2024_05_17_5dc3038c9e99b4b23e84g

Preface 序言

Wo biok that will not improve by repeated readings deserves to be
icicícit cill
如果反复读取也无法改善生物体的状况，则应将其视为icicícit cill

ThOMAS CARLYLE 托马斯-卡莱尔

This book is about the vital subject of business logistics/supply chain-an area of management that has been observed to absorb as much as 60 to 80 percent of a firm's sales dollar and that can be essential to a firm's competitive strategy and revenue generation. This management area has been described by many names, including physical distribution, materials management, transportation management, logistics, and now supply chain management. The business activities of concern may include all or part of the following: transportation, inventory maintenance, order processing, purchasing, warehousing, materials handling, packaging, customer service standards, and production.
本书讲述的是企业物流/供应链这一重要主题--据观察，这一管理领域吸收了企业销售额的 60% 至 80%，对企业的竞争战略和创收至关重要。这一管理领域有许多名称，包括实物分销、材料管理、运输管理、物流，以及现在的供应链管理。所涉及的业务活动可能包括以下全部或部分：运输、库存维护、订单处理、采购、仓储、材料处理、包装、客户服务标准和生产。

The focus of this book is on the planning, organizing, and controlling of these activities-key elements for successful management in any organization. Special emphasis is given to strategic planning and decision making as perhaps the most important parts of the management process. The mission of this managerial effort is to set the level of the logistics activities su as to make products and services available to customers at the time, place, and in the condition and form desired, in the most profitable or cost-effective way.
本书的重点是这些活动的计划、组织和控制--任何组织成功管理的关键要素。本书特别强调战略规划和决策，因为它们可能是管理过程中最重要的部分。这项管理工作的任务是设定物流活动的水平，以便在客户需要的时间、地点、条件和形式下，以最有利可图或最具成本效益的方式向客户提供产品和服务。

Because logistics activities have always been vital to companies and organizations, the field of business logistics/supply chain management represents a synthesis of many concepts, principles, and methods from the more traditional areas of marketing, production, accounting, purchasing, and transportation, as well as from the disciplines of applied mathematics, organizational behavior, and economics. This book attempts to unify these into a logical body of thought that can lead to the effective management of the supply chain.
由于物流活动对公司和组织一直以来都至关重要，因此商业物流/供应链管理领域综合了来自营销、生产、会计、采购和运输等传统领域，以及应用数学、组织行为学和经济学等学科的许多概念、原则和方法。本书试图将这些概念和方法统一为一个逻辑思维体系，从而实现对供应链的有效管理。

As with any field of management, there are frequently changing terms to capture the methods and concepts of business logistics/supply chain. An attempt has been made to resist following the popular press and fads, and to present the ideas, principles, and techniques that are fundamental to good business logistics practice, now and in the near future. In this spirit, the fifth edition is organized around two themes. First, the basic activities of management, namely, planning, organizing, and controlling, provide the overarching theme for the book. Second, a triangle of interrelated transportation, inventory, and location strategies are at the heart of good logistics planning and decision making. This triangle is emphasized through the text.
与任何管理领域一样，捕捉商业物流/供应链的方法和概念的术语也在不断变化。本书力图避免跟风，而是介绍当前和不久的将来对良好的商业物流实践至关重要的理念、原则和技术。本着这一精神，第五版围绕两个主题展开。首先，管理的基本活动，即计划、组织和控制，是本书的总主题。其次，相互关联的运输、库存和选址战略三角是良好物流规划和决策的核心。这个三角形在全书中都得到了强调。

Several trends have been noted that affect the scope and practice of business logistics/supply chain. These have been integrated into the body of the text as application illustrations of the fundamental ideas being presented. First, emphasis is placed on logistics/supply chain in a worldwide setting to reflect the growing internationalization and globalization of business in general. Second, the shifting toward more service-oriented economies by industrialized nations is emphasized by showing how logistics concepts and principles are equally applicable to service-producing firms as they are to product-producing ones. Third, attention is given to the integrated management of supply chain activities, as well as managing these activities among the other functional areas of business as well as across multiple enterprises. Fourth, many practical examples are given to show the applicability of the material. Fifth, computer software is provided to assist in solving logistics/supply chain problems reflecting the growing use of computer technology in managerial decision making.
已注意到影响商业物流/供应链范围和实践的若干趋势。这些趋势已被纳入正文，作为基本观点的应用说明。首先，重点放在全球范围内的物流/供应链上，以反映整个商业日益国际化和全球化的趋势。其次，通过展示物流概念和原则如何同样适用于服务生产型企业和产品生产型企业，强调了工业化国家向服务型经济的转变。第三，本书关注供应链活动的综合管理，以及这些活动在企业其他职能领域和多个企业之间的管理。第四，提供了许多实际案例来说明教材的适用性。第五，提供计算机软件以协助解决物流/供应链问题，这反映出计算机技术在管理决策中的应用日益广泛。

Over the years, so many people and companies have contributed to the ideas embodied in this fifth edition that a list of acknowledgments would be far too long to print. However, to all those students and professors around the world who were willing to comment on the previous editions, to those businesspeople who were willing to try the ideas embodied in them, and to all others who made comments of praise as well as criticism-my heartfelt thanks. A special note of gratitude goes to my wife, Carolyn, for editorial assistance and encouragement throughout this revision. Considering all of this help, any shortcomings and errors that remain must be mine.
多年来，有许多人和公司为第五版所体现的思想做出了贡献，因此，如果要一一列出致谢名单，那就太长了。不过，我还是要衷心感谢世界各地所有愿意对前几版提出意见的学生和教授，感谢那些愿意尝试前几版所蕴含理念的商界人士，以及所有提出表扬和批评意见的其他人。我还要特别感谢我的妻子卡罗琳，在整个修订过程中，她为我提供了编辑方面的帮助和鼓励。考虑到所有这些帮助，任何不足和错误都必须归咎于我。

R. H. BalloU R.H. BalloU

Weatherhead School of Management
韦瑟黑德管理学院

Cleveland, Ohio 俄亥俄州克利夫兰

PART I: INTRODUCTION AND PLANNING
第 I 部分：引言和规划
Chapt pter 章次

Business Logistics/Supply Chain-A Vital Subject
商业物流/供应链--重要课题

Physical distribution is simply another way of saying "the whole process of business" 1
实物分销只是 "整个业务流程 "的另一种说法 1

-PETER DRUCKER, 1969 彼得-德鲁克，1969 年

INTRODUCTION 引言

s far back as history records, the goods that people wanted were not produced where they wanted to consume them, or these goods were not accessible when people wanted to consume them. Food and other commodities were widely dispersed and were only available in abundance at certain times of the year. Early peoples had the choice of consuming goods at their immediate location or moving the goods to a preferred site and storing them for later use. However, because no welldeveloped transportation and storage systems yet existed, the movement of goods was limited to what an individual could personally move, and storage of perishable commodities was possible for only a short time. This limited movement-storage system generally constrained people to live close to the sources of production and to consume a rather narrow range of goods.

