-access storage, arithmetic registers, adder, arithmetic control) are organized to provide the capability of executing sequences of the commands used in Level 3. The logic designer could then give us a tour of Level 5, also using block diagrams, to show us how such hardware elements as pulse gates, flip-flops, and AND, OR, and NOT circuits can be organized into networks giving the functions utilized at Level 4. For Level 6 a circuit engineer could show us diagrams revealing how components such as transistors, resistors, capacitors, and diodes can be organized into modular networks that provide the functions needed for the elements of Level 5.
然后机器设计师就可以接手,利用计算机组织的框图向我们展示(第 4 层)不同硬件单元(如随机存取存储器、算术寄存器、加法器、算术控制)是如何组织在一起以提供执行第 3 层命令序列的能力。逻辑设计师然后可以利用框图向我们介绍第 5 层,展示如何将诸如脉冲门、触发器以及与、或、非电路等硬件元素组织成网络,实现第 4 层所需的功能。对于第 6 层,电路工程师可以向我们展示图纸,揭示如何将晶体管、电阻、电容和二极管等元件组织成模块化网络,提供第 5 层所需的功能。2c1c

Device engineers and physicists of different kinds could take us down through more layers. But rather soon we have crossed the boundary between what is man-organized and what is nature-organized, and are ultimately discussing the way in which a given physical phenomenon is derived from the intrinsic organization of sub-atomic particles, with our ability to explain succeeding layers blocked by the exhaustion of our present human comprehension.
不同类型的设备工程师和物理学家可以带我们深入更多层面。但很快我们就跨越了人为组织和自然组织之间的界限,最终讨论一个给定的物理现象是如何从亚原子粒子的内在组织中派生出来的,而我们解释后续层面的能力受到当前人类理解的局限性的阻碍。2c1d

If we then ask ourselves where that intelligence is embodied, we are forced to concede that it is elusively distributed throughout a hierarchy of functional processes—a hierarchy whose foundation extends down into natural processes below the depth of our comprehension. If there is any one thing upon which this 'intelligence depends' it would seem to be organization. The biologists and physiologists use a term "synergism" to designate (from Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition) the "...cooperative action of discrete agencies such that the total effect is greater than the sum of the two effects taken independently..." This term seems directly applicable here, where we could say that synergism is our most likely candidate for representing the actual source of intelligence
如果我们问自己这种智能存在于何处,我们不得不承认它隐藏在一个功能过程层级中 - 这个层级的基础延伸到我们理解能力之下的自然过程中。如果有什么东西是这种"智能依赖"的,那似乎就是组织。生物学家和生理学家使用一个术语"协同作用"来指(引自韦氏大词典第二版)"...离散机构的协作作用,使总效果大于单独效果之和..."这个术语似乎直接适用于此处,我们可以说协同作用是代表实际智能来源的最可能候选。2c1e

Actually, each of the social, life, or physical phenomena we observe about us would seem to derive from a supporting hierarchy of organized functions (or processes), in which the synergistic principle gives increased phenomenological sophistication to each succeedingly higher level of organization. In particular, the intelligence of a human being, derived ultimately from the characteristics of individual nerve cells, undoubtedly results from synergism.
事实上,我们观察到的每一种社会、生活或物理现象似乎都来自于一个支持的有组织功能(或过程)层次结构,其中协同原理为每个更高层次的组织增加了现象学上的复杂性。特别是人类智能,最终来自于单个神经细胞的特性,无疑是由协同作用产生的。2c1f

It has been jokingly suggested several times during the course of this study that what we are seeking is an "intelligence amplifier." (The term is attributed originally to W. Ross Ashby^[2,3]. At first this term was rejected on the grounds that in our view one's only hope was to make a better match between existing human intelligence and the problems to be tackled, rather than in making man more intelligent. But deriving the concepts brought out in the preceding section has shown us that indeed this term does seem applicable to our objective.
在这项研究过程中,曾多次开玩笑地提出,我们正在寻找的是一种"智力放大器"。(这个术语最初归功于 W. Ross Ashby ^[2,3] 。起初,这个术语被拒绝,因为在我们看来,我们唯一的希望是在现有的人类智力和需要解决的问题之间找到更好的匹配,而不是让人变得更聪明。但从前一节中提出的概念来看,这个术语确实似乎适用于我们的目标。2c2a

Accepting the term "intelligence amplification" does not imply any attempt to increase native human intelligence. The term "intelligence amplification" seems applicable to our goal of augmenting the human intellect in that the entity to be produced will exhibit more of what can be called intelligence than an unaided human could; we will have amplified the intelligence of the human by organizing his intellectual capabilities into higher levels of synergistic structuring. What possesses the amplified intelligence is the resulting H-LAM/T system, in which the LAM/T augmentation means represent the amplifier of the human's intelligence.
接受"智力放大"这个术语并不意味着任何试图增加天生人类智力的企图。"智力放大"这个术语似乎适用于我们增强人类智力的目标,因为所产生的实体将展现比未经辅助的人类更多的所谓智力;我们将通过将人类的智力能力组织成更高层次的协同结构来放大人类的智力。具有放大智力的是最终的 H-LAM/T 系统,其中 LAM/T 增强手段代表了人类智力的放大器。2c2b

In amplifying our intelligence, we are applying the principle of synergistic structuring that was followed by natural evolution in developing the basic human capabilities. What we have done in the development of our augmentation means is to construct a superstructure that is a synthetic extension of the natural structure upon which it is built. In a very real sense, as represented by the steady evolution of our augmentation means, the development of "artificial intelligence" has been going on for centuries.
在增强我们的智能方面,我们正在应用自然进化在发展基本人类能力时遵循的协同结构原则。我们在发展增强手段方面所做的就是构建一个超级结构,这是对其所建立的自然结构的人工延伸。从某种意义上说,正如我们的增强手段的稳步发展所表示的那样,"人工智能"的发展已经持续了几个世纪。2c2c

The human and the artifacts are the only physical components in the H-LAM/T system. It is upon their capabilities that the ultimate capability of the system will depend. This was implied in the earlier statement that every composite process of the system decomposes ultimately into explicit-human and explicit-artifact processes. There are thus two separate domains of activity within the H-LAM/T system: that represented by the human, in which all explicit-human processes occur; and that represented by the artifacts, in which all explicit-artifact processes occur. In any composite process, there is cooperative interaction between the two domains, requiring interchange of energy (much of it for information exchange purposes only). Figure 1 depicts this two-domain concept and embodies other concepts discussed below.
人和人工制品是 H-LAM/T 系统中唯一的物理组件。系统的最终能力取决于它们的能力。这暗示于先前的语句,即系统的每个复合过程最终分解为明确的人类过程和明确的人工制品过程。因此,H-LAM/T 系统内有两个独立的活动领域:一个是代表人类的领域,在该领域发生所有明确的人类过程;另一个是代表人工制品的领域,在该领域发生所有明确的人工制品过程。在任何复合过程中,两个领域之间都存在协作互动,需要交换能量(大部分用于信息交换)。图 1 描述了这个双域概念,并体现了下面讨论的其他概念。2c3a

2c3a1

Where a complex machine represents the principal artifact with which a human being cooperates, the term "man-machine interface" has been used for some years to represent the boundary across which energy is exchanged between the two domains. However, the "man-artifact interface" has existed for centuries, ever since humans began using artifacts and executing composite processes.
当一台复杂的机器代表人类与之合作的主要工件时,"人机界面"一词已使用多年,代表了两个领域之间能量交换的边界。然而,"人-工件界面"已存在了数世纪,自从人类开始使用工件并执行复合过程以来。2c3b

Exchange across this "interface" occurs when an explicit-human process is coupled to an explicit-artifact process. Quite often these coupled processes are designed for just this exchange purpose, to provide a functional match between other explicit-human and explicit-artifact processes buried within their respective domains that do the more significant things. For instance, the finger and hand motions (explicit human processes) activate key-linkage motions in the typewriter (couple to explicit-artifact processes). But these are only part of the matching processes between the deeper human processes that direct a given word to be typed and the deeper artifact processes that actually imprint the ink marks on the paper.
当显式人类过程与显式制品过程耦合时,就会通过这个"界面"进行交换。通常,这些耦合过程是专为此交换目的而设计的,以在各自领域内的其他显式人类和显式制品过程之间提供功能匹配。例如,手指和手掌运动(显式人类过程)激活打字机中的按键联动运动(耦合到显式制品过程)。但这些只是在人类过程(指定要输入的单词)与制品过程(实际在纸上印墨)之间更深层的匹配过程的一部分。2c3c

The outside world interacts with our H-LAM/T system by the exchange of energy with either the individual or his artifact. Again, special processes are often designed to accommodate this exchange. However, the direct concern of our present study lies within the system, with the internal processes that are and can be significantly involved in the effectiveness of the system in developing the human's comprehension and pursuing the human's goals.
外部世界通过与个人或其工具交换能量来与我们的 H-LAM/T 系统互动。同样,通常会设计特殊的过程来适应这种交换。然而,我们当前研究的直接关注点在于系统内部,即那些在提高系统有效性方面发挥重要作用的内部过程,这些过程有助于人类的理解和实现人类的目标。2c3d

Before we pursue further direct discussion of the H-LAM/T system, let us examine some background material. Consider the following historical progression in the development of our intellectual capabilities:
在我们进一步直接讨论 H-LAM/T 系统之前,让我们先看一些背景资料。让我们考虑一下我们智力能力发展的以下历史进程:2c4a

It is undoubtedly true that concepts which people found useful ended up being symbolized in their language, and hence that the evolution of language was affected by the concepts the people developed and used. However, Korzybski^[4] and Whorf^[5] (among others) have argued that the language we use affects our thinking to a considerable extent. They say that a lack of words for some types of concepts makes it hard to express those concepts, and thus decreases the likelihood that we will learn much about them. If this is so, then once a language has begun to grow and be used, it would seem reasonable to suspect that the language also affects the evolution of the new concepts to be expressed in that language.
毫无疑问,人们发现有用的概念最终都会在他们的语言中得到象征表达,因此语言的演进受到了人们所发展和使用的概念的影响。然而,科兹比斯基(Korzybski)和沃夫(Whorf)(以及其他人)论证说,我们使用的语言在相当大程度上影响着我们的思维。他们说,对某些类型概念缺乏词语,使得表达这些概念变得很困难,因此减少了我们学习这些概念的可能性。如果是这样,那么一旦一种语言开始发展并被使用,合理怀疑这种语言也会影响到要在该语言中表达的新概念的演化。2c4b

Apparently there are counter-arguments to this; e.g., if a concept needs to be used often but its expression is difficult, then the language will evolve to ease the situation. However, the studies of the past decade into what are called "self-organizing" systems seem to be revealing that subtle relationships among its interacting elements can significantly influence the course of evolution of such a system. If this is true, and if language is (as it seems to be) a part of a self-organizing system, then it seems probable that the state of a language at a given time strongly affects its own evolution to a succeeding state.
显然,这方面也有反对意见;例如,如果一个概念需要经常使用,但其表达很困难,那么语言将会演化以缓解这一情况。然而,过去十年对所谓"自组织"系统的研究似乎揭示了,其交互元素之间的微妙关系可能会显著影响该系统演化的进程。如果这是真的,而且如果语言(似乎)是一个自组织系统的一部分,那么语言在给定时间的状态很可能会强烈影响其自身向后续状态的演化。2c4c

For our conceptual framework, we tend to favor the view that a language does exert a force in its own evolution. We observe that the shift over the last few centuries in matters that are of daily concern to the individual has necessarily been forced into the framework of the language existing at the time, with alterations generally limited to new uses for old words, or the coining of new words. The English language since Shakespeare has undergone no alteration comparable to the alteration in the cultural environment; if it had, Shakespeare would no longer be accessible to us. Under such evolutionary conditions, it would seem unlikely that the language we now use provides the best possible service to our minds in pursuing comprehension and solving problems. It seems very likely that a more useful language form can be devised.
就我们的概念框架而言,我们倾向于认为一种语言在自身的演化过程中确实会施加一种力量。我们观察到,过去几个世纪中,个人日常关切的事项已经必然被纳入当时存在的语言框架,改变一般局限于对旧词语的新用法或造新词。自莎士比亚以来,英语经历的变迁与文化环境的改变相比是微不足道的;如果不是这样,莎士比亚就不会再为我们所理解。在这种演化条件下,我们目前使用的语言似乎不大可能为我们的思维过程中的理解和问题解决提供最佳服务。一种更有用的语言形式很可能是可以设计出来的。2c4d

The Whorfian hypothesis states that "the world view of a culture is limited by the structure of the language which that culture uses." But there seems to be another factor to consider in the evolution of language and human reasoning ability. We offer the following hypothesis, which is related to the Whorfian hypothesis: Both the language used by a culture, and the capability for effective intellectual activity are directly affected during their evolution by the means by which individuals control the external manipulation of symbols. (For identification, we will refer to this as the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis.)
沃尔夫假说指出,"一种文化的世界观受到该文化使用的语言结构的限制。"但在语言和人类推理能力的发展中,似乎还有另一个因素需要考虑。我们提出以下假说,这与沃尔夫假说有关:一种文化使用的语言以及有效智力活动的能力,都直接受到个人控制外部符号操作方式的影响。(为了识别,我们将其称为新沃尔夫假说。)2c4e

If the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis could be proved readily, and if we could see how our means of externally manipulating symbols influence both our language and our way of thinking, then we would have a valuable instrument for studying human-augmentation possibilities. For the sake of discussion, let us assume the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis to be true, and see what relevant deductions can be made.
如果能够轻易证明新沃尔夫假说,并且我们能够看到如何操纵外部符号影响我们的语言和思维方式,那么我们将拥有一种研究人类增强可能性的有价值工具。为了讨论的目的,让我们假设新沃尔夫假说为真,看看可以得出哪些相关推论。2c4f

If the means evolved for an individual's external manipulation of his thinking-aid symbols indeed directly affect the way in which he thinks, then the original Whorfian hypothesis would offer an added effect. The direct effect of the external-symbol-manipulation means upon language would produce an indirect effect upon the way of thinking via the Whorfian-hypothesis linkage. There would then be two ways for the manner in which our external symbol manipulation was done to affect our thinking.
如果个人外部操纵思维辅助符号的手段确实直接影响他思考的方式,那么原始的沃尔夫假说将产生额外的效果。外部符号操纵手段对语言的直接影响将通过沃尔夫假说的联系对思维方式产生间接影响。这样,我们外部符号操纵的方式就有两种方式影响我们的思维。2c4g

One way of viewing the H-LAM/T system changes that we contemplate—specifically, integrating the capabilities of a digital computer into the intellectual activity of individual humans—is that we are introducing new and extremely advanced means for externally manipulating symbols. We then want to determine the useful modifications in the language and in the way of thinking that could result. This suggests a fourth stage to the evolution of our individual-human intellectual capability:
我们考虑的 H-LAM/T 系统变化的一种看法是,我们正在引入新的和极其先进的外部操纵符号的手段。然后我们想确定可能产生的有用的语言和思维方式的修改。这暗示了我们个人智力能力进化的第四阶段:2c4h

These hypotheses imply great richness in the new evolutionary spaces opened by progressing from Stage 3 to Stage 4. We would like to study the hypotheses further, examining their possible manifestations in our experience, ways of demonstrating their validity, and possible deductions relative to going to Stage 4.
这些假设意味着从第 3 阶段进入第 4 阶段所开辟的新进化空间将会非常丰富。我们希望进一步研究这些假设,检查它们在我们的经验中可能的表现形式,证明它们有效性的方法,以及相对于进入第 4 阶段的可能推论。2c4i

In search of some simple ways to determine what the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis might imply, we could imagine some relatively straightforward means of increasing our external symbol-manipulation capability and try to picture the consequent changes that could evolve in our language and methods of thinking. Actually, it turned out to be simpler to invert the problem and consider a change that would reduce our capability for external symbol manipulation. This allowed an empirical approach which proved both simple and effective. We thus performed the following experiment:
为了寻找一些简单的方法来确定新-沃尔夫假说可能意味着什么,我们可以设想一些相对简单的方法来增加我们的外部符号操作能力,并试图描绘由此而产生的语言和思维方式的变化。实际上,反过来考虑减少我们外部符号操作能力的变化更为简单。这种方法允许采取一种简单有效的实证方法。因此,我们进行了以下实验:2c4j

Brains of power equal to ours could have evolved in an environment where the combination of artifact materials and muscle strengths were so scaled that the neatest scribing tool (equivalent to a pencil, possible had a shape and mass as manageable as a brick would be to us-assuming that our muscles were not specially conditioned to deal with it. We fastened a pencil to a brick and experimented. Figure 2 shows the results, compared with typewriting and ordinary pencil writing. With the brick pencil, we are slower and less precise. If we want to hurry the writing, we have to make it larger. Also, writing the passage twice with the brick-pencil tires the untrained hand and arm.
拥有与我们相当的智慧大脑可能在一个环境中进化,在那里工具材料的组合和肌肉力量被如此缩放,以至于最整洁的书写工具(相当于铅笔,可能具有我们可以操控的形状和重量,就像一块砖头一样)。我们将一支铅笔固定在一个砖头上进行了实验。图 2 显示了结果,与打字和普通铅笔写作相比。使用砖头铅笔,我们的速度和精度都有所降低。如果我们想加快写作速度,就必须放大字体。用砖头铅笔写两遍也会让未经训练的手和手臂感到疲劳。2c4k

How would our civilization have matured if this had been the only manual means for us to use in graphical manipulation of symbols? For one thing, the record keeping that enables the organization of commerce and government would probably have taken a form so different from what we know that our social structure would undoubtedly have evolved differently. Also, the effort in doing calculations and writing down extensive and carefully reasoned argument would dampen individual experimentation with sophisticated new concepts, to lower the rate of learning and the rate of useful output, and perhaps to discourage a good many people from even working at extending understanding. The concepts that would evolve within our culture would thus be different, and very likely the symbology to represent them would be different—much more economical of motion in their writing It thus seems very likely that our thoughts and our language would be rather directly affected by the particular means used by our culture for externally manipulating symbols, which gives little intuitive substantiation to our Neo-Whorfian hypothesis.
如果这是我们使用符号图形化操作的唯一手动手段,我们的文明将如何成熟? 首先,使组织商业和政府成为可能的记录保存方式可能会与我们所知大不相同,从而导致我们的社会结构无疑会演化不同。此外,进行计算和书写广泛和精心推理论点的努力会抑制对复杂新概念的个人实验,降低学习和有用产出的速度,也许会让很多人甚至不愿意试图扩展理解。我们文化内部形成的概念将是不同的,用于表示它们的符号学也很可能是不同的,在写作中更加经济实惠。因此,我们的思想和语言很可能会被我们的文化用于外部操纵符号的特定手段所直接影响,这为我们的新 Whorfian 假说提供了很少的直观证明。2c4l

2c4l1

To reflect further upon the implications of this hypothesis, the following hypothetical artifact development can be considered, representing a different type of external symbol manipulation that could have had considerable effect. Suppose that our young technology of a few generations ago had developed an artifact that was essentially a high speed, semi-automatic table-lookup device—cheap enough for almost everyone to afford and small and light enough to be carried on the person. Assume that the individual cartridges sold by manufacturers (publishers) contained the look-up information, that one cartridge could hold the equivalent of an unabridged dictionary, and that a one-paragraph definition could always be located and displayed on the face of the device by the average practiced individual in less than three seconds. The fortunes of technological invention, commercial interest, and public acceptance just might have evolved something like this.
为了进一步反思这一假设的含义,可以考虑以下假设性的工艺品开发,代表了一种不同类型的外部符号操作,可能产生相当大的影响。假设我们几代人前的年轻技术已经开发出一种基本上是高速、半自动查表设备的工艺品——价格便宜到几乎人人都能负担得起,而且小巧轻便到可以随身携带。假设制造商(出版商)销售的单独的盒式磁带包含了查找信息,一个盒式磁带可以容纳相当于一部未缩写的字典的信息量,而且普通熟练的个人在不到三秒钟内就能找到并显示出一段长度为一段落的定义。技术发明、商业利益和公众接受的命运可能就会这样发展。2c4m

If it were so very easy to look things up, how would our vocabulary develop, how would our habits of exploring the intellectual domains of others shift, how might the sophistication of practical organization mature (if each person can so quickly and easily look up applicable rules), how would our education system change to take advantage of this new external symbol-manipulation capability of students and teachers (and administrators)?
如果查找事物是如此容易,我们的词汇量如何发展,我们探索他人智力领域的习惯如何转变,实际组织的复杂程度如何成熟(如果每个人都可以如此快速轻松地查找适用的规则),我们的教育系统如何改变以利用学生和教师(以及管理人员)这种新的外部符号操作能力?2c4n

The significance to our study of the discussion in this section lies in the perspective it gives to the ways in which human intellectual effectiveness can be affected by the particular means used by individuals for their external symbol manipulation. It seems reasonable to consider the development of automated external symbol manipulation means as a next stage in the evolution of our intellectual power.
这一部分的讨论对我们的研究很重要,因为它为我们提供了一个视角,了解个人使用外部符号操作的方式如何影响人类的智力效率。我们可以合理地认为,外部符号操作自动化手段的发展是我们智力进化的下一个阶段。2c4o

The concept of our H-LAM/T system possessing a repertoire of capabilities that is structured in the form of a hierarchy is most useful in our study. We shall use it in the following to tie together a number of considerations and concepts. There are two points of focus in considering the design of new repertoire hierarchies: the materials with which we have to work, and the principles by which new capability is constructed from these basic materials.
我们的 H-LAM/T 系统拥有一个结构化为层次形式的能力库的概念在我们的研究中非常有用。我们将在以下内容中将其用于整合一些考虑因素和概念。在考虑新的能力层次结构设计时,有两个重点:我们可以使用的材料,以及从这些基本材料构建新能力的原则。2c5a

a. Basic Capabilities
a. 基本能力2c5b

b. Structure Types
b. 结构类型2c5c

c. Roles and Levels
c. 角色和级别2c5d

d. Model of Executive Superstructure
d. 执行层超级结构模型2c5e

e. Flexibility in the Executive Role
执行角色的灵活性2c5f

f. Compound Effects
复合效应2c5g

He wrote as World War II was coming to an end, and his principal purpose seemed to be to offer new professional objectives to those scientists who were soon to be freed from war-motivated research and development. It would seem that he also wished to induce a general recognition of a growing problem—storage, retrieval, and manipulation of information for and by intellectual workers—and to show the possibilities he foresaw for scientific development of equipment which could significantly aid such workers in facing this problem. He summarized the situation: "...There is a growing mountain of research...The investigator is staggered by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers. Professionally our methods of transmitting and reviewing the results of research are generations old...truly significant attainments become lost in the mass of the inconsequential...The summation of human experience is being expanded at a prodigious rate, and the means we use for threading through the consequent maze to the momentarily important item is the same as was used in the days of square-rigged ships."
当第二次世界大战接近结束时,他写道,他的主要目的似乎是为那些即将摆脱战争驱动的研究和开发的科学家提供新的职业目标。似乎他也希望引起人们对一个日益增长的问题的普遍认识——知识工作者的信息存储、检索和操作——并展示他所预见的科学设备发展的可能性,这些设备可以大大帮助这些工作者面对这个问题。他总结了这种情况:"...研究工作在不断增加......调查员不知如何应付数以千计的其他工作者的调查结果和结论。从专业角度来看,我们传播和回顾研究结果的方法已有几代人了......真正有意义的成就往往被无关紧要的东西掩盖了...人类经验的总和正以惊人的速度扩大,而我们用来在由此产生的迷宫中找到暂时重要的事项的方法,与帆船时代使用的方法没有什么不同。"3a5a

