Eccentric Overload with Flywheel Training and Rehabilitation
偏心过载与飞轮训练和康复

By Jennifer Reiner-Marcello, Brandon Marcello
作者：詹妮弗·雷纳-马塞洛、布兰登·马塞洛

In the world of rehabilitation and training, eccentric exercises are imperative for developing strength, power, and resilience (Alfredson, 2003; Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2016; LaStayo et al., 2003; Roig, Shadgan, & Reid, 2008). Traditionally, eccentric movements are trained using barbells, dumbbells, tubing, chains, and plyometric exercises. The presence of flywheel technology (e.g., VersaPulley™, kBox, Desmotec, Proinertial) for training spans several decades in both the rehabilitation and performance community. However, not until recently has this form of inertia-based training received more attention from the collegiate, private, and professional training centers.
在康复和训练领域，离心练习对于发展力量、力量和复原力至关重要（Alfredson，2003；Gonzalo-Skok 等，2016；LaStayo 等，2003；Roig、Shadgan 和 Reid，2008） 。传统上，离心运动是通过杠铃、哑铃、管道、链条和增强式练习来训练的。用于训练的飞轮技术（例如 VersaPulley™、kBox、Desmotec、Proinertial）在康复和运动表现界已有数十年的历史。然而，直到最近，这种基于惯性的培训才受到大学、私人和专业培训中心的更多关注。

Perhaps this new-found interest is due to the simplicity of training multidirectional movements in the horizontal and vertical planes in an eccentrically overloaded environment. This is possibly the most effective way for increasing muscle strength (Brandenburg & Docherty, 2002; Hedayatpour & Falla, 2015; Hortobagyi, Barrier, & Beard, 1996; Hortobagyi et al., 1996; Hortobagyi, Devita, Money, & Barrier, 2001; B. Johnson, 1972) in a shorter period of time when compared to more traditional 1:1 (concentric:eccentric) exercise training(English, Loehr, Lee, & Smith, 2014).
也许这种新发现的兴趣是由于在偏心超负荷的环境中训练水平和垂直平面上的多向运动的简单性。这可能是增加肌肉力量最有效的方法（Brandenburg & Docherty, 2002；Hedayatpour & Falla, 2015；Hortobagyi, Barrier, & Beard, 1996；Hortobagyi et al., 1996；Hortobagyi, Devita, Money, & Barrier, 2001 ；B. Johnson，1972）与更传统的 1:1（同心：偏心）运动训练相比，可以在更短的时间内完成训练（English、Loehr、Lee 和 Smith，2014）。

It’s this eccentric overload applied in a task-specific environment that captures the next level of improved performance otherwise unattainable through traditional training methods.
正是这种在特定任务环境中应用的偏心超负荷，可以提高性能，而这是通过传统训练方法无法实现的。

Flywheel Training: A Long History in Science and Practice
飞轮训练：科学与实践的悠久历史

Research on flywheel devices dates back to the early 1900’s by Krogh 1913, Hill 1920, and Hansen and Lindhard in 1923 (Hansen & Lindhard, 1923; Hill, 1920; Krogh, 1913), but the use of flywheels for performance became popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s when NASA began examining ways to maintain lean muscle mass and bone density during extended travel in the zero-gravity atmosphere of space (Dudley, Tesch, Miller, & Buchanan, 1991). Since then, numerous studies have been published demonstrating the effectiveness of flywheel training for developing strength, hypertrophy, power, injury prevention, and rehabilitation (Alfredson, 2003; Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2016; LaStayo et al., 2003; Roig et al., 2008).
对飞轮装置的研究可以追溯到 1900 年代初，由 Krogh 1913、Hill 1920 以及 Hansen 和 Lindhard 于 1923 年进行（Hansen & Lindhard, 1923；Hill, 1920；Krogh, 1913），但飞轮的使用在性能方面变得流行起来20 世纪 80 年代末和 90 年代初，NASA 开始研究在零重力太空大气中长时间旅行期间保持瘦肌肉质量和骨密度的方法（Dudley、Tesch、Miller 和 Buchanan，1991）。此后，发表了大量研究，证明飞轮训练对于发展力量、肥大、力量、损伤预防和康复的有效性（Alfredson，2003；Gonzalo-Skok 等，2016；LaStayo 等，2003；Roig 等等，2008）。

The benefits of inertial based training are rooted in the extensive research surrounding eccentric training. Beginning at the cellular level, forces imparted to tendons and muscles are converted from mechanical stimuli into biochemical signals. This is referred to as mechanotransduction (Maffulli & Longo, 2008), which in turn results in remodeling of the myofilaments and adaptation of the viscoelastic properties of the muscle (Yu, Furst, & Thornell, 2003).
基于惯性的训练的好处植根于围绕离心训练的广泛研究。从细胞水平开始，施加到肌腱和肌肉的力从机械刺激转化为生化信号。这被称为机械转导（Maffulli & Longo，2008），进而导致肌丝重塑和肌肉粘弹性特性的适应（Yu、Furst 和 Thornell，2003）。

Research shows these other benefits also occur:
研究表明还存在以下其他好处：

• recruitment of slow-contraction motor units
  慢收缩运动单位的募集
• activation of a large number of motor units (neural adaptation)
  激活大量运动单位（神经适应）
• increased dynamic and passive muscular endurance (mechanical adaptation)
  增加动态和被动肌肉耐力（机械适应）
• longitudinal addition of sarcomeres
  肌节纵向添加
• adaptation to the inflammatory response
  适应炎症反应
• adaptation to maintain muscle excitation-contraction coupling (cellular adaptation) (McHugh, 2003; Miyama & Nosaka, 2007).
  维持肌肉兴奋-收缩耦合的适应（细胞适应）（McHugh，2003；Miyama & Nosaka，2007）。

