3.1 Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System 脊椎动物神经系统的结构 3.1
Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and the spinal cord 中枢神经系统（CNS）：包括大脑和脊髓
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body 外周神经系统（PNS）：将大脑和脊髓与身体的其他部分连接起来
Somatic nervous system: consists of axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles 躯体神经系统由传递感官器官到中枢神经系统以及从中枢神经系统到肌肉的神经纤维组成
Autonomic nervous system: controls the heart, intestines, and other organs 自主神经系统：负责调节心脏、肠道及其他器官的功能
The Human Nervous System 人体神经系统
Anatomical Directions in the Nervous System 神经系统的解剖方向
Anatomical Terms Referring to Directions 指向方向的解剖学术语
Term 术语定义
Definition 定义内容
Dorsal 背部肌肉
向后，远离腹部（胃）的一侧。大脑的顶部被视为背侧，因为在四足动物中它位于那个位置。
Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered dorsal
because it has that position in four-legged animals.
Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered dorsal
because it has that position in four-legged animals.| Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered dorsal |
| :--- |
| because it has that position in four-legged animals. |
Ventral 腹面
Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side 向胃部方向，远离背部
Anterior 之前
Toward the front end 向前端发展
Posterior 背面
Toward the rear end 向后方
Superior 卓越
Above another part 在另一部分的上方
Inferior 低劣
Below another part 下面是另一个部分
Lateral 侧面视角
Toward the side, away from the midline, away from the side 向侧面，远离中线，远离边缘
Medial 媒介
Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment 位于离起点或附着点较近的地方
Proximal 近端部位
Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment 位于离起点或附着点更远的区域
Distal 远端位置
On the same side of the body (eg., two parts on the left or two on the right) 在身体的同一侧（例如，两个部分在左侧或两个部分在右侧）
Ipsilateral 同侧的
On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right) 在身体的两侧（左侧一个，右侧一个）
Contralateral 对侧的
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front 一架展示大脑结构的飞机，视角为正面
Coronal plane (or frontal plane) 冠状面（也称为前面）
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side 一架侧面展示大脑结构的飞机
Sagittal plane 矢状平面
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above 一架从上方展示大脑结构的飞机
Horizontal plane (or transverse plane) 水平面（或横向切面）
Term Definition
Dorsal "Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered dorsal
because it has that position in four-legged animals."
Ventral Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side
Anterior Toward the front end
Posterior Toward the rear end
Superior Above another part
Inferior Below another part
Lateral Toward the side, away from the midline, away from the side
Medial Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment
Proximal Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment
Distal On the same side of the body (eg., two parts on the left or two on the right)
Ipsilateral On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right)
Contralateral A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front
Coronal plane (or frontal plane) A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side
Sagittal plane A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above
Horizontal plane (or transverse plane) | Term | Definition |
| :--- | :--- |
| Dorsal | Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered dorsal <br> because it has that position in four-legged animals. |
| Ventral | Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side |
| Anterior | Toward the front end |
| Posterior | Toward the rear end |
| Superior | Above another part |
| Inferior | Below another part |
| Lateral | Toward the side, away from the midline, away from the side |
| Medial | Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment |
| Proximal | Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment |
| Distal | On the same side of the body (eg., two parts on the left or two on the right) |
| Ipsilateral | On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right) |
| Contralateral | A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front |
| Coronal plane (or frontal plane) | A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side |
| Sagittal plane | A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above |
| Horizontal plane (or transverse plane) | |
Terms Referring to Parts of the Nervous System 关于神经系统各部分的术语
Term 术语定义
Definition 定义内容
Comina 科米娜
A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites 一层细胞体，周围被轴突和树突隔开，与其他细胞体分离
Tract 宣传册
A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties 一组与皮层表面垂直的细胞，具有相似的特性
Nerve 神经系统
中枢神经系统内的一组轴突，通常称为投射。如果轴突从结构 A 的细胞体延伸到 B 的突触，我们就说这些纤维是“从 A 投射到 B”。
A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in
structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B.