Then he brought out some general considerations for hope: "... But there are signs of a change as new and powerful instrumentalities come into use...Photocells...advanced photography...thermionic tubes... cathode ray tubes...relay combinations...there are plenty of mechanical aids with which to effect a transformation in scientific records." And he points out that devices which we commonly use today—e.g., a calculating machine or an automobile—would have been impossibly expensive to produce in earlier eras of our technological development. "...The world has arrived at an age of cheap complex devices of great reliability and something is bound to come of it."
然后他提出了一些对于希望的一般考虑:"...但是随着新的强大的工具进入使用,出现了变化的迹象...光电池...先进的摄影...热离子管...阴极射线管...继电器组合...我们有很多机械辅助工具来实现科学记录的转变。"他指出,我们今天普遍使用的设备——例如计算机或汽车——在我们技术发展的早期时期是无法生产的。"...世界已进入廉价复杂设备高可靠性的时代,必定会有所作为。"3a5b

In six and a half pages crammed full of well-based speculations, Bush proceeds to outline enough plausible artifact and methodology developments to make a very convincing case for the augmentation of the individual intellectual worker. Extension of existing photographic techniques to give each individual a continuously available miniature camera for recording anything in view and of interest, and to realize a high-quality 100:1 linear reduction ratio for micro-record files for these photographs and published material; voice-recognition equipment (perhaps requiring a special language) to ease the process of entering new self-generated material into the written record—these are to provide the individual with information-generating aid.
在密集的六页半页中,布什详细阐述了足以令人信服的人工制品和方法学发展,支持对个人知识工作者的能力进行增强。对现有摄影技术的扩展,为每个个人提供一台永久可用的小型相机,用于记录任何视野内感兴趣的内容,并实现 100:1 的高质量线性缩减比例,用于这些照片和已发表材料的微型记录文件;语音识别设备(可能需要特殊语言),以方便个人将新自生成的材料输入到成文记录中-这些都是为了给个人提供信息生成援助。3a5c

For the detailed manipulation of mathematical and logical expressions, Bush projects computing aids (which have been surpassed by subsequent development) that allow the individual to exercise a greater proportion of his time and talents in the tasks of selecting data and the appropriate transformations and processes which are to be executed, leaving to the machinery the subsequent execution. He suggests that new notation for our verbal symbols (perhaps binary) could allow character recognition devices to help even further in the information-manipulation area, and also points out that poor symbolism ("...the exceedingly crude way in which mathematicians express their relationships. They employ a symbolism which grew like Topsy and has little consistency; a strange fact in that most logical field.") stands in the way of full realization of machine help for the manipulations associated with the human's real time process of mathematical work. And "...Then, on beyond the strict logic of the mathematician, lies the application of logic in everyday affairs. We may some day click off arguments on a machine with the same assurance that we now enter sales on a cash register."
对于数学和逻辑表达式的详细操作,布什设计了计算辅助设备(已被后续发展所超越),这些设备允许个人将更多时间和才能投入到选择数据以及要执行的适当转换和过程的任务中,而将后续执行留给机器。他建议,我们的语言符号(也许是二进制)的新符号法可以让字符识别设备在信息操作领域提供更多帮助,并指出糟糕的符号法("数学家表达他们关系的方式是极其粗糙的。他们使用的符号系统像疯长的野草一样,缺乏一致性;这在最逻辑的领域中是一个奇怪的事实。")阻碍了机器在人类实时数学工作中相关操作的充分利用。"有一天,我们可能会像现在在收银机上输入销售数据一样,用机器来推演论点。"3a5d

Then " ..So much for the manipulation of ideas and their insertion into the record. Thus far we seem to be worse off than before—for we can enormously extend the record; yet even in its present bulk we can hardly consult it. This is a much larger matter than merely the extraction of data for the purposes of scientific research; it involves the entire process by which man profits by his inheritance of acquired knowledge The prime action of use is selection, and here we are halting indeed. There may be millions of fine thoughts, and the account of the experience on which they are based, all encased within stone walls of acceptable architectural form; but if the scholar can get at only one a week by diligent search, his syntheses are not likely to keep up with the current scene." He goes on to discuss possible developments that could allow very rapid (in the human's time frame) selection of unit records from a very large file—where the records could be dry-process photographic micro-images upon which the user could add information at will.
然后"..对于观念操纵及其插入记录的情况,我们似乎比之前更糟糕了-因为我们可以大大扩展记录;然而即使在其目前的体积中,我们也几乎无法查阅它。这个问题不仅涉及为科学研究目的提取数据,还涉及人类从其积累的知识中获益的整个过程。使用的主要行为是选择,而在这一方面我们确实举步维艰。也许有数百万个杰出的思想,以及支撑这些思想的经验记录,都被封存在可接受的建筑形式的石墙之中;但如果学者只能通过勤勉的搜索每周获取一个,他的综合研究就很难跟上当前的情况。"他继续讨论可能的发展,这些发展可以允许从非常大的文件中非常快地(以人类的时间框架)选择单元记录-这些记录可以是干式过程的照片微缩影像,用户可以随意添加信息。3a5e

Bush goes on to say, "The real heart of the matter of selection, however, goes deeper than a lag in the adoption of mechanisms...Our ineptitude in getting at the record is largely caused by the artificiality of systems of indexing." He observes the power of the associative recall which human memory exhibits, and proposes that a mechanization of selection by association could be realized to considerable advantage. He spends the last two pages (a quarter of his article) describing a device embodying this capability, and points out some features of its use and of its likely effect. This material is so relevant and so well put that I quote it in its entirety:
布什进一步说,"然而,选择问题的真正核心,要比采用机制的滞后更深入。我们获取记录的笨拙,在很大程度上是由于索引系统的人为性造成的。"他观察到人类记忆所表现出的联想性回忆的力量,并提出通过联想来实现选择的机械化可能会带来相当大的优势。他在文章的最后两页(占四分之一)描述了一种具有这种功能的设备,并指出了它的使用特点及其可能产生的影响。这些内容非常相关,而且表述得很好,我将其完整地引用如下:3a5f

There are many significant items in the article, but the main ones upon which we shall comment here will be those relative to the use and implications of his Memex. The associative trails whose establishment and use within the files he describes at some length provide a beautiful example of a new capability in symbol structuring that derives from new artifact-process capability, and that provides new ways to develop and portray concept structures. Any file is a symbol structure whose purpose is to represent a variety of concepts and concept structures in a way that makes them maximally available and useful to the needs of the human's mental-structure development—within the limits imposed by the capability of the artifacts and human for jointly executing processes of symbol-structure manipulation. The Memex allows a human user to do more conveniently (less energy, more quickly) what he could have done with relatively ordinary photographic equipment and filing systems, but he would have had to spend so much time in the lower-level processes of manipulation that his mental time constants of memory and patience would have rendered the system unusable in the detailed and intimate sense which Bush illustrates.
这篇文章中有很多重要的内容,但我们这里主要讨论的是与他的 Memex 的使用和影响有关的那些内容。他在文中长篇描述的关联过程的建立和使用为符号结构的新能力提供了一个很好的例子,这种新能力源自新的工具和过程的能力,并提供了新的方式来发展和描述概念结构。任何文件都是一种符号结构,其目的是以最大化的形式呈现各种概念和概念结构,以满足人类思维结构发展的需求,但同时也受制于工具和人类共同执行符号结构操作过程的能力。 存储器允许人类用户更方便地(耗费较少的精力,更快地)完成他原本可以用相对普通的摄影设备和文件系统完成的工作,但他必须花费大量时间进行底层操作,以至于他的记忆和耐心的时间常数会使这个系统在布什所描述的细节和亲密的意义上变得无法使用。3a6a

The Memex adds a factor of speed and convenience to ordinary filing-system (symbol-structuring) processes that would encourage new methods of work by the user, and it also adds speed and convenience for processes not generally used before. Making it easy to establish and follow the associative trails makes practical a new symbol-structuring process whose use can make a significant difference in the concept structuring and bssic methods of work. It is also probable that clever usage of associative-trail manipulation can augment the human's process structuring and executing capabilities so that he could successfully make use of even more powerful symbol-structure manipulation processes utilizing the Memex capabilities. An example of this general sort of thing was given by Bush where he points out that the file index can be called to view at the push of a button, which implicitly provides greater capability to work within more sophisticated and complex indexing systems
Memex 为用户提供了更快捷和方便的文件系统(符号结构化)处理方式,鼓励用户采用新的工作方法,同时也为以前很少使用的过程增加了速度和便利。使建立和跟踪关联路径变得容易,使一种新的符号结构化过程变得实用,这种过程的使用可以对概念结构和基本工作方法产生重大影响。巧妙利用关联路径操作也可能增强人类的过程结构和执行能力,使他能够成功利用更强大的符号结构操作过程,利用 Memex 的功能。布什举了一个这种情况的例子,指出文件索引可以通过按下按钮来查看,这暗示了在更复杂和复杂的索引系统中工作的更大能力。3a6b

Note, too, the implications extending from Bush's mention of one user duplicating a trail (a portion of his structure) and giving it to a friend who can put it into his Memex and integrate it into his own trail (structure). Also note the "wholly new forms of encyclopedia", the profession of "trail blazers," and the inheritance from a master including "the entire scaffolding" by which such additions to the world's record were erected. These illustrate the types of changes in the ways in which people can cooperate intellectually that can emerge from the augmentation of the individuals. This type of change represents a very significant part of the potential value in pursuing research directly on the means for making individuals intellectually more effective.
请注意,布什提到一个用户复制一个轨迹(他结构的一部分)并将其给予一个朋友,后者可以将其放入自己的 Memex 并将其整合到自己的轨迹(结构)中的含义。还要注意"全新形式的百科全书"、"开拓者"职业以及从大师那里继承"整个脚手架"的做法,这些都是人们在智力合作方式上可能出现的变化。这种变化代表了直接研究提高个人智力效率手段的潜在价值的一个非常重要的部分。3a6c

A number of useful new structuring processes can be made available to an individual through development and use of relatively simple equipment that is mostly electromechanical in nature and relatively cheap. We can begin developing examples of this by describing the hand operated, edge-notched card system that I developed and used over the past eight years.
通过开发和使用主要是电机械性质且相对便宜的简单设备,可以为个人提供许多有用的新结构过程。我们可以通过描述我在过去八年中开发和使用的手动缺口卡片系统来开始开发这方面的示例。3a7a

a. An Existing Note and File System
a. 现有的笔记和文件系统3a7b

b. Comments on the System
b. 对系统的评论3a7c

c. Associative-Linking Possibilities
c. 联想-链接的可能性3a7d

d. An Experiment Illustrating Usage and Further System Possibilities
一个说明使用情况和进一步系统可能性的实验3a7e

This section may be of value both to readers who are already familiar with computers, and to those who are not. A little familiarity with computer technology, enough to help considerably in understanding the augmentation possibilities discussed in this report, can be gained by the uninitiated. For those already familiar with the technology, the following discussion can perhaps help them gain more understanding of our concepts of process and symbol structuring.
这一部分对于已经熟悉计算机的读者和未熟悉的读者都可能有价值。对于没有接触过计算机技术的人来说,通过这部分内容也可以对本报告中讨论的增强功能有基本的了解。对于已经熟悉这项技术的人来说,以下讨论也许可以帮助他们更好地理解我们对过程和符号结构的概念。3a8a

A computer is directly capable of performing any of a basic repertoire of very primitive symbol-manipulation processes (such as "move the symbol in location A to location 12417," or "compare the symbol in location A with that in location B, and if they are the same, set switch S to ON"). There may be from ten to over a hundred different primitive processes which a particular machine can execute, and all of the computer's more sophisticated processes are structured from these primitive processes. It takes a repertoire of surprisingly few such primitive processes to enable the construction of any symbol-manipulation process that can be explicitly described in any language.
计算机直接能够执行一系列基本的符号操作过程(如"将位置 A 的符号移动到位置 12417"或"比较位置 A 和位置 B 的符号,如果相同则将开关 S 设置为开")。一台特定的机器可以执行 10 到 100 多种不同的基本过程,而所有更复杂的过程都是由这些基本过程构建而成。只需少量这样的基本过程就可以构建出任何可以用任何语言明确描述的符号操作过程。3a8b

Somewhat the same situation exists relative to symbol structures i.e., there are only a very few primitive symbols with which the machine can actually work, and any new and different symbol has to be defined to the machine as a particular structure (or organization) of its primitive symbols. Actually, in every commercial digital computer, there are only two primitive symbols. Usually these are dealt with in standard-sized packets (called "words") of from eighteen to forty-eight primitive symbols, but arbitrary use can be made of individual primitives or of subgroups of the word.
类似的情况也存在于符号结构方面,即机器只能实际处理很少的基本符号,任何新的不同符号都必须被定义为其基本符号的特定结构(或组织)。实际上,在每台商用数字计算机上,只有两种基本符号。通常这些符号以标准大小的数据包(称为"字")的形式处理,每个"字"包含 18 到 48 个基本符号,但也可以单独使用个别基本符号或"字"的子组。3a8c

To have the computer perform a non-trivial task or process, a structure of the primitive processes is organized (a computer program) and stored within the computer as a corresponding symbol structure. The computer successively examines the symbol substructure representing each primitive process in the program and executes that process—which usually alters the total internal symbol structure of the machine in some way. Lt makes no difference to the computer whether the symbols involved in the re-structuring represent part of the computer program or part of the information upon which the program is operating. The ability to have the computer modify its own process structure (program) has been a very important factor in the development of its power.
要让计算机执行一个非平凡的任务或过程,需要组织一个基本过程的结构(一个计算机程序),并将其存储在计算机中,作为相应的符号结构。计算机会连续检查程序中代表每个基本过程的符号子结构,并执行该过程 - 这通常会以某种方式改变机器的总内部符号结构。对计算机来说,涉及到重构的符号是计算机程序的一部分还是程序操作的信息的一部分并没有区别。让计算机修改自己的过程结构(程序)的能力,是它发展能力的一个非常重要的因素。3a8d

Thus, some very sophisticated techniques for process and symbol structuring have evolved in the computer field, as evidenced by the very sophisticated processes (e.g., predicting election returns, calculating orbits, translating natural languages) that can be structured to manipulate very complex structures of symbols. Among the more interesting computer-process structures that have evolved are those that can automatically develop a structure of primitive computer processes to accomplish symbol manipulation tasks that are specified on a relatively high level of abstraction. Special languages have been evolved in several fields (e.g., ALGOL and FORTRAN for scientific calculations, COBOL for business processing) that enable explicit prescription of complex manipulation processes in a rapid and concise manner by a human, thinking about the processes in a rather natural manner, so that special computer programs or process structures (called Translators, Compilers, or sometimes in a slightly different sense, Interpreters) can construct the necessary structures of primitive processes and symbols that would enable the computer to execute the prescribed processes. This development has extended immensely our capability for making use of computers—otherwise the specification of a complex process would often occupy a formidable number of man hours, and be subject to a great many errors which would be very costly to find and correct.
因此,计算机领域已经发展出了一些非常复杂的过程和符号结构技术,这可以从一些非常复杂的过程(如预测选举结果、计算轨道、翻译自然语言)中看出,这些过程可以被构造为操纵非常复杂的符号结构。在已经发展出的更有趣的计算机过程结构中,有一些可以自动开发原始计算机过程的结构,以完成在相对较高抽象水平上指定的符号操作任务。在几个领域(如科学计算的ALGOL和FORTRAN,商业处理的COBOL)已经发展出了特殊的语言,使人类能够以相当自然的方式思考过程,快速简洁地明确规定复杂的操作过程,从而使特殊的计算机程序或过程结构(称为翻译器、编译器,或在稍有不同的意义上称为解释器)能够构建原始过程和符号的必要结构,使计算机能够执行规定的过程。 这一发展极大地扩展了我们使用计算机的能力 - 否则复杂过程的规格说明通常需要消耗大量的人工时间,而且会出现很多需要耗费大量成本来发现和纠正的错误。3a8e

Computers have been used to simulate dynamic systems for which we humans had none but descriptive models, from which we otherwise could gain little feel for the way the system behaves. A very notable instance of this, for our consideration, has been in the area of the human thought processes. Newell, Shaw, and Simon initiated this approach) from which there has derived a number of features of interest to us. For one, they discovered that the symbol structures and the process structures required for such simulation became exceedingly complex, and the burden of organizing these was a terrific impediment to their simulation research. They devised a structuring technique for their symbols that is basically simple but from which stem results that are very elegant. Their basic symbol structure is what they call a 'list," a string of substructures that are linked serially in exactly the manner proposed by Bush for the associative trails in his Memex—i.e., each substructure contains the necessary information for locating the next substructure on the list. Here, though, each substructure could also be a list of substructures, and each of these could also, etc. Their standard manner for organizing the data which the computer was to operate upon is thus what they term "list structuring."
计算机已被用于模拟我们人类没有描述性模型的动态系统,否则我们很难了解系统的行为方式。这方面一个非常值得注意的例子是人类思维过程。纽维尔、肖和西蒙启动了这种方法,从中衍生出许多对我们有兴趣的特征。其中之一是,他们发现用于此类模拟的符号结构和过程结构变得极其复杂,组织这些结构是他们模拟研究中的一大障碍。他们为符号设计了一种基本简单但产生非常优雅结果的结构技术。他们的基本符号结构被称为"列表",是一串按照布什为他的 Memex 联想线索提出的方式串联起来的子结构。也就是说,每个子结构都包含定位列表下一个子结构所需的必要信息。不过,这里每个子结构也可以是一个子结构列表,每个子结构列表也可以如此,依此类推。 他们将计算机要处理的数据组织的标准方式就是他们所谓的"列表结构"。"3a8f

They also developed special languages to describe different basic processes involved in list-structure manipulation. The most widely used of their languages, IPL-V (the fifth version of their Information Processing Languages), is described in a recent book edited by Newell^[7]. In these languages, both the data to be worked upon and the symbols which designate the processes to be executed upon that data are developed in list-structure form.
他们还开发了特殊的语言来描述列表结构操作中涉及的不同基本过程。他们语言中使用最广泛的是 IPL-V(他们信息处理语言的第五版),这在由 Newell 编辑的最近一本书中有描述。在这些语言中,要处理的数据和指定要执行的过程的符号都以列表结构的形式开发。3a8g

Other languages and techniques for the manipulation of list structures have been described by McCarthy,^[8] by Gelernter, Hansen, and Gerberich,^[9] by Yngve,^{[10, 11]} by Perlis and Thornton,^[12] by Carr,^[13] and by Weizenbaum.^[14] The application of these techniques has been mainly of two types—one of modelling complex processes and systems (e.g., the human thought processes), where the emphasis is upon the model and its behavior, and the other of trying to get computer behavior that is intelligent whether or not the processes and behavior resemble those of a human. The languages and techniques used in both types of application promise to be of considerable value to the development of radical new augmentation systems for human problem solvers, and we shall deal later with them in more detail.
其他语言和操作列表结构的技术已由麦卡锡、 ^[8] 格兰纳、汉森和格贝里奇、 ^[9] 英格韦、 ^{[10, 11]} 帕利斯和索恩顿、 ^[12] 卡尔、 ^[13] 以及韦森鲍姆描述。 ^[14] 这些技术的应用主要有两种类型——一种是对复杂过程和系统(如人类思维过程)进行建模,其重点是模型及其行为;另一种是试图获得智能的计算机行为,不论这些过程和行为是否类似于人类。在这两种应用中使用的语言和技术都可能对开发人类问题解决者的全新增强系统的发展产生重大价值,我们将在后面更详细地处理这些。3a8h

Computers have various means for storing symbols so that they are accessible to it for manipulation. Assuming that the human might want to have a repertoire of sixty-four basic symbols (letters, numbers, special symbols), we can discuss various forms of storage in terms of their capacity for storing these kinds of symbols (each of which would be structured, in the computer and storage devices, as a group of six primitive computer symbols). Fast access to an arbitrary choice of a few neighboring symbols (of the human's repertoire) can be had to perhaps 100,000 such symbols within the period in which the computer can execute one of its primitive processes (from two to ten millionths of a second, depending upon the computer involved). This is the so-called high-speed, random-access working store, where space for the human's symbols might cost between sixty cents and $1.50 per symbol.
计算机有各种各样的方式来存储符号,以便它可以操作这些符号。假设人类可能想要有 64 个基本符号(字母、数字、特殊符号)的库存,我们可以讨论各种形式的存储,以其存储这些类型符号的容量(每个符号在计算机和存储设备中都被构造为 6 个原始计算机符号的组)。可以在计算机执行其一个原始过程(取决于所涉及的计算机,从 2 到 10 百万分之一秒)的时间内,快速访问人类库存中任意选择的几个相邻符号(大约 10 万个)。这就是所谓的高速随机访问工作存储器,在这里人类符号的空间可能需要 60 美分到 1.50 美元之间。3a8i

Cheaper, larger-capacity backup storage is usually provided by devices to which access takes considerably longer (in the computer's time reference). A continuously rotating magnetic drum can hold perhaps a million of these symbols, for which access to a random storage position may average a thirtieth of a second (waiting for the drum to come around to bring that storage position under the magnetic reading head). This is short in the human's time scale, but a reasonably fast computer could execute about 3,000 of its primitive processes during that time. Generally, information transfer between a drum and fast-access working storage takes place in blocks of data which are stored in successive positions around the drum. Such block-transfer is accomplished by a relatively small structure of primitive computer processes that cyclically executes the transfer of one word at a time until the designated block has been transferred. Drum storage costs about 5 cents per each of the basic symbols used by the human in our example.
通常,更便宜、更大容量的备份存储设备 access 所需时间会大大更长(以计算机的时间参考)。一个持续旋转的磁鼓可以存储大约一百万个这种符号,对其中任意一个存储位置的随机访问平均需要三十秒(等待磁鼓转到将该存储位置带到磁头下)。虽然就人类的时间尺度而言很短,但是一台相当快的计算机在这段时间内就可以完成大约 3,000 个基本处理。通常,在鼓和快速访问工作存储器之间转移信息是以数据块为单位进行的,这些数据块存储在鼓上的连续位置。这种块传输是通过一个相对较小的基本计算机过程结构来完成的,它循环执行一次一个字的传输,直到指定的块被全部传输。鼓存储的成本大约是人类在我们示例中使用的基本符号的 5 美分每个。3a8j

Another type of backup storage uses a number of large, thin discs (about three feet in diameter), with magnetic coating on the surfaces. The discs are stacked with enough space between each so that a moveable read-record head can be positioned radially to line up over a specific circular track of symbol storage space. A commercially available disc storage system could hold over a hundred million of the human's basic symbols, to which random access would average about a tenth of a second, and where the cost per symbol-space would be about one seventh of a cent.
另一种备份存储使用多个大型薄盘(直径约3英尺),表面涂有磁性涂层。这些盘片堆叠在彼此之间留有足够的空间,使得可移动的读写头能够沿径向定位到特定的环形存储轨道。商业化的盘片存储系统可以存储超过一亿个人类基本符号,随机访问平均时间约为0.1秒,每个符号空间的成本约为0.01美分。3a8k

