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請確認您想要的翻譯是否為上傳圖片中的內容。我將根據圖片中的文字進行逐步翻譯，首先從圖片的第一頁開始：
Introduction 簡介
Outline 大綱
Scenario: Education for Peace Curriculum, 2035 A.D. 情景：和平教育課程，公元2035年
Curriculum As Praxis 作為實踐的課程
What Is Curriculum? 什麼是課程？
What Is Praxis? 什麼是實踐？
Why Define Curriculum As Praxis? 為何將課程定義為實踐？
How Do We Study Curriculum As Praxis? 我們如何研究課程作為實踐？
Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action 實踐的要素：意識形態、話語、行動
Elements of Curriculum Theorizing 課程理論化的要素
Basic Assumptions 基本假設
Conceptual Frameworks 概念框架
Curriculum Models 課程模型
Why Study Curriculum Theories? 為什麼要研究課程理論？
Summary 總結
References 參考文獻
Recommended Readings 推薦閱讀
下面的文字部分描述了未來課程設計和如何使用實踐的方法來研究課程發展。我會繼續翻譯接下來的段落。
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Introduction
簡介
Outline
大綱
Scenario: Education for Peace Curriculum, 2035 A.D.
情景：公元2035年的和平教育課程Curriculum As Praxis
作為實踐的課程What Is Curriculum?
什麼是課程？What Is Praxis?
什麼是實踐？Why Define Curriculum As Praxis?
為什麼將課程定義為實踐？
How Do We Study Curriculum As Praxis?
我們如何研究課程作為實踐？Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action
實踐的要素：意識形態、話語、行動Elements of Curriculum Theorizing
課程理論化的要素Basic Assumptions
基本假設Conceptual Frameworks
概念框架Curriculum Models
課程模型
Why Study Curriculum Theories?
為什麼要研究課程理論？Summary
總結References
參考文獻Recommended Readings
推薦閱讀
Futurists in any professional field or scholarly area are interested in helping humankind create a better world. One of the techniques used most frequently in the attempt to extend creative thought is the writing of alternative scenarios. A standard scenario is based on extrapolation of current trends. A scenario writer selects a position concerning which of the myriad of possible future events is most likely to occur, projects a critical decision, and describes its probable consequences.
在任何專業領域或學術領域中，未來學家都對幫助人類創造一個更美好的世界感興趣。為了延伸創造性思維，經常使用的一種技術是編寫替代情景。標準情景基於當前趨勢的推測。情景編寫者選擇了一個關於未來各種可能事件中最有可能發生的事件，並投射出關鍵決策，描述其可能的後果。
As a student of the curriculum process in physical education, you are asked to consider how the critical choices of today’s curriculum decision makers may influence the nature of our future world. A scenario, to encourage you to open up your thinking, opens this chapter. As you read it, you may be uncomfortable with some aspects of this projected future of physical education. If so, ask yourself which curriculum decisions led to these consequences and what alternative choices may be presently available. Later, when you have completed your consideration of the alternatives presented throughout this text, you may wish to write your own scenario for a curriculum for 2035 A.D.
作為體育課程過程的學生，你需要思考當今課程決策者的關鍵選擇可能如何影響我們未來世界的本質。本章以一個情景開始，旨在鼓勵你開闊思維。在閱讀時，你可能會對這個體育教育未來的某些方面感到不安。如果是這樣，請問問自己，哪些課程決策導致了這些後果，當前又有哪些替代選擇可用。稍後，在你完整考慮了本書中提出的各種選擇後，你可能希望撰寫自己的2035年課程情景。
Scenario: Education for Peace Curriculum, 2035 A.D.
情景：公元2035年的和平教育課程
The late twentieth century and early twenty-first century were characterized by the emergence of a global economic and political system. Because of technological advances in communications and travel, individuals and corporations began to interact and trade across national boundaries and continents. Multinational corporations located components of their businesses around the world to take advantage of natural resources, well-trained or inexpensive labor, proximity to markets, and laws and regulations favorable to business.
20世紀末和21世紀初的特點是全球經濟和政治體系的出現。由於通訊和交通技術的進步，個人和企業開始在國家邊界和大陸之間進行互動和貿易。跨國公司將其業務的各個組成部分設置在全球各地，以利用自然資源、訓練有素或廉價的勞動力、靠近市場以及有利於企業的法律和法規。
While some geographic areas prospered, other areas saw the expansion of an underclass of unemployed persons and working poor trapped in low-paying jobs. The frustrations and problems of this underclass resulted in increases in drug use and crime. Some of the underclass migrated from one region or country to another seeking employment, often causing resentment among residents who feared being displaced from their jobs by immigrants willing to work for lower wages and benefits. This resentment compounded existing racial and ethnic conflicts.
當一些地區繁榮起來時，其他地區則出現了失業者和低工資工作的貧困階層的擴大。這一階層的挫折和問題導致了毒品使用和犯罪的增加。一些低下階層從一個地區或國家遷徙到另一個地區尋找工作，往往引起當地居民的不滿，因為他們擔心自己的工作被願意以更低工資和福利工作的移民取代。這種怨恨加劇了現有的種族和民族衝突。
Governments attempted initially to respond to these conflicts by expanding policing efforts within nations and internationally. However, such strategies were both costly and ineffective. In response to the crisis, a worldwide coalition of political and educational leaders developed a plan called Education for Peace. The program’s aims include the elimination of violence within and between countries and the improvement of the quality of life for all. The curriculum is designed to achieve these goals by empowering people to work cooperatively with others to address personal, social, political, and economic issues.
政府最初試圖通過擴大國內和國際範圍內的警務工作來應對這些衝突。然而，這樣的策略既昂貴又無效。為應對這場危機，一個由政治和教育領袖組成的全球聯盟制定了一項名為「和平教育」的計劃。該計劃的目標包括消除國內和國際間的暴力行為，並改善所有人的生活質量。該課程旨在通過賦予人們與他人合作解決個人、社會、政治和經濟問題的能力來實現這些目標。
這是第一部分的翻譯。讓我知道您是否需要我繼續翻譯後續內容。
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Within the United States, the Education for Peace program is provided at community schools that serve as the delivery point for educational and social services for all ages and as focal points for community organizing to address social and political issues. Each community school is staffed with a range of professionals with expertise in education, health, and social services. Each school has a governing council of professionals (including teachers) and community representatives (including students) that makes decisions regarding the services and programs provided.
在美國，和平教育計劃在社區學校中實施，這些學校不僅提供各年齡層的教育和社會服務，還是解決社會和政治問題的社區組織中心。每所社區學校都有一組具有教育、健康和社會服務專業知識的專業人員。每所學校都有一個由專業人士（包括教師）和社區代表（包括學生）組成的管理委員會，負責制定提供的服務和項目的決策。
The Education for Peace curriculum focuses on the empowerment of individuals within personal, social, political, and economic realms. The curriculum developers began with a recognition that “empowerment is a process one undertakes for oneself; it is not something done ‘to’ or ‘for’ someone” (Lather 1991, 4). The program is designed to create situations in which teachers and students can work together to create knowledge and action that improve the quality of their lives. The curriculum provides for education across the life span, from infancy through adulthood.
和平教育課程的重點是個人在個人、社會、政治和經濟領域的賦權。課程開發者認識到，“賦權是一個人為自己進行的過程，而不是為別人‘做’或‘為’別人做”（Lather 1991，4）。該計劃旨在創造一個讓教師和學生共同努力創造知識和行動的環境，從而提高他們的生活質量。該課程涵蓋從嬰兒到成年的終身教育。
The personal empowerment component of the curriculum is based on an assumption of mind-body-spirit integration. The goals of this component are self-awareness, self-acceptance, competence, health, and transcendent experience. The social-cultural component assumes that in a global society all students need to have some knowledge of the major cultures of the world and an in-depth knowledge of at least one culture other than one’s own. The social-political empowerment component is designed to enable students to recognize and analyze social and political forces affecting them and others and to act individually and collectively to improve the quality of their lives.
課程的個人賦權部分基於身心靈整合的假設。該部分的目標是自我覺察、自我接納、能力、健康以及超越的經歷。社會文化部分假設在全球化社會中，所有學生都需要了解世界主要文化，並深入了解至少一種不同於自己文化的文化。社會政治賦權部分旨在使學生能夠識別並分析影響自己及他人的社會和政治力量，並以個人和集體的方式行動，改善生活質量。
The economic component provides each student with education for a career and retraining as necessary throughout life. The program also teaches students to participate in decisions that affect the economic well-being of their community.
經濟部分為每位學生提供職業教育及其必要的再培訓。該計劃還教授學生參與影響其社區經濟福祉的決策過程。
Because world leaders recognized the cultural significance of sport and dance and the central role that health plays in the quality of life, physical education is an integral part of the Education for Peace curriculum. Young children participate in a preschool program that provides opportunities for exploration and growth, including the development of motor skills. School-age children are provided a developmental movement education program that emphasizes self-acceptance and individual progress in the development of motor skills. The skills are related to a wide range of games, dance, and gymnastics, but the emphasis of the program is on mastery of skills and concepts, not on competition and winning.
由於世界領導人認識到體育和舞蹈的文化意義，以及健康在生活質量中所扮演的核心角色，體育教育成為和平教育課程的不可或缺部分。幼兒參加一個學前計劃，該計劃為探索和成長提供機會，包括運動技能的發展。學齡兒童則參加一個強調自我接納和個人進步的發展性運動教育計劃。這些技能涉及範圍廣泛的遊戲、舞蹈和體操，但該計劃的重點是技能和概念的掌握，而非競爭和勝負。
The curriculum also allows children to examine the role of movement in societies. They learn games, sports, and dances from various cultures and discuss how the activities relate to the historical context and to other aspects of the culture. Children examine the influence of technology on sport and leisure in the twenty-first century. They explore and discuss the differences between the direct experience of movement activities and the mediated experiences provided by video and computers. Children study conflict in sport situations and practice negotiation and conflict resolution strategies. They also discuss the concept of community and its relationship to various forms of sport and dance.
課程還讓兒童研究運動在社會中的作用。他們學習來自不同文化的遊戲、體育和舞蹈，並討論這些活動如何與歷史背景及其他文化方面相關。兒童研究了21世紀技術對運動和休閒的影響。他們探討並討論了運動活動的直接體驗與通過視頻和電腦獲得的間接體驗之間的差異。兒童研究了體育情境中的衝突，並練習談判和衝突解決策略。他們還討論了社區的概念及其與各種形式的運動和舞蹈的關係。
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Older students learn meditation, yoga, and tai chi as ways of increasing awareness of the integrated self. Students also participate in a fitness program built on the principle of learning to accept and trust one’s own body. Rather than a set exercise regime and external standards of performance, students learn to listen to their bodies’ signals as a guide to when and how much to eat, exercise, and rest (Carrier and Steinhardt 1992). The program is accompanied by discussions of how society constructs definitions of health and attractiveness and how individuals can create personally appropriate definitions.