These positive cellular, mechanical, and neural adaptations are the result of the repeated bout effect (RBE). Consequently, there is an increased “stiffness” of the muscle-tendon unit (Lindstedt, LaStayo, & Reich, 2001) that makes the tissue more resilient and able to handle higher loads or forces imparted into the structure.
这些积极的细胞、机械和神经适应是重复发作效应 (RBE) 的结果。因此，肌肉肌腱单元的“刚度”增加（Lindstedt、LaStayo 和 Reich，2001），使组织更有弹性，能够承受施加到结构中的更高负载或力。

While it would seem that an increase in passive muscle stiffness would limit joint range of motion, evidence leads us to believe the contrary. In fact, according to a systematic review by O’Sullivan in 2012, long-term eccentric training revealed improved flexibility (O’Sullivan, McAuliffe, & Deburca, 2012). This improvement is attributed to an increase in the number of sarcomeres distributed in series, also known as sarcomerogenesis (Butterfield, Leonard, & Herzog, 2005; Lynn, Talbot, & Morgan, 1998; Yu et al., 2003).
虽然被动肌肉僵硬的增加似乎会限制关节的运动范围，但证据让我们相信事实恰恰相反。事实上，根据 O'Sullivan 在 2012 年的系统回顾，长期离心训练揭示了灵活性的提高（O'Sullivan、McAuliffe 和 Deburca，2012）。这种改善归因于串联分布的肌节数量的增加，也称为肌节发生（Butterfield、Leonard 和 Herzog，2005；Lynn、Talbot 和 Morgan，1998；Yu 等人，2003）。

It’s proposed that sarcomerogenesis, along with adaptations to the passive elements within the muscle, create a shift in the muscle length-tension curve that consistently occurs with eccentric training (O’Sullivan et al., 2012). The resulting benefit includes greater motor control throughout a larger range of motion ultimately leading to improved performance and protection against injury.
有人提出，肌瘤生成以及对肌肉内被动元素的适应，会导致肌肉长度-张力曲线发生变化，这种变化在离心训练中始终会发生（O'Sullivan 等人，2012）。由此产生的好处包括在更大的运动范围内实现更好的运动控制，最终提高性能并防止受伤。

Building High Total Body Resilience with Eccentric Overload 
通过偏心超载建立高全身弹性 

Eccentric training’s protective benefits have direct implications in rehabilitation and reconditioning. Because forces are extremely high during the eccentric, or lengthening phase, of movement, injuries often occur during the deceleration (LaStayo et al., 2003) of the body. If the forces needed for deceleration exceed those of the muscle-tendon system, injury to the muscle, myotendinous unit, the tendon itself, and the osteotendinous insertion may occur (LaStayo et al., 2003).
离心训练的保护作用对康复和修复有直接影响。由于运动的偏心或延长阶段的力量非常大，因此在身体减速期间经常会发生伤害（LaStayo et al., 2003）。如果减速所需的力超过肌肉肌腱系统的力，则可能会发生肌肉、肌腱单位、肌腱本身和骨腱插入的损伤（LaStayo et al., 2003）。

Research suggests that athletes with a history of recurring hamstring and adductor muscle strains possess greater impairment of their eccentric strength (2-fold) as compared to concentric strength, suggesting that improvement in the former may minimize the risk of injury (LaStayo et al., 2003). At the knee, the hamstring’s eccentric activity provides a posterior pull on the tibia to offset the anterior force of the quadriceps (Shimokochi & Shultz, 2008).
研究表明，有反复腿筋和内收肌拉伤病史的运动员，与同心力量相比，其偏心力量受损更大（2倍），这表明前者的改善可以最大限度地降低受伤风险（LaStayo等人， 2003）。在膝盖处，腘绳肌的偏心活动对胫骨提供后向拉力，以抵消股四头肌的前向力（Shimokochi & Shultz，2008）。

Along with their role in knee stabilization, the hamstrings are eccentrically activated before initial limb contact in movements such as cutting, stopping, and landing maneuvers (Nyland, Shapiro, Caborn, Nitz, & Malone, 1997). This “presetting” of the hamstrings along with eccentric quadriceps activity during the loading phase is crucial for proper shock absorption and protection against knee injuries such as ACL tears.
除了在膝盖稳定中的作用外，腘绳肌在诸如切入、停止和着陆等动作中在肢体初始接触之前也会被偏心地激活（Nyland、Shapiro、Caborn、Nitz 和 Malone，1997）。在加载阶段，腘绳肌的这种“预设”以及股四头肌的偏心活动对于适当的减震和防止膝关节损伤（例如前十字韧带撕裂）至关重要。