Magnetic tapes are commonly used for backup storage, too. For these, the random access time for storage blocks are of the order of a minute or two. Here, however, the actual storage units (the tape reels) can be taken off and shelf stored, so the total storage capacity may be very large—however, the time to locate a reel and exchange reels on the tape transport adds to the above-quoted access time—and this locating and reel changing are not generally automatic processes (i.e., a human has to do them). A transport unit, connected to the computer, might cost $30,000, with tape reels at $50 each holding about five million of the human's basic symbols. For one reel, storage space for each such symbol cost about two-thirds of a cent, but for twenty full reels in a "library" the cost comes down to about one-thirtieth of a cent per symbol space.
磁带通常也用于备份存储。对于这些磁带,存储块的随机访问时间通常为 1 到 2 分钟。但是,实际的存储单元(卷轴)可以取下来并存放在架上,因此总存储容量可能非常大。不过,找到一个卷轴并在磁带传输装置上更换卷轴会增加上述访问时间,而这些定位和卷轴更换通常不是自动进行的(即需要人工执行)。连接到计算机的传输装置可能需要 3 万美元,而每个存储约 500 万个人类基本符号的磁带卷轴要 50 美元。对于一个卷轴,每个符号的存储空间成本约为三分之二美分,但对于"库"中 20 个满卷,每个符号空间的成本下降到约三十分之一美分。3a8l

Other types of buffer storage for computer symbol structures are becoming available, and there is considerable economic demand spurring continuing research toward storage means that give high capacity at low cost, and with as short an access time as possible. Within the next ten years there would seem to be a very high probability of significant advances to this end.
其他类型的计算机符号结构缓存存储正在变得可用,并且存在相当大的经济需求,促进着持续的研究,这些研究的目标是提供高容量、低成本且访问时间尽可能短的存储手段。在未来十年内,在此方面取得重大进展的可能性似乎非常高。3a8m

For presenting computer-stored information to the human, techniques have been developed by which a cathode-ray-tube (of which the television picture tube is a familiar example) can be made to present symbols on their screens of quite good brightness, clarity, and with considerable freedom as to the form of the symbol. Under computer control an arbitrary collection of symbols may be arranged on the screen, with considerable freedom as to relative location, size, and brightness. Similarly, line drawings, curves, and graphs may be presented, with any of the other symbols intermixed. It is possible to describe to the computer, and thereafter use, new symbols of arbitrary shape and size. On displays of this sort, a light pen (a pen-shaped tool with a flexible wire to the electronic console) can be pointed by the human at any symbol or line on the display, and the computer can automatically determine what the pen is pointing at.
为向人类呈现计算机存储的信息,已经开发出了一些技术,通过这些技术,阴极射线管(电视图像管就是一个常见的例子)可以在屏幕上以相当好的亮度、清晰度和相当大的形式自由呈现符号。在计算机的控制下,可以在屏幕上排列任意集合的符号,具有相当大的相对位置、大小和亮度的自由。同样,也可以呈现线条、曲线和图表,并可以与其他任何符号交织在一起。可以向计算机描述并随后使用任意形状和大小的新符号。在这种显示器上,人类可以用一支带有柔性电线连接到电子控制台的笔形工具(光笔)指向显示屏上的任何符号或线条,计算机可以自动确定笔指向的是什么。3a8n

A cathode-ray-tube display of this sort is currently limited in resolution to about 800 lines across the face of the tube (in either direction). The detail with which a symbol may be formed, and the preciseness with which the recurrent images of it may be located, are both affected by this figure so that no matter how large the screen of such a tube, the maximum number of symbols that can be put on with usable clearness remains the same.
这种阴极射线管显示器目前在管面上的分辨率仅限于约 800 条线(无论是哪个方向)。符号的形成细节以及其重复图像的定位精度都受到这一数字的影响,因此无论这种管的屏幕有多大,能够清晰显示的符号数量都是相同的。3a8o

The amount of usable information on such a screen, in the form of letters, numbers, and diagrams, would be limited to about what a normal human eye could make out at the normal reading distance of fourteen inches on a surface 3-1/2 inches square, or to what one could discern on an ordinary 8-1/2-by-11-inch sheet of paper at about three feet. This means that one could not have a single-tube display giving him an 8-1/2-by-11-inch frame to view that would have as much on it as he might be used to seeing, say on the page of a journal article.
这种屏幕上可用的信息量,以字母、数字和图表的形式,将限制在正常人眼在 14 英寸的正常阅读距离上能够辨认的 3-1/2 英寸正方形表面上,或在大约 3 英尺处能够辨认的 8-1/2 英寸 x11 英寸普通纸张上的内容。这意味着单管显示器无法提供 8-1/2 英寸 x11 英寸的视窗,其内容能够达到人们习惯在期刊文章页面上看到的程度。3a8p

The costs of such displays are now quite high—ranging from $20,000 to $60,000, depending upon the symbol repertoire, symbol-structure display capacity, and the quality of the symbol forms. One should expect these prices to be lowered quite drastically as our technology improves and the market for these displays increases.
这种显示器的成本现在相当高,从 2 万美元到 6 万美元不等,这取决于符号库、符号结构显示容量和符号形式的质量。随着我们的技术进步以及这些显示器市场的增长,我们可以期望这些价格会大幅下降。3a8q

Much cheaper devices can "draw" arbitrary symbol shapes and diagrams on paper, at a speed for symbols that is perhaps a quarter of the rate that a typewriter can produce them. Also, special typewriters (at $3,000 to $4,000 apiece) can type out information on a sheet of paper, as well as allow the human to send information to the computer via the keyboard. But these two types of devices do not allow fast and flexible rearrangement of the symbols being displayed, which proves to be an important drawback in our current view of future possibilities for augmentation.
普通得多的设备可以在纸上"绘制"任意符号形状和图表,其绘制符号的速度可能是打字机生产速度的四分之一。此外,特殊的打字机(每台 3,000 美元至 4,000 美元)可以在纸张上打出信息,并允许人类通过键盘向计算机发送信息。但这两种设备都不允许快速和灵活地重新排列显示的符号,这被证明是我们当前对未来增强可能性看法的一个重要缺点。3a8r

For communicating to the computer, considerable freedom exists in arranging pushbuttons, switches, and keysets for use by the human. The "interpretation" or response to be made by the computer to the actuation of any button, switch, or key (or to any combination thereof) can be established in any manner that is describable as a structure of primitive computer processes—which means essentially any manner that is explicitly describable. The limitation on the flexibility and power of any explicit "shorthand" system with which the human may wish to utilize these input devices is the human's ability to learn and to use them.
对于与计算机进行通信,在安排供人类使用的按钮、开关和键盘组合时,存在相当大的自由度。计算机对任何按钮、开关或键(或它们的任何组合)的"解释"或响应,可以以任何可以描述为基本计算机过程结构的方式建立——这基本上意味着任何可以明确描述的方式。人类使用这些输入设备的灵活性和功能的局限性,在于人类学习和使用它们的能力。3a8s

There are also computer-input devices that can sense enough data from handwriting to allow a computer to recognize a limited number of handwritten symbols—both as they are being written and afterwards. Means for recognizing typescript are rather well developed and are already being designed into some large documentation and language translation systems. Also, a little progress has been made toward developing equipment that can recognize a limited spoken vocabulary. There is considerable economic pressure toward developing useful and cheap devices of this type, and we can expect relatively sophisticated capabilities to become available within the next ten years. Such equipment may play an important role in the individual-augmentation systems of the future (but our feeling is that a very powerful augmentation system can be developed without them).
也有一些计算机输入设备可以从手写中感知足够的数据,允许计算机识别有限数量的手写符号,无论是在书写时还是之后。识别打字稿的方法已经相当成熟,并已被设计到一些大型文档和语言翻译系统中。此外,在开发可识别有限口语词汇的设备方面也取得了一些进展。开发这类有用且廉价的设备存在很大的经济压力,我们可以预期在未来10年内会出现相对复杂的功能。这种设备可能在未来的个人增强系统中发挥重要作用(但我们认为,可以在没有它们的情况下开发出非常强大的增强系统)。3a8t

An important type of development for our consideration of providing individual humans with close-coupled computer services is what is known as time sharing. Suppose a number of individual users connect to the same computer. The computer can be programmed to serve them under any of a wide variety of rules. One such could be similar to the way the telephone system gives you attention and service when you ask for it—i.e., if too many other demands are not being made for service at that time, you get instant attention; otherwise, you wait until some service capacity is free to attend to you.
我们在考虑为个人提供紧密耦合的计算机服务时,一种重要的发展类型就是所谓的时间共享。假设有多个个人用户连接到同一台计算机。计算机可以根据各种各样的规则来为他们提供服务。其中一种可能类似于电话系统的工作方式,即当你需要服务时,它会立即为你提供服务;否则,你需要等待直到有可用的服务能力来为你服务。3a8u

Our view of the interaction of human and computer in the future augmented system sees a large number of relatively simple processes (human scale of large and simple) being performed by the computer for the human—processes which often will require only a few thousandths of a second of actual computer manipulation. Such a fast and agile helper as a computer can run around between a number of masters and seldom keep any of them waiting (at least, not long enough that they would notice it or be inconvenienced appreciably). Occasionally, of course, much larger periods of computer time will be needed by an individual, and then the other users might get their periodic milliseconds of service slipped in during these longer processes.
我们对未来增强系统中人机交互的看法认为,计算机将为人类执行大量相对简单的过程(人类规模的大且简单),这些过程通常只需要几毫秒的实际计算机操作时间。这种快速灵活的计算机助手可以在多个主人之间奔走,很少让任何一个主人等待(至少不会等到他们注意到或感到明显不便)。当然,有时个人也会需要更长的计算机处理时间,此时其他用户可能会在这些较长的过程中获得一些分散的毫秒级服务。3a8v

When we began our search, we found a great deal of literature which put forth thought and work of general significance to our objective—frankly, too much. Without having a conceptual framework, we could not efficiently filter out the significant kernels of fact and concept from the huge mass which we initially collected as a "natural first step" in our search. We feel rather unscholarly not to buttress our conceptual framework with plentiful reference to supporting work, but in truth it was too difficult to do. Developing the conceptual structure represented a sweeping synthesis job full of personal constructs from smatterings picked up in many places. Under these conditions, giving reference to a backup source would usually entail qualifying footnotes reflecting an unusual interpretation or exonerating the other author from the implications we derived from his work. We look forward to a stronger, more comprehensive, and more scholarly presentation evolving out of future work.
当我们开始搜索时,我们发现了大量具有普遍意义的文献和工作 - 坦率地说,太多了。没有概念框架,我们无法有效地从最初收集的大量信息中过滤出重要的事实和概念。我们感到不太学术,没有用大量的参考文献来支撑我们的概念框架,但事实上这太难做了。开发概念结构代表了一项全面的综合工作,充满了从许多地方收集的零碎个人构造。在这种情况下,引用支持性来源通常需要附带解释性脚注,以反映不寻常的解释或为其他作者免除我们从他们的工作中得出的含义。我们期待未来工作中出现更强大、更全面和更学术的呈现。3a9a

However, we do want to acknowledge thoughts and work we have come across that bear most directly upon the possibilities of using a computer in real-time working association with a human to improve his working effectiveness. These fall into two categories. The first category, which would include this report, presents speculations and possibilities but does not include reporting of significant experimental results. Of these, Bush^[6] is the earliest and one of the most directly stimulating. Licklider^[15] provided the most general clear case for the modern computer, and coined the expression, "man-computer symbiosis" to refer to the close interaction relationship between the man and computer in mutually beneficial cooperation. Ulam^[16] has specifically recommended close man-computer interaction in a chapter entitled, "synergesis," where he points out in considerable detail the types of mathematical work which could be aided. Good^[17] includes some conjecture about possibilities of intellectual aid to the human by close cooperation with a computer in a rather general way, and also presents a few interesting thoughts about a network model for structuring the conceptual kernels of information to facilitate a sort of self-organizing retrieval system. Ramo has given a number of talks dealing with the future possibilities of computers for "extending man's intellect," and wrote several articles.^{[18, 19]} His projections seem slanted more toward larger bodies of humans interacting with computers, in less of an intimate personal sense than the above papers or than our initial goal. Fein^[20] in making a comprehensive projection of the growth and dynamic inter-relatedness of "computer-related sciences," includes specific mention of the enhancement of human intellect by cooperative activity of men, mechanisms, and automata. He coined the term "synnoetics" as applicable generally to the cooperative interaction of people, mechanisms, plant or animal organisms, and automata into a system whose mental power is greater than that of its components, and presented a good picture of the integrated way in which many currently separate disciplines should be developed and taught in the future to do justice to their mutual roles in the important metadiscipline defined as "synnoetics."
然而,我们确实想承认我们遇到的那些最直接涉及使用计算机实时与人类协作以提高工作效率可能性的思想和工作。它们可分为两类。第一类,其中包括本报告,提出了猜想和可能性,但没有报告重大的实验结果。在这些中,Bush ^[6] 最早且最直接启发性。Licklider ^[15] 提供了最广泛清晰的现代计算机论述,并创造了"人机共生"一词来指人机之间的密切互动关系。Ulam ^[16] 在一章"协同作用"中特别推荐了人机密切互动,在那里他详细指出了可以得到帮助的数学工作类型。 好的 ^[17] 包括对智力辅助人类的可能性进行一些笼统的猜测,同时也提出了一些关于结构化信息概念核心以促进自组织检索系统的有趣想法。拉莫就"拓展人类智力"的未来可能性发表过多次演讲,并撰写了几篇文章。 ^{[18, 19]} 他的预测更倾向于大量人类与计算机进行互动,而不是像上述论文或我们最初的目标那样的亲密个人意义。费因 ^[20] 在全面预测"计算机相关科学"的增长和动态相互关系时,特别提到了人类、机械和自动化装置协同活动增强人类智力的情况。 他创造了"综合学"这个术语,适用于人、机制、植物或动物有机体以及自动机之间的合作互动,形成一个智力功能高于其组成部分的系统。他还勾勒出了许多当前相互分离的学科在未来应该如何发展和教授,才能体现它们在被定义为"综合学"的重要超学科中的相互角色。" 3a9b

In the second category, there have been a few papers published recently describing actual work that bears directly upon our topic. Licklider and Clark,^[21] and Culler and Huff,^[22] in the 1962 Spring Joint Computer Conference, gave what are essentially progress reports of work going on now in exactly this sort of thing—a human with a computer backed display getting minute-by-minute help in solving problems. Teager^{[23, 24]} reports on the plans and current development of a large time-sharing system at MIT, which is planned to provide direct computer access for a number of outlying stations located in scientists' offices, giving each of these users a chance for real-time utilization of the computer.
在第二类当中,最近发表了一些论文,直接涉及我们的主题。Licklider 和 Clark， ^[21] 以及 Culler 和 Huff， ^[22] 在 1962 年春季联合计算机大会上发表了这种工作正在进行的进展报告——一个人与一台支持显示的计算机合作,每分每秒获得解决问题的帮助。Teager ^{[23, 24]} 报告了麻省理工学院一个大型时间共享系统的计划和当前开发情况,该系统计划为位于科学家办公室的若干远程站点提供直接的计算机访问,让每个用户都有实时利用计算机的机会。3a9c

There are several efforts that we have heard about, but for which there are either no publications or for which none have been discovered by us. Mr. Douglas Ross, of the Electronic Systems Laboratory at MIT has, we learned by direct conversation, been thinking and working on real-time man-machine interaction problems for some years. We have recently learned that a graduate student at MIT, Glenn Randa,^[25] has developed the design of a remote display console under Ross for his graduate thesis project. We understand that another graduate student there, Ivan Sutherland, is currently using the display-computer facility on the TX-2 computer at Lincoln Lab to develop cooperative techniques for engineering-design problems. And at RAND, we have learned by personal discussion that Cliff Shaw, Tom Ellis, and Keith Uncapher have been involved in implementing a multi-station time-sharing system built around their JOHNNIAC computer. Termed the JOHNNIAC Open-Shop System (JOSS for short), it apparently is near completion, and will use remote typewriter stations.
我们听说有几项努力,但要么没有发表任何出版物,要么我们没有发现任何出版物。我们通过直接交谈了解到,麻省理工学院电子系统实验室的道格拉斯·罗斯先生已经多年在思考和研究实时人机交互问题。我们最近了解到,麻省理工学院的一名研究生格伦·兰达在罗斯的指导下,为他的研究生论文项目开发了远程显示控制台的设计。我们了解到,该校另一名研究生伊万·萨瑟兰德目前正在林肯实验室的 TX-2 计算机上使用显示-计算机设施,开发用于工程设计问题的协作技术。而在兰德公司,我们通过个人讨论了解到,克利夫·肖、汤姆·埃利斯和基思·安卡弗一直参与实施以他们的 JOHNNIAC 计算机为中心的多站时分共享系统。这个被称为 JOHNNIAC 开放式系统(简称 JOSS)的系统似乎即将完成,将使用远程打字机站点。3a9d

Undoubtedly, there are efforts of others falling into either or both categories that have been overlooked. Such oversight has not been intentional, and it is hoped that these researchers will make their pertinent work known to us.
毫无疑问,其他人的努力也可能落入这两个类别中的任何一个或两个,但被忽略了。这种疏忽并非有意为之,希望这些研究人员能让我们了解他们相关的工作。3a9e

To try to give you (the reader) a specific sort of feel for our thesis in spite of this situation, we shall present the following picture of computer-based augmentation possibilities by describing what might happen if you were being given a personal discussion-demonstration by a friendly fellow (named Joe) who is a trained and experienced user of such an augmentation system within an experimental research program which is several years beyond our present stage. We assume that you approach this demonstration-interview with a background similar to what the previous portion of this report provides—that is, you will have heard or read a set of generalizations and a few rather primitive examples, but you will not yet have been given much of a feel for how a computer-based augmentation system can really help a person.
为了尽管在这种情况下给你(读者)一种特定的感觉,我们将通过描述如果你正在接受一位经验丰富的用户(名为乔)的个人讨论演示来呈现计算机辅助增强的可能性。我们假设你有类似于本报告前部分提供的背景 - 也就是说,你已经听说或读到了一些概括性的内容和一些相当原始的例子,但你还没有真正感受到计算机辅助增强系统如何真正帮助一个人。3b3a

Joe understands this and explains that he will do his best to give you the valid conceptual feel that you want—trying to tread the narrow line between being too detailed and losing your over-all view and being too general and not providing you with a solid feel for what goes on. He suggests that you sit and watch him for a while as he pursues some typical work, after which he will do some explaining. You are not particularly flattered by this, since you know that he is just going to be exercising new language and methodology developments on his new artifacts—and after all, the artifacts don't look a bit different from what you expected—so why should he keep you sitting there as if you were a complete stranger to this stuff? It will just be a matter of "having the computer do some of his symbol-manipulating processes for him so that he can use more powerful concepts and concept-manipulation techniques," as you have so often been told.
乔理解这一点,并解释说他将尽最大努力为您提供您想要的有效概念感 - 试图在过于详细而失去您的全面视角和过于一般而无法为您提供扎实的感受之间保持微妙平衡。他建议您坐下来观察他一段时间,当他进行一些典型工作时,之后他会做一些解释。你并不太受到这个的赞美,因为你知道他只是要在他的新工件上练习新的语言和方法论发展 - 而且,这些工件看起来与你期望的完全一样 - 所以他为什么要让你坐在那里,好像你对这些东西完全陌生呢?这只不过是"让计算机为他执行一些符号操作过程,这样他就可以使用更强大的概念和概念操作技术",正如你多次被告知的那样。3b3b

Joe has two display screens side by side, but one of them he doesn't seem to use as much as the other. And the screens are almost horizontal, more like the surface of a drafting table than the near-vertical picture displays you had somehow imagined. But you see the reason easily, for he is working on the display surface as intently as a draftsman works on his drawings, and it would be awkward to reach out to a vertical surface for this kind of work. Some of the time Joe is using both hands on the keys, obviously feeding information into the computer at a great rate.
乔有两个并排放置的显示屏,但其中一个似乎使用频率不如另一个。而且这些屏幕几乎水平放置,更像是一个制图台的表面,而不是你曾经想象中近乎垂直的图像显示屏。但你很容易看出原因,因为他正专注地在显示表面上工作,就像一位制图员在他的图纸上工作一样,对于这种工作来说,伸手触及垂直表面会很不方便。有时乔两只手都放在键盘上,显然正以极快的速度将信息输入计算机。3b3c

Another slight surprise, though—you see that each hand operates on a set of keys on its own side of the display frames, so that the hands are almost two feet apart. But it is plain that this arrangement allows him to remain positioned over the frames in a rather natural position, so that when he picks the light pen out of the air (which is its rest position, thanks to a system of jointed supporting arms and a controlled tension and rewind system for the attached cord) his hand is still on the way from the keyset to the display frame. When he is through with the pen at the display frame, he lets go of it, the cord rewinds, and the pen is again in position. There is thus a minimum of effort, movement, and time involved in turning to work on the frame. That is, he could easily shift back and forth from using keyset to using light pen, with either hand (one pen is positioned for each hand), without moving his head, turning, or leaning.
另一个小小的惊喜是,你可以看到每只手都操作显示框架一侧的一组键,因此双手距离接近两英尺。但很明显,这种安排使他能够保持一个相当自然的位置,置于框架之上,这样当他拾取空中的光笔(由于一系列的支撑臂和附带电线的受控张力和回卷系统,光笔处于静止状态)时,他的手仍在从键盘移向显示框架的过程中。当他在显示框架上使用完毕光笔时,他就释放它,电线会自动回卷,光笔再次就位。因此,在从使用键盘转向使用光笔时,所涉及的努力、动作和时间都很少。也就是说,他可以很轻松地在使用键盘和使用光笔之间来回切换(每只手都有一支笔),而无需移动头部、转身或倾斜身体。3b3d

A good deal of Joe's time, though, seems to be spent with one hand on a keyset and the other using a light pen on the display surface. It is in this type of working mode that the images on the display frames changed most dynamically. You receive another real surprise as you realize how much activity there is on the face of these display tubes. You ask yourself why you weren't prepared for this, and you are forced to admit that the generalizations you had heard hadn't really sunk in—"new methods for manipulating symbols" had been an oft-repeated term, but it just hadn't included for you the images of the free and rapid way in which Joe could make changes in the display, and of meaningful and flexible "shaping" of ideas and work status which could take place so rapidly.
乔的大部分时间似乎都花在一只手放在键盘上,另一只手在显示屏上使用光笔。在这种工作模式下,显示屏上的图像变化最为动态。当你意识到这些显示管上的活动有多么活跃时,你会感到另一种真正的惊讶。你问自己为什么没有做好准备,你不得不承认你听到的概括性描述并没有真正深入你的心中——"操纵符号的新方法"是一个经常重复的术语,但它并没有包括你对乔能够如何快速地改变显示内容,以及如何快速地对想法和工作状态进行有意义和灵活的"塑造"的形象。3b3e

