Review Article  评论文章

Correspondence should be addressed to Zheng Lu; zlu@whrsm.ac.cn and Xianjun Tan; xjtan@whrsm.ac.cn
通讯作者：Zheng Lu; zlu@whrsm.ac.cn 和 Xianjun Tan; xjtan@whrsm.ac.cn

Received 9 October 2021; Revised 23 December 2021; Accepted 5 January 2022; Published 21 January 2022
收到：2021 年 10 月 9 日；修订：2021 年 12 月 23 日；接受：2022 年 1 月 5 日；发表：2022 年 1 月 21 日

Academic Editor: Sakar Mohan
学术编辑萨卡-莫汉

Copyright Xuze Yuan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright Xuze Yuan et al. 这是一篇开放存取文章，采用知识共享署名许可协议发布，该协议允许在适当引用原作的前提下，在任何媒体上不受限制地使用、分发和复制。

With the continuous development of road construction worldwide, the construction sector is trying to find a versatile material for building roads in particular areas. Air-foamed lightweight soil, which is produced using low-cost raw materials and has a lower density varying from 300 to , adjustable strength, excellent thermal isolation, and a more straightforward construction method, has emerged as a worthy candidate. This paper reviews air-foamed lightweight soil in terms of its composition as well as physical and mechanical properties, such as its compressive strength, flexural strength, and stability. This paper also generalizes the engineering applications of air-foamed lightweight soil and provides ideas for its wide use.
随着全球道路建设的不断发展，建筑部门正在努力寻找一种多功能材料，用于在特定地区修建道路。气泡轻质土使用低成本原材料生产，密度较低，从 300 到 不等，强度可调，具有良好的隔热性能，施工方法更简单，是一种值得考虑的材料。本文从气泡轻质土的组成以及物理和机械性能（如抗压强度、抗弯强度和稳定性）等方面对其进行了综述。本文还概括了气泡轻质土的工程应用，并为其广泛应用提供了思路。

With the continuous development of road construction worldwide, building roads in sand, frozen soil, soft soil, and other areas has become inevitable. However, traditional techniques, including soil reinforcements and pile foundation processing, have some shortcomings such as poor durability, high price, and difficulty in construction [1-4]. Therefore, finding economical, universal, and convenient construction techniques has become an unremitting pursuit of scientists and engineers. As a result, air-foamed lightweight soil applications are increasing at a high rate. Owing to its lightweight and porous properties, air-foamed lightweight soil can effectively reduce subgrade settlement and alleviate the influence of external temperature changes on the subgrade; thus, it is considered an excellent roadbuilding material.
随着世界范围内公路建设的不断发展，在砂土、冻土、软土等地区修建公路已成为必然。然而，包括土体加固和桩基处理在内的传统技术存在耐久性差、价格昂贵、施工难度大等缺点[1-4]。因此，寻找经济、通用、便捷的施工技术已成为科学家和工程师们不懈的追求。因此，气泡轻质土的应用正在高速增长。气泡轻质土因其轻质、多孔的特性，可有效减少路基沉降，减轻外界温度变化对路基的影响，因此被认为是一种优良的筑路材料。

Lightweight air-foamed soil is a light geotechnical material that is fully mixed and stirred by adding a curing agent, water, and a premade air bubble group in a certain proportion to raw soil [5]. The raw soil can be fine sand, fly ash, and silt; thus, the properties of lightweight air-foamed soil can be customized to particular uses and occasions [6-8]. The main characteristics of air-foamed lightweight soil are that it contains foam holes in the mortar, which make it lighter than other soils, and its bulk density is smaller than that of traditional soil. In addition to these characteristics, it has excellent thermal isolation properties and an adjustable strength, is easier to pump than other materials, and has lowcost raw materials used in its production [5, 9-12].
轻质气泡土是在原土中按一定比例加入固化剂、水和预制气泡团，经充分混合搅拌而成的轻质土工材料[5]。原土可以是细砂、粉煤灰和淤泥；因此，轻质气泡土的特性可以根据特定用途和场合进行定制[6-8]。气泡轻质土的主要特点是砂浆中含有泡沫孔，使其比其他土壤更轻，体积密度比传统土壤更小。除这些特点外，它还具有优异的隔热性能和可调节的强度，比其他材料更容易泵送，而且生产原料成本低 [5，9-12]。

Air-foamed lightweight soil was invented in the 1980s and borrowed autoclaved aerated concrete technology and foamed concrete technology; as a result, it is not much different from foam concrete in terms of hardening . However, in terms of application fields, the two soils are significantly different: foamed concrete is often used for building energy conservation and external wall insulation, while air-foamed lightweight soil is more widely used in
气泡轻质土发明于 20 世纪 80 年代，借鉴了蒸压加气混凝土技术和发泡混凝土技术，因此在硬化方面与泡沫混凝土没有太大区别 。然而，在应用领域方面，这两种土壤却有很大不同：发泡混凝土通常用于建筑节能和外墙保温，而气泡轻质土壤则更广泛地应用于建筑节能和外墙保温。
subgrade filling and structural load reduction because of its larger bulk density and lower cost [15-18].
由于其体积密度较大且成本较低，可用于路基填筑和减轻结构荷载 [15-18]。

As shown in Figure 1, air-foamed lightweight soil has experienced promising development since the turn of the century, which can be attributed to many reasons, including improvement in the performance of raw materials and improvement in preparation and curing skills [21] and continuous exploration of new fields in which it can be applied. For instance, Watabe and Noguchi [22] used airfoamed lightweight soil in the construction of the D-runway at Tokyo Haneda airport to reduce runway settlement. Vo and Park [23] indicated the feasibility of air-foamed lightweight soil as a potential sustainable pavement material. Furthermore, Zhang and Yang [24] used air-foamed lightweight soil as an aircraft arresting system to improve the safety of runway overruns.
如图 1 所示，自本世纪初以来，气泡轻质土经历了可喜的发展，这可归因于多种原因，包括原材料 、制备和固化技术的改进[21]，以及对其可应用新领域的不断探索。例如，Watabe 和 Noguchi [22]在东京羽田机场 D 跑道施工中使用了气泡轻质土，以减少跑道沉降。Vo 和 Park [23] 指出了气泡轻质土作为一种潜在的可持续路面材料的可行性。此外，Zhang 和 Yang [24] 将空气发泡轻质土用作飞机制动系统，以提高跑道超限的安全性。

This paper provides a summary of past studies on airfoamed lightweight soil, its current development status, uses, limitations, and potential future developments. Furthermore, it describes the constituent materials, basic properties, and application fields. Figure 2 briefly outlines this paper.
本文概述了过去关于气泡轻质土的研究、其发展现状、用途、局限性以及未来的潜在发展。此外，本文还介绍了构成材料、基本特性和应用领域。图 2 简要概述了本文。

Figure 3 presents the basic components of air-foamed lightweight soil: raw soils, cement, water, and foam. All the materials mentioned above will be described in detail in this section.
图 3 显示了气泡轻质土的基本组成部分：原土、水泥、水和泡沫。本节将详细介绍上述所有材料。