Similarly, training eccentrically for deceleration forces encountered in the upper extremity is pertinent for rehabilitation and injury prevention of the overhead athlete. The distraction forces from throwing a baseball at the glenohumeral joint are equal to one to one and a half times body weight (Fleisig, Andrews, Dillman, & Escamilla, 1995). For this reason, muscles in the shoulder must undergo high decelerative eccentric contractions to preserve healthy joint arthrokinematics (Ellenbecker, Davies, & Rowinski, 1988). Whether used along the rehabilitation continuum or as part of a training program, eccentric and eccentric overload training are critical to preparing the athlete for the forces they will encounter during practice or competition.
同样，针对上肢遇到的减速力进行偏心训练对于过头运动员的康复和损伤预防也很重要。向盂肱关节投掷棒球所产生的分心力等于体重的一到一倍半（Fleisig、Andrews、Dillman 和 Escamilla，1995）。因此，肩部肌肉必须进行高减速偏心收缩，以保持健康的关节运动学（Ellenbecker、Davies 和 Rowinski，1988）。无论是在康复过程中使用还是作为训练计划的一部分，离心和离心超负荷训练对于运动员为练习或比赛中将遇到的力量做好准备至关重要。

Eccentric Overload: Performance
偏心过载：性能

As we turn our focus to performance, we must ask what the benefits are to strength, power, hypertrophy, and injury prevention when adding eccentric overload training. What does the science indicate? The higher forces generated (2-3 times greater than those produced either isometrically or concentrically) (Johnson, 1972; Jones & Rutherford, 1987) through eccentric training have shown it to be a superior method in developing both strength and hypertrophy (Hollander et al., 2007).
当我们将注意力转向表现时，我们必须问，增加偏心超负荷训练对力量、爆发力、肥大和预防伤害有什么好处。科学表明什么？通过偏心训练产生的力量更大（比等长或同心产生的力量大 2-3 倍）（Johnson，1972 年；Jones & Rutherford，1987 年），这表明它是发展力量和增肌的绝佳方法（Hollander 等人） .，2007）。

#EccentricOverload is a superior method to develop strength and hypertrophy.
#EccentricOverload 是增强力量和肥大的绝佳方法。Share on X 分享到 X

Because it’s more effective than concentric training at increasing total and eccentric strength (Roig et al., 2009), it should be used to enhance the effects of the typical training seen in most weight rooms around the world. Studies have also shown that eccentric overload training is superior to eccentric underload in its ability to stimulate increases in strength (English et al., 2014), but even more significant is the speed in which training adaptations take place. When compared to traditional concentric/eccentric training, eccentric overload was the only training regimen to increase lower body lean muscle mass and show improvement in bone mineral density after only eight weeks of similar training (English et al., 2014).
因为它在增加总力量和偏心力量方面比向心训练更有效（Roig 等，2009），所以它应该用于增强世界各地大多数举重室中典型训练的效果。研究还表明，偏心超负荷训练在刺激力量增加的能力方面优于偏心欠负荷训练（English et al., 2014），但更重要的是训练适应发生的速度。与传统的向心/离心训练相比，离心超负荷是唯一能够增加下半身肌肉质量并在仅八周的类似训练后显示出骨矿物质密度改善的训练方案（English et al., 2014）。

Eccentric Overload Training: Hypertrophy 
离心超负荷训练：肌肥大 

Further studies examining eccentric overload training and its effects on muscle hypertrophy showed similar effects (de Souza-Teixeira & de Paz, 2012; Hedayatpour & Falla, 2015; Mayhew, Rothstein, Finucane, & Lamb, 1995; Ojasto & Hakkinen, 2009; Tesch, Ekberg, Lindquist, & Trieschmann, 2004; Vikne et al., 2006; Walker et al., 2016).
进一步研究离心超负荷训练及其对肌肉肥大的影响，显示出类似的效果（de Souza-Teixeira & de Paz, 2012；Hedayatpour & Falla, 2015；Mayhew, Rothstein, Finucane, & Lamb, 1995；Ojasto & Hakkinen, 2009；Tesch ，Ekberg、Lindquist 和 Trieschmann，2004 年；Walker 等人，2016 年；

Greater hypertrophy was also reported following chronic resistance training comprised of coupled eccentric and concentric actions or eccentric actions compared with concentric actions only (Hather, Tesch, Buchanan, & Dudley, 1991; Higbie, Cureton, Warren, & Prior, 1996; Hortobagyi et al., 1995; Norrbrand, Pozzo, & Tesch, 2010) This is another reason why using eccentric overload training in conjunction with traditional weight training should be heavily considered.
据报道，在由偏心和向心动作相结合的长期阻力训练或偏心动作与仅向心动作相比的情况下，也会出现更大的肥大(Hather, Tesch, Buchanan, & Dudley, 1991; Higbie, Cureton, Warren, & Prior, 1996; Hortobagyi et al ., 1995; Norrbrand, Pozzo, & Tesch, 2010）这是应认真考虑将偏心超负荷训练与传统重量训练结合使用的另一个原因。

Put simply, greater muscle hypertrophy is a result of enhanced muscle protein synthesis, which is a product of higher mechanical loading of the muscle. This type of mechanical loading is created by eccentric muscle actions (Norrbrand et al., 2010).
简而言之，更大的肌肉肥大是肌肉蛋白质合成增强的结果，而肌肉蛋白质合成是肌肉机械负荷增加的产物。这种类型的机械负荷是由偏心肌肉动作产生的（Norrbrand 等，2010）。

From the vantage points of power development and application of force, higher muscle forces can be produced during eccentric contractions compared with concentric (Roig et al., 2009). And while all types of training can improve power in multiple planes of movement, the specificity of training adaptation principle mainly prevails (Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2016).
从力量发展和力量应用的角度来看，与向心收缩相比，离心收缩期间可以产生更高的肌肉力量（Roig et al., 2009）。虽然所有类型的训练都可以提高多个运动平面的力量，但训练适应原则的特殊性主要占主导地位（Gonzalo-Skok 等，2016）。