Then you realized that you couldn't make any sense at all out of the specific things he was doing, nor of the major part of what you saw on the displays. You could recognize many words, but there were a good number that were obviously special abbreviations of some sort. During the times when a given image or portion of an image remained un changed long enough for you to study it a bit, you rarely saw anything that looked like a sentence as you were used to seeing one. You were beginning to gather that there were other symbols mixed with the words that might be part of a sentence, and that the different parts of what made a full-thought statement (your feeling about what a sentence is) were not just laid out end to end as you expected. But Joe suddenly cleared the displays and turned to you with a grin that signalled the end of the passive observation period, and also that somehow told you that he knew very well that you now knew that you had needed such a period to shake out some of your limited images and to really realize that a "capability hierarchy" was a rich and vital thing.
然后你意识到你根本无法理解他正在做的具体事情,也无法理解你在显示器上看到的大部分内容。你能认出许多单词,但有很多明显是某种特殊缩写。在给定的图像或图像的一部分长时间保持不变,让你有机会仔细研究时,你很少看到像你习惯看到的那样的句子。你开始意识到,除了单词之外,还有其他符号可能是句子的一部分,而构成完整思想陈述的不同部分(你对什么是句子的感受)并不像你预期的那样简单地排列在一起。但是乔突然清除了显示器,转过身来对你咧嘴一笑,这表示被动观察期结束了,同时也告诉你,他很清楚你现在知道,你需要这样一个期间来消除你有限的印象,真正意识到"能力层次"是一个丰富而又至关重要的东西。3b3f

"I guess you noticed that I was using unfamiliar notions, symbols, and processes to go about doing things that were even more unfamiliar to you?" You made a non-committal nod—you saw no reason to admit to him that you hadn't even been able to tell which of the things he had been doing were to cooperate with which other things—and he continued. "To give you a feel for what goes on, I'm going to start discussing and demonstrating some of the very basic operations and notions I've been using. You've read the stuff about process and process-capability hierarchies, I'm sure. I know from past experience in explaining radical augmentation systems to people that the new and powerful higher-level capabilities that they are interested in—because basically those are what we are all anxious to improve—can't really be explained to them without first giving them some understanding of the new and powerful capabilities upon which they are built. This holds true right on down the line to the type of low-level capability that is new and different to them all right, but that they just wouldn't ordinarily see as being 'powerful.' And yet our systems wouldn't be anywhere near as powerful without them, and a person's comprehension of the system would be rather shallow if he didn't have some understanding of these basic capabilities and of the hierarchical structure built up from them to provide the highest-level capabilities."
我猜你注意到我使用了一些你不熟悉的概念、符号和过程来完成一些对你来说更加陌生的事情?你点了点头,没有表态——你没有理由承认你甚至无法分辨他正在做的事情是为了配合哪些其他事情,他继续说道:"为了让你感受一下正在发生的事情,我将开始讨论和演示我一直在使用的一些基本操作和概念。我相信你已经读过关于过程和过程能力层次的内容了。从过去向人们解释激进增强系统的经验来看,人们对那些新的和强大的高级能力感兴趣——因为基本上这些就是我们所有人都渴望改善的——但在给他们一些对这些新的和强大的基础能力的理解之前,是无法真正向他们解释这些的。这一点在整个过程中都是成立的,即使是那些对他们来说新颖不同的低级能力,他们通常也不会认为它们是"强大的"。然而,如果没有它们,我们的系统也不会如此强大,如果一个人没有对这些基本功能以及由此构建的分层结构有一些了解,他对系统的理解也会相当肤浅。"3b3g

"For explanation purposes here, let's say that the lowest level at which the computer system comes into direct play in my capability hierarchy is in the task of what I'll call 'single-frame composition.' We'll stick to working with prose text in our examples—most people can grasp easily enough what we are doing there without having to have special backgrounds in mathematics or science as they would to gain equal comprehension for some of the similar sorts of things we do with diagrams and mathematical equations. This low-level composition task is just what you normally do with a pen or pencil or typewriter on a piece of paper—that is, assemble a bunch of symbols before your eyes in order to portray something which you have in mind."
为了解释目的,让我们假设计算机系统在我的能力层次中直接参与的最低层次是我所谓的'单帧组合'任务。我们将在示例中坚持使用散文文本 - 大多数人都可以很容易地理解我们在那里所做的事情,而不需要具备数学或科学的特殊背景,就像他们需要对我们使用图表和数学方程式的类似事物有同等的理解一样。这种低级组合任务就是你通常用笔或铅笔或打字机在纸上做的事情 - 也就是说,在你眼前组装一堆符号,以表达你心中所想的东西。3b4a

You listened and watched as Joe showed you some of the different ways in which the composition of straightforward text was made easier for him in this system. With either hand, Joe could "type" (the keysets didn't look at all like typewriter keyboards) individual letters and numbers, and if he had directed it to do so, the computer would put each successive symbol next to its predecessor just as a typewriter does—only here there was completely automatic "carriage return" service. This didn't impress you very much, since an automatic carriage-return feature was sort of a trivial return on the investment behind all of this equipment—but then you reflected that, as long as the computer was there anyway, to help do all the flashy things you had witnessed earlier, one might as well use it in all of the little helpful ways he could.
你听着并观看着乔向你展示了在这个系统中使直接文本的组成变得更容易的不同方式。无论是哪只手,乔都可以"打字"(键盘看起来一点也不像打字机键盘),输入个别字母和数字,如果他指示它这样做,电脑就会像打字机一样将每个连续的符号放在它的前一个符号旁边 - 只是这里有完全自动的"回车"服务。这并没有给你留下深刻印象,因为自动回车功能是这些设备背后投资的一种微不足道的回报 - 但是你反过来想,既然电脑已经在那里了,为什么不利用它来完成你之前目睹的那些花哨的事情呢,同时也利用它的各种小帮助呢。3b4b

But there were other ways in which help was derived for this composition task. He showed you how he could call up the dictionary definition to any word he had typed in, with but a few quick flicks on the keyset. Synonyms or antonyms could just as easily be brought forth. This also seemed sort of trivially obvious, and Joe seemed to know that you would feel so. "It turns out that this simple capability makes it feasible to do some pretty rough tasks in the upper levels of the capability hierarchy—where precise use of special terms really pays off, where the human just couldn't be that precise by depending upon his unaided memory for definitions and 'standards,' and where using dictionary and reference-book lookup in the normal fashion would be so distracting and time-consuming that the task execution would break down. We've tried taking this feature away in some of these processes up there, and believe me, the result was a mess.
但是还有其他方式可以为这个作曲任务提供帮助。他向你展示了如何只需在键盘上快速点击几下就可以调出任何已输入单词的字典定义。同义词或反义词也可以轻松调出。这似乎也很简单,而且乔似乎知道你会这样认为。"事实证明,这种简单的功能使得在能力层次的上层执行一些相当粗糙的任务变得可行——在这里精确使用专业术语确实很有价值,人类凭借自己的记忆无法如此精确地定义和"标准",而在正常情况下使用字典和参考书查找会如此分散注意力和耗费时间,以至于任务执行会崩溃。我们曾经在某些上层过程中去掉了这个功能,相信我,结果是一团糟。3b4c

You could get some dim feeling for what he meant, having watched him working for a while, but you were nevertheless much relieved to find the next thing he showed you to be more directly impressive. He showed you how he could single out a group of words (called the "object symbol string," or simply "object string") and define an abbreviation term, composed of any string of symbols he might choose, that became associated with the object string in computer storage. At any later time (until he chose to discard that particular abbreviation from his working vocabulary) the typing of the abbreviation term would call forth automatically the "printing" on the display of the entire object string. Joe showed you another way in which this abbreviation feature might work. He "arranged" for the computer to print the abbreviation on the display, just the way he typed it in. At a subsequent reading, if he had for gotten what the abbreviation stood for, he could call for substitution of the full object string to refresh his memory.
通过观察他的工作一段时间,你可以对他的意思有一些模糊的感觉,但当他向你展示下一件事时,你还是感到非常欣慰,因为它更直接地令人印象深刻。他向你展示了如何从一组单词(称为"对象符号串"或简称"对象串")中挑选出一个,并定义一个由他选择的任何符号串组成的缩写术语,该缩写术语与计算机存储中的对象串相关联。在任何以后的时间(直到他选择从他的工作词汇中丢弃该特定缩写),输入缩写术语都会自动调用对象串的"打印"显示。乔还向你展示了这种缩写功能的另一种工作方式。他"安排"计算机打印出他输入的缩写,就像他输入的那样。在后续阅读中,如果他忘记了缩写代表什么,他可以调用完整的对象串来刷新他的记忆。3b4d

Then he showed you how this sort of facility had been extended, in a refined way, to provide a rather powerful sort of shorthand. He could hit a great many combinations of keys on his keyset—i.e., any one stroke of his hand could depress a number of keys, which gave him over a thousand unique single-stroke signals to the computer with either hand. Some of these signals were used as abbreviations for entire words. It seems that, for instance, the 150 most commonly used words in a natural language made up about half of any normal text in that language. Joe said that it was thus quite feasible to learn and use the single-stroke abbreviations for about half of the words he used, but beyond that each added percent began to require him to have too many abbreviations under his command. But he said that there were a lot of word endings, letter pairs (diagrams), and letter triplets (trigrams) that were so common as to make it pay to abbreviate them to a single stroke. A whole word so abbreviated saved typing all the letters as well as the spaces at either side of the word, and a word-ending abbreviated by a single stroke saved typing the letters and the end-of-word space. He claimed that he could comfortably rattle off about 180 words a minute—faster than he could comfortably talk. You believed him after he transcribed your talking for a minute or so, and it gave you an eerie feeling to see the near instantaneous appearance of your words and sentences in neat printed form.
然后他向你展示了这种设施如何以一种精炼的方式得到扩展,提供了一种相当强大的速记方式。他可以在他的键盘上击打大量的键组合 - 即,他单手的一次击打可以同时按下多个键,这使他能够用任一只手向计算机发出超过一千种独特的单击信号。其中一些信号被用作整个单词的缩写。例如,在一种自然语言中,最常用的150个单词约占该语言中任何正常文本的一半。乔说,学习和使用这些单击缩写来表示大约一半的单词是完全可行的,但超过这个比例,每增加一个百分点就需要他掌握太多的缩写。但是,他说有很多常见的词尾、字母对(二元组)和字母三联体(三元组),值得用单击缩写来表示。这样缩写整个单词可以节省打字所有字母以及单词两侧的空格,而缩写词尾的单击可以节省打字字母和结尾空格。 他声称他可以舒适地每分钟吐出大约 180 个单词 - 比他舒适地说话的速度还要快。在他为你转录了一分钟左右的谈话后,你相信了他,当看到你的话语和句子以整洁的印刷形式几乎瞬间出现时,你感到一种阴森的感觉。3b4e

Joe said that there were other miscellaneous simple features, and some quite sophisticated features to help the composition process. He made some brief references to statistical predictions that the computer could make regarding what you were going to type next, and that if you got reasonably skillful you could "steer through the extrapolated prediction field" as you entered your information and often save energy and time. You gathered that he thought you would saturate about there on this particular subject, because he went on to the next.
乔说有其他一些杂项简单功能,还有一些相当复杂的功能来帮助创作过程。他简单提到了计算机可以做出关于您接下来要输入什么的统计预测,如果您相当熟练,您可以"穿越预测场"输入信息,通常可以节省精力和时间。你感到他认为您在这个主题上已经饱和了,所以他转向了下一个主题。3b4f

"Even if I couldn't actually specify new symbols here any faster than with a typewriter, the extreme flexibility that this computer system provides for making changes in what is presented on the display screen would make me very much more effective in creating finished text than I could ever be on a typewriter." With this statement, Joe proceeded to show you what he meant. The frame full of your transcribed speech was still showing, and it represented the clumsy phrasing and illogical progression of thought so typical of extemporaneous speech. Joe took the light gun in his right hand, and with a deft flick of it, coordinated with a stroke of his left hand on its keyset, caused the silent and instantaneous deletion of a superfluous word. The word disappeared from the frame, and the rest of the text simultaneously readjusted to present the neat, no-gap, full-line appearance it had had.
"即使我无法比打字机更快地在这里指定新符号,这个计算机系统提供的极大灵活性来改变显示屏上呈现的内容,将使我在创作完成文本方面比打字机更有效。"说完这番话,乔向你展示了他的意思。你的讲话记录仍然显示在屏幕上,它代表了即兴演讲所典型的笨拙措辞和思路不连贯。乔拿起右手的光笔,配合左手在键盘上的一个灵巧动作,立即删除了一个多余的词。这个词从屏幕上消失了,其余文字也同时重新排版,恢复了整洁、无间隙、满行的格式。3b5a

With but slightly more motion of his light pen, he could similarly delete any string of words or letters. He demonstrated this by cutting out what I thought to be some relevant prose, and then he showed how the system allowed for second thoughts about such human-directed processes—those words were automatically saved for a brief period in case he wanted to call them back. Leaving his light pen pointed at the space where a deleted symbol string used to be, Joe could reinstate it instantaneously with one stroke of his left hand.
只需用他的手柄轻微地移动一下,他就可以同样地删除任何一串单词或字母。他通过切掉我认为很相关的一些文字来演示这一点,然后他展示了系统允许对这种人为主导的过程进行二次思考 - 这些单词会被自动保存一段时间,以便他想取回。把他的手柄指向被删除的符号串曾经所在的空间,乔就可以用左手轻轻一挥立即将其恢复。3b5b

Adding one more light-pen pointing to what it took to delete an arbitrary string of symbols, Joe could direct the computer to move that string from where it was to insert it at a new point which his light pen designated. Again it would disappear instantaneously from where it had been, but now the modified display would show the old text to have been spread apart just enough at the indicated point to hold this string. The text would all still look as neat as if freshly retyped. With similar types of keyset and light-pen operations, Joe could change paragraph break points, transpose two arbitrary symbol strings (words, sentences, paragraphs, etc., or fragments thereof), readjust margins of arbitrary sections of text—essentially being able to affect immediately any of the changes that a proofreader might want to designate with his special marks, only here the proofreader is always looking at clean text as if it had been instantaneously retyped after each designation had been made.
添加一个更多的光笔指向它需要删除任意符号串的内容,乔可以指示计算机将该字符串从原位移动到他用光笔指定的新位置。同样,它会立即从原位消失,但现在修改后的显示将显示旧文本刚好在指定位置分开足以容纳这个字符串。文本看起来仍然像是刚刚重新键入的一样整洁。通过类似的键盘和光笔操作,乔可以改变段落分隔点,交换任意符号串(单词、句子、段落等或其片段),重新调整任意文本部分的页边距-基本上能够立即实现校对员可能想用特殊标记指定的任何更改,只是这里校对员看到的总是干净的文本,好像在每次指定后都立即重新键入过一样。3b5c

Joe also demonstrated how he could request that each instance of the use of a given term be changed to a newly designated term, and this would again be instantaneously accomplished. Also, he could arbitrarily set the margins between which any section of text must appear, and its line lengths and number of lines would automatically be adjusted. He showed how this was useful in displaying parallel or counter arguments—although he said that actual use of this feature was a bit more sophisticated—by squeezing each into half width and putting them side by side (with a vertical line suddenly separating them). One of the sections of text was about a third longer than the other—but two quick strokes with Joe's left hand caused the computer to adjust the display automatically. The middle separator line was moved toward the shorter piece of text, and the line lengths of the two sections were adjusted so that they occupied the same length along the display frame. Yes, you were beginning to get a feel for what the expression "flexible new methods for manipulating symbol structures" might really imply, at least on this basic-capability level.
乔还演示了如何请求将给定术语的每个实例更改为新指定的术语,并且这将再次立即完成。此外,他可以任意设置文本任何部分必须出现的边距,并且其行长度和行数将自动调整。他展示了这在显示并行或反对论点中的用处——尽管他说实际使用这个功能更加复杂——通过将每个论点压缩成一半宽度并并排放置(用一条垂直线突然将它们分开)。其中一个文本部分比另一个长三分之一——但乔用左手快速两次操作就让计算机自动调整了显示。中间分隔线向较短的文本部分移动,并且两个部分的行长度进行了调整,使它们在显示框中占据相同的长度。是的,您开始感受到"灵活的新方法来操纵符号结构"这个表达可能真正意味着什么,至少在这个基本功能水平上。3b5d

"If we want to go on to a higher-level capability to give you a feeling for how our rebuilt capability hierarchy works, it will speed us along to look at how we might organize these more primitive capabilities which I have demonstrated into some new and better ways to set up what we can call an 'argument.' This refers loosely to any set of statements (we'll call them 'product statements') that represents the product of a period of work toward a given objective. Confused? Well, take the simple case where an argument leads to a single product statement. For instance, you come to a particular point in your work where you have to decide what to do for the next step. You go through some reasoning process—usually involving statements—and come up with a statement specifying that next step. That final statement is the product statement, and it represents the product of the argument or reasoning process which led to it.
如果我们想进一步提高能力,让您感受到我们重建的能力层次是如何工作的,那么查看我们如何组织这些更基本的能力来建立我们所谓的"论点"将会加快我们的进度。"论点"松散地指任何一组陈述(我们称之为"产品陈述"),它代表着为达到某一目标而进行一段时间工作的成果。很困惑吗?让我们来看一个简单的例子,一个论点会导致一个单一的产品陈述。例如,您在工作中达到了某一时刻,必须决定下一步该做什么。您会经历一些推理过程——通常涉及一些陈述——并得出一个指定下一步的陈述。这最终的陈述就是产品陈述,它代表了导致它的论点或推理过程的成果。3b6a

"You usually think of an argument as a serial sequence of steps of reason, beginning with known facts, assumptions, etc., and progressing toward a conclusion. Well, we do have to think through these steps serially, and we usually do list the steps serially when we write them out because that is pretty much the way our papers and books have to present them—they are pretty limiting in the symbol structuring they enable us to use. Have you even seen a 'scrambled-text' programmed instruction book? That is an interesting example of a deviation from straight serial presentation of steps.
你通常会把一个论点看作是一系列有理有据的步骤,从已知事实、假设等开始,逐步推进到结论。当然,我们确实需要逐步思考这些步骤,并且在写出来时通常也会按顺序列出这些步骤,因为这基本上就是我们的论文和书籍必须呈现的方式——它们在所使用的符号结构方面相当有限。你有没有见过"乱序文本"的编程指导书?这是一个偏离直线性步骤呈现的有趣例子。3b6b

"Conceptually speaking, however, an argument is not a serial affair. It is sequential, I grant you, because some statements have to follow others, but this doesn't imply that its nature is necessarily serial. We usually string Statement B after Statement A, with Statements C, D, E, F, and so on following in that order—this is a serial structuring of our symbols. Perhaps each statement logically followed from all those which preceded it on the serial list, and if so, then the conceptual structuring would also be serial in nature, and it would be nicely matched for us by the symbol structuring.
从概念上讲,论点并不是一个线性的事物。它是顺序的,我承认,因为有些陈述必须跟在其他陈述之后,但这并不意味着它的本质就是线性的。我们通常把陈述 B 排在陈述 A 之后,然后依次排列陈述 C、D、E、F 等——这是一种符号的线性结构。也许每个陈述都在逻辑上源自于在线性列表上它之前的所有陈述,如果是这样,那么概念结构也将是线性的性质,并且会很好地与符号结构相匹配。3b6c

"But a more typical case might find A to be an independent statement, B dependent upon A, C and D independent, E depending upon D and B, E dependent upon C, and F dependent upon A, D, and E. See, sequential but not serial? A conceptual network but not a conceptual chain. The old paper and pencil methods of manipulating symbols just weren't very adaptable to making and using symbol structures to match the ways we make and use conceptual structures. With the new symbol-manipulating methods here, we have terrific flexibility for matching the two, and boy, it really pays off in the way you can tie into your work.
但更典型的情况可能是,A 是一个独立的语句,B 依赖于 A,C 和 D 是独立的,E 依赖于 D 和 B,E 依赖于 C,F 依赖于 A、D 和 E。看,是顺序性的,但不是串行的?是概念网络,但不是概念链。用纸笔方法操纵符号,对匹配我们创造和使用概念结构的方式来说并不太适应。有了这里的新的符号操纵方法,我们有非常灵活的方式来匹配这两者,这真的在你的工作中带来了很大的收益。3b6d

This makes you recall dimly the generalizations you had heard previously about process structuring limiting symbol structuring, symbol structuring limiting concept structuring, and concept structuring limiting mental structuring. You nod cautiously, in hopes that he will proceed in some way that will tie this kind of talk to something from which you can get the "feel" of what it is all about. As it turns out, that is just what he intends to do.
这让你隐约想起你之前听到的一些关于过程结构限制符号结构、符号结构限制概念结构以及概念结构限制心智结构的概括性说法。你谨慎地点了点头,希望他能以某种方式将这种谈话与你可以感受到其"感觉"的东西联系起来。事实证明,这正是他打算做的。3b6e

"Let's actually work some examples. You help me." And you become involved in a truly fascinating game. Joe tells you that you are to develop an argument leading to statements summarizing the augmentation means so far revealed to you for doing the kind of straight-text work usually done with a pencil and eraser on a single sheet of paper. You unconsciously look for a scratch pad before you realize that he is telling you that you are going to do this the "augmented way" by using him and his system—with artful coaching from him. Under a bit of urging from him, you begin self-consciously to mumble some inane statements about what you have seen, what they imply, what your doubts and reservations are, etc. He mercilessly ignores your obvious discomfort and gives you no cue to stop, until he drops his hands to his lap after he has filled five frames with these statements (the surplus filled frames disappeared to somewhere—you assume Joe knows where they went and how to get them back).
"让我们实际讨论些例子吧。你帮我。"你就参与到一个真正迷人的游戏中。乔告诉你,你要发展一个论点,总结到目前为止显示给你的增强手段,通常用铅笔和橡皮在单张纸上完成笔录工作。你下意识地寻找草稿纸,然后意识到他是在告诉你要用"增强的方式"来完成这个任务——利用他和他的系统,在他的巧妙指导下。在他的一些推动下,你开始自觉地咕哝一些无关紧要的语句,关于你所见到的,它们意味着什么,你的疑虑和保留意见等。他毫不留情地忽视了你显而易见的不适,也没有给你任何暗示让你停下来,直到他在这些陈述中填满了五个框架(多出来的框架消失不见了——你认为乔知道它们去哪儿了,以及如何取回它们)。3b6f

"You notice how you wandered down different short paths, and criss-crossed yourself a few times?" You nod—depressed, no defense. But he isn't needling you. "Very natural development, just the way we humans always seem to start out on a task for which we aren't all primed with knowledge, method, experience, and confidence—which is to include essentially every problem of any consequence to us. So let's see how we can accommodate the human's way of developing his comprehension and his final problem solution.
"你注意到你走了不同的小路,自己也穿梭了几次吗?"你点点头,感到沮丧,无法辩护。但他并不是在刺激你。"这是非常自然的发展过程,就是我们人类在开始一项任务时总是会出现的情况,因为我们并没有全面的知识、方法、经验和自信——这基本上涵盖了我们所关心的任何重要问题。那么让我们看看如何适应人类发展理解和最终解决问题的方式。3b6g