2.1. Binder. Ordinary Portland cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cement, and high alumina cement are the dominant binders in air-foamed lightweight soils [14, 15]. Moreover, fly ash, silica fume, and slag have been the most widely used alternative cement materials in recent years [25-27]. Fly ash can effectively reduce the hydration temperature and enhance the long-term strength of air-foamed lightweight soil [20, 28]. Slag can strengthen the integrity of air-foamed lightweight soil, improve its compressive strength and flexural strength properties, and prevent the cracking of structures [29-31]. Silica fume increases the compactness of structures and improves the cementation properties of materials .
2.1.粘结剂。普通硅酸盐水泥、硫铝酸钙水泥和高铝水泥是气泡轻质土的主要粘结剂[14, 15]。此外，粉煤灰、硅灰和矿渣也是近年来使用最广泛的替代水泥材料 [25-27]。粉煤灰可有效降低水化温度，提高气泡轻质土的长期强度 [20，28]。矿渣可增强气泡轻质土的整体性，提高其抗压强度和抗折强度性能，防止结构开裂[29-31]。硅灰可以增加结构的密实度，改善材料的胶结性能 。

In recent years, new cementing materials have informed the development of air-foamed lightweight soil [33-35]. For instance, mixing titanium slag extraction, red gypsum, and cement at a ratio of can increase the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil to [36]. Moreover, the use of mineral gypsum instead of cement could give air-foamed lightweight soil with a density of a compressive strength of .
近年来，新型胶结材料为气泡轻质土的发展提供了依据[33-35]。例如，将钛渣提取物、红石膏和水泥按 的比例混合，可将气泡轻质土的抗压强度提高到 [36]。此外，使用矿物石膏代替水泥可使密度为 的气泡轻质土的抗压强度达到 。

2.2. Foam Agent. Foam is an essential component of airfoamed lightweight soil and is defined as enclosed air voids formed by the addition of foam agents [37]. Common foam agents fall into two categories: chemical and physical foaming agents. Aluminum powder and hydrogen peroxide are the most common chemical foaming agents .
2.2.泡沫剂。泡沫是气泡轻质土的重要组成部分，定义为添加泡沫剂后形成的封闭空隙[37]。常见的发泡剂分为两类：化学发泡剂和物理发泡剂。铝粉和过氧化氢是最常见的化学发泡剂 。
Because the chemical reactions of chemical foaming agents are violent, the amounts of reacting material and reaction conditions must be strictly controlled. Therefore, chemical foaming agents are often used to prepare ultra-light-foamed soils with high requirements [40, 41]. Unlike chemical foaming agents, physical foaming agents use high-speed mixing, compressed air, and other mechanical means to introduce air into the foaming solution. As a result, the foaming process is easier to control, and the resulting foam is more stable than that formed with chemical foaming agents [42-44]. Ordinary physical foaming agents include Rosin foaming agents, synthetic foaming agents, protein foaming agents, and compound foaming agents , among which protein and compound foaming agents have become the most widely used foaming agents owing to their higher foaming rate and more stable foaming effect [47-50].
由于化学发泡剂的化学反应剧烈，必须严格控制反应物质的用量和反应条件。因此，化学发泡剂通常用于制备要求较高的超轻发泡土壤 [40，41]。与化学发泡剂不同，物理发泡剂使用高速搅拌、压缩空气和其他机械手段将空气引入发泡溶液。因此，发泡过程更容易控制，产生的泡沫也比化学发泡剂形成的泡沫更稳定 [42-44]。普通的物理发泡剂包括松香发泡剂、合成发泡剂、蛋白质发泡剂和复合发泡剂 ，其中蛋白质发泡剂和复合发泡剂因其较高的发泡速率和较稳定的发泡效果而成为应用最广泛的发泡剂[47-50]。

2.3. Aggregates. A material with a diameter less than is used to make air-foamed lightweight soil (i.e., fine aggregate) to prevent the resulting soil from being damaged by large particles, which would cause a defoaming phenomenon [29]. Untreated soil construction waste or other novel materials can be used as aggregates [51-55]. Table 1 provides a summary of some lightweight aggregate types and their typical characteristics.
2.3.集料。直径小于 的材料可用于制作气泡轻质土（即细骨料），以防止产生的土壤被大颗粒破坏，造成消泡现象 [29]。未经处理的土壤建筑废料或其他新型材料也可用作集料 [51-55]。表 1 概述了一些轻质骨料类型及其典型特征。

2.4. Water. Water does not affect the strength and durability of air-foamed lightweight soil. Drinking water, tap water, river water, lake water, and fish pond water can all be used in the preparation of air-foamed lightweight soil [42]. The water content depends on many factors, including the type of aggregates, binder materials, and desired density [59]. A low water content generates rigid mixtures and causes the foam to break during mixing; a high water content may cause the slurry to become too thin to hold the foam . For clay, a water content higher than 1.9 times the water limit is recommended for the production of air-foamed lightweight clays [60]. However, for other soil types, the water-to-cement ratio should range from 0.4 to 1.25 . If the maximum value is used, superplasticizer is typically not added to the mixture .
2.4.水。水不会影响气泡轻质土的强度和耐久性。饮用水、自来水、河水、湖水和鱼塘水均可用于制备气泡轻质土 [42]。含水量取决于许多因素，包括集料类型、粘结剂材料和所需密度[59]。含水量低会产生刚性混合物，导致泡沫在搅拌过程中破裂；含水量高则可能导致泥浆变得太稀，无法保持泡沫 。对于粘土，建议含水量高于极限水量的 1.9 倍 ，以生产气泡轻质粘土[60]。但对于其他类型的土壤，水灰比应在 0.4 至 1.25 之间。如果使用最大值，通常不向混合物中添加超塑化剂 。

2.5. Mix Proportion of Air-Foamed Lightweight Soil. The mixed proportion of air-foamed lightweight soil influences the relationship between the binder, water, foam, and aggregate materials. The mix ratio is usually obtained by experiment [14], so Table 2 summarizes the mixed proportions obtained through various experiments.
2.5.气泡轻质土的混合比例。气泡轻质土的混合比例影响着粘结剂、水、泡沫和骨料之间的关系。混合比例通常通过实验获得[14]，因此表 2 总结了通过各种实验获得的混合比例。

Moreover, Horpibulsuk proposed the void/cement ratio (V/C) [60], which is defined as the ratio of the void volume of clay to the cement volume. Jongpradist et al. [68] proposed the concept of effective porosity ratio under different test conditions for samples with different saturation conditions, curing times, and mixing components. Li et al. [69] proposed a method based on the product of the dry density and empirical coefficient. All these methods lend support to the study of air-foamed lightweight soil mixture ratios based
此外，Horpibulsuk 还提出了空隙/水泥比（V/C）[60]，即粘土空隙体积与水泥体积之比。Jongpradist 等人[68] 针对不同饱和度条件、固化时间和混合成分的样品，提出了不同试验条件下有效孔隙率的概念。Li 等人[69] 提出了一种基于干密度与经验系数乘积的方法。所有这些方法都支持基于以下条件的气泡轻质土混合物比率研究

Figure 1: Numbers of research papers by year (as of April 9, 2021) based on online databases in Web of Science.
图 1：基于 Web of Science 在线数据库的各年份研究论文数量（截至 2021 年 4 月 9 日）。