One particular study examined this specificity by programming exercises in both the vertical and horizontal planes. The results were what one would likely expect. Those who trained vertically improved in all planes, but made the most gains vertically (vertical jump) and those who trained multi-directionally also improved across the board but gained the most multi-directionally (acceleration and change of direction) (Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2016).
一项特殊研究通过垂直和水平平面上的编程练习来检验这种特殊性。结果正如人们所预料的那样。那些进行垂直训练的人在所有平面上都有所提高，但在垂直方向上获得的收益最多（垂直跳跃），而那些进行多方向训练的人也全面提高，但在多方向上获得了最多的收益（加速和方向改变）（Gonzalo-Skok 等人）等，2016）。

Research from 2016 indicated that those who train using eccentric overload were able to produce a significantly greater breaking and propulsive contact time (de Hoyo et al., 2016). This suggests that eccentric overload could be a fundamentally important mechanism underpinning change of direction ability (de Hoyo et al., 2016).
2016 年的研究表明，那些使用偏心超负荷训练的人能够产生显着更长的断裂和推进接触时间（de Hoyo 等人，2016）。这表明偏心过载可能是支撑方向改变能力的一个根本性重要机制（de Hoyo et al., 2016）。

In short, neuromuscular and functional changes induced by exercise are specific to the mode of exercise performed (Hedayatpour & Falla, 2015). Therefore, by not performing exercises that encompass eccentric overload as a stimulus, an entire cascade of neural, physiological, and muscular adaptations will be neglected and underdeveloped. While all of these methods are important to the training, rehabilitation, and reconditioning of athletes, they offer mostly constant concentric and eccentric load in exercises emphasizing vertical actions.
简而言之，运动引起的神经肌肉和功能变化特定于所进行的运动模式（Hedayatpour & Falla，2015）。因此，如果不进行包含偏心超负荷作为刺激的练习，整个神经、生理和肌肉适应的级联将被忽视和发育不全。虽然所有这些方法对于运动员的训练、康复和恢复都很重要，但它们在强调垂直动作的练习中大多提供恒定的同心和偏心负荷。

In most sports, athletes are required to repeatedly perform short explosive efforts such as accelerations and decelerations during changes of direction (de Hoyo et al., 2015). The capacity to dissipate the forces during abrupt deceleration (breaking ability) is critical to injury prevention, while the ability to decelerate and reaccelerate in a short period of time (reactive strength) is paramount to enhanced performance.
在大多数运动中，运动员需要在改变方向时反复进行短暂的爆发力，例如加速和减速（de Hoyo et al., 2015）。突然减速期间消散力的能力（断裂能力）对于预防伤害至关重要，而短时间内减速和重新加速的能力（反应强度）对于增强性能至关重要。

Whether one is training to improve strength, power, or change of direction, rehabilitating from an injury, or improving resilience, the flywheel designed by VersaPulley™ is a safe and effective tool for training at any load, at any speed, and in any plane within an infinite amount of exercise variation. Because of its high/low capabilities, the VersaPulley™ allows for the prescription of exercises in all planes of motion, creating training stimuli from the general to the specific.
无论是为了提高力量、爆发力或变向训练、受伤康复还是提高复原力，VersaPulley™ 设计的飞轮都是一种安全有效的工具，可在任何负载、任何速度和任何平面上进行训练在无限量的运动变化范围内。由于其高/低功能，VersaPulley™ 可以在所有运动平面上制定练习方案，从而创建从一般到具体的训练刺激。

Implementation of eccentric overload strength training has been lacking in traditional strength and conditioning program designs (Hollander et al., 2007). In short, if programmed and implemented correctly, eccentric overload training should be an integral part of any comprehensive rehabilitation or training program seeking to improve performance and decrease injury potential.
传统的力量和体能训练计划设计中一直缺乏偏心超负荷力量训练的实施（Hollander 等，2007）。简而言之，如果正确规划和实施，偏心超负荷训练应该成为任何旨在提高表现和减少受伤可能性的综合康复或训练计划的组成部分。

Going Beyond Gravity with Flywheel Eccentric Training
通过飞轮偏心训练超越重力

In conclusion, traditional weight training using gravity-dependent tools leaves a gap in preparing an athlete to manage all aspects of performance. Barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells, and the like offer constant concentric and eccentric load in exercises emphasizing vertical action, yet they rarely encompass horizontal/lateral actions offering eccentric overload (Tous-Fajardo, Gonzalo-Skok, Arjol-Serrano, & Tesch, 2016). Furthermore, a person’s ability to complete an eccentric-isometric-concentric cycle under maximal load is limited by the force production in the concentric phase (Hortobagyi, Devita, Money, & Barrier, 2001).
总之，使用依赖重力的工具的传统重量训练在运动员管理各个方面的表现方面存在差距。杠铃、哑铃、壶铃等在强调垂直动作的练习中提供恒定的同心和偏心负荷，但它们很少包含提供偏心负荷的水平/横向动作（Tous-Fajardo、Gonzalo-Skok、Arjol-Serrano 和 Tesch，2016） 。此外，一个人在最大负荷下完成偏心-等长-向心循环的能力受到向心阶段产生的力的限制（Hortobagyi，Devita，Money，＆Barrier，2001）。