"Perhaps I should have stopped sooner—I am supposed to be coaching you instead of teasing you—but I had a reason. You haven't been making use of the simple symbol-manipulation means that I showed you—other than the shorthand for getting the stuff on the screens. You started out pretty much the way you might with your typewriter or pencil. I'll show you how you could have been doing otherwise, but I want you to notice first how hard it is for a person to realize how really unquestioning he is about the way he does things. Somehow we implicitly view most all of our methods as just sort of 'the way things are done, that's all.' You knew that some exotic techniques were going to be applied, and you'll have to admit that you were passively waiting for them to be handed to you."
也许我应该早点停下来 - 我本应在指导你而不是逗弄你,但我有个理由。你还没有利用我向你展示的简单符号操作手段 - 除了在屏幕上获取东西的速记方法。你开始的方式与使用打字机或铅笔差不多。我会向你展示你本可以以其他方式完成,但我希望你首先注意到一个人很难意识到他对做事方式有多么盲目。我们似乎默认大多数方法都是理所当然的,'就是这样做的'。你知道将会应用一些特殊的技术,你不得不承认你被被动地等待着它们被赋予你。3b6h

With a non-committal nod, you suggest getting on with it. Joe begins, "You're probably waiting for something impressive. What I'm trying to prime you for, though, is the realization that the impressive new tricks all are based upon lots of changes in the little things you do. This computerized system is used over and over and over again to help me do little things—where my methods and ways of handling little things are changed until, lo, they've added up and suddenly I can do impressive new things."
以一个不置可否的点头,你建议继续进行。乔开始说,"你可能在等待一些令人印象深刻的东西。但我想让你意识到的是,那些令人印象深刻的新技巧都是建立在对你做的小事情进行大量改变的基础之上。这个计算机化的系统被一次又一次地使用,帮助我做一些小事情——直到我的方法和处理小事情的方式发生了变化,然后突然间,我就能做一些令人印象深刻的新事情了。"3b6i

You don't know. He's a nice enough guy, but he sure gets preachy. But the good side of your character shows through, and you realize that everything so far has been about little things—this is probably an important point. You'll stick with him. Okay, so what could you have been doing to use the simple tricks he had shown you in a useful way? Joe picks up the light pen, poises his other hand over the keyset, and looks at you. You didn't need the hint, but thanks anyway, and let's start rearranging and cleaning up the work space instead of just dumping more raw material on it.
你不知道。他是一个够友好的家伙,但是他确实很爱讲道理。但是你性格的好一面显现出来,你意识到到目前为止发生的都是一些小事情——这可能是一个重要的观点。你会坚持下去的。好吧,那么你能做些什么来利用他之前向你展示的一些简单技巧呢?乔拿起光笔,将另一只手悬在键盘上,看着你。你不需要提示,但是还是谢谢,我们不如开始重新整理和清理工作空间,而不是只是简单地堆放更多的原材料。3b6j

With closer coaching now from Joe, you start through the list of statements you've made and begin to edit, re-word, compile, and delete. It's fun—"put that sentence back up here between these two"—and blink, it's done. "Group these four statements, indented two spaces, under the heading "shorthand," and blinko, it's done. "Insert what I say next there, after that sentence." You dictate a sentence to extend a thought that is developing, and Joe effortlessly converts it into an inserted new sentence. Your ideas begin to take shape, and you can continually re-work the existing set of statements to keep representing the state of your "concept structure."
在乔的更密切的指导下,你开始浏览你所做的陈述列表,并开始编辑、重新措辞、编译和删除。这很有趣——"把这个句子放在这两个之间"——眨眼间就完成了。"把这四个陈述归类到"速记"标题下,缩进两个空格",眨眼间就完成了。"在那个句子后面插入我接下来说的话。"你口述一个句子来扩展一个正在发展的想法,而乔则轻松地将其转换为一个插入的新句子。你的想法开始成形,你可以不断重新修改现有的一组陈述,以保持对你的"概念结构"的表述。3b6k

You are quite elated by this freedom to juggle the record of your thoughts, and by the way this freedom allows you to work them into shape. You reflected that this flexible cut-and-try process really did appear to match the way you seemed to develop your thoughts. Golly, you could be writing math expressions, ad copy, or a poem, with the same type of benefit. You were ready to tell Joe that now you saw what he had been trying to tell you about matching symbol structuring to concept structuring—when he moved on to show you a succession of other techniques that made you realize you hadn't yet gotten the full significance of his pitch.
你对这种自由来回顾你的思想记录感到非常兴奋,这种自由让你能够将它们加工成型。你反思到,这种灵活的剪裁和尝试过程确实似乎与你似乎发展思想的方式相匹配。天哪,你可以写数学表达式、广告文案或诗歌,都能获得同样的好处。你准备告诉乔,现在你看到了他一直试图告诉你关于将符号结构与概念结构匹配的内容 - 当他继续向你展示一系列其他技术时,你意识到你还没有完全理解他的观点的全部意义。3b6l

So far the structure that you have built with your symbols looks just like what you might build with pencil-and-paper techniques—only here the building is so much easier when you can trim, extend, insert, and rearrange so freely and rapidly. But the same computer here that gives us these freedoms with so trivial an application of its power, can just as easily give us other simple capabilities which we can apply to the development and use of different types of structure from what we used to use. But let me unfold these little computer tricks as we come to them.
到目前为止,您用符号构建的结构与您可能使用铅笔和纸技术建造的结构非常相似 - 只是在这里,当您可以如此自由和快速地修剪、延伸、插入和重排时,建造就容易得多。但是同样的计算机,为我们提供了这些自由以及仅仅应用其微不足道的力量就能做到这一点,同样也能为我们提供其他简单的功能,这些功能我们可以应用于不同类型结构的开发和使用,而不是我们之前使用的那些。但是让我在我们遇到它们时解开这些小小的计算机把戏。3b6m

"When you look at a given statement in the middle of your argument structure, there are a number of things you want to know. Let's simplify the situation by saying that you might ask three questions, 'What's this?', 'How come?', and 'So what?' Let's take these questions one at a time and see how some changes in structuring might help a person answer them better.
當你看一個論點結構中間的某個給定陳述時,你想知道很多事情。我們可以簡單地說,你可能會問三個問題,'這是什麼?','為什麼這樣?','那又怎樣?'讓我們一個一個地看這些問題,看看一些結構變化如何可以幫助一個人更好地回答它們。3b6n

You look at a statement and you want to understand its meaning. You are used to seeing a statement portrayed in just the manner you might hear it—as a serial succession of words. But, just as with the statements within an argument, the conceptual relationship among the words of a sentence is not generally serial, and we can benefit in matching better to the conceptual structure if we can conveniently work with certain non-serial symbol-structuring forms within sentences.
您查看一个陈述,并希望理解其含义。您习惯于以您可能听到它的方式来表达一个陈述——作为一系列连续的单词。但是,就像在论点中的陈述一样,句子中单词之间的概念关系通常不是串行的,如果我们可以方便地在句子中使用某些非串行符号结构形式,我们就可以更好地匹配概念结构。3b6o

"Most of the structuring forms I'll show you stem from the simple capability of being able to establish arbitrary linkages between different substructures, and of directing the computer subsequently to display a set of linked substructures with any relative positioning we might designate among the different substructures. You can designate as many different kinds of links as you wish, so that you can specify different display or manipulative treatment for the different types."
絕大多數我會向你展示的結構形式來自於能夠在不同子結構之間建立任意聯係的基本能力,以及隨後指示計算機以我們可能指定的不同子結構之間的相對位置來顯示一組鏈接的子結構。你可以根據需要指定任意多種不同類型的鏈接,從而能夠為不同類型的鏈接指定不同的顯示或操作處理方式。3b6p

Joe picked out one of your sentences, and pushed the rest of the text a few lines up and down from it to isolate it. He then showed you how he could make a few strokes on the keyset to designate the type of link he wanted established, and pick the two symbol structures that were to be linked by means of the light pen. He said that most links possessed a direction, i.e., they were like an arrow pointing from one substructure to another, so that in setting up a link he must specify the two substructures in a given order.
Joe 挑选了你的一个句子,并将其余文本上下移动了几行来隔离它。然后他向你展示了如何用键盘上的几个笔划来指定所需的链接类型,并用光笔选择要链接的两个符号结构。他说大多数链接都有方向性,也就是从一个子结构指向另一个子结构,因此在设置链接时必须按照特定顺序指定这两个子结构。3b6q

He went to work for a moment, rapidly setting up links within your sentence. Then he showed you how you could get some help in looking at a statement and understanding it. "Here is one standard portrayal, for which I have established a computer process to do the structuring automatically on the basis of the interword links." A few strokes on the keyset and suddenly the sentence fell to pieces—different parts of it being positioned here and there, with some lines connecting them. "Remember diagramming sentences when you were studying grammar? Some good methods, plus a bit of practice, and you'd be surprised how much a diagrammatic breakdown can help you to scan a complex statement and untangle it quickly.
他匆匆去上班了一会儿,迅速在你的句子中建立了链接。然后他向你展示了如何在查看一个陈述并理解它时获得一些帮助。"这里有一个标准的描述,我已经建立了一个计算机过程来根据词间链接自动进行结构化。"几下击键,句子突然破碎了 - 它的不同部分被定位在这里和那里,有一些线将它们连接起来。"还记得你学习语法时分析句子的方法吗?一些好的方法,加上一些练习,你会惊讶于图表分解对帮助你快速扫描复杂语句和解开它是多么有用。"3b6r

"We have developed quite a few more little schemes to help at the statement level. I don't want to tangle you up with too much detail, though. You can see, probably, that quick dictionary-lookup helps." He aimed at a term with the light pen and hit a few strokes on the keyset, and the old text jumped farther out of the way and the definition appeared above the diagram, with the defined term brighter than the rest of the diagram. And he showed you also how you could link secondary phrases (or sentences) to parts of the statement for more detailed description. These secondary substructures wouldn't appear when you normally viewed the statement, but could be brought in by simple request if you wanted closer study.
我们已经开发了更多一些小计划来帮助进行声明级别的工作。不过,我不想让你被太多细节搞得晕头转向。你可能已经看到了,快速词典查找确实很有帮助。"他用光笔指向一个术语,在键盘上敲了几下,原来的文字就进一步远离,定义出现在图示之上,被定义的术语比其他部分更加突出。他还向你演示了如何将次要短语(或句子)与声明的某些部分相连,以提供更加详细的说明。这些次要子结构在正常查看声明时是不会出现的,但如果你需要更仔细地研究,可以通过简单的请求调出。3b6s

"It proves to be terrifically useful to be able to work easily with statements that represent more sophisticated and complex concepts. Sort of like being able to use structural members that are lighter and stronger—it gives you new freedom in building structures. But let's move on—we'll come back to this area later, if we have time.
能够轻松处理表示更复杂概念的语句是非常有用的。就像能够使用更轻更强的结构构件一样,它为建筑结构提供了新的自由。不过让我们继续前进吧,如果有时间的话,我们稍后会回到这个领域。3b6t

"When you look at a statement and ask, 'How come?', you are used to scanning back over a serial array of previously made statements in search of an understanding of the basis upon which this statement was made. But some of these previous statements are much more significant than others to this search for understanding. Let us use what we call 'antecedent links' to point to these, and I'll give you a basic idea of how we structure an argument so that we can quickly track down the essential basis upon which a given statement rests."
"当你看到一个陈述并问'为什么?'时,你习惯于回顾之前做出的一系列陈述,以寻找这个陈述的基础。但是,这些之前的陈述对于理解的搜索来说并不都同等重要。让我们使用我们所谓的'先行链接'来指向这些重要的陈述,我会给你一个基本的想法,告诉你我们如何构建一个论点,以便快速找到一个给定陈述所依据的基本基础。"3b6u

You helped him pick out the primary antecedents of the statement you had been studying, and he established links to them. These statements were scattered back through the serial list of statements that you had assembled, and Joe showed you how you could either brighten or underline them to make them stand out to your eye—just by requesting the computer to do this for all direct antecedents of the designated statement. He told you, though, that you soon get so you aren't very much interested in seeing the serial listing of all of the statements, and he made another request of the computer (via the keyset) that eliminated all the prior statements, except the direct antecedents, from the screen. The subject statement went to the bottom of the frame, and the antecedent statements were neatly listed above it.
你帮助他挑选出了你一直在研究的声明的主要先行陈述,并建立了它们之间的联系。这些陈述散布在你整理好的一系列声明中。Joe向你展示了如何通过要求计算机对指定声明的所有直接先行陈述进行加亮或加下划线,来使它们引人注目。不过,他告诉你,你很快就不太关心查看所有声明的串行列表了,他通过键盘集向计算机发出另一个请求,从屏幕上除去了除直接先行陈述之外的所有先前的声明。主题陈述被放置在框架的底部,而先行陈述则整齐地列在其上方。3b6v 三b6v

Joe then had you designate an order of "importance to comprehension" among these statements, and he rearranged them accordingly as fast as you could choose them. (This choosing was remarkably helped by having only the remainder statements to study for each new choice—another little contribution to effectiveness, you thought.) He mentioned that you could designate orderings under several different criteria, and later have the display show whichever ordering you wished. This, he implied, could be used very effectively when you were building or studying an argument structure in which from time to time you wanted to strengthen your comprehension relative to different aspects of the situation.
乔然后让你根据"对理解的重要性"对这些陈述进行排序,并根据你的选择尽快重新排列它们。(通过只研究每次新选择的剩余陈述,这种选择得到了显著的帮助—你认为这是对有效性的另一个小贡献。)他提到,你可以根据几个不同的标准指定排序,并在以后显示你希望的任何排序。他暗示,这可以在你构建或研究论证结构时非常有效地使用,因为你可能需要不时加强对不同方面的理解。3b6w

"Each primary antecedent can similarly be linked to its primary antecedents, and so on, until you arrive at the statements representing the premises, the accepted facts, and the objectives upon which this argument had been established. When we had established the antecedent links for all the statements in the argument, the question 'So what?' that you might ask when looking at a given statement would be answered by looking for the statements for which the given statement was an antecedent. We already have links to these consequents—just turn around the arrows on the antecedent links and we have consequent links. So we can easily call forth an uncluttered display of consequent statements to help us see why we needed this given statement in the argument.
每个主要前因都可以类似地链接到其主要前因,依此类推,直到你到达代表前提、公认事实和此论点建立依据的目标的陈述。当我们为论点中的所有陈述建立了前因链时,当你看到某个给定的陈述时可能会问'那又怎样?'这个问题就会通过查找以该给定陈述为前因的陈述来回答。我们已经有了这些结果陈述的链接 - 只需要翻转前因链上的箭头就可以得到结果链接。因此,我们可以轻松调出一个整洁的结果陈述显示,帮助我们了解为什么需要在论点中使用这个给定陈述。3b6x

"To help us get better comprehension of the structure of an argument, we can also call forth a schematic or graphical display. Once the antecedent-consequent links have been established, the computer can automatically construct such a display for us." So, Joe spent a few minutes (with your help) establishing a reasonable set of links among the statements you had originally listed. Then another keyed-in request to the computer, and almost instantaneously there appeared a network of lines and dots that looked something like a tree—except that sometimes branches would fuse together. "Each node or dot represents one of the statements of your argument, and the lines are antecedent-consequent links. The antecedents of one statement always lie above that statement—or rather, their nodes lie above its node. When you get used to using a network representation like this, it really becomes a great help in getting the feel for the way all the different ideas and reasoning fit together—that is, for the conceptual structuring."
为了帮助我们更好地理解论点的结构,我们也可以呼唤出一个示意图或图形显示。一旦建立了前因-后果链,计算机就可以自动为我们构建这样的显示。因此,乔花了几分钟(在你的帮助下)建立了你最初列出的陈述之间的一个合理的链接集合。然后又对计算机进行了另一次键入请求,几乎瞬间就出现了一个看起来像树一样的线条和点的网络 - 只是有时分支会融合在一起。"每个节点或点代表你论点中的一个陈述,而线条是前因-后果链接。一个陈述的前因总是位于该陈述之上 - 或者说,它们的节点位于其节点之上。当你习惯了使用这种网络表示时,它真的会成为一个很大的帮助,让你感受到所有不同的想法和推理是如何拼凑在一起的 - 也就是说,对于概念结构。3b6y

Joe demonstrated some ways in which you could make use of the diagram to study the argument structure. Point to any node, give a couple of strokes on the keyset, and the corresponding statement would appear on the other screen—and that node would become brighter. Call the antecedents forth on the second screen, and select one of special interest—deleting the others. Follow back down the antecedent trail a little further, using one screen to look at the detail at any time, and the other to show you the larger view, with automatic node-brightening indication of where these detailed items fit in the larger view.
乔演示了如何利用该图表研究论点结构的一些方法。指向任何节点,在键盘上输入几个击键,相应的语句就会出现在另一个屏幕上,而该节点也会变得更亮。在第二个屏幕上显示前置词,并选择其中一个感兴趣的-删除其他的。继续沿着前置词的轨迹向下探索一点,一个屏幕用于查看细节,另一个屏幕显示更大的视图,并自动高亮显示这些详细项在更大视图中的位置。3b6z

"For a little embellishment here, and to show off another little capability in my repertoire, let me label the nodes so that you can develop more association between the nodes and the statements in the argument. I can do this several ways. For one thing, I can tell the computer to number the statements in the order in which you originally had them listed, and have the labelling done automatically." This took him a total of five strokes on the keyset, and suddenly each node was made into a circle with a number in it. The statements that were on the second screen now each had its respective serial number sitting next to it in the left margin. "This helps you remember what the different nodes on the network display contain. We have also evolved some handy techniques for constructing abbreviation labels that help your memory quite a bit.
"为了在这里添加一些装饰,并展示我的另一项小小的能力,让我给节点贴上标签,这样你就可以在节点和论点陈述之间建立更多联系。我可以用几种方式来做。首先,我可以让计算机按照你最初列出的顺序给陈述编号,并自动完成标记。"这只需要他在键盘上按五次,突然每个节点都变成了一个带有数字的圆圈。第二个屏幕上的陈述现在每个都有相应的序号显示在左边的边距上。"这有助于你记住网络显示中不同节点的内容。我们还开发了一些方便的技术来构建缩写标签,这对你的记忆大有帮助。3b6aa

"Also, we can display extra fine-structure and labelling detail within the network in the specific local area we happen to be concentrating upon. This finer detail is washed out as we move to another spot with our close attention, and the coarser remaining structure is compressed, so that there is room for our new spot to be blown up. It is a lot like using zones of variable magnification as you scan the structure—higher magnification where you are inspecting detail, lower magnification in the surrounding field so that your feel for the whole structure and where you are in it can stay with you."
"同时,我们可以在我们正在集中注意力的特定局部区域内显示额外的细节结构和标签。当我们将注意力转移到另一个地方时,这种更细节的信息会被冲淡,剩余的粗糙结构会被压缩,以便为新的焦点区域腾出空间。这很像在扫描结构时使用可变放大倍率区域-在检查细节的区域使用更高的放大倍率,在周围区域使用更低的放大倍率,以便你可以保持对整个结构及其位置的感知。"3b6ab

"If you are tangling with a problem of any size—whether it involves you for half an hour or two years—the entire collection of statements, sketches, computations, literature sources, and source extracts that is associated with your work would in our minds constitute a single symbol structure. There may be many levels of substructuring between the level of individual symbols and that represented by the entire collection. You and I have been working with some of the lower-ordered substructures—the individual statements and the multistatement arguments—and have skimmed through some of the ways to build and manipulate them. The results of small arguments are usually integrated in a higher level network of argument or concept development, and these into still higher-level networks, and so on. But at any such level, the manner in which the interrelationship between the kernels of argument can be tagged, portrayed, studied and manipulated is much the same as those which we have just been through.
如果你正在处理任何规模的问题——无论是半小时还是两年——与你的工作相关的所有陈述、草图、计算、文献来源和源代码摘录,在我们看来都构成了一个单一的符号结构。在个别符号和整个集合之间可能存在许多层次的子结构。你和我一直在处理一些较低级别的子结构——个别陈述和多重陈述论点——并浏览了一些构建和操作它们的方法。小型论点的结果通常集成在更高层次的论点或概念发展网络中,这些又集成在更高层次的网络中,依此类推。但在任何这样的层次上,标记、描述、研究和操作论点核心之间关系的方式,与我们刚刚经历的方式大致相同。3b7a

"Substructures that might represent mathematical or formal-logic arguments may be linked right in with substructures composed of the more informal statements. Substructures that represent graphs, curves, engineering drawings, and other graphical forms can likewise be integrated. One can also append special substructures, of any size, to particular other substructures. A frequent use of this is to append descriptive material—something like footnotes, only much more flexible. Or, special messages can be hung on that offer ideas such as simplifying an argument or circumventing a blocked path—to be uncovered and considered at some later date. These different appended substructures can remain invisible to the worker until such time as he wants to flush them into view. He can ask for the cue symbols that indicate their presence (identifying where they are linked and what their respective types are) to be shown on the network display any time he wishes, and then call up whichever of them he wishes If he is interested in only one type of appended substructure, he can request that only the cues associated with that type be displayed.
可能代表数学或形式逻辑论点的子结构可以直接与由更非正式陈述组成的子结构相链接。代表图形、曲线、工程图纸和其他图形形式的子结构也可以同样集成。人们还可以将任何大小的特殊子结构附加到特定的其他子结构上。这种做法的一个常见用途是附加描述性材料,类似于脚注,但更加灵活。或者,可以附加特殊消息,提供简化论点或绕过阻塞路径的想法,以便在以后的某个时候发现和考虑。这些不同的附加子结构可以对工作人员保持隐藏,直到他想要将它们显示出来。他可以随时要求显示指示它们存在的提示符(识别它们的链接位置和各自的类型),然后调用他想要的任何一个。如果他只对一种类型的附加子结构感兴趣,他可以要求只显示与该类型相关的提示符。3b7b

"You should also realize that a substructure doesn't have to be a hunk of data sitting neatly distinct within the normal form of the larger structure. One can choose from a symbol structure (or substructure, generally) any arbitrary collection of its substructures, designate any arbitrary structuring among these and any new substructures he wants to add, and thus define a new substructure which the computer can untangle from the larger structure and present to him at any time. The associative trails that Bush suggested represent a primitive example of this. A good deal of this type of activity is involved during the early, shifting development of some phase of work, as you saw when you were collecting tentative argument chains. But here again, we find ever more delightful ways to make use of the straightforward-seeming capabilities in developing new higher-level capabilities—which, of course, seem sort of straightforward by then, too.
你还应该意识到,子结构不一定是一块在较大结构的正常形式中整洁地分隔的数据块。人可以从一个符号结构(或者通常所说的子结构)中选取任意的子结构集合,对这些子结构和他想添加的新的子结构进行任意的结构化,从而定义一个新的子结构,计算机可以从较大的结构中分离出这个子结构,并在任何时候呈现给他。布什提出的联想性轨迹就是这种原始示例。在工作的某个阶段的早期,在制定初步的论点链时,就会涉及大量这种活动。但我们仍然会发现更加愉悦的方式,利用看似简单的功能来开发新的更高层次的功能-当然到那时也会显得很简单。3b7c