A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in
structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B.| A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in |
| :--- |
| structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B. |
Nucleus 细胞核
一组来自外周的神经纤维，可能是从中枢神经系统传递到肌肉或腺体，或者是从感觉器官传递到中枢神经系统
A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ
to the CNS
A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ
to the CNS| A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ |
| :--- |
| to the CNS |
Ganglion 神经节（神经元的聚集体）
A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS 中枢神经系统中的一组神经细胞体
Gyrus (pi.: gyri) 脑回（复数形式：脑回）
A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic nervous system) 一组神经细胞体，通常位于中枢神经系统之外（例如在交感神经系统中）
Sulcus (pi.: sulci) 脑沟 (复数：脑沟)
A frotuberance on the surface of the brain 大脑表面的隆起
Fissure 裂隙
A long, deep sulcus 一个深长的沟槽
Term Definition
Comina A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites
Tract A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties
Nerve "A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in
structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B."
Nucleus "A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ
to the CNS"
Ganglion A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS
Gyrus (pi.: gyri) A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic nervous system)
Sulcus (pi.: sulci) A frotuberance on the surface of the brain
Fissure A long, deep sulcus| Term | Definition |
| :--- | :--- |
| Comina | A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites |
| Tract | A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties |
| Nerve | A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in <br> structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B. |
| Nucleus | A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ <br> to the CNS |
| Ganglion | A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS |
| Gyrus (pi.: gyri) | A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic nervous system) |
| Sulcus (pi.: sulci) | A frotuberance on the surface of the brain |
| Fissure | A long, deep sulcus |
The Spinal Cord, Part 1 脊髓第一部分
Part of the CNS found within the spinal column 位于脊柱内的中枢神经系统的一部分
Communicates with the sense organs and muscles, except those of the head 与感官和肌肉（头部肌肉除外）进行交流
Entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and exiting ventral roots carry motor information 背根传递感觉信息，而腹根则传递运动信息
Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord - the dorsal root ganglia 感觉神经元的细胞体位于脊髓外的神经元群体中，称为背根神经节
A Cross-Section Through the Spinal Cord 脊髓的横截面图
The Spinal Cord, Part 2 脊髓第二部分
Consists of two types of matter 由两种类型的物质构成
Grey matter: located in the center of the spinal cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites 灰质位于脊髓的中心，密集地包含细胞体和树突
White matter: composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries information from the gray matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord 白质：主要由髓鞘包裹的轴突组成，负责将信息从灰质传递到大脑或脊髓的其他部分
Each segment sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands 每个部分将感官信息传递给大脑，并接收运动指令
Sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc.) 通过发送和接收信息来调节身体的自动功能（如心率、血压、呼吸和消化等）。
Divided into two subsystems 被划分为两个子系统
The sympathetic nervous system 交感神经系统
The parasympathetic nervous system 副交感神经系统
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems 交感神经系统与副交感神经系统
The Sympathetic Nervous System 交感神经系统
A network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity 一种神经网络，帮助器官为剧烈活动做好准备
Increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc. (“fight or flight” response) 心率、血压和呼吸等都会增加（“战斗或逃跑”反应）
Composed of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal cord 由脊髓左右两侧的神经节构成