有历史记载以来，人们想要的商品并不是在他们想要消费的地方生产的，或者是在人们想要消费的时候无法获得这些商品。食物和其他商品非常分散，只有在一年中的某些时候才能大量供应。早期的人们可以选择就地消费，或者将商品转移到自己喜欢的地方储存起来备用。然而，由于当时还没有完善的运输和储存系统，货物的运输仅限于个人能够移动的范围，易腐烂的商品只能储存很短的时间。这种有限的运输-储存系统普遍限制了人们在靠近生产源头的地方生活，消费的商品范围也相当狭窄。

Even today, in some areas of the world consumption and production take place only within a very limited geographic region. Striking examples can still be observed in the developing nations of Asia, South America, Australia, and Africa, where some of the population live in small, self-sufficient villages, and most of the goods needed by the residents are produced or acquired in the immediate vicinity. Few goods are imported from other areas. Therefore, production efficiency and the economic standard of living are generally low. In this type of economy, a well-developed and inexpensive logistics system would encourage an exchange of goods with other producing areas of the country, or even the world.
即使在今天，世界某些地区的消费和生产也只是在非常有限的地理区域内进行。在亚洲、南美洲、澳大利亚和非洲的发展中国家，仍然可以看到一些鲜明的例子。在这些国家，一些人口居住在自给自足的小村庄里，居民所需的大部分商品都是在附近生产或购买的。很少从其他地区进口商品。因此，生产效率和经济生活水平普遍较低。在这种类型的经济中，一个发达和廉价的物流系统将鼓励与国内其他生产地区，甚至世界进行货物交换。

Example 示例

Suppose that consumers in the United States and South Korea buy DVD recorders and computer software. In the coming year, about the same number of consumers will purchase a word processing program and a television set. Because of the differences in local labor costs, tariffs, transportation, and product quality, the effective price to the consumers differs, as shown in Table 1-1. A consumer in South Korea and one in the United States (in this case, the economy of both countries) must pay a total of

to fill their needs.
假设美国和韩国的消费者都购买 DVD 录像机和计算机软件。在未来一年中，购买文字处理程序和电视机的消费者数量大致相同。由于当地劳动力成本、关税、运输和产品质量的不同，消费者的实际价格也不同，如表 1-1 所示。一个韩国消费者和一个美国消费者（在这种情况下，两国的经济）必须总共支付

才能满足他们的需求。

Now, if each economy trades with the other those goods with which it has a cost advantage, both consumers and their economies will be better off. South Korea has low labor costs for making DVD recorders, whereas the United States has an advantage in producing low-cost, high-quality software. With the availability of inexpensive and reliable transportation, there is an economic advantage to specializing in the product that can be produced most cheaply and buying the remaining product from the other country. With reasonable transportation costs, South Korea can place DVD recorders in the United States at a price below the locally produced and locally transported product. Conversely, the United States has the design and production cost advantage for software and can incur a reasonable transportation charge to place software in South Korea and at a price below what is available locally. The revised economic picture can be seen in Table 1-2. Both consumers in the countries save

. Expensive transportation would preclude the countries from trading with each other and realizing their comparative economic advantages by making the landed price of imported products higher than those available locally.
现在，如果每个经济体都与对方交易自己具有成本优势的商品，那么双方的消费者和经济都会得到更好的发展。韩国生产 DVD 刻录机的劳动力成本较低，而美国则在生产低成本、高质量的软件方面具有优势。有了廉价可靠的运输工具，专门生产最廉价的产品并从其他国家购买剩余产品就有了经济优势。由于运输成本合理，韩国可以以低于本地生产和本地运输产品的价格在美国销售 DVD 刻录机。相反，美国在软件的设计和生产成本方面具有优势，可以通过合理的运输费用将软件以低于当地产品的价格销往韩国。从表 1-2 中可以看出修订后的经济图景。两国的消费者都能节省

。昂贵的运输费用会使进口产品的到岸价格高于当地价格，从而阻碍两国之间的贸易往来，无法实现各自的比较经济优势。

As logistics systems improved, consumption and production began to separate geographically. Regions would specialize in those commodities that could be produced most efficiently. Excess production could be shipped economically to other producing (or consuming) areas, and
随着物流系统的改善，消费和生产开始在地域上分离。各地区专门生产那些生产效率最高的商品。过剩的产品可以经济地运往其他生产（或消费）地区，并且

Table 表格

Consumer Prices to Buy Only Locally Produced Products
只购买本地产品的消费者价格

CONSUMER IN

DVD

RECORDER

WORD PROCESSING 文书处理

SOFTWARE

TOTAL

South Korea

United States 美国

400.00

300.00

The economies 经济

Table

表格

The Benefits of Trading Products When Transportation Is Inexpensive
运输成本低廉时进行产品贸易的好处

CONSUMER IN

DVD

RECORDER

WORD PROCESSING 文书处理

SOFTWARE

TOTAL

South Korea

United States 美国

300.00

The economies 经济

Imports from the United States

从美国进口

Imports from South Korea

从韩国进口

needed goods not produced locally were imported. This exchange process follows the principle of comparative advantage.
当地不生产的所需商品需要进口。这一交换过程遵循比较优势原则。

This same principle, when applied to world markets, helps to explain the high level of international trade that takes place today. Efficient logistics systems allow world businesses to take advantage of the fact that lands, and the people who occupy them, are not equally productive. Logistics is the very essence of trade. It contributes to a higher economic standard of living for us all.
将这一原则应用于世界市场，有助于解释当今国际贸易的高水平。高效的物流系统使世界各国的企业能够利用这样一个事实，即土地和占据土地的人的生产力并不相同。物流是贸易的精髓。它有助于提高我们所有人的经济生活水平。

To the individual firm operating in a high-level economy, good management of logistics activities is vital. Markets are often national or international in scope, whereas production may be concentrated at relatively few points. Logistics activities provide the bridge between production and market locations that are separated by time and distance. Effective management of these activities is the major concern of this book.
对于在高层次经济中经营的单个企业来说，物流活动的良好管理至关重要。市场往往是全国性或国际性的，而生产可能集中在相对较少的几个地点。物流活动是连接因时间和距离而分离的生产地点和市场地点的桥梁。有效管理这些活动是本书的主要关注点。

Business Logistics Defined
商业物流的定义

Business logistics is a relatively new field of integrated management study in comparison with the traditional fields of finance, marketing, and production. As previously noted, logistics activities have been carried out by individuals for many years. Businesses also have continually engaged in move-store (transportation-inventory) activities. The newness of the field results from the concept of coordinated management of the related activities, rather than the historical practice of managing them separately, and the concept that logistics adds value to products or services that are essential to customer satisfaction and sales. Although coordinated logistics management has not been generally practiced until recently, the idea of coordinated management can be traced back to at least 1844. In the writings of Jules Dupuit, a French engineer, the idea of trading one cost for another (transportation costs for inventory costs) was evident in the selection between road and water transport:
与传统的金融、营销和生产领域相比，商业物流是一个相对较新的综合管理研究领域。如前所述，物流活动多年来一直由个人开展。企业也一直在从事移动-存储（运输-库存）活动。该领域的新颖性源于对相关活动进行协调管理的理念，而非传统上对这些活动进行单独管理的做法，同时也源于物流为产品或服务增值的理念，而这些产品或服务对客户满意度和销售额至关重要。虽然协调物流管理直到最近才得到普遍实践，但协调管理的理念至少可以追溯到 1844 年。在法国工程师 Jules Dupuit 的著作中，以一种成本换取另一种成本（以运输成本换取库存成本）的理念在公路运输和水路运输的选择中显而易见：

The fact is that carriage by road being quicker, more reliable and less subject to loss or damage, it possesses advantage to which businessmen often attach a considerable value. However, it may well be that the saving of
事实上，公路运输更快捷、更可靠、更不容易丢失或损坏，它所具有的优势往往为商人所看重。然而，很有可能的是，公路运输节省的

0 fr. 87 induces the merchant to use the canal; he can buy warehouses and increase his floating capital in order to have a sufficient supply of goods on hand to protect himself against slowness and irregularity of the canal, and if all told the saving of

in transport gives him an advantage of a few centimes, he will decide in favor of the new route . . . 2
0 fr.87 促使商人使用运河；他可以购买仓库，增加流动资本，以便有足够的货物供应，抵御运河的缓慢和不规则，如果在运输中节省

，给他带来几分钱的好处，他就会决定选择新路线.2

The first textbook to suggest the benefits of coordinated logistics management appeared around

in part explaining why a generally accepted definition of business logistics is still emerging. Therefore, it is worthwhile to explore several definitions for the scope and content of the subject.
第一本提出协调物流管理益处的教科书出现在

左右，这在一定程度上解释了为什么普遍接受的商业物流定义仍在形成之中。因此，对这一主题的范围和内容进行几种定义的探讨是值得的。

A dictionary definition of the term logistics is:
物流一词在字典中的定义是

The branch of military science having to do with procuring, maintaining, and transporting materiel, personnel, and facilities.