"I found, when I learned to work with the structures and manipulation processes such as we have outlined, that I got rather impatient if I had to go back to dealing with the serial-statement structuring in books and journals, or other ordinary means of communicating with other workers. It is rather like having to project three-dimensional images onto two-dimensional frames and to work with them there instead of in their natural form. Actually, it is much closer to the truth to say that it is like trying to project n-dimensional forms (the concept structures, which we have seen can be related with many many nonintersecting links) onto a one-dimensional form (the serial string of symbols), where the human memory and visualization has to hold and picture the links and relationships. I guess that's a natural feeling, though. One gets impatient any time he is forced into a restricted or primitive mode of operation—except perhaps for recreational purposes.
当我学会使用我们概述的结构和操作过程时,我发现,如果不得不回到书籍和期刊中的串行语句结构或其他普通的与其他工作者通信的方式,我会变得相当不耐烦。这就像将三维图像投射到二维框架上,并在那里对其进行处理,而不是采用其自然形式。实际上,更准确地说,这就像试图将 n 维形式(概念结构,我们已经看到它们可以用许多非相交的链接相关联)投射到一维形式(符号的串行字符串)上,而人类的记忆和可视化必须保持和描绘这些链接和关系。我想这是一种自然的感受。每当被迫进入受限或原始的操作模式时,人都会变得不耐烦–除非是为了娱乐目的。3b7d

"I'm sure that you've had the experience of working over a journal article to get comprehension and perhaps some special-purpose conclusions that you can integrate into your own work. Well, when you ever get handy at roaming over the type of symbol structure which we have been showing here, and you turn for this purpose to another person's work that is structured in this way, you will find a terrific difference there in the ease of gaining comprehension as to what he has done and why he has done it, and of isolating what you want to use and making sure of the conditions under which you can use it. This is true even if you find his structure left in the condition in which he has been working on it—that is, with no special provisions for helping an outsider find his way around. But we have learned quite a few simple tricks for leaving appended road signs, supplementary information, questions, and auxiliary links on our working structures—in such a manner that they never get in our way as we work—so that the visitor to our structure can gain his comprehension and isolate what he wants in marvelously short order. Some of these techniques are quite closely related to those used in automated-instruction programming—perhaps you know about 'teaching machines?'
我相信你已经有过阅读期刊文章并从中获得理解和特定结论,并将其整合到自己的工作中的经验。当你熟练掌握了我们在这里展示的符号结构类型时,如果你为此目的转向另一个人以这种方式构建的作品,你会发现理解他所做的事情及其原因,以及分离你想要使用的内容并确保使用条件的过程要容易得多。即使你发现他的结构保持在他正在处理的状态 - 也就是说,没有特殊的措施来帮助外人找到他的方式。但是,我们已经学会了一些简单的技巧,可以在我们的工作结构上附加路标、补充信息、问题和辅助链接 - 以这种方式,它们永远不会妨碍我们的工作,从而使访问者可以快速获得理解并提取所需的内容。 这些技术中的一些与自动指令编程所使用的技术非常相关——也许您知道"教学机器"?'3b7e

"What we found ourselves doing, when having to do any extensive digesting of journal articles, was to type large batches of the text verbatim into computer store. It is so nice to be able to tear it apart, establish our own definitions and substitute, restructure, append notes, and so forth, in pursuit of comprehension, that it was generally well worth the trouble. The keyset shorthand made this reasonably practical. But the project now has an optical character reader that will convert our external references into machine code for us. The references are available for study in original serial form on our screens, but any structuring and tagging done by a previous reader, or ourselves, can also be utilized.
我们发现自己在需要大量消化期刊文章时,会将大批量的文本逐字输入计算机存储。能够将其拆分、建立自己的定义并替换、重构、添加注释等,以求理解,这通常是值得付出的麻烦的。键盘速记使这种做法相当实用。但是,该项目现在有一个光学字符识别器,可以将我们的外部参考资料转换为机器代码。参考资料可以在我们的屏幕上以原始连续形式进行研究,但之前读者或我们自己进行的任何结构化和标记也可以被利用。3b7f

"A number of us here are using the augmented systems for our project research, and we find that after a few passes through a reference, we very rarely go back to it in its original form. It sits in the archives like an orange rind, with most of the real juice squeezed out. The contributions from these references form sturdy members of our structure, and are duly tagged as to source so that acknowledgment is always implicitly noted. The analysis and digestion that any of us makes on such a reference is fully available to the others. It is rather amazing how much superfluous verbiage is contained in those papers merely to try to make up for the pitifully sparse possibilities available for symbol structuring in printed text."
我们这里有一些人正在使用增强系统进行项目研究,我们发现在参考文献中浏览几次后,很少再回到原始形式。它就像一个橙子皮一样躺在档案里,大部分真正的汁液都被挤出来了。这些参考文献中的贡献构成了我们结构的坚实成员,并且都标明了来源,以便始终隐含地注明出处。我们中任何一个人对这种参考文献的分析和消化都可以完全提供给其他人。那些论文中包含了大量多余的冗长措辞,仅仅是为了弥补印刷文本中可用于符号结构的可怜的可能性。3b7g

There was a slight pause while Joe apparently was reflecting upon something. He started to speak, thought differently of it, and turned to flash something on a screen. You looked quickly, anticipating that now you would comprehend. Well, more of the display looked meaningful to you than when you had first watched him going about his work, but you realized that you were still a bit uneducated. I've developed a sequence for presenting the different basic features of our augmentation system that seems to work pretty well, and I just wanted to be sure I was still following it reasonably closely."
乔似乎正在思考某事,稍作停顿。他开始说话,又改变了主意,转身在屏幕上显示了一些东西。你迅速看了一眼,期望能理解。与你最初观察他工作时相比,显示屏上的内容对你来说更有意义了,但你意识到自己仍然缺乏一些教育。我已经制定了一个用于介绍我们增强系统不同基本功能的序列,效果似乎不错,我只是想确保我仍然在合理地遵循它。3b8a

He noticed you wrinkle your face as you looked at the display. "It's time to shift the topic a bit, and some of the things on the screen that are probably puzzling you can make a starting point for a new discussion phase. See, when I outlined a delivery for giving a feel for these techniques to the uninitiated, I could have sketched out the subject matter in a skeletal argument structure. From what we've been through so far, you might expect it to be like that. What I did, though, was to treat the matter as a process that I was going to execute the process of giving you a lecture demonstration. It is a rather trivial exercise of the techniques we have for developing and manipulating processes, but anyway that's the form I chose for making the notes.
他注意到你在看显示屏时皱起了脸。"是时候转换一下话题了,屏幕上可能让你困惑的一些东西可以成为新讨论阶段的起点。看,当我概述了向不熟悉这些技术的人传授感受的交付方式时,我本可以用一个骨架论点结构概括主题。从我们到目前为止的经历来看,你可能会期望它是这样的。但我所做的是将这个问题视为一个过程,我将执行给你讲解演示的过程。这只是我们用于开发和操纵过程的技术的一个相当简单的练习,但无论如何,这就是我选择的记录形式。3b8b

"A process is something that is designed, built, and used—as is any tool. In the general sense in which we consider processes to be a part of our augmentation system, it is absolutely necessary that there be effective capability for designing and building processes as well as for using them. For one thing, the laying out of objectives and a method of approach for a problem represent a form of process design and building, to our way of looking at it. And an independent problem solver certainly has to have this capability. Indeed, we find that designing and coordinating one's sequence of steps, in high levels or in low levels of such process structuring, is an extremely important part of the total activity.
过程是一个被设计、构建和使用的东西,就像任何工具一样。从我们认为过程是我们扩展系统的一部分的总体意义上来说,有效设计和构建过程以及使用过程的能力是绝对必要的。一方面,为一个问题确定目标和方法代表了我们所看到的一种过程设计和构建的形式。独立的问题解决者当然必须具备这种能力。事实上,我们发现设计和协调高层次或低层次过程结构中的步骤序列,是总体活动中极其重要的一部分。3b8c

"One of our research guys in the early phases of our augmentation development was considered (then) to be a bug on this topic. He maintained that about ten percent of the little steps we took all day accounted for ninety percent of the progress toward the goals we claimed to pursue—that is, that ninety percent of our actions and thoughts were coupled to our net progress in only a very feeble way. Well, we can't analyze the old ways of doing things very accurately to check his estimated figures, but we certainly have come to be in general sympathy with his stand. We have developed quite a few concepts and methods for using the computer system to help us plan and supervise sophisticated courses of action, to monitor and evaluate what we do, and to use this information as direct feedback for modifying our planning techniques in the future.
我们在增强开发的早期阶段,有一位研究人员被认为(当时)在这个话题上存在问题。他坚持认为,我们一天中所采取的大约十分之一的小步骤就占了我们声称要追求的目标的百分之九十的进度 - 也就是说,我们的百分之九十的行动和思想与我们的净进度只有非常微弱的联系。我们无法非常准确地分析旧的做事方式来检查他的估计数字,但我们确实已经开始普遍赞同他的立场。我们已经开发出了许多概念和方法,利用计算机系统来帮助我们规划和监督复杂的行动过程,监控和评估我们的做法,并将这些信息作为直接反馈来修改我们未来的规划技术。3b8d

"There are, of course, the explicit computer processes which we use, and which our philosophy requires the augmented man to be able to design and build for himself. A number of people, outside our research group here, maintain stoutly that a practical augmentation system should not require the human to have to do any computer programming—they feel that this is too specialized a capability to burden people with. Well, what that means in our eyes, if translated to a home workshop, would be like saying that you can't require the operating human to know how to adjust his tools, or set up jigs, or change drill sizes, and the like. You can see there that these skills are easy to learn in the context of what the human has to learn anyway about using the tools, and that they provide for much greater flexibility in finding convenient ways to use the tools to help shape materials.
当然,我们使用的是明确的计算机过程,我们的哲学要求增强人能够自己设计和构建这些过程。在我们的研究小组之外,有一些人坚持认为,一个实用的增强系统不应该要求人类进行任何计算机编程——他们认为这是一种过于专门的能力,不应该让人承担。在我们看来,如果把这种说法转换到家庭工作坊,就相当于说你不能要求操作人员知道如何调整工具,设置夹具,更换钻头等。你可以看到,这些技能很容易在学习如何使用工具的过程中学会,而且它们为找到方便使用工具来塑造材料的方法提供了更大的灵活性。3b8e

"It won't take too much time to give you a feel for the helpful methods we have for working on computer-process structures—or programs—because there is quite a bit of similarity in concept to what you have seen in the symbol-structuring techniques. No matter what language you use—whether machine language, list language, or ALGOL, for instance—you build up the required process structure by organizing statements in that language. Each statement specifies a given process to your computer. Well, you have already seen how you can get help in developing precise and powerful statements, or in gaining quick comprehension of statements, by charting or diagramming them and using special links between the different parts. "Look here.'" And he went after what he said was a typical process structure, to give you an example of what he was talking about. In several brief, successive frame displays, before he got to the one he wanted, you got glimpses of network schematics that reminded you of those used in symbol structuring. But, what he finally had on the display frame was quite different from the argument statements you had seen.
给您一个我们用于处理计算机处理结构(或程序)的有用方法的感觉,不会占用太多时间,因为它与您在符号结构技术中看到的概念有相当多的相似之处。不管您使用的是什么语言 - 无论是机器语言、列表语言还是 ALGOL,例如 - 您都通过组织该语言中的语句来构建所需的处理结构。每个语句都指定了您的计算机要执行的特定处理过程。好了,您已经看到过如何通过绘制或图解这些语句并使用不同部分之间的特殊链接来获得帮助,从而开发出精确而强大的语句,或快速理解语句。"看这里。"他接着拿出了一个典型的处理结构,来给您展示他所谈论的内容。在几个简单、连续的帧显示中,在他找到他想要的那个之前,您看到了一些网络原理图,让您想起了在符号结构中使用的那些。但是,他最终在显示框上展示的东西与您之前看到的论点语句大不相同。3b8f

"In explaining symbol-structuring to you, I used the likely questions, 'What's this?' 'How come?' and 'So what?' to point out the usefulness of some of our structuring methods. Here, in process structuring, corresponding questions about a statement might be: 'What does it say to do?' 'What effect will that have?' and 'Why do we want that done?' Let's take a quick look at some of the ways you can get help in answering them.
在向您解释符号结构时,我使用了可能的问题"这是什么?"、"为什么?"和"那又怎样?"来指出我们的一些结构方法的有用性。在过程结构中,关于一个陈述的相应问题可能是:"它说要做什么?"、"那会产生什么效果?"和"我们为什么要这样做?"让我们快速看一下您可以获得帮助来回答这些问题的一些方法。3b8g

"The language used to compose these process-description statements for the computer is considerably more compact and precise than is a natural language, such as English, and there is correspondingly less advantage to be gained by appending special links and tags for giving us humans a better grasp of their meaning. However, as you see in this left-hand section of the statement portrayal, geometrical grouping, linking, and positioning of the statement components are used in the blown-up statement display. But this portrayal doesn't stem from special appended information, it can be laid out like this automatically by the computer, just from the cues it gets from the necessary symbol components of the statement. The different significant relationships are more perceptible to a human in this way of laying it out, and an experienced human thus gets quite a bit of help in answering the first question: 'What does it say to do?'
用于计算机制作这些过程描述语句的语言比英语等自然语言要简介得多也更精确,因此添加特殊链接和标签以帮助我们人类更好地理解它们的意义并没有太大优势。然而,正如你在声明表达的左侧部分所看到的,几何分组、链接和语句组件的定位被用于放大的声明显示中。但这种表达并不源于附加的特殊信息,计算机只需根据声明所需的符号组件就可以自动布局成这种方式。这种布局方式使得人类更容易感知不同的重要关系,有经验的人可以很好地回答第一个问题:'它说要做什么?'3b8h

For the second question, relative to what effect the specified action will have, some of these symbols to the right give you a quick story about the very detailed and immediate effect on the state of the symbol structure which this process structure is manipulating. Other symbols here provide keys which a light-pen selection can activate to bring to you displays of that symbol structure, usually a choice of several relevant views at different levels of the structure. Then I can use the keyset to ask for the preceding statement, if I'm a little puzzled about the detailed manipulation—or, I can request a specific higher-level view of the process structure by light-pen selection on one of these remaining symbols here.
对于第二个问题,相对于指定操作将产生的效果,这些符号中的一些可以快速告诉你这个过程结构操纵的符号结构状态的非常详细和即时的影响。这里的其他符号提供了可以通过光笔选择激活的键,以显示该符号结构,通常是几个相关视图的选择,这些视图位于结构的不同层级。然后,如果我对详细操作有些困惑,我可以使用键盘集请求前一个语句;或者,我可以通过在这里的某个剩余符号上使用光笔选择来请求该过程结构的特定更高层级视图。3b8i

So saying, Joe selected one of these symbols with his pen, and a new and different display popped into view. "This is the next level up in the process structure. It consists of lists of compactly abbreviated statements, and some condensed notes about their effects. If we want, we can blow up one at a time as we study over the list. In this context, one can get some answer to the larger picture of what effect will a given statement have, and also some answer to the question about why we want a given effect produced. But this is a sort of a holdover from old programming habits, and most of us nowadays are making considerably more use of the schematic techniques that evolved out of the program flow-charting techniques and out of our symbol-structuring techniques.
说完这番话,乔用笔选择了这些符号中的一个,一个全新而不同的显示画面出现了。"这是流程结构中更高一级的内容。它由简洁缩写的语句列表和关于它们效果的简要说明组成。如果我们愿意,我们可以逐一放大研究这个列表。在这个上下文中,我们可以获得一些关于给定语句会产生什么效果的答案,也可以获得一些关于我们为什么要产生给定效果的答案。但这有点像是从旧的编程习惯延续下来的,如今我们大多数人都更多地使用从程序流程图技术和符号结构技术发展而来的示意图技术。3b8j

"I know that you have less previous familiarity with the nature of programs than you do with the nature of arguments, so I'll just give you a few quick views of what these process-structure schematic portrayals look like, and not try to explain them in any detail. He flashed a few on the screen, and indicated how some of the different features could give the human a quick appreciation of how different component processes were cooperating to produce a more sophisticated process. You could appreciate some of the tricks of linking in explanatory and descriptive substructure and the general means of using all the different symbol-structuring tricks for representing to the human the considerations, critical features, and interdependencies involved in the process structure.
我知道你对程序的本质比对论点的本质更少的先前熟悉,所以我只会给你快速看一下这些过程结构示意图是什么样子,而不会试图详细解释它们。他在屏幕上闪现了几个示例,并指出一些不同的特征如何让人类快速了解不同部件过程是如何协作以产生更复杂的过程。你可以欣赏到一些链接解释性和描述性子结构的技巧,以及使用所有不同符号结构技巧来向人类表示过程结构中涉及的考虑因素、关键特征和相互依赖性的一般方法。3b8k

"Most of this portrayal technique actually represents special structuring of what we previously defined in a loose way as arguments. The human who wants to approach an established process structure in order to modify it, needs to gain comprehension of the relevant features both of the functioning and of the design of the structure. You saw how this could be facilitated by our symbol-structuring techniques. And if he is building a new process structure or changing an existing one, he needs to structure the argument or reasoning behind the design. We have developed a number of special symbol-structuring techniques that allow us to match especially well to the concepts involved in designing processes.
这种描述技术实际上代表了我们之前以松散方式定义为论点的特殊结构。想要接近既定的过程结构以修改它的人,需要了解该结构的功能和设计的相关特征。您看到了我们的符号结构技术如何促进这一点。如果他正在建立一个新的过程结构或改变一个现有的结构,他需要构建设计背后的论点或推理。我们开发了一些特殊的符号结构技术,可以很好地匹配设计过程中涉及的概念。3b8l

"But there is a very significant feature involved in this particular type of process structuring that I should tell you about. It is based upon the fact that the process-description language for the computer is formal and precise. Because of this fact, we can establish explicit rules for treating statements in this language, and for treating symbol structures composed of these statements, such that computer processes based upon these rules can be said to extract meaning from these statements and to do operations based upon this meaning. The result is that the computer is able to find answers to a much wider range of questions about a specified process structure than it could if only the structural characteristics were discernible to it.
但是,在这种特定类型的过程结构中,有一个非常重要的特征,我应该告诉你。它基于这样一个事实,即计算机的过程描述语言是正式和精确的。由于这个事实,我们可以建立明确的规则来处理这种语言中的语句,以及由这些语句组成的符号结构,使得基于这些规则的计算机过程能够从这些语句中提取意义,并根据这种意义进行操作。结果是,计算机能够找到比仅仅识别结构特征更广泛范围的问题的答案。3b8m

"In our studying and designing process structures, we have found many ways to capitalize upon this more sophisticated question-answering capability now possessed by the computer. We are learning, for instance, how to get the computer to decide whether or not some types of design specifications are met, and if not, where the limitation exists. Or, perhaps we approach an already designed process structure which we think we can modify, or from which we can extract some useful sub-process that we contemplate incorporating into another process we are designing. We are getting terrific help in this type of instance, since we can now ask the computer direct questions about types of capability and limitation in this structure. The computer can even lead us directly to the particular design features from which these capabilities or limitations stem, and it is simple then to examine the descriptive and explanatory arguments linked thereto in order to see why these features were designed into the structure.
在我们的学习和设计过程中,我们发现了许多利用计算机现有的更复杂的问题解答能力的方法。例如,我们正在学习如何让计算机决定某些设计规范是否得到满足,如果不满足,限制在哪里。或者,我们可能会接近一个已经设计好的流程结构,我们认为可以对其进行修改,或从中提取一些有用的子流程,并将其纳入我们正在设计的另一个流程。在这种情况下,我们得到了巨大的帮助,因为我们现在可以直接向计算机询问这种结构的能力和局限性。计算机甚至可以直接引导我们找到这些能力或局限性的特定设计特征,然后我们只需简单地检查与之相关的描述性和解释性论点,就可以看出为什么这些特征被设计到该结构中。3b8n

"But I don't want to spend a disproportionate amount of time on the computer processes. The augmented man is engaged more often in structuring what we call composite processes than he is in structuring computer processes. For instance, planning a research project, or a day's work, are examples of structuring composite processes. A composite process, remember, is organized from both human processes and computer processes—which includes, of course, the possible inclusion of lower-order composite processes. The structuring here differs from that of a computer process mainly in the sophistication of the sub-processes which can be specified for the human to do. Some of these specifications have to be given in a language which matches the human's rich working framework of concepts—and we have been demonstrating here with English for that purpose—but quite a few human-executed processes can be specified in the high-level computer-processing language even though we don't know how to describe them in that language. This means that there are quite a few composite-process structures about which the computer can answer very useful questions for us.
但我不想在电脑处理过程上花费过多时间。增强型人类更多地参与组合过程的结构化,而不是电脑处理过程的结构化。例如,规划研究项目或一天的工作都是组合过程的结构化示例。请记住,组合过程是由人类过程和电脑过程组成的 - 当然,也可能包括较低级别的组合过程。这里的结构化与电脑处理过程的结构化主要区别在于,可以为人类指定更复杂的子过程。这些规范中的一些需要用与人类丰富的概念框架相匹配的语言来表达 - 我们在这里使用英语来演示这一点 - 但也有很多人类执行的过程可以用高级计算机处理语言来指定,尽管我们无法用该语言来描述它们。这意味着,计算机可以为我们回答关于许多组合过程结构的非常有用的问题。3b8o

"But to be more specific—we find that setting up objectives, designing a method of approach, and then implementing that method are of course our fundamental operating sequence—done over and over again in the many levels of our activity. We mentioned above what the characteristic structural difference was between computer processes and composite processes. But perhaps more important to us is the difference in the way we work with composite-process structures. Here is a crude but succinct way to put this. With the human contributing to a process, we find more and more as the process becomes complex that the value of the human's contribution depends upon how much freedom he is given to be disorderly in his course of action. For instance, we provide him as much help as possible in making a plan of action. Then we give him as much help as we can in carrying it out. But we also have to allow him to change his mind at almost any point, and to want to modify his plans. So, we provide augmentation help to him for keeping track of his plans where he is in them, what has been happening in carrying them out to date—and for evaluating possibilities that might occur to him for changing the plans. In fact, we are even learning how the computer can be made to watch for some kinds of plan-change possibilities, and to point them out to the human when they arise.
但更具体地说,我们发现设立目标、设计方法和实施该方法是我们基本的操作顺序,在我们活动的许多层面上反复进行。我们上面提到了计算机过程和复合过程之间的结构差异特点。但对我们来说,更重要的是我们处理复合过程结构的方式。这里有一种简单但简洁的方式来表达这一点。当人参与一个过程时,我们发现随着过程变得越来越复杂,人的贡献价值取决于给予他多大的自由来无序地采取行动。例如,我们尽可能帮助他制定行动计划。然后我们尽可能帮助他执行。但我们也必须允许他几乎在任何时候改变主意,并想要修改他的计划。因此,我们为他提供辅助帮助,以跟踪他的计划、了解他所处的位置、迄今为止执行情况,以及评估可能出现的改变计划的可能性。 事实上,我们正在学习如何让计算机监视某些类型的计划变更的可能性,并在出现时指出给人类。3b8p