年長的學生學習冥想、瑜伽和太極，作為提高整合自我意識的方式。學生還參加了一個基於學習接納和信任自己身體原則的健身計劃。學生學會聆聽自己身體的信號，指導他們何時及如何飲食、運動和休息，而不是依靠固定的鍛煉計劃和外部的表現標準（Carrier 和 Steinhardt 1992）。該計劃還伴隨著關於社會如何構建健康和吸引力的定義以及個人如何創造個人適合的定義的討論。
The transcendent experience goal is achieved by asking each student to select one or two activities in which to seek mastery. To augment the student’s previous exposure to particular activities, each community school has a videotape library of sport and dance activities from around the world. As part of the selection process, students can use computerized virtual reality simulators to experience participation in various sport or dance activities. Usually one of the activities selected is from the second culture in which the student is seeking in-depth knowledge. If possible, the student is paired with a “buddy” from the other culture who will share the experience, either in person or by interactive video.
超越經驗目標是通過要求每個學生選擇一兩項活動來達到精通的水平。為了增強學生對某些活動的先前接觸，每個社區學校都有一個來自世界各地的體育和舞蹈活動錄像庫。作為選擇過程的一部分，學生可以使用計算機虛擬現實模擬器來體驗各種體育或舞蹈活動的參與。通常，所選的一項活動來自學生希望深入學習的第二文化。如果可能，學生將與來自另一文化的“夥伴”配對，共同分享體驗，無論是面對面還是通過互動視頻。
Once the students’ selections are made, students read or listen to George Leonard’s Mastery (1991), then meet with a physical education counselor to develop plans for working toward mastery. The plan usually involves a combination of instruction, self-directed practice, and competition or performance. Each community school has a corps of instructors for the more frequently selected activities. For more unusual activities, community schools in the same region create an instructor pool. In some cases instruction is provided by experts from other regions or countries using interactive video.
一旦學生選擇了活動，他們會閱讀或聆聽 George Leonard 的《精通》（1991），然後與體育顧問會面，制定朝向精通的計劃。這個計劃通常包括指導、自主練習與競爭或表演的結合。每個社區學校都有專門的指導團隊來負責選擇較多的活動。對於較不常見的活動，同一地區的社區學校會共同建立一個指導者庫。在某些情況下，指導課程是由來自其他地區或國家的專家通過互動視頻提供的。
At each community school, students selecting the same sport usually join a club that organizes their activities. Because many adults continue to pursue mastery in one or more activities, these clubs are generally multigenerational organizations. Older members of the club provide mentoring and support for novices. Every person who receives services at the community school, including students over age twelve, is required to perform a certain number of hours of volunteer service. Many volunteers choose to work with sports clubs or with movement programs for younger children to fulfill their service requirement.
在每個社區學校，選擇同一體育項目的學生通常加入組織活動的俱樂部。由於許多成年人繼續追求在一項或多項活動中的精通，這些俱樂部通常是跨代的組織。俱樂部中的年長成員為新手提供指導和支持。每個在社區學校接受服務的人，包括12歲以上的學生，必須完成一定時數的志願服務。許多志願者選擇與體育俱樂部合作或參與針對年幼兒童的運動計劃，以滿足他們的服務要求。
Older students and adults also participate in policy study groups that examine social issues. One of the topics the groups examine is how sport and dance relate to other social issues. They observe, participate in, and analyze their reactions to same-sex and mixed-sex sport settings and discuss how sport and dance help to define gender expectations and opportunities. They study nonverbal communication and sport and dance across cultures. They examine the relationship of the amount of cooperation, competition, conflict, and violence in various forms of sport to violence in the community. They study the impact of various sports on the environment. They analyze the sport opportunities available in different communities and the costs associated with different types of sport. Their analysis of the economic aspects of sport includes school, college, and professional sports as well as the mass marketing of sport and exercise. They identify those who hold leadership positions and control decisions regarding sport.
年長學生和成人還參加政策研究小組，研究社會問題。其中一個研究主題是體育和舞蹈與其他社會問題的關係。他們觀察、參與並分析自己對同性和混合性別體育環境的反應，並討論體育和舞蹈如何幫助界定性別期望和機會。他們研究跨文化中的非語言交流、體育和舞蹈。他們探討不同形式的體育中的合作、競爭、衝突和暴力程度與社區暴力之間的關係。他們研究各種體育運動對環境的影響，分析不同社區中的體育機會及其相關成本。他們對體育經濟方面的分析包括學校、學院和職業體育以及體育和運動的市場推廣。他們還識別出在體育領域擔任領導職位並掌控決策的人。
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Curriculum As Praxis
作為實踐的課程
How do changes in physical education programs come about? What will cause the movement studies curriculum of 2035 to be different from current physical education programs? What might make the 2035 curriculum evolve in these particular ways rather than in other ways that might be envisioned in alternative scenarios?
體育課程的變革是如何產生的？是什麼使2035年的運動研究課程與當前的體育課程不同？是什麼原因使2035年的課程以這種特殊的方式演變，而不是以其他可想像的替代情景中的方式演變？
To some extent, curriculum planning is the result of public policy. National priorities for extending scientific and technological achievements, expanding equality of opportunity, and educating a workforce that is competitive in a global economy have resulted in significant changes in school curricula. Regional and state economic, social, and political concerns have modified teacher certification regulations and the neighborhood school concept, and have led to competency testing of teachers and students. Local school boards have implemented public policy decisions by prohibiting or requiring instruction in particular subject matter and by determining funding levels for various programs. Recent efforts within large school districts to implement school-based management have shifted some decision making to the school, but curricular decisions continue to be shaped by national, state, and school district policies.
在某種程度上，課程規劃是公共政策的結果。擴展科學和技術成就、擴大機會平等和培養在全球經濟中具有競爭力的勞動力的國家優先事項導致了學校課程的重大變革。地區和州的經濟、社會和政治關注點修改了教師認證規定和社區學校的概念，並引發了教師和學生的能力測試。當地的學校董事會已經通過禁止或要求在特定科目中進行教學並確定各項目資金水平的公共政策決策。最近在大型學區內實施學校管理的努力將部分決策轉移到了學校，但課程決策仍然受國家、州和學區政策的影響。
Curriculum planning is an important public concern. It is also a major professional responsibility. Most of the decisions reflected in local curriculum guides, textbook selections, and daily decisions about content and instructional procedures are made by teachers. Curriculum planning is, necessarily, a blend of professional judgment and public policy making. The goal of this book is to help you to understand physical education curriculum development from this interactive perspective.
課程規劃是一個重要的公共關注點，也是專業人士的一項重大責任。大多數反映在當地課程指南、教材選擇以及關於內容和教學程序的日常決策都是由教師做出的。課程規劃必然是專業判斷和公共政策制定的結合。本書的目標是幫助您從這種互動的角度理解體育課程的發展。
What Is Curriculum?
什麼是課程？
Definitions of curriculum have varied greatly during the last half-century of its development as a field of study. Broadly defined, the school curriculum includes all experiences conducted under school auspices, from formal classroom instruction to interscholastic athletics. More specifically, the curriculum is defined as the planned sequence of formal instructional experiences presented by the teachers to whom the responsibility is assigned. The authors take a somewhat middle-of-the-road position, supporting Macdonald’s (1977, 11) definition of curriculum as a purposefully selected cultural environment. Curriculum is the study of “what should constitute a world of learning and how to go about making this world.”
在過去半個世紀的課程發展過程中，課程的定義發生了很大變化。廣義上，學校課程包括在學校主導下進行的所有經驗，從正式的課堂教學到校際運動。更具體地說，課程被定義為由指定教師提供的正式教學經驗的計劃順序。作者採取了一種中庸立場，支持 Macdonald（1977，11）的定義，將課程視為經過精心選擇的文化環境。課程是對“學習世界應該包含什麼以及如何構建這個世界”的研究。
Scholars also differ on the use of the term curriculum as it relates to instruction. Curriculum is frequently used as a broad generic term, including instruction. When a distinction between the two is drawn, curriculum is defined as an educative agency’s plan for facilitating learning; instruction is defined as the delivery system, or the aggregate of educative transactions, that constitutes the teaching-learning process for implementing the plan. The major focus of curriculum is on ends, on the “why” and “what” questions; instruction tends to emphasize means, or the “how” questions. While the two can be discussed separately for analytical purposes, in practice they are interactive and inseparable.
學者們對課程這一術語的使用也有所不同，尤其是在它與教學的關聯上。課程經常作為一個廣泛的通用術語，包括教學。當兩者區分開來時，課程被定義為促進學習的教育機構計劃；教學則被定義為傳遞系統，或組成教學過程以實施計劃的教育互動總和。課程的主要焦點在於目標，即“為什麼”和“什麼”的問題；而教學則強調方法，即“如何”的問題。儘管兩者在分析時可以分開討論，但在實踐中它們是互動且不可分割的。
What Is Praxis?
什麼是實踐？
Education is a practical activity; every teacher must make decisions about content and instructional process for real students in a specific time and place. The ancient Greeks provided an insightful analysis of practical activity. They differentiated between two types of practical activity: poiesis and praxis (Stanley 1992, 214). Poiesis refers to the production of something “defined or conceived in advance so as to provide the specific rules and standards to determine completion of the task.” Poiesis is sometimes referred to as technical expertise. Praxis refers to an activity that seeks the realization of human well-being and in which “progressive development in understanding the purposes being pursued emerges within the activity itself.”
教育是一種實踐活動；每個教師都必須為具體時間和地點的真實學生做出關於內容和教學過程的決策。古希臘人對實踐活動進行了深刻的分析。他們區分了兩種類型的實踐活動：poiesis 和 praxis（Stanley 1992，214）。Poiesis 是指生產某些“預先定義或構想的東西，以提供具體的規則和標準來決定任務的完成”。Poiesis 有時被稱為技術專業知識。Praxis 是指一種追求實現人類福祉的活動，其中“對追求目標的理解在活動本身中逐步發展”。
Critique and self-reflection are an inherent part of praxis. Carr and Kemmis (1986) refer to praxis as informed, committed action: “Praxis has its roots in the commitment of the practitioner to wise and prudent action in a practical, concrete, historical situation” (p. 190).
批判與自我反思是實踐的固有部分。Carr 和 Kemmis（1986）將實踐稱為“有知識的、承諾的行動：‘實踐植根於實踐者對在具體的歷史情境中明智而謹慎行動的承諾’”（第190頁）。
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Why Define Curriculum As Praxis?