与物资、人员和设施的采购、维护和运输有关的军事科学分支。

This definition puts logistics into a military context. To the extent that business objectives and activities differ from those of the military, this definition does not capture the essence of business logistics management. A better representation of the field may be reflected in the definition promulgated by the Council of Logistics Management (CLM), a professional organization of logistics managers, educators, and practitioners formed in 1962 for the purposes of continuing education and fostering the interchange of ideas. Its definition:
这一定义将物流置于军事背景下。由于商业目标和活动与军事目标和活动不同，这一定义并没有抓住商业物流管理的本质。物流管理委员会（CLM）颁布的定义可能更能体现这一领域的特点，该委员会是一个由物流管理人员、教育工作者和从业人员组成的专业组织，成立于 1962 年，其宗旨是继续教育和促进思想交流。其定义如下

Logistics is that part of the supply chain process that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements.

物流是供应链流程的一部分，负责规划、实施和控制货物、服务和相关信息从原产地到消费地的高效、有效流动和存储，以满足客户的要求。

This is an excellent definition, conveying the idea that product flows are to be managed from the point where they exist as raw materials to the point where they are finally discarded. Logistics is also concerned with the flow of services as well as physical goods, an area of growing opportunity for improvement. It also suggests that logistics is a process, meaning that it includes all the activities that have an impact on making goods and services available to customers when and where they wish to acquire them. However, the definition implies that logistics is part of the supply chain process, not the entire process. So, what is the supply chain process or, more popularly, supply chain management?
这是一个非常好的定义，它传达了这样一个理念，即产品流从作为原材料存在的那一刻起，到最终被丢弃的那一刻止，都要加以管理。物流还涉及服务和实物的流动，这是一个改进机会日益增多的领域。该定义还表明，物流是一个过程，也就是说，它包括所有对客户何时何地获得货物和服务产生影响的活动。然而，该定义意味着物流是供应链流程的一部分，而不是整个流程。那么，什么是供应链流程，或者更通俗地说，什么是供应链管理？

Supply chain management (SCM) is a term that has emerged in recent years that captures the essence of integrated logistics and even goes beyond it. Supply chain management emphasize's the logistics interactions that take place among the functions of marketing, logistics, and production within a firm and those interactions that take place between the legally separate firms within the product-flow channel. Opportunities for cost or customer service improvement are achieved through couritination and collaboration among the channel members where some essential supply chain activities may not be under the direct control of the logistician. Although early' definitions such as phs'sical distribution, materials management, industrial logistics, channel management, and even rhocrematics, all terms used to describe logisticy, have promoted this broad scope for logistics, there was little attempt to implement logistics bevond a company's own enterprise boundaries, or even beyond its own internal logistics function. Vow, retail firms are showing success in sharing information with suppliers, which in turn agree to maintain and manage inventories on retailers' shelves. Channel inventories and product stockouts are lower. Manufacturing firms operating under just-in-time production scheduling build relationships with suppliers for the benefit of both companies by reducing inventories. Definitions of the supply chain and supply chain management reflecting this broader scope are:
供应链管理（SCM）是近年来出现的一个术语，它抓住了综合物流的本质，甚至超越了综合物流。供应链管理强调的是企业内部营销、物流和生产职能之间的物流互动，以及产品流通渠道中法律上独立的企业之间的互动。通过渠道成员之间的协调与合作，可以提高成本或改善客户服务，因为有些重要的供应链活动可能不受物流人员的直接控制。虽然早期的物流定义，如物流配送、物资管理、工业物流、渠道管理，甚至物流管理学等，都是用来描述物流的术语，它们都促进了物流的广泛应用，但很少有人尝试在公司自身的企业边界之外，甚至在公司内部物流功能之外实施物流。现在，零售企业在与供应商共享信息方面取得了成功，而供应商也同意维持和管理零售商货架上的库存。渠道库存和产品缺货率降低。按照准时生产计划运作的制造企业与供应商建立关系，通过减少库存，使两家公司都受益。供应链和供应链管理的定义反映了这一更广泛的范围：

The supply chain (SC) encompasses all activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from the raw materials stage (extraction), through to the end user, as well as the associated information flows. Materials and information flow both up and down the supply chain.
供应链（SC）包括与货物从原材料阶段（提取）到最终用户的流动和转换有关的所有活动，以及相关的信息流。材料和信息在供应链的上下游流动。

Supply chain management (SCM) is the integration of these activities, through improved supply chain relationships, to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. 6
供应链管理（SCM）就是通过改善供应链关系，整合这些活动，以实现可持续的竞争优势。6

After careful study of the various definitions being offered, Mentzer et al. propose the broad and rather general definition as follows:
Mentzer 等人在仔细研究了目前提出的各种定义后，提出了如下宽泛的定义：

Supply chain management is defined as the sy'stematic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as a whole.

供应链管理的定义是，为了提高单个公司和整个供应链的长期绩效，对特定公司内部和供应链内各企业之间的传统业务职能和战术进行系统的战略协调。

The supply chain management model in Figure 1-1 viewed as a pipeline show's the scope of this definition. It is important to note that supply chain management is about the coordination of product flows across functions and across companies to achieve competitive advantage and profitability for the individual companies in the supply chain and the supply chain members collectively.
图 1-1 将供应链管理模式视为一条管道，显示了这一定义的范围。值得注意的是，供应链管理的目的是协调跨职能部门和跨公司的产品流，以实现供应链中各公司和供应链成员的竞争优势和盈利能力。

River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999), p. 2.
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999），第 2 页。

John T. Mentzer, William DeWitt, James S. Keebler, Soonhong Min, Nancy W. Nix, Carlo D. Smith, and Zach G. Zacharia, "Defining Supply Chain Management," Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2001), pp. 1-25.

John T. Mentzer、William DeWitt、James S. Keebler、Soonhong Min、Nancy W. Nix、Carlo D. Smith 和 Zach G. Zacharia，《定义供应链管理》，《商业物流杂志》，第 22 卷，第 2 期（2001 年），第 1-25 页。
}

Figure 1-1 A Model of Supply Chain Management
图 1-1 供应链管理模式

Source: Mentzer et al., "Defining Supply Chain Management," Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2001), p. 19. Reproduced with permission of the Council of Logistics Management.
资料来源：Mentzer et al：Mentzer 等人，"定义供应链管理"，《商业物流杂志》，第 22 卷，第 2 期（2001 年），第 19 页。经物流管理委员会许可转载。

It is difficult, in a practical way, to separate business logistics management from supply chain management. In so many respects, they promote the same mission:
实际上，很难将商业物流管理与供应链管理分开。在许多方面，它们都肩负着相同的使命：

To get the right goods or services to the right place, at the right time, and in the desired condition, while making the greatest contribution to the firm.
在正确的时间、正确的地点、以理想的状态提供正确的货物或服务，同时为公司做出最大贡献。

Some claim that supply chain management is just another name for integrated business logistics management (IBLM) and that the broad scope of supply chain management has been promoted over the years. Conversely, others say that logistics is a subset of SCM, where SCM considers additional issues beyond those of product flow. For example, SCM may be concerned with product pricing and manufacturing quality. Although SCM promotes viewing the supply channel with the broadest scope, the reality is that firms do not practice this ideal. Fawcett and Magan found that companies that do practice supply chain integration limit their scope to one tier upstream and one tier downstream.