The Parasympathetic Nervous System 副交感神经系统
Facilitates vegetative and nonemergency responses 促进植物生长和非紧急情况的响应
Decreases functions increased by the sympathetic nervous system 交感神经系统导致的功能下降
Composed of long preganglion axons extending from the spinal cord and short postganglionic fibers that attach to the organs themselves 由从脊髓延伸的长前神经元轴突和连接到器官的短后神经纤维组成
Dominant during our relaxed states 在我们放松时占据主导地位
Neurotransmitters in the ANS 自主神经系统中的神经传递物质
Postganglionic axons of the parasympathetic nervous system mostly release acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter 副交感神经系统的后神经元轴突主要释放乙酰胆碱作为神经传递物质
The sympathetic nervous system mostly uses norepinephrine 交感神经系统主要依赖去甲肾上腺素
Major Divisions of the Vertebrate Brain 脊椎动物大脑的主要部分
Area Also Known as Major Structures
Forebrain Prosencephalon ("forward-brain)
Forebrain Diencephalon ("between-brain") Thalamus, hypothalamus
Forebrain Telencephalon ("end-brain") "Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal
ganglia"
Midbrain Mesencephalon ("middle-brain") "Tectum, tegmentum, superior colliculus,
inferior colliculus, substantia nigra"
Hindbrain "Rhombencephalon
(literally/"parallelogram-brain")" Medulla, pons, cerebellum| Area | Also Known as | Major Structures |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Forebrain | Prosencephalon ("forward-brain) | |
| Forebrain | Diencephalon ("between-brain") | Thalamus, hypothalamus |
| Forebrain | Telencephalon ("end-brain") | Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal <br> ganglia |
| Midbrain | Mesencephalon ("middle-brain") | Tectum, tegmentum, superior colliculus, <br> inferior colliculus, substantia nigra |
| Hindbrain | Rhombencephalon <br> (literally/"parallelogram-brain") | Medulla, pons, cerebellum |
Example - Divisions of a Fish Brain 示例 - 鱼脑的各个部分
The Hindbrain 脑干后部
Consists of the: 包含以下内容：
Medulla 脊髓
Pons
Cerebellum 小脑部位
Located at the posterior portion of the brain 位于大脑的后方
Hindbrain structures, the midbrain, and other central structures of the brain combine and make up the brain stem 脑干是由后脑结构、中脑及其他中枢结构组成的
The Human Brainstem 人类脑干
The Hindbrain - The Medulla and the Cranial Nerves 后脑 - 延髓与脑神经
The medulla 延髓
Located just above the spinal cord; like an enlarged extension of the spinal cord 位于脊髓上方，类似于脊髓的一个放大延伸部分
Responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing and sneezing 负责维持重要的反射功能，例如呼吸、心率、呕吐、流口水、咳嗽和打喷嚏
The cranial nerves 脑神经
Allow the medulla to control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and many parasympathetic outputs 让延髓控制头部的感觉、头部的肌肉运动以及多种副交感神经的输出
Cranial Nerves II Through XII 第二到第十二对颅神经
The Cranial Nerves 脑神经
Numberand Name 数字与名称
Major Functions 主要功能模块
I. Olfactory 嗅觉系统
Smell 嗅觉
II. Optic 第二光学领域
Vision 视角
III. Oculomotor III. 眼动神经
Control of eye movements; pupil constriction 眼球运动控制与瞳孔收缩
IV. Trochlear 第四对脑神经
Control of eye movements 眼动控制
V. Trigeminal V. 三叉神经系统
Skin sensations from most of the face; control of jaw muscles for chewing and swallowing 面部大部分的皮肤感觉；控制下颌肌肉以便于咀嚼和吞咽
VI. Abducens 第六对脑神经
Control of eye movements 眼动控制
VII. Facial 第七章：面部
舌头前部的味觉；控制面部表情、哭泣、唾液分泌以及头部血管的扩张
Taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying, salivation, and
dilation of the head's blood vessels
Taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying, salivation, and
dilation of the head's blood vessels| Taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying, salivation, and |
| :--- |
| dilation of the head's blood vessels |
VIII. Statoacoustic 第八章：声学状态
Hearing; equilibrium 听觉与平衡
IX. Glossopharyngeal IX. 舌咽神经（Glossopharyngeal）
喉咙和舌头后部的味觉及其他感觉；控制吞咽、唾液分泌和说话时的喉咙运动
Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; control of swallowing, salivation,