"Here's a simple example of this sort of help for the human. Last winter, we designed a computer process that can automatically monitor the occurrence of specified types of computer usage over a specified period of time, and which, from the resulting data, can deduce a surprising amount of information regarding how the human made use of that time. This was quite helpful to us for evaluating our ways of doing things. Then we added more features to the program, in which the computer occasionally interrupts the human's activity and displays some questions to be answered. From these answers, together with its normal monitoring data, the program can provide evaluative data regarding the relative success of his different work methods. Our augmentation researchers became intrigued by this angle and bore down a little on it. They came up with a package process which gives the human many different types of feedback about his progress and way of doing things. Now, as part of my regular practice, I spend about five minutes out of each hour exercising with this package. This almost always reveals things to me that change at least the slant of my approach during the next hour, and often stimulates a relatively significant change in my short-range plans.
这里有一个简单的例子来帮助人类。 去年冬天,我们设计了一个计算机流程,可以自动监控指定时间内指定类型的计算机使用情况,并从产生的数据中推断出关于人类如何利用该时间的大量信息。 这对我们评估做事方式非常有帮助。 然后我们为该程序增加了更多功能,计算机会间歇打断人类的活动并显示一些需要回答的问题。 从这些答案和正常的监控数据中,该程序可以提供关于不同工作方法相对成功程度的评估数据。 我们的增强研究人员对这个角度很感兴趣,并深入研究了一下。 他们开发了一个软件包,为人类提供各种反馈,了解他的进度和工作方式。 现在,作为我的常规实践的一部分,我每小时都会使用这个软件包运动大约5分钟。 这几乎总是会向我透露一些事情,至少会改变我下一个小时的做法取向,而且常常会激发我短期计划上的相对重大变化。3b8q

"You appreciate, of course, that I accomplish many more meaningful steps in an hour now than I used to, or than would be your norm now. This once-an-hour review for me now might compare with a once-a-day review for you, as far as the distance travelled between reviews is concerned.
您当然理解,我现在在一个小时内完成的有意义的步骤要比以前多得多,或者说要比您现在的标准多得多。就我现在的一小时复查而言,可能相当于您一天的一次复查,因为两次复查之间的距离是一样的。3b8r

"Our way of structuring the statement of our objectives, the arguments which lead to the design of our plans, and the working statements of our plans, has been influenced by this review process. We found special types of tags and descriptive codes which we could append to these respective planning structures as we developed them which later facilitated our man-computer cooperative review of them. Also, our methods of developing these structures have evolved to facilitate their later modification. For instance, every basic consideration upon which a given planning statement is based is linked to that statement as a matter of standard argument structuring. But we have taken to linking special tagging codes into these argument structures involving our planning, to identify for the computer some of the different types of dependency relationships in the antecedent linkages. Later, if we consider changing the plan, these special tags often enable us to make use of some special computer processes that automatically isolate the considerations relevant to a particular type of change we have in mind.
我们在陈述目标、设计计划论证和制定计划工作声明时的方式,受到了这一审查过程的影响。我们发现了一些特殊的标签和描述性代码,可以附加到这些相应的计划结构上,这有助于我们后来进行人机协作审查。此外,我们制定这些结构的方法也已经发展,以便于后期修改。例如,每个基本考虑因素都与相应的计划声明相关联,作为标准论证结构的一部分。但我们还会在这些论证结构中加入特殊的标签代码,以便于计算机识别计划中不同类型的依赖关系。如果我们考虑修改计划,这些特殊标签通常可以让我们利用某些特殊的计算机流程,自动隔离与我们想要进行的特定类型变更相关的考虑因素。3b8s

"Maybe an example will help here. There is a plan I am currently using for the way I go about entering miscellaneous scraps of information into my total symbol structure. It is designed so that there will be a good chance for these scraps later to be usefully integrated. It turns out that this plan is closely coupled in its design argument to the general plan for reviewing process structures—and symbol-structures, too, for that matter. Recently, I got an idea as to how I might add a little feature to that process that specially suited my particular way of wanting to deal with miscellaneous thoughts that I get. By various means, I very quickly learned that this would be easy to do if I could but reverse the order in which I execute the sub-process Steps A and B, when I enter a piece of information. I had to find out if I could safely reverse their order without getting into trouble someplace in my system.
"也许这里的一个例子会有帮助。我目前正在使用一种计划,用于输入各种碎片信息到我的整体符号结构。它的设计目的是,这些碎片日后有很好的机会被有效整合。事实证明,这个计划在其设计论点上,与审查过程结构的总体计划——以及符号结构,也是如此。最近,我得到了一个想法,如何给这个过程添加一个小功能,特别适合我想处理各种零碎想法的方式。通过各种方式,我很快就学会,如果我能逆转输入信息时执行子过程步骤 A 和步骤 B 的顺序,这将很容易实现。我必须找出是否可以安全地逆转它们的顺序,而不会给我的系统带来麻烦。3b8t

"This I could do relatively rapidly, by your standards, by snooping down the antecedent trails, looking for statements relevant to this timing question. There is, in fact, a semi-automatic processes available to me for speeding just such searches. The computer keeps track of where I have looked, where I've marked things as yes, or no, or possible, and does the bookkeeping and calculating necessary to guide me through an optimum search strategy. But the special tagging we do when we make a process structure lets this search be fully automatic when certain kinds of relationships are involved—and relative timing happens to be one of these relationships.
这我可以相对较快地做到,根据你的标准,通过追踪先前的线索,寻找与这个时间问题相关的陈述。事实上,我有一个半自动的流程来加快这种搜索。计算机会跟踪我查看的位置,以及我将某些内容标记为是、否或可能,并进行必要的记账和计算,以引导我采取最佳搜索策略。但是,当我们在制定流程结构时进行特殊标记时,某些关系就可以完全自动化——相对时间正是其中之一。3b8u

"So I phrased a question which essentially asked for considerations relevant to the order in which these two steps were executed, and turned the computer loose. It took about three seconds for the results to be forthcoming—you haven't yet seen me request a task that took a noticeable period of machine time, have you? But anyway, the computer discovered a relevance trail that ended up showing that reversing the order of Steps A and B during the information-scrap entry process would cripple a certain feature in the planning-review process, where miscellaneous thoughts and possibilities are gleaned from this store to be considered relative to the planning.
所以我提出了一个问题,其实质问的是这两个步骤的执行顺序中的相关考虑,然后让电脑去处理。结果出来大约用了三秒钟 - 你还没有见过我要求执行一个明显需要较长机器时间的任务,对吧?不管怎样,电脑发现了一条相关性线索,最终表明在信息碎片录入过程中颠倒 A 和 B 步骤的顺序会损害计划审查过程中的某个功能,在这个过程中,各种杂七杂八的想法和可能性都是从这个库中提取出来,并与计划相关进行考虑。3b8v

"But let's try to back away from details for a bit, now, and see if we can get a feeling for the significance of the things we've been talking about. Comparison with other working domains would be helpful, perhaps. If you were an inventor of useful mechanisms, you would like to have a wide range of materials-processing and shaping techniques available to you. This would give you more freedom and more interesting possibilities in the way you worked and designed. But many of these techniques are very specialized; they require special equipment, special skills to execute the processing and shaping, and special knowledge about applicability and possibilities for the techniques.
让我们暂时回避细节,来感受我们一直在讨论的事物的重要性。也许与其他工作领域的比较会很有帮助。如果你是一位有用机械的发明者,你会希望拥有广泛的材料加工和成型技术。这将为你的工作和设计方式带来更多自由和更有趣的可能性。但是,许多这些技术都是高度专门化的,它们需要特殊的设备、执行加工和成型所需的特殊技能,以及关于适用性和技术可能性的特殊知识。3b8w

"Suppose you were told that you could subscribe to a community-owned installation of special equipment—containing all sorts of wonderful instruments tools and machines for measuring and processing with such as chemical, optical, mechanical, electronic, pneumatic, vacuum, metallurgy, and human factors. But this wasn't all that was included in the subscription. There would be a specialist assigned to you, instantly available for consultation and help whenever you requested it. He wouldn't have high-level theoretical training. His specialty would be familiarity with the special manuals compiled from what the theoreticians, equipment builders, and technicians know, and being able to pinpoint relevant data and apply complex rules and specifications.
"假设你被告知,你可以订阅一个社区拥有的特殊设备的安装程序 - 包含各种各样的 wonderful 仪器、工具和机器,用于测量和加工,如化学、光学、机械、电子、气动、真空、冶金和人机因素。但这并不是订阅中包含的全部。还会有一位专家被分配给你,无论何时你需要咨询和帮助,他都会立即提供。他没有高级理论培训。他的专长是熟悉由理论家、设备制造商和技术人员编写的特殊手册,并能够确定相关数据并应用复杂的规则和规范。3b8x 3b8x"

"A lot of questions you might ask he couldn't answer directly, but in such a case he could often lead you quickly to some relevant pages in his books. You discovered that usually a succession of well-chosen questions of the sort he could answer, interspersed with your occasional study of succinct and relevant material he'd dig up for you, could very rapidly develop answers to conceptually sophisticated questions. His help in your minute-by-minute designing work could be extremely valuable—availing you of quick and realistic consideration of a great many new design possibilities.
很多你可能会问的问题他无法直接回答,但在这种情况下,他通常可以快速引导你到他书中的一些相关页面。你发现,通常通过一系列他能回答的精心选择的问题,穿插着你偶尔研究他为你挖掘的简洁相关材料,就可以很快得到对概念复杂问题的答案。他在你分分秒秒的设计工作中提供的帮助是非常宝贵的——让你能够快速、切实地考虑大量新的设计可能性。3b8y

"Similarly, when it came to carrying out a planned set of operations, it turned out that he couldn't carry out all of the processes for you—he could manage complex rules and procedures beautifully, but he would break down when it came to steps that required what you might call a larger view of the situation. But this wasn't so bad. The set of routine processes which he could manage all alone still provided you with a great deal of help—in fact, you got to developing ways to build things so as to capitalize upon his efficiency at these tasks. Then the processes which were too much for him would be done by the two of you together. He filled in all the routine stuff and you took care of the steps that were beyond his capability Often the steps you had to take care of were buried in the middle of a complex routine whose over-all nature didn't have to be understood by either of you for proper execution. Your helper would keep track of the complex procedure and execute all the steps he could. When he came to a step that was too big for him, he would hand you enough information to allow you to take that step, whereupon he would take over again until he met another such step.
同样地,当涉及执行一组计划好的操作时,结果发现他无法完成所有的流程 - 他可以出色地管理复杂的规则和程序,但当涉及需要你可能称之为更广阔视角的步骤时,他就会崩溃。但这并不太糟糕。他独自可以管理的一系列常规流程仍然为你提供了很大帮助 - 事实上,你开始开发方法来构建事物,以利用他在这些任务中的效率。然后,对他来说太过复杂的流程由你们两个人一起完成。他填补了所有常规的东西,而你照顾了超出他能力的步骤。通常,你必须采取的步骤埋藏在复杂的常规过程的中间,而这个过程的整体性质不需要你们任何一个人都理解就可以正确执行。你的助手会跟踪复杂的过程并执行他能做的所有步骤。当他遇到一个太大的步骤时,他会给你足够的信息让你完成那一步,然后他会再次接管,直到遇到另一个这样的步骤。3b8z

"As an inventor and builder of devices that solve needs, you could become a great deal more versatile and productive, applying your imagination, intuition, judgment, and intelligence very effectively over a much wider range of possibilities. You could tackle much more complex and sophisticated projects, you could come up with very much better results—neater, cheaper, more reliable, more versatile, higher-quality performance—and you could work faster. Your effectiveness in this domain of activity would be considerably increased.
作为一个解决需求的发明家和制造商,您可以变得更加多才多艺和高效,通过运用您的想象力、直觉、判断力和智慧,在更广泛的可能性范围内发挥效力。您可以处理更加复杂和精密的项目,获得更好的结果——更整洁、更便宜、更可靠、更多才多艺、性能更优质——并且工作更快。在这个活动领域,您的效率将大大提高。3b8aa

"So let's turn back to the working domain which we are considering here. It is an intellectual one, where the processing and shaping done is of conceptual material rather than physical material. But between these two types of working domains we nonetheless find closely analogous conditions relative to the variety and sophistication of the processes and techniques applicable to what nonroutine workers do. Consider the intellectual domain of a creative problem solver, and listen to me rattle off the names of some specialized disciplines that come to mind. These esoteric disciplines could very possibly contribute specialized processes and techniques to a general worker in the intellectual domain: Formal logic—mathematics of many varieties, including statistics—decision theory—game theory—time and motion analysis—operations research—classification theory—documentation theory—cost accounting, for time, energy, or money—dynamic programming—computer programming. These are only a few of the total, I'm sure.
所以让我们回到我们正在考虑的工作领域。这是一个智力领域,在这里,处理和塑造的是概念性材料而不是物理材料。但是在这两种类型的工作领域之间,我们仍然发现了与适用于非常规工人所做的过程和技术的多样性和复杂性相关的密切类似条件。考虑一个创造性问题解决者的智力领域,听我列举一些来到脑海中的专门学科的名称。这些深奥的学科很可能为智力领域的一般工人贡献专门的过程和技术:形式逻辑-包括统计在内的各种数学-决策理论-博弈论-时间和运动分析-运筹学-分类理论-文献理论-时间、能量或金钱的成本会计-动态规划-计算机编程。这只是总数中的一小部分,我相信。3b8ab

"This implies the range of potentially applicable processes. Realize that there is also a correspondingly large list of specialized materials potentially usable in the fabrications of the intellectual worker. I speak, of course, about the conceptual material in the many different fields of human interest. The things that I have been demonstrating to you this afternoon were designed to increase significantly the range of both processes and materials over which a human can practically operate within this intellectual domain. You might say that we do this by providing him with a very fast, agile vehicle, equipped with all sorts of high-performance sensory equipment and navigational aids, and carrying very flexible, powerful, semi-automatic devices for operating upon the materials of this domain. Not only that, but to provide an accurate analogy, we have to give him a computer to help him organize and monitor his activity and assess his results. We get direct help on many levels of activity in our system, you see.
这暗示了潜在适用过程的范围。请意识到,在知识工作者的制造中,也有一个相应庞大的专门材料列表。我当然是在谈论人类兴趣的许多不同领域中的概念性材料。我今天下午向您展示的东西是为了显著增加人类在这个知识领域内实际操作的过程和材料的范围。您可以说,我们通过为他提供一辆非常快速、灵活的车辆,配备各种高性能的传感设备和导航辅助设备,并携带非常灵活、强大的半自动设备来操作这个领域的材料来实现这一目标。不仅如此,为了提供一个准确的类比,我们还必须给他一台计算机来帮助他组织和监控他的活动,并评估他的结果。在我们的系统中,我们在许多活动层面上都得到了直接的帮助,您看。3b8ac

"But back to the topic of tools, and the analogy of the inventor who was given the equipment and the helper. Our augmented intellectual worker gets essentially this same kind of service, only more so—a compounding of this kind of service. Structuring our processes with care and precision enables the computer to answer limited questions, to guide you to relevant descriptions and specifications within its structure, to execute complex but limited-grasp processes on its own, and to take care of complex rule and procedure-following bookkeeping in guiding the execution of sophisticated composite processes. This actually makes it practical to use many specialized processes and techniques from very esoteric fields—to assess their applicability and limitations quickly, to incorporate them intelligently into the design and analysis of possible courses of action, and to execute them efficiently.
但回到工具的话题,以及发明家被赋予设备和助手的类比。我们的增强型智力工作者获得了基本上相同的服务,甚至更多——这种服务的复合。精心构建我们的流程可以让计算机回答有限的问题,引导您访问其结构中的相关描述和规范,独立执行复杂但理解有限的过程,并在指导复杂的复合过程执行时处理复杂的规则和程序跟踪。这实际上使得使用来自非常深奥领域的许多专门的过程和技术变得切实可行——快速评估它们的适用性和局限性,将它们智能地纳入可能行动方案的设计和分析,并有效地执行它们。3b8ad

"Our specialized processes represent a beautiful collection of special tools. These tools are designed by specialists, and they come equipped with operating instructions, trouble-shooting hints, and complete design data. Furthermore, we are provided with other tools that help us determine the applicability of these tools by automatically operating upon the instruction manual for us. Further, if something goes wrong with one of these tools, if we want to design a new tool of our own and make use of one of its modular components, or if we want to rearrange some of its adjustable features, we get considerable help in learning what we have to know about its design, and in making adjustments or coupling a part of it to another tool. Our shop contains an efficient tool-making section, where we can design and build our own tools from scratch, or by incorporating parts or all of any other tools we have.
我们的专业流程代表了一系列独特工具的精选集合。这些工具由专家设计,并附有操作说明、故障排查提示和完整的设计数据。此外,我们还拥有其他工具,可以通过自动操作说明手册来确定这些工具的适用性。此外,如果这些工具出现问题,或者我们想要设计一个新的工具并使用其中的模块化组件,又或者想要调整其可调节的功能,我们都能获得大量关于其设计的知识,并进行调整或将其部件与其他工具相结合。我们的车间设有一个高效的工具制造部门,在那里我们可以从头开始设计和制造自己的工具,或者利用我们拥有的任何其他工具的部件或全部。3b8ae

"Let me tell you of an interesting feature stemming from my using such improved Process-structuring techniques. An effective job of breaking down a complex problem into humanly manageable steps—and this is essentially what we seek in our process structuring—will provide the human with something to do at every turn. This may be to ponder or go searching, true enough—we aren't saying that the steps are necessarily straightforward. But the point I want to make is that no longer am I ever at a loss as to what to do next. I get stuck at times, to be sure, but when I do I have clean and direct ways to satisfy myself that I should just beat away at that roadblock for the time being.
让我告诉你一个有趣的特点,源自我使用如此改进的流程结构技术。有效地将一个复杂的问题分解为人类可管理的步骤——这就是我们在流程结构化中所寻求的本质——将为人类提供每个转折点上应该做的事情。这可能是思考或搜索,这是确实如此——我们并不是说这些步骤necessarily是直接的。但我想要说明的是,我再也没有对下一步该做什么感到无助。有时我会陷入困境,但当我遇到困难时,我有干净明确的方法来说服自己,我应该暂时集中精力破解这个障碍。3b8af

"And then, for beating away at the roadblock, my bookkeeping regarding what I've tried, what possibilities I've collected, and what my assumptions and objectives are, is good enough to help tremendously in keeping me from getting into loops and quandaries, in carefully exhausting possibilities, and in really analyzing my assumptions and objectives. What's more, I'm not generating reams of cyclic arguments, lists, calculations, or the like—either I'm checking the validity of what I've already structured, or I am correcting or expanding the structure. In other words, it seems that the growth of my comprehension is sure and steady up to the point at which I succeed or give up. If I give up, I leave a structure which is very well organized to accommodate a subsequent revisit with new data, possibilities, assumptions, objectives, or tools. Also, I set up a sentinel process that will operate in the future to help alert me to concepts which may clear the block.
对于消除路障的努力,我维护了对已尝试方案、收集的可能性、假设和目标的记录,这在避免陷入循环和困境、仔细穷尽可能性以及认真分析假设和目标方面帮助巨大。更重要的是,我没有生成大量循环性论点、列表、计算或类似内容——要么我在检查已建立结构的有效性,要么我在修正或扩展该结构。换句话说,我的理解似乎稳步增长,直到我成功或放弃为止。如果我放弃,我会留下一个非常良好组织的结构,以便日后在新的数据、可能性、假设、目标或工具的基础上重新访问。同时,我还设置了一个哨兵进程,未来将帮助我警示可能解决障碍的概念。3b8ag

"This feature, of always having satisfying actions to perform, and having a good feeling that they are what I should be doing at that time, gives a surprisingly contented, eager, and absorbing flavor to my work. I guess it's an adult instance of the sort of change observed in students when they were given teaching machines that provided continuous participation and reinforcement.
这种总是有令人满意的行动可以执行,并且有一种良好的感觉,即这些正是我当时应该做的事情,给我的工作一种令人惊讶的满足、急切和专注的味道。我想这是学生们使用提供持续参与和强化的教学机器时所观察到的变化的成年版本。3b8ah

"Anyway, with the quick flexibility available to me for structuring arguments, and semi-automatic application of special tagging and linking rules, I find it really quite easy to construct, use, or modify sophisticated process structuring. And I can turn right around and apply this toward improving my ability for structuring arguments and processes. The initial, straightforward capabilities for manipulating symbol structures, that were more or less obviously availed me by the computer have given to me a power to participate in more sophisticated processes that capitalize more fully upon the computer's capability—processes which are very significant to my net effectiveness, and yet which weren't particularly apparent to us as either possible or useful in the days before we started harnessing computers to the human's workaday activities in this direct way.'
总之,凭借我可以灵活快速地构建论点,并半自动应用特殊标记和链接规则,我发现构建、使用或修改复杂的过程结构真的很容易。我可以立即将此应用于提高我构建论点和过程的能力。计算机为我提供的操作符号结构的基本直接功能,赋予了我参与更复杂过程的能力,这些过程能更充分利用计算机的功能,对我的整体效率非常重要,但在我们开始以这种直接方式将计算机应用于日常活动之前,这些过程并不太明显。3b8ai 三八八艾

"Let me mention another bonus feature that wasn't easily fore seen. We have experimented with having several people work together from working stations that can provide inter-communication via their computer or computers. That is, each person is equipped as I am here, with free access to the common working structures. There proves to be a really phenomenal boost in group effectiveness over any previous form of cooperation we have experienced. They can all work on the same symbol structure, wherever they might wish. If any two want to work simultaneously on the same material, they simply duplicate and each starts reshaping his version—and later it is easy to merge their contributions. The whole team can join forces at a moment's notice to 'pull together' on some stubborn little problem, or to make a group decision. Most points of contention are resolved quite naturally, over a period of time, as the developing structure of argument bears out one, or the other, or neither stand.
让我再提一个意想不到的附加功能。我们尝试让多人通过电脑进行协作和交流。也就是说,每个人都像我一样,可以自由访问共同的工作结构。这种方式比我们以前经历过的任何形式的合作都有显著的效果提升。他们可以在任何地方共同处理同一个符号结构。如果两个人想同时处理同一个材料,他们只需复制并各自重塑自己的版本,之后很容易合并他们的贡献。整个团队可以随时集中精力解决一些棘手的小问题,或做出集体决策。随着论点结构的发展,大多数争议点都会自然得到解决,无论是支持一方、另一方还是两者都不支持。3b9a

"No one can dominate the show, since seldom do you have to 'listen' to the person concurrent to the developments he is pursuing—and yet at any time another person can tune in on what he has done and is doing. One can either take immediate personal issue with another about some feature, anywhere in the structure where he might find something done by the other to which he wants to take issue, or he can append his objection and the associated argument there where the disagreement lies, and tag this with a special cue that signals a point of contention that must ultimately be resolved. Any idea of the moment by any member can easily be linked to where it can do some good. It gets to be like a real whing-ding free-for-all—tremendously stimulating and satisfying, and things really get done. You find yourself 'playing over your head' almost all of the time.
没有人能主导这个节目,因为很少有人需要'倾听'正在追求某些发展的人——但是任何时候另一个人都可以关注他所做的和正在做的事情。一个人可以立即就某个特征与另一个人产生个人争议,在结构的任何地方他都可能发现另一个人做的事情让他想要争议,或者他可以在存在分歧的地方附上他的异议和相关论点,并用一个特殊的线索标记这是一个必须最终解决的争议点。任何成员当下的任何想法都可以很容易地与可以发挥作用的地方联系起来。它变得像一个真正的自由混战——非常刺激和令人满足,而且真的能完成事情。你发现自己几乎一直都在'超越自己的水平'。3b9b