The focus seems to be concerned with creating seamless processes within their own companies and applying new information technologies to improve the quality of information and speed of its exchange among channel members. The boundary between the logistics and supply chain management terms is fuzzy. For the purposes of this text, integrated business logistics management and SCM will be referred to interchangeably. The focus will be on managing the product and service flows in the most efficient and effective manner, regardless of descriptive title. This includes integrating and coordinating with other channel members and service providers to improve supply chain performance when practical to do so.
有些人认为，供应链管理只是综合商业物流管理（IBLM）的另一个名称，而且多年来一直在推广供应链管理的广泛范围。相反，也有人说，物流是供应链管理的一个子集，供应链管理考虑的是产品流动以外的其他问题。例如，供应链管理可能会关注产品定价和制造质量。虽然供应链管理提倡以最广泛的视角看待供应渠道，但现实情况是，企业并没有践行这一理想。Fawcett 和 Magan 发现，实行供应链整合的公司将其范围限制在上游一级和下游一级。

其重点似乎是在公司内部建立无缝流程，并应用新的信息技术来提高信息质量和渠道成员之间的信息交流速度。物流和供应链管理这两个术语之间的界限是模糊的。在本文中，综合企业物流管理和供应链管理可以互换使用。重点是以最高效、最有效的方式管理产品和服务流，而不论描述性标题如何。这包括在可行的情况下，与其他渠道成员和服务提供商进行整合与协调，以提高供应链绩效。

The Supply Chain 供应链

Logistics/SC is a collection of functional activities (transportation, inventory control, etc.), which are repeated many times throughout the channel through which raw materials are converted into finished products and consumer value is added. Because raw material sources, plants, and selling points are not typically located at the same places and the channel represents a sequence of manufacturing steps, logistics activities recur many times before a product arrives in the marketplace. Even then, logistics activities are repeated once again as used products are recycled upstream in the logistics channel.
物流/供应链是一系列功能性活动（运输、库存控制等）的集合，这些活动在原材料转化为成品并为消费者增值的整个渠道中重复多次。由于原材料来源、工厂和销售点通常不在同一地点，而且渠道代表了一系列生产步骤，因此在产品进入市场之前，物流活动会重复多次。即便如此，当废旧产品在物流渠道的上游循环使用时，物流活动还会再次重复。

A single firm generally is not able to control its entire product flow channel from raw material source to points of the final consumption, although this is an emerging opportunity. For practical purposes, the business logistics for the individual firm has a narrower scope. Usually, the maximal managerial control that can be expected is over the immediate physical supply and physical distribution channels, as shown in Figure 1-2. The physical supply channel refers to the time and space gap between a firm's immediate material sources and its processing points. Similarly, the physical distribution channel refers to the time and space gap between the firm's processing points and its customers. Due to the similarities in the activities between the two channels, physical supply (more commonly referred to as materials management) and physical distribution comprise those activities that are integrated into business logistics. Business logistics management is now popularly referred to as supply chain management.

Others have used terms such as value nets, value stream, and lean logistics to describe a similar scope and purpose. The evolution of the management of product flows toward SCM is captured in Figure 1-3.
单个企业一般无法控制从原材料源头到最终消费点的整个产品流通渠道，尽管这是一个新出现的机会。实际上，单个企业的商业物流范围较窄。通常情况下，可以预期的最大管理控制范围是直接的实物供应和实物分销渠道，如图 1-2 所示。实物供应渠道指的是企业的直接材料来源与加工点之间的时间和空间差距。同样，实物分销渠道指的是企业加工点与客户之间的时空差距。由于这两种渠道的活动具有相似性，实物供应（通常称为材料管理）和实物分销就构成了企业物流的组成部分。商业物流管理现在通常被称为供应链管理。

还有人使用价值网、价值流和精益物流等术语来描述类似的范围和目的。图 1-3 展示了产品流管理向供应链管理的演变过程。

Although it is easy to think of logistics as managing the flow of products from the points of raw material acquisition to end customers, for many firms there is a reverse logistics channel that must be managed as well. The life of a product, from a logistics viewpoint, does not end with delivery to the customer. Products become obsolete, damaged, or nonfunctioning and are returned to their source points for repair or disposition. Packaging materials may be returned to the shipper due to
尽管人们很容易将物流理解为管理产品从原材料采购点到最终客户之间的流动，但对许多企业来说，还必须管理逆向物流渠道。从物流的角度来看，产品的生命并不以交付给客户为终点。产品过时、损坏或无法使用时，会被送回原产地进行维修或处理。包装材料可能会因以下原因退回给发货人

Figure 1-2 The Immediate Supply Chain for an Individual Firm
图 1-2 单个企业的直接供应链

environmental regulations or because it makes good economic sense to reuse them. The reverse logistics channel may utilize all or a portion of the forward logistics channel or it may require a separate design. The supply chain terminates with the final disposition of a product. The reverse channel must be considered to be within the scope of logistics planning and control.
这是因为环境法规的要求，或重新使用这些设备具有良好的经济效益。逆向物流渠道可以利用全部或部分正向物流渠道，也可能需要单独设计。供应链的终点是产品的最终处置。逆向渠道必须纳入物流规划和控制的范围。

Example 示例

The reverse logistics channel comes into play when a customer buys a toaster from a retailer. The customer takes the toaster home and finds it defective. The customer returns it to the retailer, who gladly refunds the purchase price. The retailer now has a defective toaster in in-store inventory. The retailer sends it to a central return center. Upon receipt, the toaster's Universal Product Code (UPC) is scanned for identification in the return center's database. The database determines that the toaster has a return-to-vendor disposition. The database credits the store inventory for the toaster and creates a charge back to the manufacturer for the cost of the toaster. The toaster is shipped back to the manufacturer. The retailer has made a cost recovery for this
当顾客从零售商处购买了一台烤面包机后，逆向物流渠道就开始发挥作用。顾客把烤面包机带回家后发现它有缺陷。顾客把它退还给零售商，零售商很高兴地退还了货款。现在，零售商的店内库存中有一台有缺陷的烤面包机。零售商将其送往中央退货中心。收到货后，退货中心的数据库会扫描面包机的通用产品代码（UPC）进行识别。数据库确定烤面包机已被退回供应商。数据库将该烤面包机记入商店库存，并向制造商收取烤面包机的费用。烤面包机被运回制造商。零售商为此收回了成本。

Figure 1-3 Evolution of Logistics Toward Supply Chain
图 1-3 物流向供应链的演变

Source: John Yuva, "Collaborative Logistics: Building a United Network," Inside Supply Management, Vol. 13, No. 5 (May 2002), p. 50 (with modification).
资料来源John Yuva, "Collaborative Logistics：建立一个联合网络"，《内部供应管理》，第 13 卷，第 5 期（2002 年 5 月），第 50 页（有修改）。

defective asset. The toaster is received at the manufacturer's return center. The manufacturer scans the toaster into its database and determines that it has a refurbish disposition. The toaster is repaired and sent for resale on the secondary market. The manufacturer has now gained value for this defective asset.