FIGURE 2: Research review outline.
图 2：研究综述大纲。

Figure 3: Materials for air-foamed lightweight soil.
图 3：气泡轻质土的材料。

TABLE 1: Summary of the aggregates of air-foamed lightweight soil and their typical characteristics.
表 1：气泡轻质土的集料及其典型特征摘要。

Table 2: Summary of the mixed proportions obtained by experiment.
表 2：实验得出的混合比例汇总。

Note: : mass of cement; : mass of soil; : mass of water; : water limit of soil; UC: unconfined compressive strength; : porosity; : volume of foam; : theoretical total volume; CBR: California bearing ratio.
注： ：水泥的质量； ：土壤的质量； ：水的质量； ：土壤的水限；UC：无压抗压强度； ：孔隙率； ：泡沫体积； ：理论总体积；CBR：加利福尼亚承载比。

on theory and formula. The following formula is the calculation method provided by the Chinese standard CJJ/ T177-2012 [42]:
理论和公式。以下公式是中国标准 CJJ/ T177-2012 [42] 提供的计算方法：

, and : mass of cement, water, foaming group, aggregates, and admixture per cubic meter , respectively , and density of cement, water, foaming group, aggregates, and admixture , respectively : unit weight of air-foamed lightweight soil
：水泥、水、发泡组、集料和外加剂每立方米的质量 ，分别为 和 水泥、水、发泡组、集料和外加剂的密度 ，分别为 ：空气发泡轻质土的单位重量

The typical properties of air-foamed lightweight soil are its fresh, physical, mechanical, and durable properties. These properties are influenced by the manufacturing process and performance quality of the air-foamed lightweight soil. In
气泡轻质土的典型特性是其新鲜、物理、机械和耐久性能。这些特性受到气泡轻质土制造工艺和性能质量的影响。在
this section, these properties are introduced and discussed to guide the application of lightweight air-foamed soil.
本节将介绍和讨论这些特性，以指导轻质气泡土的应用。

3.1.1. Stability. The stability of air-foamed lightweight soil ensures the unity of its new density and design density, no bleeding, no segregation, and no apparent defoaming phenomenon after preparation [15]. Wet density is an important index that reflects stability [70]. A lower wet density will increase bubble buoyancy, and as a result, bubbles will replace the surrounding solids, causing the airfoamed lightweight soil to collapse [71]. A higher wet density will cause bubbles to break during mixing. Therefore, it is generally considered that is the optimal wet density of air-foamed lightweight soil [72]. Moreover, the water content of the base mixture ratio also affects the stability of air-foamed lightweight soil. A low water-to-solid ratio can reduce the porosity of the soil, resulting in the formation of a more stable internal structure [73]. Foam size is another crucial factor that affects the stability of airfoamed lightweight soil [74]. The larger the bubble size, the thinner the bubble wall. This causes the gas to diffuse, resulting in instability .
3.1.1.稳定性。气泡轻质土的稳定性是指配制后新密度与设计密度一致、不渗水、不离析、无明显消泡现象[15]。湿密度是反映稳定性的一个重要指标[70]。较低的湿密度会增加气泡浮力，因此气泡会取代周围的固体，导致气泡轻质土坍塌[71]。较高的湿密度会导致气泡在混合过程中破裂。因此，一般认为 是气泡轻质土的最佳湿密度[72]。此外，基质混合比的含水量也会影响气泡轻质土的稳定性。较低的水固比可以降低土壤的孔隙率，从而形成更稳定的内部结构[73]。泡沫大小是影响气泡轻质土稳定性的另一个关键因素 [74]。泡沫尺寸越大，泡壁越薄。这会导致气体扩散，造成不稳定 。

3.1.2. Workability. Foam content, aggregate type, and aggregate content are the main factors affecting the workability of the air-foamed lightweight soil. The presence of bubbles improves the workability of air-foamed lightweight soil in engineering applications. However, an excessive foam volume reduces its workability . The influence of aggregate type and content on air-foamed lightweight soil is most often reflected in the use of clay and sandy soil. At the same ratio, sand is better than clay for workability [63].
3.1.2.施工性。泡沫含量、集料类型和集料含量是影响气泡轻质土工作性的主要因素。气泡的存在可改善气泡轻质土在工程应用中的施工性。然而，过大的泡沫体积会降低其工作性 。集料类型和含量对气泡轻质土的影响主要体现在粘土和砂土的使用上。在相同的配比下，砂土的工作性要好于粘土[63]。

Here, we summarize two methods for evaluating the workability of an air-foamed lightweight soil. The method proposed by Brewer measures the spread in two directions. In this method, a sample is placed in a long and diameter open-ended cylinder and raised vertically. The two spread diameters should be calculated as approximately [75]. The other is the one recommended in the standards for China and Korea . The test method relies on a cylindrical mold with a diameter of and a height of . When lifting the mold filled with slurry, a spreading diameter of (China) or (Korea) is suggested.
在此，我们总结了两种评估气泡轻质土工作性的方法。布鲁尔（Brewer）提出的方法可以测量两个方向的扩展。在这种方法中，将样品放入一个 长、 直径的开口圆筒中并垂直升起。两个扩散直径应计算为近似 [75]。另一种是中国和韩国标准中推荐的方法 。该测试方法依赖于一个直径为 、高度为 的圆柱形模具。在提升装满浆料的模具时，建议铺展直径为 （中国）或 （韩国）。

3.2.1. Drying Shrinkage. Drying shrinkage is the volume shrinkage phenomenon caused by the evaporation of water and hydration of a mixture after mixing and curing. It has been reported that the shrinkage of air-foamed lightweight soil is between and of the total volume, which is 4-10 times higher than that of ordinary concrete . Therefore, researchers have used various methods to reduce the drying shrinkage. One involves using other binders, such as lime, silica fume, and fly ash, instead of cement, thereby reducing the hydration heat to overcome drying shrinkage [77, 78]. Another method is increasing the amount of sand and other aggregates to reduce drying shrinkage [75]. Moreover, fibers can also retain water and delay evaporation, therefore effectively controlling the drying shrinkage . This is mainly because the addition of fibers inhibits the continuous expansion of microcracks caused by water loss during the hardening process of the cement base material and effectively prevents the generation of new cracks. As a result, the dry-shrinkage resistance of the composite material is significantly improved.
3.2.1.干燥收缩。干燥收缩是指混合物在搅拌和养护后，由于水分蒸发和水化作用而产生的体积收缩现象。据报道，气泡轻质土的收缩率在总体积的 至 之间，是普通混凝土的 4-10 倍 。因此，研究人员采用了各种方法来减少干燥收缩。一种方法是使用石灰、硅灰和粉煤灰等其他粘结剂代替水泥，从而降低水化热以克服干燥收缩 [77，78]。另一种方法是增加砂和其他集料的用量，以减少干燥收缩 [75]。此外，纤维还能保持水分并延缓蒸发，从而有效控制干燥收缩 。这主要是因为纤维的加入抑制了水泥基材硬化过程中因失水而产生的微裂缝的不断扩展，有效防止了新裂缝的产生。因此，复合材料的抗干缩性能显著提高。