This means that traditional weight training creates an ideal environment for concentric strength and eccentric underload. Even with the addition of tools such as bands and chains, an eccentric overload is not achieved, and attempting to do so in this setting would be unsafe and expose those training to an unnecessary risk of injury. While we have used a number of flywheel devices, we have the most familiarity with the VersaPulley™ which was designed to create those moments of eccentric overload, allowing the athlete to be exposed to these stresses in a non-impact, concentrically-driven, and eccentrically overloaded environment. The flywheel device picks up where traditional gravity-based weights, chains, bands, and air-powered machines stop.
这意味着传统的重量训练为同心力量和偏心欠载创造了理想的环境。即使添加了带子和链条等工具，也无法实现偏心过载，并且尝试在这种情况下这样做是不安全的，并使这些训练面临不必要的受伤风险。虽然我们使用过多种飞轮装置，但我们最熟悉的是 VersaPulley™，它的设计目的是产生偏心过载力矩，使运动员能够以无冲击、同心驱动和稳定的方式承受这些压力。偏心过载环境。飞轮装置可以接续传统的基于重力的重物、链条、带子和气动机器停止的位置。

Since you’re here… 既然你在这里……
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF
……我们有一个小小的请求。阅读 SimpliFaster 的人比以往任何时候都多，每周我们都会为您带来来自致力于培养更好运动员的教练、运动科学家和物理治疗师的精彩内容。请花点时间在社交媒体上分享文章，让作者提出问题和评论，并在适当的时候链接到文章（如果您有博客或参与相关主题的论坛）。 — SF