有缺陷的资产。制造商的退货中心收到面包机。制造商将烤面包机扫描到其数据库中，并确定其具有翻新处置权。烤面包机经过维修后被送往二级市场转售。至此，制造商获得了该缺陷资产的价值。

THE ACTIVITY MiX 活动 MiX

The activities to be managed that make up business logistics (supply chain process) vary from firm to firm, depending on a firm's particular organizational structure, management's honest differences of opinion about what constitutes the supply chain for its business, and the importance of individual activities to its operations. Follow
构成企业物流（供应链流程）的管理活动因企业而异，这取决于企业的特定组织结构、管理层对什么是企业供应链的真实分歧意见，以及个别活动对企业运营的重要性。遵循

Figure 1-4 Logistics Activities in a Firm's Immediate Supply Chain
图 1-4 企业直接供应链中的物流活动

along the supply chain as shown in Figure 1-2 and note the important activities that take place. Again, according to the CLM:
如图 1-2 所示，沿着供应链进行分析，并注意所发生的重要活动。同样，根据 CLM：

The components of a typical logistics system are: customer service, demand forecasting, distribution communications, inventory control, material handling, order processing, parts and service support, plant and warehouse site selection (location analysis), purchasing, packaging, return goods handling, salvage and scrap disposal, traffic and transportation, and warehousing and storage..

典型物流系统的组成部分包括：客户服务、需求预测、配送沟通、库存控制、材料处理、订单处理、零部件和服务支持、工厂和仓库选址（位置分析）、采购、包装、退货处理、残余物和废料处理、交通和运输以及仓储和储存。

Figure 1-4 organizes these components, or activities, according to where they are most likely to take place in the supply channel. The list is further divided into key and support activities, along with some of the decisions associated with each activity.
图 1-4 根据这些活动最有可能在供应渠道中发生的位置，对这些组成部分或活动进行了组织。该清单进一步分为关键活动和支持活动，以及与每项活动相关的一些决策。

Key Activities 主要活动

Customer service standards cooperate with marketing to:
客户服务标准与营销部门合作，以

a. Determine customer needs and wants for logistics customer service
a.确定客户对物流客户服务的需求和愿望

b. Determine customer response to service
b.确定客户对服务的反应

c. Set customer service levels
c.设定客户服务水平

Transportation 交通运输

a. Mode and transport service selection
a.运输方式和运输服务的选择

b. Freight consolidation
b.货运整合

c. Carrier routing d. Vehicle scheduling
c.运输路线 d. 车辆调度

e. Equipment selection e.设备选择

f. Claims processing f.索赔处理

g. Rate auditing g.费率审计

Inventory management 库存管理

a. Raw materials and finished goods stocking policies
a.原材料和制成品库存政策

b. Short-term sales forecasting
b.短期销售预测

c. Product mix at stocking points
c.库存点的产品组合

d. Number, size, and location of stocking points
d.放养点的数量、大小和位置

e. Just-in-time, push, and pull strategies
e.准时制、推式和拉式战略

Information flows and order processing
信息流和订单处理

a. Sales order-inventory interface procedures
a.销售订单-库存界面程序

b. Order information transmittal methods
b.订单信息传送方法

c. Ordering rules c.排序规则

Support Activities 支持活动

Warehousing 仓储

a. Space determination a.确定空间

b. Stock layout and dock design
b.库存布局和码头设计

c. Warehouse configuration
c.仓库配置

d. Stock placement d.股票配售

Materials handling 材料处理

a. Equipment selection a.设备选择

b. Equipment replacement policies
b.设备更换政策

c. Order-picking procedures
c.订单拣选程序

d. Stock storage and retrieval
d.存货储存和检索

Purchasing 采购

a. Supply source selection
a.选择供应来源

b. Purchase timing b.购买时间

c. Purchase quantities c.采购数量

Protective packaging designed for:
保护性包装专为

a. Handling a.处理

b. Storage b.存储

c. Protection from loss and damage
c.防止损失和损坏

Cooperate with production/operations to:
与生产/运营部门合作，以便

a. Specify aggregate quantities
a.规定总量

b. Sequence and time production output
b.生产产出的顺序和时间

c. Schedule supplies for production/operations
c.安排生产/运营用品

Information maintenance 信息维护

a. Information collection, storage, and manipulation
a.信息收集、存储和处理

b. Data analysis b.数据分析

c. Control procedures c.控制程序

Figure

图

The Critical Customer Service Loop
重要的客户服务环路

Kev and support activities are separated because certain activities will generally: take place in every logistics channel, whereas others will take place, depending on the circumstances, within a particular firm. The key activities are on the "critical" loop within a firm's immediate physical distribution channel, as shown in Figure 1-5. They contribute most to the total cost of logistics or they are essential to the effective coordination and completion of the logistics task.
之所以将关键活动和支持活动分开，是因为某些活动通常会在每条物流渠道中进行，而另一些活动则会根据具体情况在特定公司内部进行。如图 1-5 所示，关键活动是企业直接实体配送渠道中的 "关键 "环节。它们对物流总成本的影响最大，或者说对有效协调和完成物流任务至关重要。

Customer service standards set the level of output and degree of readiness to which the logistics system must respond. Logistics costs increase in proportion to the level of customer service provided, such that setting the standards for service also affects the logistics costs to support that level of service. Setting very high service requirements can force logistics costs to exceedingly high levels.
客户服务标准规定了物流系统必须达到的产出水平和准备程度。物流成本与客户服务水平成正比增长，因此，服务标准的设定也会影响到支持该服务水平的物流成本。设定非常高的服务要求会迫使物流成本达到极高的水平。

Transportation and inventorys maintenance are the primary cost-absorbing logistics activities. Experience has shown that each will represent one-half to twothirds of total logistics costs. Transportation adds place value to products and services, whereas inventorys maintenance adds time value.
运输和库存维护是消耗成本的主要物流活动。经验表明，这两项活动各占物流总成本的二分之一到三分之二。运输增加了产品和服务的地点价值，而库存维护则增加了时间价值。

Transportation is essential because no modern firm can operate without providing for the movement of its raw materials or its finished products. This importance is underscored by the financial strains placed on many firms by such disasters as a national railroad strike or independent truckers' refusal to more goods because of rate disputes. In these circumstances, markets cannot be served, and products back up in the logistics pipeline to deteriorate or become obsolete.
运输是必不可少的，因为任何一家现代企业的运营都离不开原材料或制成品的运输。全国性的铁路罢工或独立卡车司机因运费纠纷而拒绝运送更多货物等灾难给许多公司带来的财务压力，都凸显了运输的重要性。在这种情况下，市场无法得到服务，产品在物流管道中倒流，变质或过时。

Inventories are also essential to logistics management because it is usually not possible or practical to provide instant production or ensure delivery times to customers. They serve as buffers between supply and demand so that needed product arailability may be maintained for customers while providing flexibility for production and logistics in seeking efficient methods for manufacture and distribution of the product.
库存对物流管理也至关重要，因为通常情况下，即时生产或确保向客户交货的时间是不可能或不切实际的。库存可作为供需之间的缓冲，以便为客户提供所需的产品稳定性，同时为生产和物流提供灵活性，以寻求高效的产品生产和分销方法。

Order processing is the final key activity: Its costs usually are minor compared to transportation or inrentory maintenance costs. Nevertheless, order processing is an important element in the total time that it takes for a customer to receive goods or services. It is the activity triggering product morement and service deliverv:
订单处理是最后一项关键活动：与运输或仓库维护成本相比，其成本通常较低。尽管如此，订单处理仍是客户收到货物或服务所需总时间中的一个重要因素。它是引发产品更新和服务交付的活动：