3.2.2. Sorptivity and Permeability. Sorptivity and permeability are characteristics of air-foamed lightweight soil that are related to water absorption and are most closely affected by the number of pores and pore morphology [79]. Water absorption increases with more pores and interconnected pores [15]. In addition, the mineral admixture, water-binder ratio, and type of binder also affect the water absorption of air-foamed lightweight soil . Nambiar and Ramamurthy [79] indicated that, for a given foam content, cement-sand-fly ash mixes showed relatively higher sorptivity than cement-sand mixes and pure cement because they require higher water-solid conditions to achieve a stable and workable mix. Therefore, the water absorption reduces in the following order: cement-sandfly ash cementsand cement.
3.2.2.吸水率和渗透性。吸水率和渗透性是气泡轻质土的特征，与吸水性有关，受孔隙数量和孔隙形态的影响最大[79]。孔隙越多，相互连接的孔隙越多，吸水率就越高[15]。此外，矿物掺合料、水粘结比和粘结剂类型也会影响气泡轻质土的吸水性 。Nambiar 和 Ramamurthy[79]指出，在泡沫含量一定的情况下，水泥-砂-粉煤灰混合物的吸水率相对高于水泥-砂混合物和纯水泥，因为它们需要更高的水固条件来实现稳定和可施工的混合物。因此，吸水率降低的顺序如下：水泥-粉煤灰 水泥和 水泥。

3.3.1. Compressive Strength. Compressive strength is the most basic mechanical property of air-foamed lightweight soil as a subgrade material [5]. The density, water-cement ratio, curing method, type of soil, and state of the foams all affect the compressive strength [81]. Therefore, it is crucial to study these factors to improve the properties of air-foamed lightweight soil.
3.3.1.抗压强度。抗压强度是气泡轻质土作为路基材料最基本的力学性能 [5]。密度、水灰比、固化方法、土壤类型和泡沫状态都会影响抗压强度 [81]。因此，研究这些因素对改善气泡轻质土的性能至关重要。

Density is the most direct factor affecting the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil [15, 81, 82]. If the strength of the cementitious material between the bubbles decreases, the compressive strength of the bubbly lightweight soil also decreases . Research has shown that when the ratio of cement to sand is and the ratio of water to cement is 0.9 , the strength of lightweight foam soil with a density of is twice that of the lightweight foam soil with a density of .
密度是影响气泡轻质土抗压强度的最直接因素 [15, 81, 82]。如果气泡间胶凝材料的强度降低，气泡轻质土的抗压强度也会降低 。研究表明，当水泥与砂的比例为 ，水与水泥的比例为 0.9 时，密度为 的轻质泡沫土的强度是密度为 的轻质泡沫土的两倍。

The type of soil used in the production of air-foamed lightweight soil is another factor that affects the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil. Generally, sand has a higher strength than clay [63], and fine sand can have better strength performance than coarse sand; moreover, kaolin has a better strength performance than bentonite . Furthermore, pozzolanic materials as aggregates can greatly improve the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil owing to the pozzolanic reaction [54].
生产气泡轻质土时使用的土壤类型是影响气泡轻质土抗压强度的另一个因素。一般来说，砂的强度比粘土高[63]，细砂比粗砂有更好的强度表现；此外，高岭土比膨润土有更好的强度表现 。此外，作为集料的胶凝材料由于发生了胶凝反应，可以大大提高气泡轻质土的强度[54]。

As for other influencing factors, the importance of the water-cement ratio is self-evident. Researchers have indicated that the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil
至于其他影响因素，水灰比的重要性不言而喻。研究人员指出，气泡轻质土的强度
decreases with an increase in the water-cement ratio [83]. When the water-cement ratio is higher than 0.5 , the cement particles can achieve complete hydration. However, it has also been reported that the optimum water-cement ratio is 0.17-0.19 for high-strength air-foamed lightweight soil [14]. Therefore, using a high-efficiency water reducer is the most effective method for improving the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil [84].
随着水灰比的增加而减少 [83]。当水灰比大于 0.5 时，水泥颗粒可实现完全水化。但也有报道称，高强度气泡轻质土的最佳水灰比为 0.17-0.19[14]。因此，使用高效减水剂是提高气泡轻质土强度的最有效方法[84]。

The pore structure is a key factor that affects the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil. An airfoamed lightweight soil with a homogeneous distribution of spherical bubbles has a higher compressive strength than that with bubbles that have irregular boundaries or rough openings , which Otani et al. verified using an industrial X-ray scanner [86]. In addition, Lim et al. [87] indicated that fine sand can cause more uniform air voids than coarse sand.
孔隙结构是影响气泡轻质土抗压强度的关键因素。球形气泡分布均匀的气泡轻质土比边界不规则或开口粗糙的气泡轻质土具有更高的抗压强度 ，Otani 等人使用工业 X 射线扫描仪验证了这一点[86]。此外，Lim 等人[87] 指出，细砂比粗砂能产生更均匀的气泡。

The curing method is also a critical factor that influences the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil. According to CJJ/T177-2012 [42], a specimen should be sealed with plastic film for 28 days at , but Fujiwara et al. reported that in order to obtain the desired compressive strength, the samples should be cured in normal moist air for one day and then in steam where the temperature should be increased at and maintained at for four hours and then cooled in air [88]. Zhou indicated that the temperature difference between preparation and curing is the main factor affecting the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil and also reported that the optimum temperature difference is .
固化方法也是影响气泡轻质土抗压强度的关键因素。根据 CJJ/T177-2012 [42]，试样应在 的条件下用塑料薄膜密封 28 天，但 Fujiwara 等人报告说，为了获得理想的抗压强度，试样应在正常的潮湿空气中固化一天，然后在蒸汽中固化，蒸汽温度应在 升高，并在 保持 4 小时，然后在空气中冷却 [88]。Zhou 指出，制备和固化之间的温差是影响气泡轻质土强度的主要因素，并指出最佳温差为 。

In addition to changing the above influencing factors to improve the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil, some researchers have proposed using different fibers to reinforce the air-foamed lightweight soil. The addition of fiber can effectively reduce the elongation of microcracks and disperse certain external loads when failure occurs, improving the compressive properties of air-foamed lightweight soil [15]. Polypropylene, glass, coconut, polyvinyl alcohol, and kenaf fibers are the most commonly used fibers [89-91]. Raj et al. [92] indicated that using 0.3% polyvinyl alcohol fiber can increase the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil by . Zamzani et al. [93] proved that adding coconut fiber could increase the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil by . Steel fibers have also been used to reinforce lightweight air-foamed soil [94]. However, steel fibers are usually not recommended because of their high density [95]. Therefore, some researchers are exploring the use of new types of fibers. For instance, Mhedi enhanced the performance of air-foamed lightweight soil with waste plastic fibers, and Kim used a waste net as a reinforced fiber . These methods reduce waste and improve the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil, which addresses multiple challenges at once and is a vital reference idea for subsequent development.
除了改变上述影响因素来提高气泡轻质土的抗压强度外，一些研究者还提出使用不同的纤维来加固气泡轻质土。纤维的加入可以有效降低微裂缝的伸长率，分散破坏时一定的外荷载，改善气泡轻质土的抗压性能[15]。聚丙烯纤维、玻璃纤维、椰子纤维、聚乙烯醇纤维和 kenaf 纤维是最常用的纤维 [89-91]。Raj 等人[92]指出，使用 0.3% 的聚乙烯醇纤维可使 气泡轻质土的抗压强度提高 。Zamzani 等人[93] 的研究证明，加入 的椰子纤维可使 气泡轻质土的抗压强度提高 。钢纤维也被用于加固轻质气泡土 [94]。不过，由于钢纤维的密度较高，通常不推荐使用[95]。因此，一些研究人员正在探索使用新型纤维。例如，Mhedi 使用废塑料纤维增强了气泡轻质土的性能，Kim 使用废网作为增强纤维 。这些方法既减少了浪费，又提高了气泡轻质土的强度，一举解决了多个难题，对后续开发具有重要的参考意义。