"We have been experimenting with multi-disciplinary teams and are becoming especially excited over the results. For instance, there is a great reduction of the barrier that their different terminologies used to represent, where one specialist couldn't really apply his experience, intuition, or conceptual feel very well unless the situation could be stated and framed in his accustomed manner, and yet the others couldn't work with his terminology. Here, they meet at their concept and terminology interface and work out little shifts in meaning and use which each can find digestible in his system, and which permit quite precise definitions in each system of the terms and concepts in the others. In studying the other's structuring then, either of them can have his own definitions automatically substituted for the other's special terms. Reduce this language barrier, and provide the feature of their being able to work in parallel independence on the joint structure, and what seems to result is amplification of their different capabilities.
我们一直在尝试跨学科团队合作,并且对取得的成果越来越兴奋。例如,他们之前所使用的不同术语所造成的障碍已经大大减少。一个专家通常只能在他熟悉的方式下陈述和表述的情况下,才能真正运用他的经验、直觉或概念理解,而其他人却无法使用他的术语。但现在,他们在概念和术语的交界处达成共识,并对双方都能接受的某些细微差异进行了解,从而使得每个人在各自的系统中都能对其他人的术语和概念进行精确定义。在了解了对方的结构之后,任何一方都可以自动将自己熟悉的定义替换为他人特有的术语。减少这种语言障碍,并使他们能够并行独立地在共同结构上工作,似乎就能够放大他们不同的能力。3b9c

"Remember the term, synergesis, that has been associated in the literature with general structuring theory? Well, here is something of an example. Three people working together in this augmented mode seem to be more than three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is one augmented person working alone—and perhaps ten times as effective as three similar men working together without this computer-based augmentation. It is a new and exhiliarating experience to be working in this independent-parallel fashion with some good men. We feel that the effect of these augmentation developments upon group methods and group capability is actually going to be more pronounced than the effect upon individuals methods and capabilities, and we are very eager to increase our research effort in that direction."
回想一下文献中与普遍结构理论相关联的术语"协同效应"。这里有一个例子。三个人在这种增强模式下共同工作,解决一个复杂问题的效率,似乎要比一个单独的增强型人工智能系统高出三倍以上,甚至可能达到未经增强的三个人的十倍。能够以这种独立并行的方式与优秀的伙伴共事,这是一种全新而兴奋的体验。我们认为,这些增强技术对小组方法和小组能力的影响,实际上将比对个人方法和能力的影响更加显著,我们非常期待能够加强在这个方向上的研究力度。3b9d

"I have dragged you through a lot of different concepts and methods so far. I haven't been complete because we won't have the time. But I have selected the sample features to present to you with an eye toward giving you a maximum chance to identify these as being something significant to your own type of work. I avoided discussing techniques applicable to esoteric problem-solving processes—although some of them display especially stimulating possibilities to those with appropriate backgrounds. The ability to structure arguments organized in English-language statements, and to make use of the linking and tagging capabilities at all levels of the structure, can be seen to lead to many interesting and promising new capabilities for organizing your thoughts and actions. I think you could picture learning these tricks and using them in your own work.
我已经通过大量不同的概念和方法来引导你。由于时间有限,我并没有完全涉及所有内容。但我选取了示例特性向你展示,目的是让你能够认识到这些特性对于你自己的工作类型来说是非常重要的。我避免了讨论适用于深奥问题解决过程的技术,尽管其中一些特别刺激了具有适当背景的人的可能性。使用英语语句组织论点的能力,以及在结构的所有层次上利用链接和标记功能,可以看到许多有趣和有前景的新能力,这有助于组织你的思想和行动。我认为你可以学习这些技巧,并在自己的工作中使用它们。3b10a

"What I hoped to avoid by presenting the system in this way, was losing your identification with these possibilities by letting you get the mistaken impression that an individual couldn't harness these techniques usefully unless he first learned a lot of very sophisticated new language, logic and math. It is true that the more of the sophisticated tricks you learn, the more computer power you can harness and the more powerful you become—but very significant and personally thrilling practical problem-solving capabilities have been developed by quite a few subjects who were given only fifteen hours of training at one of these stations. The training, incidentally, was all provided by the computer without the presence of a human instructor. And the people were of such diverse fields as sociology, biology, engineering management, applied mathematics, and law. These were all relatively high-level people, and they were completely and unreservedly unanimous in their faith that their increased capability would easily justify the capital and operating outlay that we predicted for work stations of this sort in five years, if the computer industry really were to take this type of potential market seriously.
"我希望通过这种方式呈现这个系统,避免让你产生一种错误的印象,即个人在没有先学习大量复杂的新语言、逻辑和数学之前,就无法有效利用这些技术。事实上,你学会的复杂技巧越多,你就能利用的计算机能力越强,你也就越强大。但是,即使只接受了这些站点之一的15小时培训,也有很多人已经开发出非常重要和令人兴奋的实际问题解决能力。值得一提的是,这些培训全部由计算机提供,没有人类教师的参与。参加培训的人来自社会学、生物学、工程管理、应用数学和法律等各种不同领域。" 这些都是相对高层的人,他们对于他们的能力提升能够轻易证明我们预测在五年内这类工作站所需的资本和运营支出的信念,是完全和毫无保留的一致的,如果计算机行业真的认真对待这种潜在市场的话。3b10b

"What these people became capable of was somewhat less than the range of capabilities that we have discussed so far—but they would find it very natural to develop further techniques on their own, and new teaching programs could be provided them so that they could continue learning the improved techniques turned out by a research group such as ours here.
这些人所具备的能力稍微不及我们目前讨论的范围,但他们会发现自己很自然地发展出更多技术,而且我们这样的研究小组可以为他们提供新的教学计划,以便他们继续学习改进后的技术。3b10c

"But let me give you a brief view of some of the more advanced concepts and techniques that have evolved here, compatible with, but beyond, what I have so far shown you. And evolved is a good word to use here, because our appreciation for the potential worth of possibilities to be developed had to evolve too, and only came with the experience and perspective gained in our earlier work.
"但是,让我给你简单介绍一下这里已经发展出来的一些更高级的概念和技术,它们与我到目前为止向你展示的内容兼容,但又超越了它们。这里使用"发展"这个词是恰当的,因为我们对待待开发的可能性的潜在价值的认识也必须经历发展,只有通过我们之前工作中获得的经验和视角,我们才能达到这种认识。3b10d

"For instance, we initially felt that defining categories and relationships, and making a plan for action, were things to be done as quickly as possible so that we could get on with the work. But, as our means developed for dealing with definitions and plans more precisely, easily, and flexibly, we began to realize that they in reality might be the most significant part of that work. With our immensely increased capability for complex bookkeeping relative to our interlaced hierarchies of objectives, plans, and arguments, we found that defining a new category, searching for members or instances of it, or applying its selection criteria were becoming ever conscious and specific tasks.
例如,我们最初认为定义类别和关系,并制定行动计划,应该尽快完成,这样我们就可以开始工作了。但是,随着我们处理定义和计划的能力变得更加精确、简单和灵活,我们开始意识到,它们实际上可能是这项工作中最重要的部分。随着我们对目标、计划和论点的复杂层级关系的能力大大增强,我们发现定义新类别、搜索其成员或实例,或应用其选择标准,都变成了越来越有意识和具体的任务。3b10e

"For instance, we began to find it more and more useful to distinguish different categories or types of process, different types of arguments, different types of relationships, and different types of descriptions. For a specific example, Ranganathan^*2* once cited five specific relationships that could obtain between two terms, where one modifies the other. He called these phase relations, and named how one term could relate to the other as either biasing it, being a tool used to study it, being an aspect of it, being in comparison with it, or influencing it. Vickery gave more examples, saying one could also have an effect on the other, be a cause of it, be a use for it, be a substitute for it, a source for it, an implication of it, be an explanation of it, or be a representation of it. There are even more categories mentioned in the literature.
例如,我们开始越来越发现区分不同类型或类别的过程、不同类型的论点、不同类型的关系以及不同类型的描述是很有用的。举一个具体的例子,Ranganathan ^*2* 曾经引用了五种可以在两个术语之间获得的特定关系,其中一个修饰另一个。他称这些为阶段关系,并命名一个术语如何与另一个相关,即或者偏向它、用作研究它的工具、是它的一个方面、与之相比较或影响它。Vickery 给出了更多的例子,说还可以是对另一个产生影响、是它的原因、是它的用途、是它的替代品、是它的来源、是它的暗示、是它的解释或是它的表示。文献中还提到了更多的类别。3b10f

"It was easy to form tags and links, and we experimented with the gains to be made by consciously specifying and indicating categories. It turned out to be a very invigorating innovation, and we began to take more pains with our structuring. It took longer to set up links and nodes in our structures, to be sure, but we found on the one hand that the structures became much cleaner and required fewer members, and on the other hand that we could get considerably more sophisticated help from the computer in doing significant chores for us.
这很容易形成标签和链接,我们尝试通过有意识地指定和表示类别来获得收益。这证明是一个非常振奋人心的创新,我们开始更加注重我们的结构。当然,在我们的结构中设置链接和节点需要更长的时间,但我们发现一方面结构变得更加简洁,需要的成员更少,另一方面我们可以从计算机那里获得更复杂的帮助来完成重要的工作。3b10g

"We began to work up processes that would help us establish categories, give them good definitions, check their relationship with other established categories, decide whether something fit a given category or not, search for all possible members of it within a given substructure, and so forth. The very fact of using this careful classification within our structures allowed us to get more powerful help from the computer in these classification processes. I should mention that the relationships among the terms in a sentence—the syntax if you wish—had been given further specification tags than those I showed you earlier, to remove ambiguities that hindered the computer from going back to a statement and resolving the syntactical structure. Also, ambiguities in the meaning of the terms began to limit us, and we developed methods for removing a good deal of this semantic ambiguity. This slowed us down, as I've mentioned, but not as much as you'd think.
我们开始制定有助于我们建立类别、为其提供良好定义、检查其与其他既定类别的关系、决定某物是否符合给定类别或不符合,以及在给定子结构内搜索其所有可能成员等的过程。在我们的结构中使用这种谨慎的分类确实使我们从计算机那里获得了更强大的帮助。我必须提到,句子中术语之间的关系——如果您愿意的话,语法——已经比我之前向您展示的更进一步的规范化标记,以消除阻碍计算机回到一条语句并解决句法结构的歧义。此外,术语含义的歧义也开始限制我们,我们开发了消除大部分这种语义歧义的方法。正如我提到的,这使我们减慢了速度,但并没有您所想象的那么多。3b10h

"Let me demonstrate one of the advanced processes which has evolved. It is heavily dependent upon the very care in building structures that it so nicely facilitates, and also upon several other developments. One of these other developments stems from the concepts and techniques of the semantic differential, as first introduced by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum^*3* back in 1957, and from some subsequent work by Mayer and Bagley^*4* on what they called semantic models. These offered useful possibilities for establishing quite precisely what meaning a concept has to an individual, relative to his general conceptual framework, and for representing this meaning in a specific way that was amenable to computer manipulation.
让我演示一种已经发展的高级过程。它严重依赖于它所很好地促进的建构结构的精心呵护,也依赖于其他一些发展。其他发展之一源于奥斯古德、苏西和坦南鲍姆 ^*3* 在 1957 年首次引入的语义差异概念和技术,以及梅耶和巴格利 ^*4* 对他们所谓的语义模型进行的后续工作。这些为精确确定一个概念对个人的意义以及以一种适合于计算机操作的特定方式表示这种意义提供了有用的可能性。3b10i

"The other development upon which this process to be exhibited is based, was stimulated by our realizing that flexible cooperation with the computer was calling for lots of little interactions. Our working repertoire of small-task requests for computer service was getting quite large, and it was proving to be extremely valuable to use them and to be able to remember automatically their procedures and designation codes. One of our research psychologists had worked on human-memory phenomena before he came with us, and had interested himself in mnemonic aids of all sorts. He has developed some useful techniques for us to use in connection with this, and other problems. Now let me demonstrate this example of an advanced process for helping work with categories.
这一过程所依托的另一种发展被激发,源于我们认识到与计算机进行灵活合作需要大量的微小交互。我们对电脑服务的小任务请求的工作目录变得非常庞大,能自动记住它们的程序和指定代码证明极其有价值。我们的一位研究心理学家在来到这里之前曾研究过人类记忆现象,对各种助记方法产生了兴趣。他为我们开发了一些在这一问题以及其他问题上使用的有用技术。现在让我演示一个帮助处理类别的先进过程。3b10j

"Suppose that I want to establish a new category. Let's say that I have developed its description in what you and I have been calling an argument structure. I want to give it a name—a short and meaningful one—and I want a good definition. In fact, I want a definition that the computer can later work with. Look, I'll dig up a description that is awaiting such a definition, and you can watch what happens." So saying, Joe drummed on his keysets for a moment, with one interruption when the computer flashed something on the screen that was apparently a question about what he was asking the computer to find for him. He finally had a network display on one screen and a set of "exploded" statements on the upper half of the other.
"假设我想建立一个新的类别。我们说,我已经在我们所谓的论证结构中开发了它的描述。我想给它起个名字,一个简短而有意义的名字,并且我想要一个好的定义。事实上,我想要一个计算机以后可以使用的定义。看,我会挖掘一个等待这样定义的描述,你可以看看会发生什么。"说完,乔敲了一会儿键盘,当电脑在屏幕上闪现一些东西时,那似乎是关于他让电脑为他找到什么的问题。最后,他在一个屏幕上显示了一个网络,在另一个屏幕的上半部分显示了一组"爆炸"的语句。3b10k

"I'm initiating the naming and defining process now, and designating to it the argument structure represented by this network as what I want named and defined. Watch what happens." A few more strokes on the keyset, and he picked up his light pen in anticipation and waited a few moments. A statement appeared in the lower half of the second frame. He studied it a moment, then looked at the statements above, picked out a node on the network with the pen, and hit the keyset a few strokes. Another statement flashed on almost immediately, with two familiar adjectives placed below and a graduated line between them. Joe studied this, referred to the statements above, flipped through several levels of network portrayals, through a few statements representing a couple of low-level nodes, reflected a moment, and then pointed his light pen at a point on the graduated line, part way between the adjectives, and pressed its button.
"现在我正在启动命名和定义过程,并将这个网络所代表的参数结构指定为我想要命名和定义的对象。看看会发生什么。"在键盘上再敲几下,他拿起光笔期待地等了几秒钟。第二帧的下半部分出现了一个陈述。他研究了一会儿,然后看看上面的陈述,用笔点中网络上的一个节点,并且在键盘上敲了几下。几乎立即就出现了另一个声明,下面有两个熟悉的形容词,中间有一条渐变的线。乔研究了一下,参考了上面的声明,翻阅了几个层次的网络描述,经过了几个代表几个低层节点的声明,反思了一会儿,然后用光笔指着渐变线上的一个点,按下了按钮。3b10l

"Actually, right now I'm demonstrating a cooperative process execution technique. This process is applying some very sophisticated criteria and using some very sophisticated analytical techniques, and it is set up so that it is actually the computer that is now in the executive seat. I called for the process, but its execution essentially involves the computer's asking me questions, and feeding me successive questions according to how I've answered the previous ones. It also is doing a lot of work on the symbol structure that represents my description. It, with some small help from me, is proceeding through a quite complex analysis of the meaning that this incipient concept has to me, and of certain types of mental associations that I may have with it. I don't have to remember the special rules and forms of analysis involved—nevertheless, a very sophisticated little capability is mine to use at will, taxing neither me nor the computer."
实际上,我现在正在演示一种合作的过程执行技术。这个过程应用了一些非常复杂的标准和分析技术,并且设置为由计算机来执行。我发起了这个过程,但它的执行实质上涉及计算机向我提出问题,并根据我对前一个问题的回答给出后续问题。它还对代表我描述的符号结构进行了大量工作。它在我的帮助下,正在进行一个相当复杂的分析,以了解这个初始概念对我来说意味着什么,以及我可能与之相关的某些类型的心理联系。我不需要记住涉及的特殊规则和分析形式,但我可以随意使用这个非常复杂的小功能,而不会给我或计算机带来负担。3b10m

After a little over a minute of these question-answer interactions, the process apparently terminated, with four lines of special terms remaining on the screen. "This first line gives me two suggested names for this category or concept. The first term is a newly coined formal name, while the remaining three terms represent a compound expression, involving established concepts, that can be used also as a designation of the new category. The second line furnishes me with an association chain to use for a mnemonic aid in remembering the new name—linking the name to several characteristics of the concept. The name itself was selected under mnemonic criteria, as well as to have a structure that goes with its syntactic and semantic categories. The third line lists the names of some previously defined categories or concepts that are the closest to this in meaning—these before the break were found to overlap, and the rest are just close.
这段文字的简体中文翻译如下: 在这些问题-回答互动进行了一分多钟后,该过程显然终止,屏幕上仍然有四行特殊术语。 第一行给出了两个建议名称,一个是新创造的正式名称,另三个是涉及已有概念的复合表达式,也可作为新类别的称呼。 第二行提供了一个联想链,作为记忆新名称的助记工具,将名称与概念的几个特点联系起来。这个名称本身是根据助记标准选择的,并且其结构与语法和语义类别相匹配。 第三行列出了一些先前定义的最接近此概念含义的类别或概念名称 - 在破折号之前发现有重叠,其余则只是比较接近。3b10n

"The fourth line you recognize as a statement form, perhaps. This is the definition, as developed by the computer. It's in a special language and I won't try to explain. I'll just mention that I can now study it, take it apart, check its references, so to speak, and perhaps even see if the computer and I might work out any changes or improvements. But this process has been worked on pretty hard, and we're getting definitions that are hard to improve.
"你可能认出第四行是一个陈述形式。这是由计算机开发的定义。它使用的是一种特殊的语言,我不会尝试解释。我只是想提一下,我现在可以研究它,拆分它,检查它的引用,也许甚至可以看看计算机和我是否可以进行任何更改或改进。但是这个过程已经被非常努力地研究过了,我们得到的定义很难进一步改进。"3b10o

"This special language, in which I said the definition was stated, is a recent development. We had found that the types of structuring we were developing had a lot of extra tags and links that were traceable to the complexity of the rules and combinatorial possibilities of the English language with which the statements were construct We finally got a clear enough picture of the requirements we place upon a language in our use here that we could consider designing our own special language. It turned out to be a straightforward and rather simple language compared with English, but much more precise and powerful. It proves rather inflexible and awkward to use for speaking, but it provides plenty of flexibility and power for expressing things in the visual-symbol forms that we use. Its precision leaves no syntactic ambiguity in a well-formed statement, and makes it much easier to reduce semantic ambiguity to the point where the computer can deal with our statements much as it can with mathematical or formal-logic expressionc
这种特殊语言,我在其中说明了定义,是最近发展起来的。我们发现,我们正在开发的结构类型有大量额外的标签和链接,这可以追溯到英语语言的复杂性及其陈述的组合可能性。我们最终对我们在这里使用的语言的要求有了足够清晰的认识,可以考虑设计自己的特殊语言。与英语相比,它是一种简单直接的语言,但更加精确和强大。它对于口语使用来说相当僵硬和笨拙,但为使用我们使用的视觉符号形式表达事物提供了足够的灵活性和力量。它的精确性消除了语法上的任何歧义,使计算机可以像处理数学或形式逻辑表达式一样处理我们的陈述,从而大大降低了语义歧义。3b10p

"It is worth mentioning, too, that we are experimenting with standard ways of structuring arguments at levels higher than the statements—sort of a super grammar or syntax, with rules for assembling argument modules of different function into what becomes a well-formed higher-level argument module. There are some mixed feelings around here about this possibility, but I myself have become very much excited by it.
"值得一提的是,我们正在试验以标准方式构建高于语句级别的论点,一种超级语法或语法,有规则将不同功能的论点模块组装成一个良构的更高级别的论点模块。对于这种可能性,这里有一些复杂的感受,但我自己对此非常兴奋。3b10q

"Also we have been introducing formal methods for manipulating what you might call reasonable statements—as opposed to absolute true false statements which the more familiar formal logic can manipulate. This finds approval and faith in all of us here, but it is going a bit slowly.
"我们还一直在引入操纵您可能称之为合理陈述的正式方法,而不是更熟悉的形式逻辑可以操纵的绝对真假陈述。这在我们这里得到了认可和信任,但进展有点慢。3b10r

"Let's run over some of the results we've seen to date, stemming from this new language and the new semantic awareness thus given the computer. If it can get hold of and manipulate important aspects of the meaning that is contained in our structures, it can develop answers to some questions for which there existed only conceptually implicit data. With practice and good strategy, asking questions like this proves to be a tremendously effective way to gain comprehension about a structure. We even have special processes and symbol-structuring methods to help organize the questioning and the answers. Some of the answers are a bit costly, however—in computer time and charges—and we have to watch the way we ask questions. Some of our researchers are studying the language and structuring techniques relative to this problem, and they think they see ways to change them to make question answering generally more efficient. But this sort of thing will likely always have its cost problems, as far as we can see now."
让我们回顾一下到目前为止我们看到的一些结果,源于这种新的语言和计算机获得的新的语义意识。如果它能掌握和操纵包含在我们结构中的重要含义方面,它就可以为某些只有潜在隐含数据的问题开发答案。通过练习和良好的策略,提出这样的问题证明是一种获得对结构有深入理解的非常有效的方法。我们甚至有特殊的过程和符号结构方法来帮助组织提问和回答。然而,其中一些答案的成本有点高昂——在计算机时间和费用方面——我们必须小心我们提出的问题方式。我们的一些研究人员正在研究相对于这个问题的语言和结构技术,他们认为他们看到了改变它们的方法,使问答总的来说更有效率。但就我们现在所看到的,这种情况很可能永远都会有成本问题。3b10s

He went on to say that the computer now represents such an intelligent helper—although much less so than any human helper they would hire—that they refer to it as the Clerk. They can make a tentative new statement in the development of a structure, and have the clerk look over the structure to detect inconsistency or redundancy. The Clerk can also point out some of the weaknesses in the statement, as well as some of the effects of the statement upon the rest of the structure. They find that they need to give less and less human concern for the details of structure building—in fact, the roles have reversed a little. Where the human used to set up tags and links so the computer could find its way around the structure as it ran errands for him, they now have the computer studiously installing similar things that are for the benefit of the human when he is studying the structure.
他接着说,计算机现在代表了如此智能的助手——尽管远不及他们雇用的任何人类助手——他们将其称为"书记员"。他们可以在结构开发过程中做出初步新陈述,然后让书记员检查结构,以发现不一致或冗余之处。书记员还可以指出陈述中的一些弱点,以及对整个结构的影响。他们发现,越来越不需要人类过多关注结构建设的细节——事实上,角色有些许逆转。人类过去需要设置标签和链接,以便计算机在为他执行各项差事时能够找到方向,现在他们让计算机认真地安装类似的东西,以便于人类研究结构。3b10t

He also mentioned a recently developed computer process that could go back over a record of the human actions involved in establishing a given argument structure and do a creditable job of picking out the steps which contributed the most to the final picture—and also some of those that contributed least. This process, and some of the past data collected by its use, were becoming an important addition to the planning review sessions, as well as to the continuing development of improved methods. And apparently, it had a surprisingly positive psychological effect upon members of a cooperating team, where an objective means of relative scoring was thus available.
他还提到了一个最近开发的计算机过程,可以回溯建立特定论点结构所涉及的人类行为记录,并能够很好地挑选出对最终结果贡献最大的步骤,以及一些贡献最小的步骤。这个过程及其使用收集的一些过去数据,正成为规划审查会议以及持续改进方法的重要补充。显然,它对合作团队成员产生了意外的积极心理影响,因为有了一种客观的相对评分手段。3b10u —       —       —
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