Although support activities may be as critical as the key activities in any particular circumstance, they are considered here as contributing to the logistics mission. In
虽然在任何特定情况下，支助活动都可能与关键活动一样重要，但在这里，它们被视为对后勤任务的贡献。在

fics |hewererer, thery alor) affert the ereverall lespestices weffert, arid speer ific cally the.y affert the efforemey ef transportation and irneritery rrafaseserriernt. Firially, iriformiations mamternature suppererts all enthere bregistics artivities irn that it feresvidses the rireseded information for planning and control.
从理论上讲，它们提高了运输和能源消耗的效率。从根本上说，物流系统支持所有的物流活动，并为规划和控制提供所需的信息。

ther firm's irmmedinte suppliers our custorser's. 'Thery may be supeptiers the the imernedi-
他们是我们客户的供应商。他们可能是我们客户的超级供应商。

serurere points or end rustromers are reacheed. It is imperetant tre plare and contrel the: purevirnssl: rertered ar fivities and information flowes if thery affect there legisties custrumer servire theat ean be presvided and the cost's enf suppelying this servire. Mariagernerit of the erternded supply thain has the porteritial rof impereroing Jogisturs perfformantere beyorid thet ef just managing the artientjes within the immediate supply chain.
如果我们要达到的目标或最终目标是什么？如果影响到法律规定的客户服务以及提供这种服务所需的成本，那么就必须对纯粹的服务和信息流进行规划和控制。对整个供应链的管理，其首要作用是使 Jogisturs 的工作效率超越对直接供应链内的艺术品的管理。

IMPORTANCE OF LOGISTICS/ SUPPLY CHAIN
物流/供应链的重要性

Iogistirs is abrout reating ralue-value fror rustromers and suppliers of the firm, and value fror the firm's stakeholders. Value in lesgistirs is primarily eyporessed in terms of time and plare. P'redurets and servires have nre value unless they are in the pressessiren of the customers when (time)) and where: (plare) they wish to cronsume them. For eyample, enncessirens at a sports event have ner value tr) (ronsumeres if they, are not available at the time and plare that the event is ocrurring, rer if inadequate: inseentrsries don't meet the demands of the sporrts fans. Crond Jogisties managerment viev's each activity in the supply rhain as contributing tr) the process of adding value. If little value can be added, it is questisnable whether the activity shrould exist. However, value is added when customers are willing tro pay more for a product or service than the crost to place it in their hands. Tro many firms throughrout the wrorld, Jogistics has becrome an increasingly important value-adding process for a number of reasrons.
企业价值是指企业的价值，即企业对客户和供应商的价值，以及企业对利益相关者的价值。企业价值主要体现在时间和规模上。除非产品和服务在客户需要的时间和地点出现，否则它们就没有价值：(他们希望在什么时间（地点）和什么时间（地点）享用这些产品和服务，否则它们就没有价值。例如，在体育赛事中，如果不能在赛事举行的时间和地点提供服务，那么这些服务就没有价值；如果不能满足体育迷的需求，那么这些服务就没有价值。Crond Jogisties 管理层将供应链中的每项活动都视为增值过程中的贡献。如果能增加的价值很少，那么这项活动是否应该存在就值得怀疑。然而，当客户愿意为产品或服务支付的价格高于将产品或服务交到他们手中所需的成本时，价值就增加了。在全球许多公司中，物流已成为一个越来越重要的增值过程，原因有很多。

Costs Are Significant 成本巨大

Over the years, several studies have been conducted to determine the crosts of logistics for the whole ecronomy and for the indisidual firm. There are widely varying estimates of the cost levels. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
多年来，为确定整个经济和单个企业的物流成本，已进行了多项研究。对成本水平的估计大相径庭。国际货币基金组织（IMF）认为

Table 1-3 表 1-3

Recent Average Physical Distribution Costs in Percent of Sales and

cwt.

近期平均实物分销成本占销售额的百分比和

cwt.

Logistics Customer Service Expectations Are Increasing
对物流客户服务的期望与日俱增

The Internet, just-in-time operating procedures, and continuous replenishment of inventories have all contributed to customers expecting rapid processing of their
互联网、准时制操作程序和持续的库存补充，都促使客户期望快速处理他们的需求。

STANDARD PRODUCT MEASURES 标准产品措施	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002
Total order cycle 总订单周期
Time, days		8	7
Product availability 产品供应情况	percent orders 订单百分比	84	84	86	87	87	87	85	85	86	87	88
	percent line items 百分比项目	92	92	92	92	94	94	93	90	92	93	95

Source: Herbert W. Davis and William H. Drumm, "Logistics Costs and Service Database-2002," Annual Conference Proceedings (San Francisco, CA: Council of Logistics Management, 2002) at www.clml.org.
资料来源Herbert W. Davis 和 William H. Drumm，"Logistics Costs and Service Database-2002"， Annual Conference Proceedings (San Francisco, CA: Council of Logistics Management, 2002) at www.clml.org。

Table 1-4 Average Customer Service Performance Measures for All Firms, Survey Years

表 1-4 调查年份所有企业的平均客户服务绩效指标

requests, quick delivery, and a high degree of product availability. According to the Davis survey of hundreds of companies over the last decade, world-class competitors have average order cycle times (the time between when an order is placed and when it is received) of seven to eight days and line item fill rates of 90 percent to 94 percent.

LogFac summarizes world-class logistics performance for domestic companies as:
根据戴维斯公司在过去十年中对数百家公司的调查，世界一流公司的平均订货周期（从下订单到收到订单的时间）为七至八天，产品种类齐全率为 90 至 90%。根据戴维斯在过去十年中对数百家公司的调查，世界级竞争对手的平均订货周期（从下订单到收到订单的时间）为七至八天，生产线项目满足率为 90% 至 94%。

LogFac 将国内公司的世界级物流绩效概括为：

Error rates of less than one per 1,000 orders shipped
出错率低于每 1 000 份已发货订单中的 1 份
Logistics costs of well under 5 percent of sales
物流成本远低于销售额的 5
Finished goods inventory turnover of 20 or more times per year
成品库存每年周转 20 次或 20 次以上
Total order cycle time of five working days
订单总周期为五个工作日
Transportation cost of one percent of sales revenue or less, if products sold are over per pound
如果销售的产品每磅超过，运输成本不超过销售收入的百分之一

As might be expected, the average company performs below these cost and customer service benchmarks, when compared with the statistics in Tables 1-3 and 1-4.
与表 1-3 和表 1-4 中的统计数据相比，一般公司在成本和客户服务方面的表现都低于这些基准。

Supply and Distribution Lines Are Lengthening with Greater Complexity
供应线和分销线越来越长，越来越复杂

The trend is toward an integrated world economy. Firms are seeking, or have developed, global strategies by designing their products for a world market and producing them wherever the low-cost raw materials, components, and labor can be found (e.g., Ford's Focus automobile), or they simply produce locally and sell internationally. In either case, supply and distribution lines are stretched, as compared with the producer who wishes to manufacture and sell only locally. Not only has the trend occurred naturally by firms seeking to cut costs or expand markets, but it is also being encouraged by political arrangements that promote trade. Examples of the latter are the European Union, the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
世界经济一体化是大势所趋。企业正在寻求或已经制定了全球战略，它们为世界市场设计产品，并在任何可以找到低成本原材料、部件和劳动力的地方进行生产（例如福特的福克斯汽车），或者它们只是在当地生产，然后在国际上销售。无论哪种情况，与只想在本地生产和销售的生产商相比，供应和分销线都被拉长了。这种趋势不仅是企业为降低成本或扩大市场而自然形成的，而且也受到促进贸易的政治安排的鼓励。后者的例子有欧洲联盟、北美自由贸易协定（NAFTA）

Figure 1-6 Economic Benefit of Sourcing from LowCost Offshore Locations Rather Than from HigherCost Local Suppliers
图 1-6 从成本较低的海外地点而不是成本较高的本地供应商采购的经济效益

Source: "International Logistics: Battleground of the '90s" (Chicago: A. T. Kearney, 1988).
资料来源"国际物流：90 年代的战场"（芝加哥：A. T. Kearney，1988 年）。

between Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and the economic trade agreement among several countries of South America (MERCOSUR).
加拿大、美国和墨西哥之间的经济贸易协定，以及南美洲几个国家之间的经济贸易协定（南方共同市场）。