為何將課程定義為實踐？
The decision to define curriculum as a form of praxis emphasizes certain aspects of curriculum. First, it emphasizes that curriculum is a practical activity situated in a particular time and place and thus focuses attention on the effects of social and historical circumstances on curricular decisions. Secondly, this definition asserts that theory and practice are inseparable and interactive. Grundy (1987, 115) states it this way: “This principle would suggest that the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic interaction of action and reflection. That is, the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into the process.”
將課程定義為實踐的決定強調了課程的某些方面。首先，它強調課程是一項位於特定時間和地點的實踐活動，從而使人們關注社會和歷史背景對課程決策的影響。其次，這一定義斷言了理論與實踐是不可分割且互動的。Grundy（1987，115）是這樣表述的：“這一原則表明，課程本身是通過行動和反思的動態互動而發展的。也就是說，課程並不僅僅是一套計劃，而是通過一個積極的過程來構建的，在這個過程中，規劃、行動和評估都是相互關聯並整合到過程中的。”
Studying discourses is an invaluable aspect of reflection about praxis (Cherryholmes 1988). Examination of praxis through ideology and discourse is insufficient and incomplete without action. The third element of an analysis of praxis is doing, and then thinking about the doing. Reflection focuses not only on the means to achieve a goal but also on the ends or goals themselves. If reflection is limited to means or procedures, this is technique but not praxis. Carr and Kemmis (1986, 190) view praxis as “action which is considered and consciously theorized, and which may reflexively inform and transform the theory which informed it.”
研究話語是反思實踐的一個重要方面（Cherryholmes 1988）。如果沒有行動，僅通過意識形態和話語來檢視實踐是不足和不完整的。實踐分析的第三要素是行動，然後再對行動進行思考。反思不僅關注實現目標的手段，還關注目標或結果本身。如果反思僅限於手段或程序，那麼這是技術而非實踐。Carr 和 Kemmis（1986，190）將實踐視為“經過考慮並有意識地理論化的行動，這些行動可能會反思性地影響和改變支撐它的理論。”
Elements of Curriculum Theorizing
課程理論化的要素
A theory is a set of related statements explaining a series of events. Individuals create theories to explain their world. Our daily activities and language are embedded with theories. The role of curriculum theorizing is to examine curriculum with the goals of achieving insights and understanding, enlarging vision, and identifying new possibilities.
理論是一組解釋一系列事件的相關陳述。個人創建理論來解釋他們的世界。我們的日常活動和語言中都蘊含著理論。課程理論化的作用是通過審視課程來達到洞察和理解的目標，擴展視野並識別新可能性。
Basic Assumptions
基本假設
A curriculum theory is based on assumptions about society, human beings, and education. Each of us must accept a particular set of assumptions concerning the goals of society, the role of the individual within the broader society, and the kind of future world desired. Curriculum theories vary in their basic assumptions about the nature of an individual human being, the ultimate perfectibility of a person, and the potential for self-direction. Basic assumptions underlying a given curriculum theory also relate to concepts about the role of the school in society, who determines educational objectives, and how the process of education can best be facilitated.
課程理論基於關於社會、人類和教育的假設。我們每個人都必須接受一套特定的假設，這些假設涉及社會的目標、個人在廣泛社會中的角色以及所希望的未來世界。課程理論在個體人類的本質、個人的終極完善性以及自我引導的潛力方面存在不同的基本假設。某一課程理論下的基本假設還涉及學校在社會中的角色、誰決定教育目標以及如何最有效地促進教育過程的概念。
The basic assumptions of a curriculum theory are a form of ideology and understanding curriculum as praxis requires examination of these assumptions. For example, education in the United States endorses a meritocratic ideology, in which success is presumed to be dependent on individual effort and ability (Bain 1990). Some of the dominant perspectives regarding basic assumptions are described in chapter 2 in the section entitled “Value Orientations in Curriculum Development.”
課程理論的基本假設是一種意識形態，理解課程作為實踐需要檢視這些假設。例如，美國的教育支持一種精英主義的意識形態，其中成功被認為取決於個人的努力和能力（Bain 1990）。關於基本假設的一些主流觀點在第2章“課程發展中的價值取向”部分中進行了描述。
Conceptual Frameworks
概念框架
A conceptual framework for a curriculum is a “structure which attempts to systematically describe the curriculum by identifying and operationally defining the elements and the ways in which they are or may be related to each other” (Jewett and Mullan 1977, 1). The conceptual framework serves to define the scope and structure of the body of knowledge to be included in the curriculum. In some cases the conceptual framework may be simple and not very thoroughly developed. An example might be a multiactivity physical education program based on a sampling of team sports, individual sports, gymnastics, aquatics, and dance. In other cases the conceptual framework for a curriculum is elaborately developed and described. One example might be the Laban framework used as a basis for movement education programs (see chapter 9). An important element of the analysis of curriculum discourse is to look for the conceptual frameworks embedded in our curriculum discussions and documents. The curriculum models described in chapter 3 include descriptions of their respective conceptual frameworks.
課程的概念框架是一種“試圖系統地描述課程的結構，通過識別和操作性地定義其元素及它們之間的關係”（Jewett 和 Mullan 1977，1）。概念框架用來界定課程中應包括的知識範圍和結構。在某些情況下，概念框架可能比較簡單，且未被徹底發展。例如，一個基於團隊運動、個人運動、體操、水上運動和舞蹈樣本的多活動體育課程。其他情況下，課程的概念框架則被詳細發展並加以描述。例如，Laban 框架就是用作運動教育計劃的基礎（見第9章）。課程話語分析中的一個重要元素是尋找嵌入在我們課程討論和文檔中的概念框架。第3章描述的課程模型包括其相應概念框架的描述。
Curriculum Models
課程模型
A curriculum model is a general pattern for creating or shaping program designs. Each model is based on a set of assumptions and a conceptual framework related to those assumptions. The model also incorporates identification of goals, selection and structuring of program content, and development of instructional procedures and learning environments.
課程模型是一種為創建或塑造計劃設計提供的通用模式。每個模型都基於一組假設和與這些假設相關的概念框架。該模型還包括目標的識別、節目內容的選擇和結構化，以及教學程序和學習環境的發展。
Many program designs can be developed using the same conceptual framework. Use of a particular conceptual framework presumes acceptance of the basic assumptions underlying that framework; yet curriculum designs may vary in terms of target populations, organizational structures for educational institutions, or environmental resources or limitations.
許多課程設計可以使用相同的概念框架來開發。使用特定的概念框架意味着接受該框架所依據的基本假設；然而，課程設計可能會根據目標人群、教育機構的組織結構或環境資源或限制的不同而有所差異。
Models cannot be completely developed or understood without action. As the model is implemented, modifications may be made of basic assumptions, the conceptual framework, or design elements. Curriculum praxis involves a continuing cycle of action and reflection that is situated in and responsive to a specific set of circumstances. For that reason, curriculum is ultimately constructed at the local level.
模型在沒有行動的情況下無法完全發展或理解。隨著模型的實施，可能會對基本假設、概念框架或設計元素進行修改。課程實踐涉及持續的行動和反思循環，這個循環位於特定情境內並對其作出回應。因此，課程最終是在地方層面上構建的。
Why Study Curriculum Theories?
為什麼要研究課程理論？
The ultimate goal of studying praxis is to improve it. The approach taken in this text is to study curriculum theories and models and the process of curriculum planning and implementation. The intent is for you to use this information as a tool to study your own curriculum beliefs and practices.
研究實踐的最終目標是改善它。本書採取的方式是研究課程理論和模型以及課程規劃和實施的過程。目的是讓您將這些信息作為工具來研究自己的課程信念和實踐。
Of the many reasons to study curriculum theories and models, probably the most important one is to clarify your own educational philosophy. Each of us has a value orientation that guides our educational decisions. However, many curriculum planners and educators have not carefully examined these personal viewpoints. An effective way to clarify your own beliefs is to compare your philosophical position with several alternatives, thus sharpening your perception and understanding of the specifics of an educational philosophy and increasing the consistency of your personal theoretical base.
研究課程理論和模型的眾多原因中，最重要的一個可能是澄清自己的教育哲學。我們每個人都有一個指導我們教育決策的價值取向。然而，許多課程規劃者和教育者並沒有仔細檢視這些個人觀點。一個有效的方法是將自己的哲學立場與幾個替代選項進行比較，從而加強對教育哲學具體內容的理解，並增強個人理論基礎的一致性。
接下來將進入總結部分的翻譯。
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Summary
總結
Curriculum planning is the result of public policy and is a major responsibility of the professional educator. Curriculum is a form of praxis; that is, it is a practical activity combining reflection and action, theory and practice. Theorizing is creating a framework of thought that explains and guides activities and decisions. Theories emerge from practice and are continually examined and modified as they are implemented.
課程規劃是公共政策的結果，也是專業教育者的主要責任。課程是一種實踐；即，它是一項結合反思與行動、理論與實踐的實際活動。理論化是創建一個解釋並指導活動和決策的思想框架。理論來自於實踐，並在實施過程中不斷被檢查和修改。
Curriculum theories and models are part of the discourse that helps shape curricular practice. Each curriculum theory is based on a particular set of assumptions about society, human beings, and education. A curriculum theory is made operational through the selection or development of a conceptual framework. A curriculum model is a general pattern for creating or shaping program designs; the model incorporates a conceptual framework and should be consistent with the theory upon which the framework is based.
課程理論和模型是幫助塑造課程實踐的話語的一部分。每一種課程理論都基於關於社會、人類和教育的一組特定假設。課程理論通過選擇或發展概念框架來具體操作。課程模型是創建或塑造計劃設計的通用模式；該模型包含一個概念框架，並且應該與該框架所基於的理論一致。
Physical educators study curriculum theories in order to clarify personal educational philosophies, develop new perspectives, and increase practical skills of curriculum development. The nature and quality of future physical education programs will depend on social, economic, and political developments and on the insights and commitments of professionals responsible for future curricular decision making.
體育教育者研究課程理論，以澄清個人的教育哲學，發展新的視角，並提高課程發展的實際技能。未來體育課程的性質和質量將取決於社會、經濟和政治的發展，以及負責未來課程決策的專業人士的洞察力和承諾。
這就是「Introduction」章節中所有內容的翻譯。如果您有其他需要，請告訴我！
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政策研究小組運用他們的社會、政治和經濟分析來制定策略，以增強體育和舞蹈對和平教育目標的貢獻，這些目標包括減少暴力並改善所有人的生活質量。他們的想法，以及在其他學科中準備的類似報告，會提交給社區學校的管理委員會進行考慮和採取行動。每個社區學校還參與一個和平教育互動電腦和視頻網絡，在該網絡中，可以解決區域、國家和全球範圍內的問題。和平教育課程的累積效果是一項持續的努力，旨在動員個人、社區和國家來減少暴力並改善所有人的生活質量。
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另一個將課程定義為實踐的含義是內容、教學和社會背景的元素是互動的，並且必須作為課程的元素來看待 (Kirk 1988)。
將課程定義為實踐的選擇不僅僅是使用術語。這一定義突出了課程的某些方面，並對我們如何研究課程過程具有深遠影響。對教師來說，將課程定義為實踐強調了不斷檢查和改進基本信念、目標以及實際程序的必要性。
How Do We Study Curriculum As Praxis?