References 参考

• Alfredson, H. (2003). Chronic midportion achilles tendinopathy: An update on research and treatment. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 22(4), 727-741.
  阿尔弗雷德森，H.（2003）。慢性中段跟腱病：研究和治疗的最新进展。运动医学诊所，22(4), 727-741。
• Brandenburg, J. P., & Docherty, D. (2002). The effects of accentuated eccentric loading on strength, muscle hypertrophy, and neural adaptations in trained individuals. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16(1), 25-32.
  勃兰登堡，JP 和多彻蒂，D. (2002)。强化偏心负荷对受过训练的个体的力量、肌肉肥大和神经适应的影响。力量与体能研究杂志，16(1), 25-32。
• Butterfield, T. A., Leonard, T. R., & Herzog, W. (2005). Differential serial sarcomere number adaptations in knee extensor muscles of rats is contraction type dependent. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 99(4), 1352-1358. doi:00481.2005 [pii]
  巴特菲尔德 (TA)、伦纳德 (TR) 和赫尔佐格 (W) (2005)。大鼠膝伸肌中的差异序列肌节数量适应是收缩类型依赖性的。应用生理学杂志（马里兰州贝塞斯达：1985），99（4），1352-1358。 doi:00481.2005 [pii]
• de Hoyo, M., Sanudo, B., Carrasco, L., Mateo-Cortes, J., Dominguez-Cobo, S., Fernandes, O.,… Gonzalo-Skok, O. (2016). Effects of 10-week eccentric overload training on kinetic parameters during change of direction in football players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(14), 1380-1387. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1157624 [doi]
  de Hoyo, M.、Sanudo, B.、Carrasco, L.、Mateo-Cortes, J.、Dominguez-Cobo, S.、Fernandes, O.、… Gonzalo-Skok, O. (2016)。 10周离心超负荷训练对足球运动员变向过程中动力学参数的影响。体育科学杂志，34（14），1380-1387。 doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1157624 [doi]
• de Hoyo, M., de la Torre, A., Pradas, F., Sanudo, B., Carrasco, L., Mateo-Cortes, J.,… Gonzalo-Skok, O. (2015). Effects of eccentric overload bout on change of direction and performance in soccer players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(4), 308-314. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1395521 [doi]
  de Hoyo, M.、de la Torre, A.、Pradas, F.、Sanudo, B.、Carrasco, L.、Mateo-Cortes, J.、…Gonzalo-Skok, O. (2015)。偏心过载回合对足球运动员方向变化和表现的影响。国际运动医学杂志，36(4), 308-314。 doi:10.1055/s-0034-1395521 [doi]
• de Souza-Teixeira, F., & de Paz, J. A. (2012). Eccentric resistance training and muscle hypertrophy. Sports Medicine and Doping Studies, S1(004)
  de Souza-Teixeira, F. 和 de Paz, JA (2012)。离心阻力训练和肌肉肥大。运动医学和兴奋剂研究，S1(004)
• Dudley, G. A., Tesch, P. A., Miller, B. J., & Buchanan, P. (1991). Importance of eccentric actions in performance adaptations to resistance training. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 62(6), 543-550.
  Dudley, GA、Tesch, PA、Miller, BJ 和 Buchanan, P. (1991)。离心动作在阻力训练表现适应中的重要性。航空、航天和环境医学，62(6), 543-550。
• Ellenbecker, T. S., Davies, G. J., & Rowinski, M. J. (1988). Concentric versus eccentric isokinetic strengthening of the rotator cuff: objective data versus functional test. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 16(1), 64-69.
  艾伦贝克尔 (TS)、戴维斯 (GJ) 和罗温斯基 (MJ) (1988)。肩袖的同心与偏心等速强化：客观数据与功能测试。美国运动医学杂志，16(1), 64-69。
• English, K. L., Loehr, J. A., Lee, S. M., & Smith, S. M. (2014). Early-phase musculoskeletal adaptations to different levels of eccentric resistance after 8 weeks of lower body training. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 114(11), 2263-2280. doi:10.1007/s00421-014-2951-5 [doi]
  English, KL、Loehr, JA、Lee, SM 和 Smith, SM (2014)。经过 8 周的下半身训练后，肌肉骨骼对不同水平的离心阻力的早期适应。欧洲应用生理学杂志，114(11), 2263-2280 。 doi:10.1007/s00421-014-2951-5 [doi]
• Fleisig, G. S., Andrews, J. R., Dillman, C. J., & Escamilla, R. F. (1995). Kinetics of baseball pitching with implications about injury mechanisms. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 23(2), 233-239.
  Fleisig, GS、Andrews, JR、Dillman, CJ 和 Escamilla, RF (1995)。棒球投球动力学及其对损伤机制的影响。美国运动医学杂志，23(2), 233-239。
• Gonzalo-Skok, O., Tous-Fajardo, J., Valero-Campo, C., Berzosa, C., Bataller, A. V., Arjol-Serrano, J. L.,… Mendez-Villanueva, A. (2016). Eccentric overload training in team-sports functional performance: Constant bilateral vertical vs. variable unilateral multidirectional movements. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 1-23. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2016-0251 [doi]
  Gonzalo-Skok, O.、Tous-Fajardo, J.、Valero-Campo, C.、Berzosa, C.、Bataller, AV、Arjol-Serrano, JL...Mendez-Villanueva, A. (2016)。团队运动功能表现中的偏心超负荷训练：恒定的双边垂直运动与可变的单边多向运动。国际运动生理学和表现杂志，1-23。 doi:10.1123/ijspp.2016-0251 [doi]
• Hansen, T. E., & Lindhard, J. (1923). On the maximum work of human muscles especially the flexors of the elbow. The Journal of Physiology, 57(5), 287-300
  汉森，TE 和林哈德，J. (1923)。关于人体肌肉尤其是肘部屈肌的最大工作量。生理学杂志，57(5), 287-300
• Hather, B. M., Tesch, P. A., Buchanan, P., & Dudley, G. A. (1991). Influence of eccentric actions on skeletal muscle adaptations to resistance training. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 143(2), 177-185. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1991.tb09219.x [doi]
  Hather, BM、Tesch, PA、Buchanan, P. 和 Dudley, GA (1991)。离心动作对骨骼肌适应阻力训练的影响。斯堪的纳维亚生理学报，143(2), 177-185。 doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1991.tb09219.x [doi]
• Hedayatpour, N., & Falla, D. (2015). Physiological and neural adaptations to eccentric exercise: Mechanisms and considerations for training. BioMed Research International, 2015, 193741. doi:10.1155/2015/193741 [doi]
  Hedayatpour, N. 和 Falla, D. (2015)。对离心运动的生理和神经适应：训练的机制和注意事项。国际生物医学研究，2015，193741。doi:10.1155/2015/193741 [doi]