Globalization and internationalization of industries everywhere will depend heavily on logistics performance and costs, as companies take more of a worldview of their operations. As this happens, logistics takes on increased importance within the firm since its costs, especially transportation, become a larger part of the total cost structure. For example, if a firm seeks foreign suppliers for the raw materials that make up its final product or foreign locations to build its product, the motivation is to increase profit. Material and labor costs may be reduced, but logistics costs are likely to increase due to increased transportation and inventory costs. The tradeoff, as shown in Figure 1-6, may lead to higher profit by reducing materials, labor, and overhead costs at the expense of logistics costs and tariffs. Outsourcing adds value, but it requires careful management of logistics costs and product-flow times in the supply channel.
随着企业在运营中更多地采用全球视角，各行各业的全球化和国际化将在很大程度上取决于物流绩效和成本。在这种情况下，物流在企业内部的重要性日益增加，因为物流成本，尤其是运输成本，在总成本结构中的比重越来越大。例如，如果一家公司寻求国外供应商提供构成其最终产品的原材料，或在国外生产其产品，其动机就是为了增加利润。材料和劳动力成本可能会降低，但由于运输和库存成本增加，物流成本可能会上升。如图 1-6 所示，通过降低材料、人工和间接成本，牺牲物流成本和关税，可能会带来更高的利润。外包可以增加价值，但需要谨慎管理供应渠道中的物流成本和产品流动时间。

Example 示例

Toyota has 35 manufacturing plants in 25 countries (excluding Japan) at which it produces nearly 900,000 vehicles annually. While exports were down by 9 percent in 1993, overseas production was up by 16 percent. In the case of Georgetown, Kentucky, where Camrys are built, Toyota uses the just-in-time concept to supply
丰田公司在 25 个国家（不包括日本）拥有 35 家生产厂，年产汽车近 90 万辆。虽然 1993 年的出口下降了 9%，但海外生产却增长了 16%。以生产凯美瑞的肯塔基州乔治敦为例，丰田公司采用准时生产的概念来供应汽车。
parts from across the Pacific. The parts are loaded into ocean containers in Japan, shipped across the Pacific, and transferred to trains on the West Coast of the United States for relay to Georgetown, where they feed an assembly line that turns out 1,000 Camrys a day. Deliveries are scheduled to the minute in order to keep inventories low. Due to the long supply lines and the associated uncertainties, supply channels must be more carefully managed than if all production were local.

从太平洋彼岸运来的零部件。这些零部件在日本装入海运集装箱，运过太平洋，然后转运到美国西海岸的火车上，再转运到乔治敦，为每天生产 1,000 辆凯美瑞的装配线提供原料。为了保持低库存，交货时间被安排到分钟。由于供应线过长以及相关的不确定性，供应渠道的管理必须比全部在本地生产更加谨慎。

Logistics/SC Is Important to Strategy
物流/供应链对战略至关重要

Firms spend a great deal of time finding ways to differentiate their product offerings from those of their competitors. When management recognizes that logistics/SC affects a significant portion of a firm's costs and that the result of decisions made about the supply chain processes yields different levels of customer service, it is in a position to use this effectively to penetrate new markets, to increase market share, and to increase profits. That is, good supply chain management can generate sales, not just reduce costs. Consider how Wal-Mart used logistics as the core of its competitive strategy to become the world's number one merchandise retailer.
企业需要花费大量时间来寻找使自己的产品与竞争对手的产品相区别的方法。当管理层认识到物流/供应链影响着企业的大部分成本，并且供应链流程的决策结果会产生不同水平的客户服务时，就可以有效地利用这一点来渗透新市场，扩大市场份额，增加利润。也就是说，良好的供应链管理可以创造销售额，而不仅仅是降低成本。请看沃尔玛是如何将物流作为其竞争战略的核心，从而成为世界第一大商品零售商的。

Example 示例

Wal-Mart Wins with Logistics Kmart and Wal-Mart are two retail merchandise chains that, a few years back, looked alike, sold the same products, sought the same customers, and even had similar names. When the race began, people were quite familiar with the "big red K," whose stores dotted metropolitan areas, but few had heard of Wal-Mart, whose stores were in rural settings. Considering the similarity of the stores and their mission, analysts attribute the fates of the two chains primarily to differing management philosophies.
沃尔玛赢在物流凯马特和沃尔玛是两家零售连锁店，几年前，它们看起来很像，销售同样的产品，寻找同样的顾客，甚至连名字都很相似。比赛开始时，人们对 "大红 K "非常熟悉，因为它的商店遍布大都市，但很少有人听说过沃尔玛，因为它的商店都在农村地区。考虑到这两家连锁店的相似性及其使命，分析家们将两家连锁店的命运主要归咎于不同的管理理念。

In 1987, Kmart was far ahead, with twice as many stores and sales of

billion, compared to

billion for Wal-Mart. With its urban presence and a focus on advertising, Kmart had more visibility. In contrast, Wal-Mart began in stand-alone stores outside small towns, luring customers away from the mom-and-pop stores in aging downtowns. But so rapidly did Wal-Mart multiply over the rural landscape that an invasion of urban America-and a confrontation with Kmart-was inevitable.
1987 年，凯马特遥遥领先，商店数量是沃尔玛的两倍，销售额达

亿美元，而沃尔玛的销售额为

亿美元。凯马特凭借其在城市的影响力和对广告的重视，获得了更高的知名度。相比之下，沃尔玛开始在小城镇外开设独立门店，吸引顾客离开老城区的母婴店。但是，沃尔玛在农村地区的扩张速度如此之快，以至于它对美国城市的入侵--与凯马特的对抗--不可避免。

Kmart executives focused on marketing and merchandising, even using Hollywood star Jaclyn Smith to promote her clothing line. By contrast, Sam Walton, Wal-Mart's founder, was obsessed with operations. He invested millions of dollars in a company-wide computer system linking cash registers to headquarters, enabling him to quickly restock goods. He also invested heavily in trucks and modern distribution centers. Besides enhancing his control of the supply chain, these moves sharply reduced costs. While Kmart tried to improve its image and cultivate store loyalty,
凯马特的高管们专注于市场营销和商品推销，甚至利用好莱坞明星贾克琳-史密斯（Jaclyn Smith）来推广自己的服装系列。相比之下，沃尔玛的创始人山姆-沃尔顿则专注于运营。他投资数百万美元建立了全公司的计算机系统，将收银机与总部连接起来，使他能够快速补货。他还在卡车和现代化配送中心上投入巨资。除了加强对供应链的控制，这些举措还大大降低了成本。凯马特努力改善形象，培养顾客对商店的忠诚度、

Walton kept lowering costs, betting that price would prove more important than any other factor in attracting customers. Wal-Mart's incredibly sophisticated distribution, inventory, and scanner systems meant that customers almost never encountered depleted shelves or price-check delays.
沃尔顿不断降低成本，打赌在吸引顾客方面，价格将比任何其他因素都重要。沃尔玛的配送、库存和扫描系统非常先进，这意味着顾客几乎从未遇到过货架枯竭或核价延迟的情况。

Meanwhile, Kmart's woes mounted, as distribution horror stories abounded. Employees lacked the training and skill to plan and control inventory properly, and Kmart's cash registers often did not have up-to-date information and would scan items and enter incorrect prices. This led to a lawsuit in California, and Kmart settled for

for overcharging its customers.
与此同时，凯马特的麻烦也越来越多，因为配送方面的恐怖故事层出不穷。员工缺乏正确计划和控制库存的培训和技能，凯马特的收银机经常没有最新信息，扫描商品时会输入错误的价格。这导致了加州的一场诉讼，凯马特因向顾客多收费而以

和解。

Over the years, it has been Wal-Mart's focus on logistical matters that enables it to keep its prices low and its customers happy and returning often. Today, Wal-Mart is nearly six times the size of Kmart!