Experiments are the most intuitive way to study the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil. CJJ/ T177-2012 [42] stated that the compressive performance of air-foamed lightweight soil can be evaluated by the unconfined compressive strength obtained from a cubic specimen at a loading rate of . As for the stress-strain characteristics under static triaxial stress, Tan et al. [98] found that the compressive strength of air-foamed lightweight soil increases with an increase in density and confining pressure, and the peak strain is only related to the confining pressure. In other words, the peak strain increases with confining pressure. There was no direct correlation between the peak strain and density. However, the static strength of air-foamed lightweight soil is incomplete for civil engineering applications. The dynamic force is also critical. There are studies showing that the dynamic strength of air-foamed lightweight soil under dry conditions is generally times the unconfined compressive strength and 0.21-0.38 times under saturated conditions [99]. When air-foamed lightweight soil is applied in railway subgrade, a dynamic three-axis experiment revealed that the strength can reach when the designed density is [100].
实验是研究气泡轻质土抗压强度最直观的方法。CJJ/ T177-2012 [42]指出，气泡轻质土的抗压性能可通过 立方体试样在加载速率为 时获得的无压抗压强度来评价。至于静态三轴应力下的应力-应变特性，Tan 等人[98] 发现，气泡轻质土的抗压强度随密度和约束压力的增加而增加，峰值应变只与约束压力有关。换句话说，峰值应变随约束压力的增加而增加。峰值应变与密度之间没有直接关系。然而，对于土木工程应用而言，气泡轻质土的静强度是不完整的。动力也很关键。有研究表明，在干燥条件下，气泡轻质土的动态强度一般是无压抗压强度的 倍，在饱和条件下是 0.21-0.38 倍[99]。在铁路路基中应用气泡轻质土时，三轴动态实验表明，当设计密度为 时，强度可达 [100]。

Based on strength experiments, researchers have proposed several strength prediction models. In terms of basic theory, Horpibuisuk et al. [60] proposed a strength equation with V/C as the variable at a specific curing time, predicting the unconfined compressive strength by the V/C value at different proportions. Yoon and Kyong [101] adopted the method of integrating cement, foam, and initial moisture content into a normalized coefficient and obtained a formula for estimating the unconfined compressive strength of airfoamed lightweight soil. Furthermore, with the development of computer technology, the use of artificial intelligence to predict the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil has been explored [102, 103], which significantly reduces the number of experiments that need to be conducted and improves the design efficiency.
根据强度实验，研究人员提出了多个强度预测模型。在基础理论方面，Horpibuisuk 等人[60]提出了以特定固化时间下的 V/C 为变量的强度方程，通过不同配比下的 V/C 值预测 非收缩抗压强度。Yoon 和 Kyong [101] 采用将水泥、泡沫和初始含水量整合为归一化系数的方法，得到了气发泡轻质土的无压抗压强度估算公式。此外，随着计算机技术的发展，利用人工智能预测气泡轻质土强度的方法也得到了探索[102，103]，这大大减少了需要进行的实验次数，提高了设计效率。

3.3.2. Flexural and Tensile Strengths. Tensile strength and flexural strength are essentially the ability of a material to resist tensile damage. The flexural strength of air-foamed lightweight soil is lower than that of ordinary concrete and lightweight aggregate concrete [104]; however, the ratio of the flexural strength to the compressive strength (0.2-0.4) is higher than that of ordinary concrete [105].
3.3.2.抗弯强度和抗拉强度。抗拉强度和抗弯强度主要是指材料抵抗拉伸破坏的能力。气泡轻质土的抗弯强度低于普通混凝土和轻质骨料混凝土 [104]；但抗弯强度与抗压强度之比（0.2-0.4）高于普通混凝土 [105]。

The addition of fibers is the most effective way of improving the flexural strength of air-foamed lightweight soil [106]. The addition of sisal fiber can increase the flexural strength of air-foamed lightweight soil by [107] because the crack localization is limited and ductility is improved after the addition of fiber-reinforced materials [50]. In terms of fibers used, polypropylene fiber has been applied more extensively [108-110]. Polypropylene fiber has a better improvement effect than other fibers under the same conditions, and its price is very low . It has also been reported that adding mineral admixtures can increase the shear capacity between fine particles of sand and foam agents to improve the flexural strength [76]. As for the foaming agent mentioned above, Lim et al. [87] found that a natural foaming agent has a higher flexural strength than a
添加纤维是提高气泡轻质土抗弯强度的最有效方法[106]。添加 剑麻纤维可使气泡轻质土的抗折强度提高 [107]，因为添加纤维增强材料后，裂缝定位受到限制，延展性得到改善 [50]。在纤维的使用方面，聚丙烯纤维的应用更为广泛[108-110]。在相同条件下，聚丙烯纤维比其他纤维具有更好的改善效果，而且其价格非常低 。另据报道，添加矿物掺合料可增加细砂颗粒与发泡剂之间的剪切能力，从而提高抗折强度 [76]。至于上述发泡剂，Lim 等人[87] 发现，天然发泡剂的抗折强度高于天然发泡剂。
synthetic foaming agent and can be easily obtained. Therefore, an appropriate material should be selected to improve the flexural strength of air-foamed lightweight soil.
合成发泡剂，而且很容易获得。因此，应选择合适的材料来提高气泡轻质土的抗折强度。

3.3.3. Modulus of Elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is directly related to the density of a material. When the dry density is , the modulus of elasticity is [112]. The use of fiber and improvement of the fineness of the raw materials are common ways of reinforcing the integrity of air-foamed lightweight soil [14]. It is generally believed that the higher the fine aggregate content, the higher the elastic modulus [15]. Furthermore, the elastic modulus of air-foamed lightweight soil is typically obtained using standard experimental tests. Table 3 provides different empirical formulas used to predict the modulus of elasticity when there is insufficient experimental data.
3.3.3.弹性模量。弹性模量与材料的密度直接相关。当干密度为 时，弹性模量为 [112]。使用纤维和提高原材料的细度是加固气泡轻质土完整性的常用方法[14]。一般认为，细骨料含量越高，弹性模量越大[15]。此外，气泡轻质土的弹性模量通常是通过标准实验测试获得的。表 3 提供了在实验数据不足时用于预测弹性模量的不同经验公式。

The resilient modulus is different from the elasticity modulus, which is a parameter applied in road engineering. Vo and Park [23] tested the dynamic resilient modulus of air-foamed lightweight soil as a road base material and determined the relationship between the resilient modulus and unconfined compressive strength . Chen et al. [115] obtained the dynamic elastic modulus of air-foamed lightweight soil through a dynamic triaxial test and pointed out that the dynamic elastic modulus increased with an increase in density and frequency.
回弹模量不同于弹性模量，后者是道路工程中应用的参数。Vo 和 Park [23] 测试了作为路基材料的气泡轻质土的动弹性模量，并确定了弹性模量与无侧限抗压强度之间的关系 。Chen 等人[115]通过动态三轴试验获得了气泡轻质土的动态弹性模量，并指出动态弹性模量随着密度和频率的增加而增加。