我們如何研究作為實踐的課程？
將課程定義為實踐似乎是一種強調課程過程中關鍵方面的有效方法。但這也給那些希望研究課程的人帶來了某些挑戰。如果行動和反思是緊密相關的，那麼課程研究必須同時包括兩者。課本可以刺激反思，但如果要有意義，則必須伴隨行動。對於那些已經是教師的人，將行動與反思聯繫在一起的機會是存在的。對於那些尚未教學的人，我們將提供一些實際活動，這些活動將為行動和反思提供基礎。在繼續之前，確定一些我們在反思作為實踐的課程時要檢查的元素將是有幫助的。
Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action
實踐的要素：意識形態、話語、行動
反思，作為實踐的內在部分，需要檢查我們的活動以及指導這些活動的信念和假設。分析的一個組成部分是指導我們行動的意識形態。意識形態 是一組信念、價值觀和觀點，這些信念提供了我們用來理解或解釋世界的框架 (Stanley 1992)。意識形態幫助我們在社會世界中運作，但也會限制我們的認知。個人和群體往往會有多種意識形態或框架，這些意識形態可能彼此衝突。意識形態可以是有意識的，也可以是無意識的，通常被認為是常識和自然的。實踐涉及對意識形態的持續分析和修訂，但這是一個複雜的過程，必然受到我們內在矛盾以及無意識層面運作的那些意識形態因素的限制。**
我們可以檢查假設和意識形態的其中一種方式是檢視圍繞某項活動的話語。話語 指的是關於特定主題所說和寫的內容，例如體育課程。教師如何彼此討論體育教育？他們如何向學生講授體育教育？學生和家長如何看待體育教育計劃？體育課本中寫了什麼？它是如何呈現在當地課程指南中的？誰撰寫了這些內容？管理人員發佈了哪些與體育教育相關的聲明和政策？
話語具有調控所說與未說之內容的潛在規則，並且規範了誰在發言以及如何發言。話語在不同的時間和地點有所不同。
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Introduction
簡介
Outline
大綱
Scenario: Education for Peace Curriculum, 2035 A.D.
情境：2035年的和平教育課程Curriculum As Praxis
作為實踐的課程What Is Curriculum?
什麼是課程？What Is Praxis?
什麼是實踐？Why Define Curriculum As Praxis?
為什麼將課程定義為實踐？
How Do We Study Curriculum As Praxis?
我們如何研究作為實踐的課程？Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action
實踐的要素：意識形態、話語、行動Elements of Curriculum Theorizing
課程理論化的要素Basic Assumptions
基本假設Conceptual Frameworks
概念框架Curriculum Models
課程模型
Why Study Curriculum Theories?
為什麼要研究課程理論？Summary
總結References
參考文獻Recommended Readings
推薦閱讀
Futurists in any professional field or scholarly area are interested in helping humankind create a better world. One of the techniques used most frequently in the attempt to extend creative thought is the writing of alternative scenarios. A standard scenario is based on extrapolation of current trends. A scenario writer selects a position concerning which of the myriad of possible future events is most likely to occur, projects a critical decision, and describes its probable consequences.
任何專業領域或學術領域的未來學家都致力於幫助人類創造一個更好的世界。在延展創造性思維的嘗試中，最常使用的技術之一就是撰寫替代情境。標準情境是基於當前趨勢的推測。情境撰寫者選擇一個與眾多可能發生的未來事件有關的立場，預測可能發生的關鍵決策，並描述其可能的後果。
As a student of the curriculum process in physical education, you are asked to consider how the critical choices of today’s curriculum decision makers may influence the nature of our future world. A scenario, to encourage you to open up your thinking, opens this chapter. As you read it, you may be uncomfortable with some aspects of this projected future of physical education. If so, ask yourself which curriculum decisions led to these consequences and what alternative choices may be presently available. Later, when you have completed your consideration of the alternatives presented throughout this text, you may wish to write your own scenario for a curriculum for 2035 A.D.
作為體育課程過程的學生，您需要思考當今課程決策者的關鍵選擇如何影響我們未來世界的本質。為了鼓勵您打開思維，本章節以一個情境展開。在閱讀過程中，您可能會對預測的未來體育課程中的某些方面感到不適。如果是這樣，請問自己是哪些課程決策導致了這些結果，並且當前有什麼可供選擇的替代方案。稍後，當您完成了對本書中提出的替代方案的考量後，您可能希望為2035年的課程撰寫自己的情境。
Scenario: Education for Peace Curriculum, 2035 A.D.
情境：2035年的和平教育課程
The late twentieth century and early twenty-first century were characterized by the emergence of a global economic and political system. Because of technological advances in communications and travel, individuals and corporations began to interact and trade across national boundaries and continents. Multinational corporations located components of their businesses around the world to take advantage of natural resources, well-trained or inexpensive labor, proximity to markets, and laws and regulations favorable to business.
二十世紀末和二十一世紀初的特點是全球經濟和政治體系的出現。由於通信和旅行的技術進步，個人和公司開始跨越國家邊界和大陸進行互動和貿易。跨國公司將其業務組件設置在全球各地，以利用自然資源、訓練有素或廉價的勞動力、市場的接近性以及對企業有利的法律和法規。
While some geographic areas prospered, other areas saw the expansion of an underclass of unemployed persons and working poor trapped in low-paying jobs. The frustrations and problems of this underclass resulted in increases in drug use and crime. Some of the underclass migrated from one region or country to another seeking employment, often causing resentment among residents who feared being displaced from their jobs by immigrants willing to work for lower wages and benefits. This resentment compounded existing racial and ethnic conflicts.
儘管一些地區繁榮發展，其他地區卻見證了失業者和被困於低薪工作中的勞動窮人的擴展。這個下層階級的挫折和問題導致了毒品使用和犯罪的增加。一些下層階級從一個地區或國家遷移到另一個地區尋找工作，這常常引起居民的怨恨，這些居民害怕被願意接受更低工資和福利的移民取代他們的工作。這種怨恨加劇了現有的種族和民族衝突。
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Governments attempted initially to respond to these conflicts by expanding policing efforts within nations and internationally. However, such strategies were both costly and ineffective. In response to the crisis, a worldwide coalition of political and educational leaders developed a plan called Education for Peace. The program’s aims include the elimination of violence within and between countries and the improvement of the quality of life for all. The curriculum is designed to achieve these goals by empowering people to work cooperatively with others to address personal, social, political, and economic issues. While the general goals of the program have been identified by the world organization, the design and implementation of the curriculum are developed at the local level.
各國政府最初試圖通過擴大國內和國際的警察行動來應對這些衝突。然而，這樣的策略既昂貴又無效。為了應對危機，全球的政治和教育領袖聯合制定了一個名為“和平教育”的計劃。該計劃的目標包括消除國內和國家之間的暴力，並提高所有人的生活質量。該課程旨在通過賦權人們與他人合作來解決個人、社會、政治和經濟問題，以實現這些目標。雖然該計劃的總體目標由全球組織確定，但課程的設計和實施是在地方層面進行的。
Within the United States, the Education for Peace program is provided at community schools that serve as the delivery point for educational and social services for all ages and as focal points for community organizing to address social and political issues. Each community school is staffed with a range of professionals with expertise in education, health, and social services. Each school has a governing council of professionals (including teachers) and community representatives (including students) that makes decisions regarding the services and programs provided.
在美國，和平教育計劃在社區學校中提供，這些學校既是為各年齡層提供教育和社會服務的交付點，也是組織社區以解決社會和政治問題的中心。每所社區學校都有一系列專業人員，他們在教育、健康和社會服務方面具有專業知識。每所學校都有一個由專業人士（包括教師）和社區代表（包括學生）組成的管理委員會，該委員會負責決策所提供的服務和項目。
The Education for Peace curriculum focuses on the empowerment of individuals within personal, social, political, and economic realms. The curriculum developers began with a recognition that “empowerment is a process one undertakes for oneself; it is not something done to or for someone” (Lather 1991, 4). The program is designed to create situations in which teachers and students can work together to create knowledge and action that improve the quality of their lives. The curriculum provides for education across the lifespan, from infancy through adulthood.
和平教育課程的重點是賦予個人在個人、社會、政治和經濟領域的權力。課程開發者認識到“賦權是一個人為自己進行的過程；它不是為別人做的事，也不是別人為你做的事”（Lather 1991，4）。該計劃旨在創造一種情境，讓教師和學生能夠共同創造知識和行動，從而改善他們的生活質量。該課程提供了終身教育，從嬰兒期一直到成人期。
The personal empowerment component of the curriculum is based on an assumption of mind-body-spirit integration. The goals of this component are self-awareness, self-acceptance, competence, health, and transcendent experience. The social-cultural component assumes that in a global society all students need to have some knowledge of the major cultures of the world and an in-depth knowledge of at least one culture other than one’s own. The social-political empowerment component is designed to enable students to recognize and analyze social and political forces affecting them and others and to act individually and collectively to improve the quality of their lives. The economic component provides each student with education for a career and retraining as necessary throughout life. The program also teaches students to participate in decisions that affect the economic well-being of their community.
課程的個人賦權部分基於心靈-身體-精神整合的假設。該部分的目標是自我認識、自我接受、能力、健康和超越經驗。社會文化部分假設在全球社會中，所有學生都需要具備對世界主要文化的一些知識，並深入了解至少一個與自己不同的文化。社會政治賦權部分旨在使學生能夠識別和分析影響自己和他人的社會和政治力量，並以個人和集體的方式行動，以改善他們的生活質量。經濟部分為每個學生提供職業教育和在生活中必要時的再培訓。該計劃還教導學生參與那些影響其社區經濟福祉的決策。
Because world leaders recognized the cultural significance of sport and dance and the central role that health plays in the quality of life, physical education is an integral part of the Education for Peace curriculum. Young children participate in a preschool program that provides opportunities for exploration and growth, including the development of motor skills. School-age children are provided a developmental movement education program that emphasizes self-acceptance and individual progress in the development of motor skills. The skills are related to a wide range of games, dance, and gymnastics, but the emphasis of the program is on mastery of skills and concepts, not on competition and winning.