throat movements during speech
Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; control of swallowing, salivation,
throat movements during speech| Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; control of swallowing, salivation, |
| :--- |
| throat movements during speech |
X. Vagus X. 迷走神经
颈部和胸部的感觉；控制喉咙、食道和喉部的副交感神经，影响胃、肠及其他器官的功能
Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic nerves to
stomach, intestines, and other organs
Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic nerves to
stomach, intestines, and other organs| Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic nerves to |
| :--- |
| stomach, intestines, and other organs |
XI. Accessory XI. 附属品
Control of neck and shoulder movements 颈肩运动的控制
XII. Hypoglossal 十二对脑神经
Control of muscles of the tongue 舌头肌肉的控制机制
Numberand Name Major Functions
I. Olfactory Smell
II. Optic Vision
III. Oculomotor Control of eye movements; pupil constriction
IV. Trochlear Control of eye movements
V. Trigeminal Skin sensations from most of the face; control of jaw muscles for chewing and swallowing
VI. Abducens Control of eye movements
VII. Facial "Taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying, salivation, and
dilation of the head's blood vessels"
VIII. Statoacoustic Hearing; equilibrium
IX. Glossopharyngeal "Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; control of swallowing, salivation,
throat movements during speech"
X. Vagus "Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic nerves to
stomach, intestines, and other organs"
XI. Accessory Control of neck and shoulder movements
XII. Hypoglossal Control of muscles of the tongue| Numberand Name | Major Functions |
| :--- | :--- |
| I. Olfactory | Smell |
| II. Optic | Vision |
| III. Oculomotor | Control of eye movements; pupil constriction |
| IV. Trochlear | Control of eye movements |
| V. Trigeminal | Skin sensations from most of the face; control of jaw muscles for chewing and swallowing |
| VI. Abducens | Control of eye movements |
| VII. Facial | Taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying, salivation, and <br> dilation of the head's blood vessels |
| VIII. Statoacoustic | Hearing; equilibrium |
| IX. Glossopharyngeal | Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; control of swallowing, salivation, <br> throat movements during speech |
| X. Vagus | Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic nerves to <br> stomach, intestines, and other organs |
| XI. Accessory | Control of neck and shoulder movements |
| XII. Hypoglossal | Control of muscles of the tongue |
Cranial nerves III. IV. and VI are coded in red to highlight their similarity: control of eye movements. Cranial nerves VII, IX, and XII are coded in green to their similarity: taste and control of tongue and throat movements. Cranial nerve VII has other important functions as well. Nerve X (not highlighted) also contributes to throat movements, although it is primarily known for other functions. 颅神经 III、IV 和 VI 用红色标记，强调它们在控制眼球运动方面的相似性。颅神经 VII、IX 和 XII 用绿色标记，显示它们在味觉以及舌头和喉咙运动控制方面的相似性。颅神经 VII 还有其他重要功能。神经 X（未标记）也参与喉咙运动，尽管它主要以其他功能而著称。
The Hindbrain - The Pons 后脑 - 脑桥
Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and anterior) 位于延髓的前面和腹部两侧
The term pons is Latin for “bridge” “pons”这个词在拉丁语中意为“桥”
Axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord such that the left hemisphere controls the muscles of the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side. 大脑的每一半的轴突会交叉到脊髓的另一侧，因此左半球控制身体右侧的肌肉，而右半球则控制左侧的肌肉。
The Hindbrain - The Cerebellum 后脑部 - 小脑
Structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds 位于后脑的结构，具有许多深深的褶皱
Helps regulate motor movement, balance, and coordination 有助于调节运动、平衡和协调能力