• Higbie, E. J., Cureton, K. J., Warren, G. L.,3rd, & Prior, B. M. (1996). Effects of concentric and eccentric training on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, and neural activation. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 81(5), 2173-2181.
  Higbie, EJ、Cureton, KJ、Warren, GL，第 3 名，以及 Prior, BM (1996)。同心和离心训练对肌肉力量、横截面积和神经激活的影响。应用生理学杂志（马里兰州贝塞斯达：1985），81（5）， 2173-2181 。
• Hill, A. V. (1920). An instrument for recording the maximum working a muscular contraction. Journal of Physiology, 53, 138-143.
  希尔，AV（1920）。记录肌肉收缩最大工作量的仪器。生理学杂志，53, 138-143。
• Hollander, D. B., Kraemer, R. R., Kilpatrick, M. W., Ramadan, Z. G., Reeves, G. V., Francois, M.,… Tryniecki, J. L. (2007). Maximal eccentric and concentric strength discrepancies between young men and women for dynamic resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research / National Strength & Conditioning Association, 21(1), 34-40. doi:R-18725 [pii]
  Hollander, DB、Kraemer, RR、Kilpatrick, MW、Ramadan, ZG、Reeves, GV、Francois, M....Tryniecki, JL (2007)。年轻男性和女性进行动态阻力训练时的最大偏心和同心力量差异。力量与体能研究杂志/国家力量与体能协会，21(1), 34-40。 doi:R-18725 [pii]
• Hortobagyi, T., Barrier, J., & Beard, D. (1996). Greater initial adaptations to submaximal muscle lengthening than maximal shortening. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 81, 1677-1682.
  Hortobagyi, T.、Barrier, J. 和 Beard, D. (1996)。与最大缩短相比，对次最大肌肉延长的初始适应更大。应用生理学杂志（贝塞斯达，马里兰州：1985） ， 81，1677-1682。
• Hortobagyi, T., Devita, P., Money, J., & Barrier, J. (2001). Effects of standard and eccentric overload strength training in young women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(7), 1206-1212.
  Hortobagyi, T.、Devita, P.、Money, J. 和 Barrier, J. (2001)。标准和偏心超负荷力量训练对年轻女性的影响。运动和锻炼中的医学和科学，33(7), 1206-1212。
• Hortobagyi, T., Hill, J. P., Houmard, J. A., Fraser, D. D., Lambert, N. J., & Israel, R. G. (1996). Adaptive responses to muscle lengthening and shortening in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 80(3), 765-772.
  Hortobagyi, T.、Hill, JP、Houmard, JA、Fraser, DD、Lambert, NJ 和 Israel, RG (1996)。人类对肌肉延长和缩短的适应性反应。应用生理学杂志（马里兰州贝塞斯达：1985），80（3），765-772。
• Hortobagyi, T., Zheng, D., Weidner, M., Lambert, N. J., Westbrook, S., & Houmard, J. A. (1995). The influence of aging on muscle strength and muscle fiber characteristics with special reference to eccentric strength. The Journals of Gerontology.Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 50(6), B399-406.
  Hortobagyi, T.、Zheng, D.、Weidner, M.、Lambert, NJ、Westbrook, S. 和 Houmard, JA (1995)。衰老对肌肉力量和肌纤维特性的影响，特别是离心力量。老年学杂志。A 系列，生物科学和医学科学，50(6)，B399-406。
• Johnson, B. (1972). Eccentric and concentric muscle training for strength development. Med.Sci.Sports, 4, 111
  约翰逊，B.（1972）。离心和向心肌肉训练以增强力量。医学科学体育, 4, 111
• Jones, D., & Rutherford, O. (1987). Human muscle strength training: The effects of three different regimens and the nature of the resultant changes. J. Physiol., (391), 111.
  琼斯，D. 和卢瑟福，O. (1987)。人体肌肉力量训练：三种不同方案的效果以及由此产生的变化的性质。生理学杂志，（391），111。
• Krogh, A. (1913). A bicycle ergometer and respiration apparatus for the experimental study of muscular Work1. Skandinavisches Archiv Für Physiologie, 30(3), 375-394. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1913.tb00681.x
  克罗，A.（1913）。用于肌肉工作实验研究的自行车测力计和呼吸装置1。斯堪的纳维亚生理学档案，30(3), 375-394。 doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1913.tb00681.x
• LaStayo, P. C., Woolf, J. M., Lewek, M. D., Snyder-Mackler, L., Reich, T., & Lindstedt, S. L. (2003). Eccentric muscle contractions: Their contribution to injury, prevention, rehabilitation, and sport. The Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 33(10), 557-571. doi:10.2519/jospt.2003.33.10.557 [doi]
  LaStayo, PC、Woolf, JM、Lewek, MD、Snyder-Mackler, L.、Reich, T. 和 Lindstedt, SL (2003)。偏心肌肉收缩：它们对损伤、预防、康复和运动的贡献。骨科和运动物理治疗杂志，33(10), 557-571。 doi:10.2519/jospt.2003.33.10.557 [doi]
• Lindstedt, S. L., LaStayo, P. C., & Reich, T. E. (2001). When active muscles lengthen: Properties and consequences of eccentric contractions. News in Physiological Sciences: An International Journal of Physiology Produced Jointly by the International Union of Physiological Sciences and the American Physiological Society, 16, 256-261.
  Lindstedt, SL、LaStayo, PC 和 Reich, TE (2001)。当活动的肌肉拉长时：离心收缩的特性和后果。生理科学新闻：由国际生理科学联盟和美国生理学会联合制作的国际生理学杂志，16, 256-261。
• Lynn, R., Talbot, J. A., & Morgan, D. L. (1998). Differences in rat skeletal muscles after incline and decline running. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 85(1), 98-104
  Lynn, R.、Talbot, JA 和 Morgan, DL (1998)。上坡跑和下坡跑后大鼠骨骼肌的差异。应用生理学杂志（马里兰州贝塞斯达：1985），85（1），98-104
• Maffulli, N., & Longo, U. G. (2008). How do eccentric exercises work in tendinopathy? Rheumatology, 47(10), 1444.
  Maffulli, N. 和 Longo, UG (2008)。离心运动如何治疗肌腱病？风湿病学，47(10), 1444。
• Mayhew, T. P., Rothstein, J. M., Finucane, S. D., & Lamb, R. L. (1995). Muscular adaptation to concentric and eccentric exercise at equal power levels. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(6), 868-873.
  Mayhew, TP、Rothstein, JM、Finucane, SD 和 Lamb, RL (1995)。肌肉适应相同功率水平的向心和离心运动。运动和锻炼中的医学和科学，27(6), 868-873。
• McHugh, M. P. (2003). Recent advances in the understanding of the repeated bout effect: The protective effect against muscle damage from a single bout of eccentric exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 13(2), 88-97. doi:2R477 [pii]
  麦克休，议员 (2003)。对重复回合效应理解的最新进展：单次离心运动对肌肉损伤的保护作用。斯堪的纳维亚运动医学与科学杂志，13(2), 88-97。 doi:2R477 [pii]
• Miyama, M., & Nosaka, K. (2007). Protection against muscle damage following fifty drop jumps conferred by ten drop jumps. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(4), 1087-1092. doi:R-21056 [pii]