3.4. Durability Properties. The engineering application of air-foamed lightweight soil is critical first-hand data to study durability. Watebe et al. [116] conducted a ten-year followup study of air-foamed lightweight soil and concluded that indexes such as the bulk density, water content, value, calcium content, shear strength, and compressive yield stress all meet the required performance standards. Huang et al. [117] found that the irregular vibration passing through the top of the subgrade was caused by buoyancy when they observed the durability of an offshore air-foamed lightweight soil subgrade. Liu et al. established a durability evaluation method for air-foamed lightweight soil by combining the analytic hierarchy process and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method with first-hand durability data. However, as direct information on durability is limited, it is essential to study the durability performance of airfoamed lightweight soil, such as its resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, resistance to w-d cycles, resistance to long-term fatigue loads, and resistance to salt and alkali corrosion.
3.4.耐久性能。气泡轻质土的工程应用是研究耐久性的关键第一手数据。Watebe 等人[116] 对气泡轻质土进行了为期十年的跟踪研究，认为其容重、含水量、 值、钙含量、剪切强度和压缩屈服应力等指标均符合要求的性能标准。Huang 等人[117]在观察海上气泡轻质土基层的耐久性时发现，通过基层顶部的不规则振动是由浮力引起的。Liu等人 ，结合第一手耐久性数据，采用层次分析法和模糊综合评价法，建立了气泡轻质土的耐久性评价方法。然而，由于有关耐久性的直接资料有限，研究气泡轻质土的耐久性能，如其抗冻融循环、抗 w-d 循环、抗长期疲劳荷载、抗盐碱腐蚀等性能是非常必要的。

3.4.1. Resistance to Freeze-Thaw Cycles. Air-foamed lightweight soil has a lightweight and porous structure. Freeze-thaw cycle damage of air-foamed lightweight soil is inevitable when the soil is applied in engineering. It has been reported that the freeze-thaw cycle changes the volume of air-foamed lightweight soil by less than , which has little effect on the properties of the soil [120]. The main factor causing freeze-thaw damage is the water content: the greater the water content is, the more prone air-foamed lightweight soil is to freeze-thaw cycle damage. However, when the number of freeze-thaw cycles is high, the water content and density of air-foamed lightweight soil will become stable [121]. Therefore, adding a polycarboxylic acid superplasticizer to reduce the water-cement ratio is an effective method for improving the ability of air-foamed lightweight soil to resist freeze-thaw cycles.
3.4.1.抗冻融循环。气泡轻质土具有轻质多孔结构。在工程应用中，空气泡沫轻质土不可避免地会受到冻融循环的破坏。据报道，冻融循环对气泡轻质土体积的改变小于 ，对土的性质影响不大[120]。造成冻融破坏的主要因素是含水量：含水量越大，气泡轻质土越容易受到冻融循环的破坏。然而，当冻融循环次数较多时，气泡轻质土的含水量和密度会变得稳定[121]。因此，添加聚羧酸超塑化剂降低水灰比是提高气泡轻质土抗冻融循环能力的有效方法。

3.4.2. Resistance to Wetting and Drying Cycles. Lightweight air-foamed soil as a stabilized engineering fill and pavement material often experiences wetting and drying cycles (w-d cycles) due to weather changes, which damages stabilized pavement structures containing it [122]. It has been reported that the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil decreases with an increase in the w-d cycles. However, et al. [123] found that its durability coefficient only reduced by less than 0.1 through unconfined compressive strength experiments on four kinds of air-foamed lightweight soil after ten w-d cycles. Based on the experiment above, Neramitkornburi et al. [124] proposed an equation that takes the initial soaking strength as the index and the number of cycles as the variable to predict the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil.
3.4.2.抗湿润和干燥循环。轻质气泡土作为一种稳定的工程填料和路面材料，经常会因天气变化而经历湿润和干燥循环（w-d 循环），从而损坏含有轻质气泡土的稳定路面结构[122]。据报道，气泡轻质土的强度会随着 w-d 周期的增加而降低。但 等人[123]通过对四种气泡轻质土进行无侧限抗压强度实验，发现其耐久性系数在十次 w-d 循环后仅降低了不到 0.1。在上述实验的基础上，Neramitkornburi 等人[124]提出了一个以初始浸泡强度为指标，以 循环次数为变量的公式来预测气泡轻质土的强度。

3.4.3. Resistance to Long-Term Fatigue Load. The long-term fatigue load is a significant index for the application of airfoamed lightweight soil on the road. Research has revealed that the dynamic strength is less than the static strength, and with an increase in density, the weakening effect of a cyclic load becomes gradually significant [125]. Therefore, some researchers have attempted to apply air-foamed lightweight soil in the heavy-haul railway subgrade and have achieved great success under long-term loads [126]. As for the service life of air-foamed lightweight soil, Liu et al. [127] predicted that the average service life of air-foamed lightweight soil is 73 years through an accelerating stress method. It has also been reported that the residual strength of air-foamed lightweight soil will decrease by after 1.2 million load cycles [128]. Therefore, the resistance of air-foamed lightweight soil to long-term fatigue load is acceptable.
3.4.3.抗长期疲劳荷载。长期疲劳荷载是路面应用气泡轻质土的一个重要指标。研究发现，动强度小于静强度，随着密度的增加，循环荷载的削弱效应逐渐显著[125]。因此，一些研究人员尝试在重载铁路路基中应用气泡轻质土，并在长期荷载作用下取得了巨大成功[126]。关于气泡轻质土的使用寿命，Liu 等人[127]通过加速应力法预测气泡轻质土的平均使用寿命为 73 年。另据报道，120 万次荷载循环后，气泡轻质土的残余强度将下降 [128]。因此，气泡轻质土对长期疲劳荷载的抵抗力是可以接受的。

3.4.4. Resistance to Salt and Alkali Corrosion. Sulfate and chloride erosion will cause damage to air-foamed lightweight soil in an aggressive environment through a complex mechanism that depends on many factors, such as cement type, water-cement ratio, permeability, concentration, and exposure time [129-131]. In general, the uniform stomatal distribution and closed pore state are the keys to chloride resistance because the air voids act as a buffer that prevents rapid penetration of ions [132]. The effect of sulfates on airfoamed lightweight soil was less than that of chloride. Some researchers put the air-foamed lightweight soil specimens into sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate for one year and observed a mass loss of [133]. Therefore, research on the salt and alkali resistance of air-foamed lightweight soil should focus on preventing and controlling the entry of chloride salts.
3.4.4.抗盐和碱腐蚀。硫酸盐和氯化物的侵蚀会在侵蚀性环境中对气泡轻质土造成破坏，其机理复杂，取决于多种因素，如水泥类型、水灰比、渗透性、浓度和暴露时间[129-131]。一般来说，均匀的气孔分布和封闭的孔隙状态是抗氯离子的关键，因为空气空隙起到缓冲作用，阻止离子快速渗透[132]。硫酸盐对气泡轻质土壤的影响小于氯化物。一些研究人员将气泡轻质土试样放入硫酸钠和硫酸镁中一年，观察到质量损失为 [133]。因此，气泡轻质土的耐盐碱性研究应侧重于预防和控制氯盐的进入。