Also important for shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli 在听觉和视觉刺激之间转移注意力也非常重要
The Midbrain 中脑部位
Contains the following structures 包含以下内容结构
Tectum: roof of the midbrain 中脑的顶部
Superior colliculus and inferior colliculus: processes sensory information 上丘和下丘：处理感觉信息
Tegmentum: contains nuclei for cranial nerves and part of the reticular formation 中脑：包含颅神经的核团和部分网状结构
Substantia nigra: gives rise to the dopaminecontaining pathway facilitating readiness for movement 黑质：产生含多巴胺的通路，帮助身体做好运动准备
Sagittal Section Through the Human Brain 人脑的矢状剖面
The Forebrain 大脑前部
The most anterior and prominent part of the mammalian brain, with two cerebral hemispheres 哺乳动物大脑最前面和最显著的部分，包含两个大脑半球
Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions 由外层皮质和皮层下区域构成
Outer portion is known as the “cerebral cortex” 外层被称为“脑皮层”
Each side receives sensory information and controls motor movement from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body 每一侧从身体的对侧接收感官信息并控制运动
Views of the Brain 大脑的不同视角
The Forebrain - The Limbic System 大脑前部 - 边缘系统
Consists of a number of other interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem 由多个相互连接的结构组成，围绕着脑干形成边界
Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex 包括嗅球、下丘脑、海马、杏仁体和大脑皮层的扣带回
Associated with motivation emotions, such as eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression 与动机情绪相关，包括饮食、饮水、性行为、焦虑和攻击性行为
The Limbic System 边缘系统
The Forebrain - Subcortical Regions 前脑 - 皮层下区域
Structures underneath the cortex 皮层下的结构体系
Thalamus: relay station from the sensory organs; main source of input to the cortex 丘脑：感官的中继站，是皮层的主要输入来源
Hypothalamus: small area near the base 下丘脑：位于基部附近的小区域
Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of hormones 向垂体腺传递信号，以调节激素的分泌
Associated with behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual behavior, and other motivated behaviors 与饮食、饮水、性行为及其他动机行为相关
The thalamus and the hypothalamus together form the “diencephalon” 丘脑和下丘脑共同构成“间脑”
Information Routes from Thalamus to Cerebral Cortex 丘脑到大脑皮层的信息传递路径
The Forebrain - The Pituitary Gland and Basal Ganglia 前脑 - 垂体和基底神经核
Pituitary gland: hormone-producing gland found at the base of the hypothalamus 垂体腺：位于下丘脑底部的激素分泌腺
Basal ganglia: comprises the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus 基底神经节：由尾状核、壳核和苍白球组成
Associated with planning of motor movement, and with aspects of memory and emotional expression 与运动规划、记忆和情感表达相关
Also important for attention, language planning, and other cognitive functions 对注意力、语言规划及其他认知功能同样重要
The Basal Ganglia 基底神经核
The Forebrain - The Basal Forebrain 前脑 - 基底前脑区域
Composed of several structures that lie on the dorsal surface of the forebrain 由多个结构组成，这些结构位于前脑的 dorsal 面上
Contains the nucleus basalis 包含基底核区域
Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia 接收来自下丘脑和基底节的信息
Sends axons that release acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex 通过轴突释放乙酰胆碱到达大脑皮层
Important in arousal, wakefulness, and attention 在唤醒、警觉性和注意力方面非常重要
Located at the posterior end of the cortex 位于大脑皮层的后部
Known as the striate cortex or the primary visual cortex 也称为条纹皮层或初级视觉皮层
Highly responsible for visual input 对视觉信息负有高度责任
Damage can result in cortical blindness 损伤可能会导致皮层性失明
The Parietal Lobe, Part 1 顶叶，第一章
Contains the postcentral gyrus (“primary somatosensory cortex”) 包含后中央回（“初级感觉皮层”）
Primary target for touch sensations and information from muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors 主要负责触觉以及来自肌肉拉伸感受器和关节感受器的信息接收
Also responsible for processing and integrating information about eye, head, and body positions from information sent from muscles and joints 还负责处理和整合来自肌肉和关节的信息，以了解眼睛、头部和身体的位置
Approximate Representation of Sensory and Motor Information in the Cortex 皮层中对感觉和运动信息的近似表达