由於世界領導人認識到體育和舞蹈的文化意義以及健康在生活質量中所扮演的核心角色，體育教育是和平教育課程的重要組成部分。幼兒參加一個學前教育課程，該課程提供探索和成長的機會，包括運動技能的發展。學齡兒童參與一個發展性運動教育計劃，該計劃強調自我接受和運動技能發展的個人進步。這些技能涉及廣泛的遊戲、舞蹈和體操，但該課程的重點是掌握技能和概念，而不是競爭和勝利。
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The curriculum also allows children to examine the role of movement in societies. They learn games, sports, and dances from various cultures and discuss how the activities relate to the historical context and to other aspects of the culture. Children examine the influence of technology on sport and leisure in the twenty-first century. They explore and discuss the differences between the direct experience of movement activities and the mediated experiences provided by video and computers. Children study conflict in sport situations and practice negotiation and conflict resolution strategies. They also discuss the concept of community and its relationship to various forms of sport and dance.
該課程還允許兒童審視運動在社會中的角色。他們學習來自各種文化的遊戲、運動和舞蹈，並討論這些活動如何與歷史背景以及文化的其他方面相關。兒童們會研究技術對21世紀體育和休閒活動的影響。他們探索並討論運動活動的直接經歷與通過視頻和電腦提供的間接經驗之間的差異。兒童們還會研究體育情境中的衝突，並練習協商和解決衝突的策略。他們還會討論社區的概念及其與各種形式的體育和舞蹈之間的關係。
Older students learn meditation, yoga, and tai chi as ways of increasing awareness of the integrated self. Students also participate in a fitness program built on the principle of learning to accept and trust one’s own body. Rather than a set exercise regime and external standards of performance, students learn to listen to their bodies’ signals as a guide to when and how much to eat, exercise, and rest (Carrier and Steinhardt 1992). The program is accompanied by discussions of how society constructs definitions of health and attractiveness and how individuals can create personally appropriate definitions.
年長的學生學習冥想、瑜伽和太極作為增強自我整合意識的方式。學生們還會參加一個健身計劃，該計劃基於學會接受和信任自己身體的原則。與其遵循一套固定的運動規劃和外部表現標準，學生們學會傾聽自己身體的信號，指導他們什麼時候進食、運動和休息（Carrier 和 Steinhardt，1992）。該計劃還伴隨著討論，探討社會如何構建健康和吸引力的定義，以及個人如何創造適合自己的定義。
The transcendent experience goal is achieved by asking each student to select one or two activities in which to seek mastery. To augment the student’s previous exposure to particular activities, each community school has a videotape library of sport and dance activities from around the world. As part of the selection process, students can use computerized virtual reality simulators to experience participation in various sport or dance activities. Usually one of the activities selected is from the second culture in which the student is seeking in-depth knowledge. If possible, the student is paired with a “buddy” from the other culture who will share the experience, either in person or by interactive video.
超越體驗的目標是通過要求每個學生選擇一到兩項活動來尋求精通。為了增強學生對特定活動的早期接觸，每所社區學校都有一個來自世界各地的體育和舞蹈活動的錄像帶圖書館。作為選擇過程的一部分，學生可以使用電腦化的虛擬現實模擬器來體驗參加各種體育或舞蹈活動。通常，學生選擇的活動之一來自他們希望深入了解的第二文化。如果可能，學生會與來自另一文化的“夥伴”配對，該夥伴將以親身方式或通過互動視頻共享這一經歷。
Once the students’ selections are made, students read or listen to George Leonard’s Mastery (1991), then meet with a physical education counselor to develop plans for working toward mastery. The plan usually involves a combination of instruction, self-directed practice, and competition or performance. Each community school has a corps of instructors for the more frequently selected activities. For more unusual activities, community schools in the same region create an instructor pool. In some cases instruction is provided by experts from other regions or countries using interactive video.
一旦學生做出選擇，他們會閱讀或聽取George Leonard的《精通》（1991年），然後與體育指導員會面，制定朝著精通方向努力的計劃。該計劃通常涉及教學、自主練習以及競賽或表演的結合。每所社區學校都有一支為較常選擇的活動服務的教練隊伍。對於較不常見的活動，同一地區的社區學校會建立一個教練庫。在某些情況下，教學是由其他地區或國家的專家通過互動視頻提供的。
At each community school, students selecting the same sport usually join a club that organizes their activities. Because many adults continue to pursue mastery in one or more activities, these clubs are generally multistage organizations. Older members of the club provide mentoring and support for novices. Every person who receives services at the community school, including students over age twelve, is required to perform a certain number of hours of volunteer service. Many volunteers choose to work with sports clubs or with movement programs for younger children to fulfill their service requirement.
在每所社區學校，選擇相同運動項目的學生通常會加入組織他們活動的俱樂部。由於許多成年人繼續追求一項或多項活動的精通，這些俱樂部通常是多階段的組織。年長的俱樂部成員為新手提供指導和支持。每個在社區學校接受服務的人，包括12歲以上的學生，必須完成一定時間的志願服務。許多志願者選擇與體育俱樂部或兒童運動計劃合作，以完成他們的服務要求。
Older students and adults also participate in policy study groups that examine social issues. One of the topics the groups examine is how sport and dance relate to other social issues. They observe, participate in, and analyze their reactions to same-sex and mixed-sex sport settings and discuss how sport and dance help to define gender expectations and opportunities. They study nonverbal communication and sport and dance across cultures. They examine the relationship of the amount of cooperation, competition, conflict, and violence in various forms of sport to violence in the community. They study the impact of various sports on the environment. They analyze the sport opportunities available in different communities and the costs associated with different types of sport. Their analysis of the economic aspects of sport includes school, college, and professional sports as well as the mass marketing of sport and exercise. They identify those who hold leadership positions and control decisions regarding sport.
年長的學生和成年人還會參加政策研究小組，探討社會問題。其中一個小組探討的話題是體育和舞蹈如何與其他社會問題相關。他們觀察、參與並分析自己對同性和混合性別體育場景的反應，並討論體育和舞蹈如何幫助確立性別預期和機會。他們研究跨文化的非語言交流以及體育和舞蹈。他們還研究合作、競爭、衝突和暴力在各種體育形式中與社區暴力之間的關係。他們研究各種體育對環境的影響。他們分析不同社區可用的體育機會以及與不同體育類型相關的成本。他們還分析體育的經濟層面，包括學校、學院和職業體育以及體育和鍛煉的群體營銷。他們識別出那些擁有領導職位並掌控體育決策的人。
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The policy study groups use their social, political, and economic analyses to develop strategies to enhance the contribution of sport and dance to the Education for Peace goals of reducing violence and improving the quality of life for all. Their ideas, along with similar reports prepared in other subject areas, are presented to the governing council of the community school for their consideration and action. Each community school also participates in an Education for Peace interactive computer and video network, where issues of regional, national and global scope can be addressed. The cumulative effect of the Education for Peace curriculum is an ongoing effort to mobilize individuals, communities, and nations to reduce violence and improve the quality of life for all.
政策研究小組利用其社會、政治和經濟分析來制定策略，以增強體育和舞蹈對於和平教育目標的貢獻，這些目標包括減少暴力並提高所有人的生活質量。他們的想法以及在其他學科領域中準備的類似報告被提交給社區學校的管理委員會進行考慮和行動。每個社區學校還參與和平教育的互動電腦和視頻網絡，在該網絡中可以討論區域、國家和全球範圍內的問題。和平教育課程的累積效果是一項持續的努力，旨在動員個人、社區和國家來減少暴力並改善所有人的生活質量。
Curriculum As Praxis
作為實踐的課程
How do changes in physical education programs come about? What will cause the movement studies curriculum of 2035 to be different from current physical education programs? What might make the 2035 curriculum evolve in these particular ways rather than in other ways that might be envisioned in alternative scenarios?
體育教育課程的變化是如何發生的？是什麼原因導致2035年的運動研究課程與當前的體育課程不同？什麼會使2035年的課程以這些特定的方式發展，而不是以其他可能在替代情境中設想的方式發展？
To some extent, curriculum planning is the result of public policy. National priorities for extending scientific and technological achievements, expanding equality of opportunity, and educating a workforce that is competitive in a global economy have resulted in significant changes in school curricula. Regional and state economic, social, and political concerns have modified teacher certification regulations and the neighborhood school concept, and have led to competency testing of teachers and students. Local school boards have implemented public policy decisions by prohibiting or requiring instruction in particular subject matter and by determining funding levels for various programs. Recent efforts within large school districts to implement school-based management have shifted some decision making to the school, but curricular decisions continue to be shaped by national, state, and school district policies.
在某種程度上，課程規劃是公共政策的結果。國家對推廣科技成就、擴大機會平等以及培養在全球經濟中具有競爭力的勞動力的優先事項導致了學校課程的顯著變化。地區和州的經濟、社會和政治問題修改了教師認證規定和社區學校的概念，並導致了對教師和學生的能力測試。地方學校董事會通過禁止或要求特定學科的教學並確定各項計劃的資金水平來實施公共政策決定。最近，大型學區內為實施基於學校的管理所做的努力將部分決策轉移到了學校，但課程決策仍然受到國家、州和學區政策的影響。
Curriculum planning is an important public concern. It is also a major professional responsibility. Most of the decisions reflected in local curriculum guides, textbook selections, and daily decisions about content and instructional procedures are made by teachers. Curriculum planning is, necessarily, a blend of professional judgment and public policy making. The goal of this book is to help you to understand physical education curriculum development from this interactive perspective.
課程規劃是重要的公共關注問題，也是一項重要的專業責任。當地課程指南、教科書選擇和關於教學內容及程序的日常決策大多是由教師做出的。課程規劃必然是專業判斷與公共政策制定的結合。本書的目標是幫助您從這種互動的角度理解體育教育課程的發展。
What Is Curriculum?
什麼是課程？
Definitions of curriculum have varied greatly during the last half-century of its development as a field of study. Broadly defined, the school curriculum includes all experiences conducted under school auspices, from formal classroom instruction to interscholastic athletics. More specifically, the curriculum is defined as the planned sequence of formal instructional experiences presented by the teachers to whom the responsibility is assigned. The authors take a somewhat middle-of-the-road position, supporting Macdonald’s (1977, 11) definition of curriculum as a purposefully selected cultural environment. Curriculum is the study of “what should constitute a world of learning and how to go about making this world.”
在過去的半個世紀裡，課程作為一個研究領域的發展過程中對其定義發生了很大變化。廣義上來說，學校課程包括在學校監管下進行的所有經歷，從正式的課堂教學到校際體育活動。更具體地說，課程被定義為由負責任的教師呈現的正式教學經歷的計劃性順序。作者採取了一個中庸的立場，支持Macdonald（1977，11）的定義，即課程是有意選擇的文化環境的研究。課程研究的是“應該構成什麼樣的學習世界以及如何創建這個世界”。
Scholars also differ on the use of the term curriculum as it relates to instruction. Curriculum is frequently used as a broad generic term, including instruction. When a distinction between the two is drawn, curriculum is defined as an educative agency’s plan for facilitating learning; instruction is defined as the delivery system, or the aggregate of educative transactions, that constitutes the teaching-learning process for implementing the plan. The major focus of curriculum is on ends, on the “why” and “what” questions; instruction tends to emphasize means, or the “how” questions. While the two can be discussed separately for analytical purposes, in practice they are interactive and inseparable.