Table 3: Empirical formulas for predicting the modulus of elasticity .
表 3：预测弹性模量的经验公式 。

3.4.5. Microstructure of Air-Foamed Lightweight Soil. Advances in science and technology have provided a better understanding of the microstructure of materials. In recent years, scanning electron microscope (SEM) has been widely used in research on air-foamed lightweight soil . Through SEM, the internal structure of air-foamed lightweight soil can be clearly observed using different cementitious materials . Figure 4 shows a SEM image of the consolidation of air-foamed lightweight soil with titanium slag and red gypsum as cementitious materials, clearly demonstrating the strengthening mechanisms of the cementitious materials [36]. Moreover, the microstructure of air-foamed lightweight soil is the primary factor affecting its strength. For instance, silica fume improves the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil by changing the pore diameter of the soil [74]; temperature will change the frame structure of air-foamed lightweight soil and influence its compressive strength [136]; and the water-solid ratio affects the compactness of the InterPore material, improving the strength of air-foamed lightweight soil [73]. Thus, it can be seen that advanced technology is very important for understanding and further developing air-foamed lightweight soil.
3.4.5.气泡轻质土的微观结构。科学技术的进步使人们对材料的微观结构有了更好的了解。近年来，扫描电子显微镜（SEM）被广泛应用于气泡轻质土的研究 。通过扫描电子显微镜，可以清楚地观察到使用不同胶凝材料的气泡轻质土的内部结构 。图 4 显示了以钛渣和红石膏为胶凝材料的气发泡轻质土的固结扫描电镜图像，清晰地展示了胶凝材料的强化机理[36]。此外，气泡轻质土的微观结构也是影响其强度的主要因素。例如，硅灰通过改变土的孔径提高气泡轻质土的强度[74]；温度会改变气泡轻质土的框架结构，影响其抗压强度[136]；水固比会影响 InterPore 材料的密实度，提高气泡轻质土的强度[73]。由此可见，先进的技术对于了解和进一步开发气泡轻质土非常重要。

Air-foamed lightweight soil has been applied in many aspects of road engineering owing to its distinctive properties . Generally, the application scenarios of air-foamed lightweight soil vary with its density: low-density air-foamed lightweight soil is used for thermal insulation and cavity filling, while high density air-foamed lightweight soil is used in structural applications [18]. This section focuses on the applications of air-foamed lightweight soil in soft soil foundation reinforcement, general road engineering applications, subgrade thermal insulation, and shock-absorbing barriers for airports and regular traffic.
气泡轻质土因其独特的性能已被应用于道路工程的许多方面 。一般来说，气泡轻质土的应用场景随其密度而变化：低密度气泡轻质土用于隔热和空腔填充，而高密度气泡轻质土则用于结构应用[18]。本节重点介绍气泡轻质土在软土地基加固、一般道路工程应用、路基隔热以及机场和常规交通减震屏障中的应用。

4.1. Soft Soil Foundation Reinforcement. Soft soil foundation reinforcement is the most widespread application of lightweight air-foamed soil. This is primarily because (1) there is a considerable amount of soft clay in the coastal areas of rivers and lakes, which is time-consuming and costly to treat using traditional methods [124]. and (2) air-foamed lightweight soil can produce higher strength when dealing with soils with high specific surface areas, such as clay [7]. Therefore, Japan and South Korea have widely used air-foamed lightweight soil in port and coastal roads, and some of the foundations of famous buildings in these countries, such as the Tokyo International Airport, Kobe Port, and Busan New Mega Port, were constructed with air-foamed lightweight soil .
4.1.软土地基加固。软土地基加固是轻质气泡土最广泛的应用。这主要是因为：(1) 在江河湖泊沿岸地区有大量的软粘土，用传统方法处理既费时又费钱[124]；(2) 空气发泡轻质土在处理粘土等比表面积大的土质时能产生更高的强度[7]。因此，日本和韩国已将气泡轻质土广泛应用于港口和沿海道路，这些国家的一些著名建筑，如东京国际机场、神户港和釜山新巨港的地基都是用气泡轻质土建造的 。

In addition, approximately of air-foamed lightweight soil has been used in various construction projects in Japan, and this consumption is still growing [116]. However, in China and Thailand, air-foamed lightweight soil is commonly applied in soft soil subgrade replacement, which reduces the overlying soil pressure and improves the stability of structures [65, 74, 137]. For example, Huang used air-foamed lightweight soil as a subgrade bed to solve the settlement problem of a soft soil foundation and found that the cumulative settlement at the top surface of the subgrade was after 2 million loading cycles, satisfying the operational needs of a high-speed rail [138].
此外，在日本，约有 的气泡轻质土被用于各种建筑项目，而且这一消耗量仍在增长[116]。然而，在中国和泰国，气泡轻质土通常用于软土路基换填，从而降低上覆土层压力，提高结构的稳定性[65, 74, 137]。例如，Huang 使用气泡轻质土作为路基基床，解决了软土地基的沉降问题，发现经过 200 万次加载循环后，路基顶面的累积沉降量为 ，满足了高速铁路的运行需求[138]。

4.2. Road Applications. Air-foamed lightweight soil has been used in many fields of road engineering, such as road widening, bridge jump disposal, steep road fill, load reduction of subgrade in landslide sections, prevention of settlement of soft soil foundations, and permafrost roadbed heat insulation [138-140]. According to the data for the Chongqing urban roadbed widening project, the differential settlement of the air-foamed lightweight soil subgrade is only of the traditional subgrade [16]. Furthermore, in an analysis of an abutment building with air-foamed lightweight soil in Hangzhou Bay Bridge, it was found that when the filling height was , the settlement was reduced by , and when the filling height was , the settlement was reduced by [141], which means that air-foamed lightweight soil can effectively reduce the overburden to solve the problem of jumping off the bridge. Furthermore, the standard for air-foamed lightweight soils in road engineering is in development. It is believed that, with the introduction of standards, the application of air-foamed lightweight soil in the road construction field will be further improved [140].
4.2.道路应用。气泡轻质土在道路工程的许多领域都有应用，如道路拓宽、桥跳处理、陡坡路基填筑、滑坡段路基减载、软土地基沉降预防、冻土路基隔热等[138-140]。根据重庆城市路基拓宽工程的数据，气泡轻质土路基的差异沉降仅为传统路基的 [16]。此外，在对杭州湾跨海大桥采用气泡轻质土的桥台建筑进行分析时发现，当填土高度为 时，沉降量减少了 ，当填土高度为 时，沉降量减少了 [141]，这说明气泡轻质土可以有效减少过载，解决跳桥问题。此外，道路工程中的气泡轻质土标准正在制定中。相信随着标准的出台，气泡轻质土在公路建设领域的应用会得到进一步的提升[140]。

4.3. Thermal Insulation. Air-foamed lightweight soil has excellent thermal insulation properties because of its porosity [14]; it is an excellent material to use in permafrost roadbed heat insulation. It has been reported that the thermal conductivity of air-foamed lightweight soil can reach at a density of , which is lower than that of ordinary concrete at a density of , and the thermal conductivity decreases by for every decrease in density [143].
4.3.隔热。气泡轻质土因其多孔性而具有优异的隔热性能[14]，是冻土路基隔热的绝佳材料。据报道，在密度为 时，气泡轻质土的导热系数可达 ，比密度为 时的普通混凝土导热系数低 ，密度每降低 ，导热系数就降低 [143]。