(a) Sormatosensory cortex 体感皮层
(b) Motor cortex (b) 运动皮层
The Parietal Lobe, Part 2 顶叶，第二部分内容
Essential for spatial information as well as numerical information 对于空间信息和数值信息来说是必不可少的
Example: using one’s fingers to count represents an overlap of spatial and numerical tasks 例如，使用手指计数体现了空间与数字任务的交集
The Temporal Lobe 颞叶部位
Located on the lateral portion of each hemisphere near the temples 位于每个半球的侧面，靠近颞部
Target for auditory information and essential for processing spoken language 处理口语时，听觉信息是一个重要的目标和基础
Also responsible for complex aspects of vision, including movement and some emotional and motivational behaviors 还涉及视觉的复杂方面，包括运动以及某些情感和动机行为
Klüver-Bucy syndrome associated with temporal lobe damage 克吕弗-布基综合症与颞叶损伤有关
The Frontal Lobe 额叶
Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus 包含前额皮层和中央前回
Precentral gyrus: also known as the primary motor cortex; responsible for the control of fine motor movement 前中央回，也称为初级运动皮层，主要负责精细运动的控制
Prefrontal cortex: the integration center for all sensory information and other areas of the cortex (most anterior portion of the frontal lobe) 前额叶皮层：所有感官信息及其他大脑皮层区域的整合中心（额叶的最前部分）
Species Differences in Prefrontal Cortex 不同物种在前额皮质上的差异
Squirrel monkey 松鼠猴子
Dog 小狗
Cat 小猫
Chimp 猩猩
Human 人类的
The Prefrontal Cortex 前额叶皮层
Responsible for: 负责的事项：
Higher functions such as abstract thinking and planning 更高层次的功能，例如抽象思维和规划能力
Our ability to remember recent events and information (“working memory”) 我们对最近事件和信息的记忆能力（“工作记忆”）
People with damage to the prefrontal cortex exhibit delayed-response task 前额叶皮层受损的人在延迟反应任务中表现出反应延迟
Respond to something they see or hear after a delay 在延迟后对所见或所闻做出反应
Prefrontal Lobotomy 前额叶脑叶切除术
Surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain 外科手术切断前额叶与大脑其他区域的连接
In the 1940s and 50s, about 40,000 performed 在 1940 年代和 1950 年代，大约有 40,000 人参与表演
Mostly, schizophrenics, but later others with less severe mental illness 主要是精神分裂症患者，后来也包括一些精神疾病较轻的人
Patients left with apathy, lack of ability to plan, memory disorders and lack of emotional expression 患者表现出冷漠、缺乏计划能力、记忆障碍以及情感表达不足
Results of a Prefrontal Lobotomy 前额叶切除手术的结果
How Do the Parts Work Together? 各个部分是如何相互配合的？
Parts of the cerebral cortex do not work independently of each other 大脑皮层的各个部分并不是独立运作的
All areas of the brain communicate with each other, but no single central processor exists that puts it all together 大脑的各个区域相互交流，但并不存在一个单一的中央处理器来整合这些信息
The Binding Problem 绑定难题
Refers to how the visual, auditory, and other areas of the brain produce a perception of a single object 指的是视觉、听觉及大脑其他区域如何共同产生对单一物体的感知
Perhaps the brain binds activity in different areas when they produce synchronous waves of activity 也许大脑在不同区域之间连接活动，当这些区域产生同步的活动波时
For binding to occur: 为了实现绑定：
A person perceives two sensations as happening at the same time and in the same place 一个人同时在同一个地方感知到两种感觉
Example: a ventriloquist use the visual stimulus to alter the response of the auditory cortex 例子：腹语者通过视觉刺激来影响听觉皮层的反应
Where Am I? 我在什么地方？
An Illusion to Demonstrate Binding 一个用来演示绑定的幻觉
3.3 Research Methods 3.3 研究方法论
The main categories of research methods to study the brain include those that attempt to: 研究大脑的主要方法类别包括那些旨在：
Examine the effects of brain damage 研究脑损伤的影响
Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area 研究刺激大脑某个区域的影响
Record brain activity during behavior 在行为过程中记录大脑活动
Correlate brain anatomy with behavior 关联大脑结构与行为
Effects of Brain Damage 脑损伤的影响与后果
Brain damage can produce an inability to recognize faces, an inability to perceive motion, changes in emotional responses, and many more effects 脑损伤可能导致无法识别面孔、无法感知运动、情感反应的变化等多种影响
Ablation: removal of a brain area 切除：移除大脑某个区域
Lesion: damage to a brain area, often done for research 病变：对大脑某个区域的损伤，通常是出于研究目的