學者們對於“課程”這個術語的使用與“教學”相關時也存在分歧。課程通常作為一個廣泛的通用術語使用，包括教學。在兩者之間劃分界限時，課程被定義為教育機構促進學習的計劃；教學被定義為實施該計劃的傳遞系統，或構成教學過程的教育交易的集合。課程的主要重點在於目標，即“為什麼”和“什麼”的問題；教學則傾向於強調手段，即“如何”的問題。儘管這兩者可以為分析目的而分開討論，但在實踐中它們是互動且不可分割的。
What Is Praxis?
什麼是實踐？
Education is a practical activity; every teacher must make decisions about content and instructional process for real students in a specific time and place. The ancient Greeks provided an insightful analysis of practical activity. They differentiated between two types of practical activity: poiesis and praxis (Stanley 1992, 214). Poiesis refers to the production of something “defined or conceived in advance so as to provide the specific rules and standards to determine completion of the task.” Poiesis is sometimes referred to as technical expertise. Praxis refers to an activity that seeks the realization of human well-being and in which “progressive development in understanding the purposes being pursued emerges within the activity itself.”
教育是一種實踐活動；每個教師都必須為具體時間和地點的真實學生決定教學內容和教學過程。古希臘人對實踐活動進行了深入的分析。他們將實踐活動區分為兩種類型：poiesis和praxis（Stanley 1992，214）。Poiesis指的是“事先定義或構想出來的東西，以便提供完成任務的具體規則和標準”。Poiesis有時被稱為技術專業知識。Praxis指的是一種尋求人類福祉實現的活動，並且“在追求的目的的理解中逐步發展，這種理解在活動本身中逐步顯現”。
Critique and self-reflection are an inherent part of praxis. Carr and Kemmis (1986) refer to praxis as informed, committed action: “Praxis has its roots in the commitment of the practitioner to wise and prudent action in a practical, concrete, historical situation” (p. 190).
批判和自我反思是實踐的內在部分。Carr 和 Kemmis（1986）將實踐稱為知情的、承諾的行動：“實踐植根於從業者在具體的歷史情境中明智而審慎行動的承諾”（第190頁）。
Why Define Curriculum As Praxis?
為什麼將課程定義為實踐？
The decision to define curriculum as a form of praxis emphasizes certain aspects of curriculum. First, it emphasizes that curriculum is a practical activity situated in a particular time and place and thus focuses attention on the effects of social and historical circumstances on curricular decisions. Secondly, this definition asserts that theory and practice are inseparable and interactive. Grundy (1987, 115) states it this way: “This principle would suggest that the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic interaction of action and reflection. That is, the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into the process.”
將課程定義為實踐形式的決定強調了課程的某些方面。首先，它強調課程是一種位於特定時間和地點的實踐活動，因此將注意力集中在社會和歷史環境對課程決策的影響上。其次，這一定義斷言理論和實踐是不可分割和互動的。Grundy（1987，115）這樣表述：“這一原則表明，課程本身是通過行動和反思的動態互動來發展的。也就是說，課程不僅僅是一套待實施的計劃，而是通過一個積極的過程來構成，在這個過程中，規劃、行動和評估彼此相關並融入過程中。”
Another implication of defining curriculum as praxis is that the elements of content, instruction, and social context are interactive and must all be viewed as elements of curriculum (Kirk 1988).
將課程定義為實踐的另一個含義是內容、教學和社會背景的各個元素是互動的，必須將它們視為課程的元素（Kirk 1988）。
The choice to define curriculum as a form of praxis is not merely a use of jargon. This definition highlights certain aspects of curriculum and has implications for how we study the curricular process. For teachers, definition of curriculum as praxis emphasizes the need for continual examination and refinement of basic beliefs and goals as well as practical procedures.
將課程定義為實踐形式的選擇並不僅僅是術語的使用。這一定義突出了課程的某些方面，並對我們如何研究課程過程產生了影響。對於教師來說，將課程定義為實踐強調了不斷檢查和改進基本信念、目標以及實際程序的必要性。
How Do We Study Curriculum As Praxis?
我們如何研究作為實踐的課程？
Defining curriculum as praxis seems a useful way of highlighting critical aspects of the curriculum process. But it also creates certain challenges for those who wish to study curriculum. If action and reflection are integrally related, then curricular study must involve both. A curriculum textbook can stimulate reflection, but if it is to be meaningful, it must be accompanied by action. For those of you who are practicing teachers, the opportunity to link reflection and action is available. For those of you who are not yet teaching, we will suggest practical activities that will provide a basis for action and reflection. Before we proceed, it will be helpful to identify some of the elements to be examined in our reflection on curriculum as praxis.
將課程定義為實踐似乎是一種強調課程過程中關鍵方面的有效方法，但這也為那些希望研究課程的人創造了某些挑戰。如果行動和反思是密切相關的，那麼課程研究必須涉及兩者。課本可以激發反思，但如果要有意義，就必須伴隨行動。對於那些已經是教師的人，將反思和行動聯繫在一起的機會是存在的。對於那些尚未從事教學的人，我們將提出一些實際活動，這些活動將為行動和反思提供基礎。在繼續之前，確定一些我們在作為實踐的課程反思中要檢查的元素將是有幫助的。
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Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action
實踐的要素：意識形態、話語、行動
Reflection, which is an inherent part of praxis, requires examination of our activities and the beliefs and assumptions that guide those activities. One component of analysis is the ideology that underlies our actions. Ideology is a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that provides a framework used to give meaning to or make sense of our world (Stanley 1992). Ideology helps us function in our social world, but it can also limit our perceptions. Individuals and groups tend to have multiple ideologies or frameworks that may conflict with each other. Ideology may be conscious or unconscious and tends to be taken for granted as common sense and natural. Praxis involves the ongoing analysis and revision of ideology, but this is a complex process that is inevitably limited by our internal contradictions and those aspects of ideology that operate at an unconscious level.
反思是實踐的內在部分，它需要我們檢視自己的活動以及引導這些活動的信念和假設。分析的一個組成部分是支配我們行為的意識形態。意識形態是一套信念、價值觀和想法，這些構成一個框架，用來賦予我們的世界以意義或幫助我們理解世界（Stanley 1992）。意識形態幫助我們在社會世界中運作，但它也會限制我們的認知。個人和團體往往有多種意識形態或框架，這些可能相互衝突。意識形態可能是有意識的或無意識的，並且往往被視為理所當然、符合常識的。實踐包括對意識形態的持續分析和修正，但這是一個複雜的過程，必然受到我們內部矛盾和那些在無意識層面運作的意識形態的限制。
One of the ways in which we can examine assumptions and ideologies is to examine discourses about an activity. Discourse refers to what is said and written about a particular topic, for example, physical education curriculum. How do teachers talk to each other about physical education? How do they speak about physical education to their students? How do students and their parents view the physical education program? What is written in physical education textbooks? How is it presented in local curriculum guides? Who writes it? What statements and policies related to physical education are issued by administrators?
我們檢查假設和意識形態的一種方式是檢視關於某項活動的話語。話語指的是關於特定話題的言論和書寫內容，例如體育課程。教師們如何彼此交談關於體育的話題？他們如何向學生談論體育？學生和他們的家長如何看待體育課程？體育教科書中寫了什麼？它如何在當地課程指南中呈現？是誰撰寫的？與體育相關的政策和聲明是由誰發布的？
Discourses have underlying rules that regulate what is said and unsaid, who speaks and how they speak. Discourses vary across time and place.
話語有其潛在規則來規範說什麼或不說什麼，誰發言以及如何發言。話語會隨著時間和地點的不同而有所變化。
Studying discourses is an invaluable aspect of reflection about praxis (Cherryholmes 1988).
研究話語是反思實踐的重要方面（Cherryholmes 1988）。
Examination of praxis through ideology and discourse is insufficient and incomplete without action. The third element of an analysis of praxis is doing, and then thinking about the doing. Reflection focuses not only on the means to achieve a goal but also on the ends or goals themselves. If reflection is limited to means or procedures, this is technique but not praxis. Carr and Kemmis (1986, 190) view praxis as “action which is considered and consciously theorized, and which may reflexively inform and transform the theory which informed it.”
通過意識形態和話語來檢查實踐是不足和不完整的，必須伴隨行動。實踐分析的第三個要素是行動，然後是反思行動。反思不僅集中於實現目標的手段，還包括目標本身。如果反思僅限於手段或程序，那這是技術而不是實踐。Carr 和 Kemmis（1986，190）將實踐視為“經過考慮並被有意識地理論化的行動，這種行動可能會反射性地通知和轉化支持它的理論”。
Elements of Curriculum Theorizing
課程理論化的要素
A theory is a set of related statements explaining a series of events. Individuals create theories to explain their world. Our daily activities and language are embedded with theories. The role of curriculum theorizing is to examine curriculum with the goals of achieving insights and understanding, enlarging vision, and identifying new possibilities.
理論是一組相關陳述，用來解釋一系列事件。個人創造理論來解釋他們的世界。我們的日常活動和語言中都包含了理論。課程理論化的作用是檢視課程，目的是獲得洞察和理解、擴展視野，並確定新的可能性。
Basic Assumptions
基本假設
A curriculum theory is based on assumptions about society, human beings, and education. Each of us must accept a particular set of assumptions concerning the goals of society, the role of the individual within the broader society, and the kind of future world desired. Curriculum theories vary in their basic assumptions about the nature of an individual human being, the ultimate perfectibility of a person, and the potential for self-direction. Basic assumptions underlying a given curriculum theory also relate to concepts about the role of the school in society, who determines educational objectives, and how the process of education can best be facilitated.
課程理論基於關於社會、人類和教育的假設。我們每個人都必須接受一套特定的假設，這些假設涉及社會的目標、個人在更廣泛社會中的角色以及所期望的未來世界。課程理論在關於個人本性的基本假設、個人的終極完美性以及自我引導的潛力方面存在差異。給定課程理論的基本假設也與學校在社會中的角色、誰決定教育目標以及如何最好地促進教育過程的概念相關。
The basic assumptions of a curriculum theory are a form of ideology and understanding curriculum as praxis requires examination of these assumptions. For example, education in the United States endorses a meritocratic ideology, in which success is presumed to be dependent on individual effort and ability (Bain 1990). Some of the dominant perspectives regarding basic assumptions are described in chapter 2 in the section entitled “Value Orientations in Curriculum Development.”