  Miyama, M. 和 Nosaka, K. (2007)。十次跌落跳跃可提供五十次跌落跳跃后防止肌肉损伤的保护。力量与体能研究杂志，21(4), 1087-1092。 doi:R-21056 [pii]
• Norrbrand, L., Pozzo, M., & Tesch, P. A. (2010). Flywheel resistance training calls for greater eccentric muscle activation than weight training. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 110(5), 997-1005. doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1575-7 [doi]
  Norrbrand, L.、Pozzo, M. 和 Tesch, PA (2010)。飞轮阻力训练比重量训练需要更大的偏心肌肉激活。欧洲应用生理学杂志，110(5), 997-1005 。 doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1575-7 [doi]
• Nyland, J., Shapiro, R., Caborn, D., Nitz, A., & Malone, T. (1997). The effect of quadriceps femoris, hamstring, and placebo eccentric fatigue on knee and ankle dynamics during crossover cutting. Journal of Orthopedics Sports Physical Therapy, 25, 171
  Nyland, J.、Shapiro, R.、Caborn, D.、Nitz, A. 和 Malone, T. (1997)。交叉切割过程中股四头肌、腿筋和安慰剂偏心疲劳对膝关节和踝关节动力学的影响。骨科运动物理治疗杂志，25, 171
• Ojasto, T., & Hakkinen, K. (2009). Effects of different accentuated eccentric loads on acute neuromuscular, growth hormone, and blood lactate responses during a hypertrophic protocol. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(3), 946-953. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181a2b22f [doi]
  奥哈斯托，T. 和哈基宁，K. (2009)。肥大方案期间不同加重偏心负荷对急性神经肌肉、生长激素和血乳酸反应的影响。力量与体能研究杂志，23(3), 946-953。 doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181a2b22f [doi]
• O’Sullivan, K., McAuliffe, S., & Deburca, N. (2012). The effects of eccentric training on lower limb flexibility: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46(12), 838-845. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2011-090835 [doi]
  奥沙利文，K.，麦考利夫，S.，＆德布尔卡，N.（2012）。离心训练对下肢灵活性的影响：系统评价。英国运动医学杂志，46(12), 838-845。 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2011-090835 [doi]
• Roig, M., Shadgan, B., & Reid, W. D. (2008). Eccentric exercise in patients with chronic health conditions: A systematic review. Physiotherapy Canada.Physiotherapie Canada, 60(2), 146-160. doi:10.3138/physio.60.2.146 [doi]
  Roig, M.、Shadgan, B. 和 Reid, WD (2008)。慢性疾病患者的离心运动：系统评价。加拿大物理治疗。加拿大物理治疗，60(2), 146-160。 doi:10.3138/physio.60.2.146 [doi]
• Roig, M., O’Brien, K., Kirk, G., Murray, R., McKinnon, P., Shadgan, B., & Reid, W. D. (2009b). The effects of eccentric versus concentric resistance training on muscle strength and mass in healthy adults: A systematic review with meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(8), 556-568. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.051417 [doi]
  Roig, M.、O'Brien, K.、Kirk, G.、Murray, R.、McKinnon, P.、Shadgan, B. 和 Reid, WD (2009b)。偏心与向心阻力训练对健康成人肌肉力量和质量的影响：荟萃分析的系统评价。英国运动医学杂志，43(8), 556-568。 doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.051417 [doi]
• Shimokochi, Y., & Shultz, S. J. (2008). Mechanisms of noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injury. Journal of Athletic Training, 43(4), 396-408. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-43.4.396 [doi]
  Shimokochi, Y. 和 Shultz, SJ (2008)。非接触性前交叉韧带损伤的机制。运动训练杂志，43(4), 396-408。 doi:10.4085/1062-6050-43.4.396 [doi]
• Tesch, P. A., Ekberg, A., Lindquist, D. M., & Trieschmann, J. T. (2004). Muscle hypertrophy following 5-week resistance training using a non-gravity-dependent exercise system. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 180(1), 89-98. doi:1225 [pii]
  Tesch, PA、Ekberg, A.、Lindquist, DM 和 Trieschmann, JT (2004)。使用非重力依赖运动系统进行 5 周阻力训练后肌肉肥大。斯堪的纳维亚生理学报，180(1), 89-98。 doi:1225 [pii]
• Tous-Fajardo, J., Gonzalo-Skok, O., Arjol-Serrano, J. L., & Tesch, P. (2016). Enhancing change-of-direction speed in soccer players by functional inertial eccentric overload and vibration training. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(1), 66-73. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0010 [doi]
  Tous-Fajardo, J.、Gonzalo-Skok, O.、Arjol-Serrano, JL 和 Tesch, P. (2016)。通过功能性惯性偏心过载和振动训练来提高足球运动员的变向速度。国际运动生理学与表现杂志，11(1), 66-73。 doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0010 [doi]
• Vikne, H., Refsnes, P. E., Ekmark, M., Medbo, J. I., Gundersen, V., & Gundersen, K. (2006). Muscular performance after concentric and eccentric exercise in trained men. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(10), 1770-1781. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000229568.17284.ab [doi]
  Vikne, H.、Refsnes, PE、Ekmark, M.、Medbo, JI、Gundersen, V. 和 Gundersen, K. (2006)。训练有素的男性在向心和离心运动后的肌肉表现。运动和锻炼中的医学和科学，38(10), 1770-1781。 doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000229568.17284.ab [doi]
• Walker, S., Blazevich, A. J., Haff, G. G., Tufano, J. J., Newton, R. U., & Hakkinen, K. (2016). Greater strength gains after training with accentuated eccentric than traditional isoinertial loads in already strength-trained men. Frontiers in Physiology, 7, 149. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00149 [doi]
  Walker, S.、Blazevich, AJ、Haff, GG、Tufano, JJ、Newton, RU 和 Hakkinen, K. (2016)。对于已经接受过力量训练的男性来说，与传统的等惯性负荷相比，经过强化偏心训练后，力量增益会更大。生理学前沿，7, 149. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00149 [doi]
• Yu, J. G., Furst, D. O., & Thornell, L. E. (2003). The mode of myofibril remodeling in human skeletal muscle affected by DOMS induced by eccentric contractions. Histochemistry and Cell Biology, 119(5), 383-393. doi:10.1007/s00418-003-0522-7 [doi]
  Yu, JG、Furst, DO 和 Thornell, LE (2003)。偏心收缩引起的 DOMS 影响人体骨骼肌肌原纤维重塑模式。组织化学和细胞生物学，119(5), 383-393。 doi:10.1007/s00418-003-0522-7 [doi]