Stereotaxic instrument: used to damage structures in the interior of the brain 立体定向仪：用于破坏大脑内部的结构
A Stereotaxic Instrument 一种立体定位仪器
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 经颅磁场刺激
Application of an intense magnetic field to a portion of the scalp to temporarily deactivate neurons below the magnet 将强磁场施加到头皮的某个区域，以暂时使该区域下方的神经元失去活性
Allows researchers to study behavior with a brain area active, then inactive, then active again 允许研究人员研究一个脑区的行为，该脑区先活跃后不活跃，再次活跃
Apparatus for Magnetic Stimulation of a Human Brain 人脑磁刺激设备
Effects of Brain Stimulation 脑部刺激的效果
Stimulation of a brain area should increase behavior 刺激大脑某个区域应该能增强行为表现
Optogenetics: a technique that allows researchers to turn on activity in targeted neurons by a device that shines a laser within the brain 光遗传学是一种技术，研究人员可以通过在大脑中照射激光来激活特定神经元的活动
Electrodes can probe the brain of a person undergoing brain surgery 电极可以监测正在接受脑部手术的人的大脑活动
A limitation is that complex behaviors depend on temporal pattern of activity in many areas 一个限制是复杂行为依赖于多个领域活动的时间模式
Recording Brain Activity - EEG 记录脑电活动 - 脑电图
Electroencephalograph (EEG): records electrical activity produced by various brain regions 脑电图（EEG）：记录大脑各个区域产生的电活动
Can produce evoked potentials that selfreports sometimes do not reveal 可以产生诱发电位，而自我报告有时无法反映这一点
Electroencephalography 脑电图检查
Recording Brain Activity - MEG and PET 记录脑部活动 - MEG 与 PET 技术
Magnetoencephalograph (MEG): similar to EEG but measures faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity instead 磁脑电图（MEG）：与脑电图（EEG）类似，但它测量的是大脑活动产生的微弱磁场
Positron-emission tomography (PET): records emission of radioactivity from injected radioactive chemicals to produce a high-resolution image 正电子发射断层扫描（PET）：通过记录注射的放射性化学物质释放的放射性，生成高分辨率图像
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): modified version of an MRI that uses oxygen consumption in the brain to provide a moving and detailed picture 功能性磁共振成像（fMRI）：一种改进的 MRI，通过测量大脑的氧气消耗来提供动态且详细的图像
Safer and less expensive than PET 比 PET 更安全且成本更低
Comparison tasks are used to compare the brain pictures while person is engaged in different activities and recordings can allow researchers to predict the behavior 比较任务用于对比大脑图像，人在进行不同活动时的记录可以帮助研究人员预测行为
An fMRI Scan of a Human Brain 人脑的 fMRI 扫描图像
Subtraction for a Brain Scan Procedure 脑部扫描程序中的减法操作
ExperImental task 实验性任务
Comparison task 比较性任务
Difference 差异
Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior Phrenology 将大脑解剖与行为相联系的颅相学
The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior 将颅骨解剖与行为之间的关系进行分析的过程
One of the first ways used to study the brain 研究大脑的早期方法之一
Measures changes over both time and location but requires exposing brain to radiation 既能测量时间和地点的变化，又需要将大脑暴露在辐射下
Functional magnetic resonance 功能性磁共振成像
Measures changes over about 1 second, identifies location within 1 to 2 mm, no use of radiation 在大约 1 秒内测量变化，定位精度达到 1 到 2 毫米，且不使用辐射
imaging (fMRI) 成像（功能性核磁共振成像）
Correlate Brain Anatomy with Behavior 将大脑解剖与行为进行关联
Maps brain areas, but requires exposure to X-rays 映射大脑区域，但需要接受 X 射线的照射
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) 计算机断层成像 (CAT)
Maps brain areas in detail, using magnetic fields 使用磁场详细描绘大脑区域
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 磁共振影像 (MRI)
Examine Effects of Brain Damage
Study victims of stroke, etc. Used with humans; each person has different damage
Lesion Controlled damage in laboratory animals
Ablation Removal of a brain area
Gene knockout Affects wherever that gene is active (eg., a receptor)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation Intense application temporarily inactivates a brain area
Examine Effects of Stimulating a Brain Area
Stimulating electrodes Invasive; used with laboratory animals, seldom with humans