課程理論的基本假設是一種意識形態，理解作為實踐的課程需要檢查這些假設。例如，美國的教育支持一種精英主義的意識形態，在這種意識形態中，成功被認為依賴於個人的努力和能力（Bain 1990）。關於基本假設的一些主導觀點在第二章的“課程發展中的價值取向”部分中進行了描述。
Conceptual Frameworks
概念框架
A conceptual framework for a curriculum is a “structure which attempts to systematically describe the curriculum by identifying and operationally defining the elements and the ways in which they are or may be related to each other” (Jewett and Mullan 1977, 1). The conceptual framework serves to define the scope and structure of the body of knowledge to be included in the curriculum. In some cases the conceptual framework may be simple and not very thoroughly developed. An example might be a multi-activity physical education program based on a sampling of team sports, individual sports, gymnastics, aquatics, and dance. In other cases the conceptual framework for a curriculum is elaborately developed and described. One example might be the Laban framework used as a basis for movement education programs (see chapter 9).
課程的概念框架是“嘗試通過識別並操作性地定義元素及其相互關聯方式來系統地描述課程的結構”（Jewett 和 Mullan 1977，1）。概念框架的作用是定義課程中要包含的知識範圍和結構。在某些情況下，概念框架可能相對簡單，且發展得不太充分。一個例子可能是基於團隊運動、個人運動、體操、水上運動和舞蹈樣本的多活動體育課程。在其他情況下，課程的概念框架得到了詳細的發展和描述。一個例子可能是使用Laban框架作為運動教育計劃的基礎（見第9章）。
An important element of the analysis of curriculum discourse is to look for the conceptual frameworks embedded in our curriculum discussions and documents. The curriculum models described in chapter 3 include descriptions of their respective conceptual frameworks.
課程話語分析的一個重要元素是尋找嵌入在我們課程討論和文件中的概念框架。第三章描述的課程模式包括對各自概念框架的描述。
Curriculum Models
課程模型
A curriculum model is a general pattern for creating or shaping program designs. Each model is based on a set of assumptions and a conceptual framework related to those assumptions. The model also incorporates identification of goals, selection and structuring of program content, and development of instructional procedures and learning environments.
課程模型是用來創建或塑造計劃設計的通用模式。每個模型都基於一組假設和與這些假設相關的概念框架。該模型還包括目標的確定、計劃內容的選擇和結構以及教學程序和學習環境的開發。
Many program designs can be developed using the same conceptual framework. Use of a particular conceptual framework presumes acceptance of the basic assumptions underlying that framework; yet curriculum designs may vary in terms of target populations, organizational structures for educational institutions, or environmental resources or limitations.
許多計劃設計可以使用相同的概念框架開發。使用特定概念框架意味著接受該框架下的基本假設；然而，課程設計在目標群體、教育機構的組織結構或環境資源或限制方面可能有所不同。
Models cannot be completely developed or understood without action. As the model is implemented, modifications may be made of basic assumptions, the conceptual framework, or design elements. Curriculum praxis involves a continuing cycle of action and reflection that is situated in and responsive to a specific set of circumstances. For that reason, curriculum is ultimately constructed at the local level.
模型如果沒有行動就無法完全發展或理解。在模型實施過程中，可能會對基本假設、概念框架或設計元素進行修改。課程實踐涉及一個持續的行動和反思的循環，這個循環位於特定的情境中並對其作出反應。因此，課程最終是在地方層面上構建的。
Why Study Curriculum Theories?
為什麼要研究課程理論？
The ultimate goal of studying praxis is to improve it. The approach taken in this text is to study curriculum theories and models and the process of curriculum planning and implementation. The intent is for you to use this information as a tool to study your own curriculum beliefs and practices.
研究實踐的最終目標是改進它。本書採取的方式是研究課程理論和模型以及課程規劃和實施的過程。目的在於使您能夠將這些信息作為工具來研究您自己的課程信念和實踐。
Of the many reasons to study curriculum theories and models, probably the most important one is to clarify your own educational philosophy. Each of us has a value orientation that guides our educational decisions. However, many curriculum planners and educators have not carefully examined these personal viewpoints. An effective way to clarify your own beliefs is to compare your philosophical position with several alternatives, thus sharpening your perception and understanding of the specifics of an educational philosophy and increasing the consistency of your personal theoretical base.
研究課程理論和模型的眾多理由中，最重要的可能是澄清您自己的教育哲學。我們每個人都有一種價值取向，這種取向引導我們的教育決策。然而，許多課程規劃者和教育工作者並未仔細檢視這些個人觀點。一種有效的澄清自己信念的方法是將您的哲學立場與幾種替代選項進行比較，從而增強對教育哲學具體內容的理解，並增強您個人理論基礎的一致性。
Study of curriculum theories also has the potential for the development of new perspectives. Curricular understanding has usually evolved from personal experience. Because each individual’s experience is limited, we may frequently be unaware of other attractive alternatives until we seek new perspectives through the study of various theories.
研究課程理論還有可能發展出新的觀點。對課程的理解通常來自個人的經驗。由於每個人的經驗都是有限的，我們可能經常沒有意識到其他有吸引力的替代選項，直到我們通過研究各種理論尋求新的觀點。
The study of curriculum theories is also an approach to honing practical skills in curriculum development. Curriculum development is a process in which most teachers will be involved throughout their careers. “Cookbook” approaches, which copy someone else’s program, are generally ineffective because each school and program is unique. Creating your own program, and ensuring that the program will be an educational vehicle in which to take pride, is enhanced by a broad understanding of curriculum development.
研究課程理論也是提升課程開發實踐技能的一種途徑。課程開發是一個大多數教師在其職業生涯中都會參與的過程。模仿他人計劃的“食譜式”方法通常效果不佳，因為每個學校和計劃都是獨特的。創建您自己的計劃，並確保該計劃將成為值得驕傲的教育工具，可以通過對課程開發的廣泛理解得到增強。
Summary
總結
Curriculum planning is the result of public policy and is a major responsibility of the professional educator. Curriculum is a form of praxis; that is, it is a practical activity combining reflection and action, theory and practice. Theorizing is creating a framework of thought that explains and guides activities and decisions. Theories emerge from practice and are continually examined and modified as they are implemented.
課程規劃是公共政策的結果，也是專業教育者的一項重要責任。課程是一種實踐形式；也就是說，它是一種結合反思與行動、理論與實踐的實際活動。理論化是創造一個解釋和指導活動與決策的思想框架。理論來自於實踐，並隨著實施過程中不斷檢查和修改。
Curriculum theories and models are part of the discourse that helps shape curricular practice. Each curriculum theory is based on a particular set of assumptions about society, human beings, and education. A curriculum theory is made operational through the selection or development of a conceptual framework. A curriculum model is a general pattern for creating or shaping program designs; the model incorporates a conceptual framework and should be consistent with the theory upon which the framework is based.
課程理論和模型是幫助塑造課程實踐的話語的一部分。每個課程理論都是基於一組關於社會、人類和教育的特定假設。通過選擇或開發概念框架來使課程理論得以運行。課程模型是一種創建或塑造計劃設計的通用模式；該模型包含概念框架，並且應與該框架所依據的理論一致。
Physical educators study curriculum theories in order to clarify personal educational philosophies, develop new perspectives, and increase practical skills of curriculum development. The nature and quality of future physical education programs will depend on social, economic, and political developments and on the insights and commitments of professionals responsible for future curricular decision making.
體育教育者研究課程理論，旨在澄清個人教育哲學、發展新觀點並提高課程開發的實踐技能。未來體育課程的性質和質量將取決於社會、經濟和政治的發展以及對未來課程決策負責的專業人士的見解和承諾。
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以下是這篇文章的重點整理：
1. 課程作為實踐 (Curriculum As Praxis)
- 實踐的定義：課程是實踐的一部分，這意味著它不僅是理論或計劃，而是將反思與行動結合的一個動態過程。
- 課程變化的原因：政策、社會、經濟和政治因素影響體育課程的發展。課程設計受到當地需求、國家政策和教育目標的影響。
2. 什麼是課程 (What Is Curriculum?)
- 課程的定義：課程包含所有在學校內發生的學習經驗，從正式課堂教學到課外活動。它既是一個教學計劃，也是一個有文化目的的環境。
- 課程與教學的區分：課程是關於“為什麼”和“什麼”的問題，而教學則專注於“如何”的問題，兩者互動且不可分割。
3. 什麼是實踐 (What Is Praxis?)
- 實踐的定義：實踐不僅是技術操作，更是一種旨在促進人類福祉的活動。它包含反思與行動的結合，強調自我批判和自我反思。
- 實踐的作用：實踐需要從實際情境中提取智慧並進行批判性反思，強調社會和歷史環境對課程決策的影響。
4. 課程理論化的要素 (Elements of Curriculum Theorizing)
- 意識形態、話語、行動：課程反思涉及對活動背後的意識形態進行分析。意識形態塑造了我們如何理解世界，但同時也可能限制我們的視野。
- 話語分析：課程研究話語的過程是理解課程如何被討論、實施的關鍵，並幫助檢視社會如何通過教育進行自我再生。
5. 基本假設與概念框架 (Basic Assumptions and Conceptual Frameworks)
- 基本假設：每個課程理論基於對社會、個人和教育的假設，這些假設影響了學校的角色、教育目標的確立和課程的設計。
- 概念框架：概念框架為課程設計提供結構，能幫助教育者有效地組織和實施課程。
6. 課程模型 (Curriculum Models)
- 課程模型的作用：課程模型是一種設計課程的通用模式，基於概念框架和基本假設來指導教學活動、學習環境和目標設定。
- 模型的實施：模型的實施過程是動態的，會隨著情境和需求的變化進行調整。
7. 為什麼要研究課程理論 (Why Study Curriculum Theories?)
- 澄清個人教育哲學：研究課程理論能幫助教育者檢視並澄清自己的教育信念，並比較不同的教育哲學。
- 開發新觀點：通過研究理論，教育者能發展新的教學觀點，擴展視野並找到其他可行的教學選項。
- 實踐技能的提升：研究課程理論能提高課程設計的實踐技能，並有助於創建獨特且適合當地情境的課程。
這些是文章的關鍵點，主要圍繞如何將課程作為實踐來理解，並討論了課程理論的重要性、課程設計的過程以及反思和行動之間的關係。
You said:
再細部一點
ChatGPT said:
以下是針對文章重點的更細部整理：
1. 課程作為實踐 (Curriculum As Praxis)
- 實踐的概念：課程被視為一種實踐 (praxis)，即一個結合反思與行動的過程，而非僅僅是理論或靜態的教學計劃。實踐涉及具體的社會、歷史和文化背景，課程的設計與實施會隨時調整，以適應這些背景變化。
- 反思與行動的關係：理論與實踐是不可分割的，課程不僅需要計劃，更需要在實施過程中不斷反思和改進。行動是反思的結果，反思則引導下一步的行動。
2. 什麼是課程 (What Is Curriculum?)