FIGURe 4: Structure of titanium slag and red gypsum cementitious material (from [36]).
图 4：钛渣和红石膏胶凝材料的结构（摘自 [36]）。

Employing the above theory, researchers conducted field tests in Inner Mongolia and found that air-foamed lightweight soil has a significant temperature isolation effect, and the maximum temperature difference can be .
利用上述理论，研究人员在内蒙古进行了实地试验，发现气泡轻质土具有显著的隔温效果，最大温差可达 。

5.1. Material. Cement is still the most significant cementitious material for air-foamed lightweight soil; however, using a large amount of cement has deleterious effects. First, carbon emissions, which are not environmentally friendly, are released during cement production. Moreover, cement generates a large amount of hydration heat during reactions, which is not conducive to air-foamed lightweight soil quality control. Finally, the price of cement is too high and would affect the cost of engineering. Therefore, it is important to develop other binder materials to replace cement. In recent years, additional binder materials have effectively improved the performance of air-foamed lightweight soil.
5.1.材料。水泥仍是气泡轻质土最重要的胶凝材料，但大量使用水泥会产生有害影响。首先，在水泥生产过程中会释放出不利于环境的碳排放。此外，水泥在反应过程中会产生大量水化热，不利于气泡轻质土的质量控制。最后，水泥价格过高，会影响工程造价。因此，开发其他粘结材料来替代水泥就显得尤为重要。近年来，其他粘结材料有效地改善了气泡轻质土的性能。

The foaming agent should be made from nontoxic materials to reduce damage to the environment; moreover, it should make the foam that it generates more stable and longlasting. Furthermore, the compatibility between foaming agent types and different raw soils is also a crucial problem to solve.
发泡剂应由无毒材料制成，以减少对环境的破坏；此外，还应使其产生的泡沫更加稳定和持久。此外，发泡剂类型与不同原土之间的相容性也是一个需要解决的关键问题。

5.2. Production Method. The production method of airfoamed lightweight soil is an urgent problem that needs to be solved. To date, there has been no professional standard to guide production. Furthermore, the lack of complete construction equipment makes the quality of air-foamed lightweight soil challenging to control, increasing engineering costs and the wastage of raw materials. Therefore, it is necessary to standardize production processes.
5.2.生产方法。气泡轻质土的生产方法是一个亟待解决的问题。迄今为止，还没有专业的标准来指导生产。此外，由于缺乏完整的施工设备，气泡轻质土的质量难以控制，增加了工程成本和原材料的浪费。因此，有必要规范生产流程。

5.3. Properties. The properties of air-foamed lightweight soil have been extensively studied. However, research on the structural characteristics of lightweight air-foamed soil, such as the pore types formed by different foams, molding mechanisms of various raw materials, and internal structural characteristics, is limited. Additionally, the trial mixing method is still used in the mixing ratio design of air-foamed lightweight soil even though it has no complete theoretical basis, restricting the development of bubble-blended lightweight soil. As for the durability of air-foamed lightweight soil, we still lack firsthand monitoring data owing to the limited use of airfoamed lightweight soil. For example, (1) simulation of the freeze-thaw temperature field and factors affecting freeze-thaw are complex problems; (2) the dynamic response of the road system and resilience modulus has not been systematically described when air-foamed lightweight soil is applied to the subgrade/subbase; (3) the internal structural characteristics of air-foamed lightweight soil under wetting-drying cycles and the action of salts and alkalis are still the focus of research; and (4) it is also critical to strengthen the inspection of existing engineering using air-foamed lightweight soil and identify problems in a timely manner for future use.
5.3.特性。气泡轻质土的特性已得到广泛研究。但对轻质气泡土的结构特征，如不同泡沫形成的孔隙类型、各种原材料的成型机理、内部结构特征等方面的研究还很有限。此外，在气泡轻质土的混合比设计中，尽管没有完整的理论依据，但仍采用了试验混合法，限制了气泡混合轻质土的发展。在气泡轻质土的耐久性方面，由于气泡轻质土的使用范围有限，我们还缺乏第一手的监测数据。例如：(1) 冻融温度场和冻融影响因素的模拟是一个复杂的问题；(2) 在基层/路基上使用气泡轻质土时，路面系统的动态响应和回弹模量尚未得到系统的描述；(3) 空气发泡轻质土在干湿循环和盐碱作用下的内部结构特性仍是研究的重点；以及 (4) 加强对现有使用空气发泡轻质土的工程的检测，及时发现问题，对今后的使用也至关重要。

5.4. Application. Air-foamed lightweight soil has been widely applied in soft foundation replacement and dredged soil treatment. However, with respect to innovative applications of air-foamed lightweight soil, countries remain relatively conservative. The cost of airfoamed lightweight soils is a crucial factor that restricts its application; however, studies have revealed that the cost of applying air-foamed lightweight soil is between 240 and 310 yuan per cubic meter, which is lower than that of ordinary concrete. Therefore, it is feasible to apply air-foamed lightweight soil on a large scale through technological improvements.
5.4.应用。气泡轻质土已广泛应用于软基置换和疏浚土处理。然而，在气泡轻质土的创新应用方面，各国仍相对保守。气泡轻质土的成本是制约其应用的关键因素，但研究表明，气泡轻质土的应用成本在每立方米 240 至 310 元之间，低于普通混凝土的成本。因此，通过技术改进，大规模应用气泡轻质土是可行的。

This paper summarizes the material composition and functional characteristics of air-foamed lightweight soil and introduces its current application status. As a new soft soil treatment technology, air-foamed lightweight soil is more convenient than traditional construction materials. As a road-filling material, it has a lower density and good thermal insulation performance. Furthermore, as a backfill material, it exhibits better fluidity and lightness. In addition, airfoamed lightweight soil can dispose of solid waste, which has creative significance for environmental protection. However, the application of bubble lightweight soil technology has been greatly limited owing to the high cost of its raw materials, shortage of manufacturing equipment, uncertainty of environmental adaptability, and inadequacy of durability research. To further develop the technology, it is necessary to study the above limitations further, expand the scope of application, improve equipment and production processes, and establish more standards.
本文总结了气泡轻质土的材料组成和功能特点，并介绍了其应用现状。作为一种新型软土处理技术，气泡轻质土比传统建筑材料更方便。作为路面填充材料，它具有密度小、隔热性能好等特点。此外，作为回填材料，它还具有更好的流动性和轻质性。此外，气泡轻质土可以处理固体废弃物，对环境保护具有创造性意义。然而，由于原材料成本高、生产设备短缺、环境适应性不确定、耐久性研究不足等原因，气泡轻质土技术的应用受到很大限制。为了进一步发展该技术，有必要进一步研究上述限制因素，扩大应用范围，改进设备和生产工艺，制定更多标准。

No data were used to support this study.
没有数据支持这项研究。

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
作者声明他们没有利益冲突。

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42077262, 42077261, and 41972294).
这项工作得到了国家自然科学基金（42077262、42077261 和 41972294）的资助。

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