Transcranial magnetic stimulation Brief, mild application activates underlying brain area
Record Brain Activity during Behavior
Record from electrodes in brain Invasive; used with laboratory animals, seldom humans
Electroencephalograph (EEG) Records from scalp; measures changes by milliseconds, but with low resolution of location of the signal
Evoked potentials Similar to EEG but in response to stimuli
Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) Similar to EEG but measures magnetic fields
Positron emission tomography (PET) Measures changes over both time and location but requires exposing brain to radiation
Functional magnetic resonance Measures changes over about 1 second, identifies location within 1 to 2 mm, no use of radiation
imaging (fMRI)
Correlate Brain Anatomy with Behavior Maps brain areas, but requires exposure to X-rays
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) Maps brain areas in detail, using magnetic fields
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | Examine Effects of Brain Damage | |
| :--- | :--- |
| Study victims of stroke, etc. | Used with humans; each person has different damage |
| Lesion | Controlled damage in laboratory animals |
| Ablation | Removal of a brain area |
| Gene knockout | Affects wherever that gene is active (eg., a receptor) |
| Transcranial magnetic stimulation | Intense application temporarily inactivates a brain area |
| Examine Effects of Stimulating a Brain Area | |
| Stimulating electrodes | Invasive; used with laboratory animals, seldom with humans |
| Transcranial magnetic stimulation | Brief, mild application activates underlying brain area |
| Record Brain Activity during Behavior | |
| Record from electrodes in brain | Invasive; used with laboratory animals, seldom humans |
| Electroencephalograph (EEG) | Records from scalp; measures changes by milliseconds, but with low resolution of location of the signal |
| Evoked potentials | Similar to EEG but in response to stimuli |
| Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) | Similar to EEG but measures magnetic fields |
| Positron emission tomography (PET) | Measures changes over both time and location but requires exposing brain to radiation |
| Functional magnetic resonance | Measures changes over about 1 second, identifies location within 1 to 2 mm, no use of radiation |
| imaging (fMRI) | |
| Correlate Brain Anatomy with Behavior | Maps brain areas, but requires exposure to X-rays |
| Computerized axial tomography (CAT) | Maps brain areas in detail, using magnetic fields |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | |
Brain Size and Intelligence 大脑体积与智力的关系
Research has not supported that a larger brain is correlated with higher intelligence 研究并未证明大脑更大与智力更高之间存在关联
Brain-to-body ratio research has some limited validity 脑与身体比例的研究有效性较低
Moderate correlation exists between IQ and brain size (.3) IQ 与脑容量之间存在中等程度的相关性（0.3）
Amount of grey and white matter may also play a role 灰质和白质的数量可能也会发挥作用
IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter IQ 与大脑灰质的数量存在关联
Relationship of Brain Mass to Body Mass Across Species 不同物种中脑质量与身体质量的关系
Cortical Areas Whose Size Correlated with 与大脑皮层区域大小相关的因素
IQ 智力商数
Brain Size and Intelligence - Gender 大脑大小与智力的关系 - 性别因素
Comparisons 比较方式
Men have larger brains than women but equal IQs 男性的脑容量通常大于女性，但智商是相同的
Various differences in specific brain structures exist between men and women, but the number of neurons are about the same for both 男性和女性在某些脑结构上存在差异，但两者的神经元数量大致相同
Explanations in differences in cognitive abilities can perhaps be better explained by interest than abilities (i.e., more male chess masters because more boys play chess) 认知能力差异的解释或许更应该通过兴趣而非能力来理解（例如，男性国际象棋大师更多是因为男孩们更喜欢下国际象棋）