- 廣泛的定義：課程包含所有在學校範圍內發生的學習經驗，從正式的課堂教學到體育活動、文化活動等。課程不僅關乎學術知識傳遞，也涵蓋了品格教育、社會責任感的培養。
- 與教學的區分：課程解答的是“為什麼學？”和“學什麼？”的問題，著重於目標與內容，而教學則處理“如何教？”的問題，著重於方法與技巧。
3. 實踐的定義 (What Is Praxis?)
- 兩種實踐活動：文章引用了希臘哲學家將實踐區分為兩種類型：poiesis（技術操作，完成具體任務）和praxis（反思性活動，旨在促進人類福祉）。體育教育中的實踐應是後者，即結合批判與反思，旨在促進學生身心健康和社會能力。
- 反思和自我批判的作用：實踐必須伴隨自我批判和反思，這能幫助教師在具體歷史情境下明智而審慎地行動。
4. 為什麼將課程定義為實踐？(Why Define Curriculum as Praxis?)
- 理論與實踐的互動：課程不僅僅是實施計劃，而是動態的、持續改進的過程。這種互動強調了行動與反思的循環，課程設計不僅基於先前的理論，更是在實施過程中不斷反思與修改的結果。
- 社會和歷史環境的影響：課程設計受到社會和歷史條件的影響，這種定義強調了在不同的時間和場所，課程設計如何因應這些條件的變化。
5. 實踐的三要素：意識形態、話語、行動 (Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action)
- 意識形態的分析：意識形態是支配我們行動的信念系統，它可以幫助我們理解社會世界，但同時也會限制我們的視野。實踐涉及對這些意識形態進行不斷的分析和修正。
- 話語的作用：話語是我們如何談論課程的重要途徑，研究話語能揭示教學目標、社會期望以及權力關係等隱含信息。教師、學生、家長、學校管理層之間的話語分析能夠反映課程設計和實施中的深層意識形態。
- 行動與反思的結合：實踐的核心在於行動與反思的持續交互，僅有技術性的行動並不構成實踐，必須伴隨批判性思考才能達到實踐的目的。
6. 課程理論化的要素 (Elements of Curriculum Theorizing)
- 基本假設：每個課程理論都基於關於人類、社會和教育的基本假設。這些假設涉及社會目標、個人在社會中的角色、未來社會的理想願景等。例如，美國的課程理論基於精英主義，強調個人努力與能力對成功的決定性作用。
- 概念框架：概念框架是課程的結構，試圖系統地描述課程內容及其相互關係。不同的框架可以根據特定的教育目標和學習環境進行定制，如體育教育中的多活動課程或以舞蹈教育為基礎的運動教育框架。
7. 課程模型 (Curriculum Models)
- 課程模型的設計：課程模型是一種設計課程的通用模式，基於特定的概念框架，指導課程的目標設定、內容結構以及教學環境的設計。
- 實施過程中的調整：課程模型在實施過程中可能會根據需求進行調整。這種調整可能涉及基礎假設、概念框架或設計元素的變更，反映了課程實踐中的動態性和回應性。
8. 為什麼研究課程理論？(Why Study Curriculum Theories?)
- 澄清個人教育哲學：研究課程理論有助於澄清教育者的個人信念，並通過比較不同的哲學立場，增強對教育的理解和理論基礎的一致性。
- 發展新觀點：研究課程理論能促進對其他可能選項的理解，拓展教育者的視野，並促使他們反思自己以往的經驗和做法。
- 提升實踐技能：研究課程理論有助於教育者提高設計和實施課程的能力，並創建獨特的、適應當地需求的課程設計。
9. 總結 (Summary)
- 課程規劃的本質：課程規劃是公共政策的一部分，反映了政府和社會對教育的期望。同時，課程也是實踐活動，結合了反思與行動，理論與實踐相互交融。
- 課程理論的作用：課程理論不僅幫助設計課程，還有助於澄清教育哲學，發展新觀點，並增強實際教學中的靈活性和適應性。
- 未來課程的影響因素：未來的體育課程將受社會、經濟、政治等多種因素的影響，教育者需要在不斷變化的環境中做出明智的決策。
這份細部整理將文章的各個部分進行了深入的分析，並突出了課程理論與實踐的重要性。如果有更多需求或特定部分需要更詳細的解釋，請隨時告訴我！
You said:
前面也要喔！
ChatGPT said:
以下是完整文章的細部重點整理，包括前面的部分：
1. 引言 (Introduction)
- 未來課程設計背景：文章以2035年為背景，探討未來體育課程可能面臨的挑戰和決策，鼓勵學生思考當前的課程決策如何影響未來世界。這個場景提供了一個開放性的思維框架，讓讀者思考未來課程發展的多種可能性。
- 課程決策的影響：學生被邀請反思當前的課程決策會對未來體育課程產生什麼影響，並考慮替代方案。這是一個反思與行動結合的過程，通過思考課程決策來預測未來結果。
2. 情境：和平教育課程 (Scenario: Education for Peace Curriculum, 2035 A.D.)
- 全球化背景：文章指出，21世紀的全球化和科技進步改變了經濟和政治體系。跨國公司利用全球資源和廉價勞動力，經濟的不平等加劇，導致社會問題，如移民、種族和民族衝突。
- 教育應對社會衝突：面對社會問題，國際政治和教育領袖合作推動和平教育計劃，旨在減少國內外的暴力，提升全體人民的生活質量。該課程通過合作解決個人、社會、政治和經濟問題，並由地方社區主導，推動全球和平和合作。
- 社區學校的作用：在美國，和平教育課程由社區學校負責執行，這些學校提供教育、健康、社會服務，並成為社會和政治問題的焦點。學校的運作依賴於專業人士和社區成員的合作，通過共同決策來解決服務和計劃問題。
- 個人賦權：課程強調個人賦權，特別是在個人、社會、政治和經濟領域。它培養學生自我認識、自我接納、健康與超越的經歷，同時也讓學生了解世界文化，並推動他們認識和分析影響他們的社會和政治力量。
3. 體育在和平教育中的角色
- 健康與文化的作用：領導者認識到體育和舞蹈在文化中的重要性以及健康對生活質量的關鍵作用。體育教育在和平教育課程中扮演重要角色，幼兒參與幼兒園的運動技能發展，學校年齡的兒童參與發展性體育教育，強調自我接受和運動技能的逐步進步。
- 運動與社會學習：課程幫助學生理解體育與歷史和文化的聯繫，探討科技如何影響21世紀的體育和休閒活動，並研究運動中的衝突解決策略。
- 身體和心理的整合：學生學習正念、瑜伽和太極來增強自我意識和對自身身體的接納。課程旨在讓學生通過運動和身體信號來學習身體的需求，並通過反思健康和吸引力的社會定義來創造個人合適的健康標準。
- 服務學習：學生參與運動或舞蹈活動的選擇過程，並與不同文化的伙伴合作，分享經驗。每個學生還需要參與社區志願服務，從事與運動俱樂部或青少年活動有關的工作，增強社區貢獻和領導能力。
4. 課程作為實踐 (Curriculum As Praxis)
- 課程變革的動力：課程變革由公共政策驅動，並且受到經濟、社會和政治的影響。課程的設計、教師資格的認證、學校管理方式等受到國家和地區的政策變遷影響，這些變化影響了體育教育的發展。
- 教師的角色：教師在課程規劃中起著關鍵作用，他們不僅負責選擇教學材料和方法，還需要結合專業判斷與公共政策的需求進行課程設計。課程規劃是教師專業責任的一部分。
5. 課程的定義與理論 (What Is Curriculum and Theories?)
- 課程的廣泛定義：課程的範疇非常廣泛，涵蓋正式課堂教學和學校中的各類活動。其目的是為學生提供一個有目的的學習環境。
- 實踐作為課程的一部分：課程不僅是靜態的知識傳授，而是反思與行動的有機結合，體現出教育實踐的動態性和社會性。教育者需要不斷反思，結合實際情境來調整和改進課程設計。
- 理論與實踐的交互：課程的設計需要將理論與實踐相結合，理論為實踐提供框架，實踐則反過來影響和改進理論。這種反思性行動是課程發展的核心。
6. 實踐的三個核心要素 (Elements of Praxis: Ideology, Discourse, Action)
- 意識形態的分析：意識形態作為行為背後的信念系統，會影響課程的設計和實施，意識形態的分析幫助教育者識別和修正這些潛在影響。
- 話語的作用：通過分析課程話語，可以揭示隱含的社會價值觀、權力結構和教育目標。教育者、學生、家長、管理者之間的交流方式反映出課程的運作方式和目標設計。
- 行動與反思：實踐中的行動必須伴隨反思，才能達到教學目標。反思不僅是對手段的檢討，還是對最終目標的深思，從而實現課程的實踐性。
7. 課程理論化與模型 (Elements of Curriculum Theorizing and Models)
- 基本假設的作用：每個課程理論基於一組基本假設，這些假設決定了課程的價值取向和目標，並影響教育過程中的決策。
- 概念框架的設計：概念框架是課程理論的重要組成部分，它確定了課程中應包括的知識範圍和結構，並能有效指導教學設計。
- 課程模型的應用：課程模型提供了一個通用模式，用於課程設計和實施，隨著實際情境的變化，模型會不斷調整以滿足具體需求。
8. 研究課程理論的重要性 (Why Study Curriculum Theories?)
- 澄清教育哲學：研究課程理論幫助教育者檢視和澄清自己的教育哲學，通過比較不同的理論和模型，可以加深對教育目標的理解，增強理論的一致性。
- 發展新觀點：通過研究理論，教育者能獲得新的視角，這有助於他們突破個人經驗的限制，探索其他潛在的教育選項。
- 實踐技能的提升：研究課程理論有助於提升教育者的實踐技能，讓他們能設計出更具創新性和適應性的課程，並應對未來可能面臨的挑戰。
9. 總結 (Summary)
- 課程規劃的本質：課程規劃是公共政策的一部分，體現了政府和社會對教育的期望。同時，課程也是實踐活動，結合反思與行動，不斷在實施中進行調整和改進。
- 未來課程的挑戰與機遇：未來體育課程的設計和實施將受社會、經濟和政治因素的影響。教育者需要在變化的環境中做出適當的決策，並透過研究和實踐提升課程設計的能力和靈活性。
這個完整的重點整理涵蓋了文章從引言到總結的各個部分，突出了課程作為實踐、理論和實踐的互動、課程模型和研究課程理論的重要性。如果需要更詳細的說明或進一步討論某些部分，請隨時告訴我！
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