多年来，正是由于沃尔玛专注于物流事务，它才能保持低廉的价格，让顾客满意并经常光顾。如今，沃尔玛的规模几乎是凯马特的六倍！

Kmart continued its focus on ad circulars and promotional pricing into the twenty-first century, whereas Wal-Mart continued to focus more on supply chain efficiencies and less on advertising, with the results that selling, administrative, and overhead costs were 17.3 percent for Wal-Mart and Kmart's were 22.7 percent. Wal-Mart was able to achieve prices that average 3.8 percent below Kmart's and even 3.2 percent below Target's. In 2002, Kmart went into bankruptcy and reorganization.

进入 21 世纪后，凯马特继续把重点放在广告通告和促销价格上，而沃尔玛则继续把更多的精力放在供应链效率上，减少了广告宣传，结果沃尔玛的销售、管理和间接成本为 17.3%，而凯马特为 22.7%。沃尔玛的价格比凯马特平均低 3.8%，甚至比塔吉特低 3.2%。2002 年，凯马特破产重组。

Logistics/SC Adds Significant Customer Value
物流/供应链为客户带来巨大价值

A product, or service, is of little value if it is not available to customers at the time and place that they wish to consume it. When a firm incurs the cost of moving the product toward the customer or making an inventory available in a timely manner, for the customer value has been created that was not there previously. It is value as surely as that created through the production of a quality product or through a low price.
如果不能在客户希望消费的时间和地点向客户提供产品或服务，那么这种产品或服务就没有什么价值。当企业花费成本将产品运往客户手中或及时提供存货时，就为客户创造了以前没有的价值。这种价值与通过生产优质产品或通过低价创造的价值是一样的。

It is generally recognized that business creates four types of value in products or services. These are: form, time, place, and possession. Logistics creates two out of these four values. Manufacturing creates form value as inputs are converted to outputs, that is raw materials are transformed into finished goods. Logistics controls the time and place values in products, mainly through transportation, information flows, and inventories. Possession value is often considered the responsibility of marketing, engineering, and finance, where the value is created by helping customers acquire the product through such mechanisms as advertising (information), technical support, and terms of sale (pricing and credit availability). To the extent that SCM includes production, three out of the four values may be the responsibility of the logistics/supply chain manager.
一般认为，企业在产品或服务中创造了四种价值。它们是：形式、时间、地点和占有。物流创造了这四种价值中的两种。制造业创造的是形式价值，因为投入转化为产出，即原材料转化为成品。物流主要通过运输、信息流和库存来控制产品的时间和地点价值。占有价值通常被认为是市场营销、工程和财务的责任，其价值是通过广告（信息）、技术支持和销售条款（定价和信贷可用性）等机制帮助客户获得产品而创造的。如果供应链管理包括生产，那么四项价值中的三项都可能是物流/供应链经理的责任。

Example 示例

When discount houses selling computer software through Web sites, catalogs, and magazine advertisements wished to compete with local retailers, they had a price advantage due to the economies of scale that they could achieve. Operations were centralized at one location where lower-cost warehouse space rather than highercost retail space could be used. Their staff was predominately telephone order takers and warehouse order-fillers and packagers. Inventories were minimized relative to sales through centralization, but these discount operations also offered substantial variety and high levels of product availability. Conversely, retailers had the advantage of immediate availability for the anxious customer that would offset any price disadvantage of the local retailer. To counter this possible delivery advantage of retailers in their local markets, the discount houses made sure that customer orders could be placed using toll-free telephone numbers or through a Web site, that these orders were filled the same day, and that they were shipped overnight using priority air delivery. Many customers find this nearly as fast and, in many cases, a lot more convenient than traditional shopping! Value has been created for the busy customer through logistics.
当通过网站、目录和杂志广告销售计算机软件的折扣店希望与当地零售商竞争时，由于可以实现规模经济，它们具有价格优势。业务集中在一个地点，可以使用成本较低的仓库空间，而不是成本较高的零售空间。他们的员工主要是电话订货员、仓库填单员和包装员。通过集中管理，库存量相对于销售量降到了最低，但这些折扣店也提供了丰富的品种和高水平的产品供应。与此相反，零售商的优势在于可以为心急的顾客立即提供产品，从而抵消了本地零售商在价格上的劣势。为了抵消零售商在当地市场上可能存在的送货优势，折扣店确保顾客可以通过免费电话或网站下订单，这些订单当天就能完成，并通过优先空运在一夜之间送达。许多顾客发现这几乎与传统的购物方式一样快捷，而且在许多情况下更为方便！物流为繁忙的顾客创造了价值。

Customers Increasingly Want Quick, Customized Response
客户越来越需要快速、定制化的响应

Fast food retailers, automatic teller machines, overnight package delivery, and electronic mail on the Internet have led us as consumers to expect that products and services can be made available in increasingly shorter times. In addition, improved information systems and flexible manufacturing processes have led the marketplace toward mass customization. Rather than consumers having to accept the "one size fits all" philosophy in their purchases, suppliers are increasingly offering products that meet individual customer needs.
快餐零售商、自动取款机、隔夜包裹递送以及互联网上的电子邮件，使我们这些消费者期望能在越来越短的时间内获得产品和服务。此外，改进的信息系统和灵活的生产流程也使市场朝着大规模定制的方向发展。消费者在购买产品时不必接受 "一刀切 "的理念，供应商越来越多地提供满足客户个性化需求的产品。

Observations 意见

Dell, a desktop computer company, will configure a PC to a customer's exact hardware requirements, and even install requested software.
戴尔是一家台式电脑公司，它可以根据客户的具体硬件要求配置电脑，甚至安装所需的软件。
L. L. Bean sells clothes and other items through its catalog and Web site. In addition, some of the clothes may be altered to a customer's exact measurements. Moreover, L. L. Bean will ensure fast delivery by shipping via Federal Express at no additional charge (if the customer charges the order to an L. L. Bean Visa charge card).
L.L. L. Bean 通过目录和网站销售服装和其他商品。此外，部分服装可根据客户的具体尺寸进行修改。此外，L. L. Bean 将通过联邦快递发货，确保快速送货，不收取额外费用（如果客户将订单记入 L. L. Bean Visa 充值卡）。
National Bicycle Industrial Co., a subsidiary of the Japanese electronics giant Matsushita, builds bicycles using flexible manufacturing techniques, those that allow switching from the production of one product to another with minimal setup cost. Rather than mass-producing in standard sizes and building inventories for retail sales, National Bicycle builds the bicycles to precise customer
日本电子巨头松下公司的子公司 National Bicycle Industrial Co.National Bicycle 并不大规模生产标准尺寸的自行车，也不建立库存用于零售，而是根据客户的精确要求制造自行车。
specifications in over 11 million variations on 18 models of road, racing, and mountain bikes. Although it takes three hours to produce a bicycle using flexible manufacturing as compared to 90 minutes for mass production, the company is able to charge more than twice the price by pleasing customers with unique bikes built to their individual specifications.
在 18 种型号的公路车、赛车车和山地车中，有超过 1100 万种规格。虽然采用柔性生产方式生产一辆自行车需要 3 个小时，而批量生产只需 90 分钟，但该公司却能以高于批量生产两倍的价格为客户提供独一无二的自行车，满足他们的个性化需求。

Companies too have been applying the concept of quick response to their internal operations in order to meet the service requirements of their own marketing efforts. The quick response philosophy has been used to create a marketing advantage. Saks Fifth Avenue applied it, even though big profits are made through big margins and not on cost reductions that might be achieved from good logistics management. Supply chain costs may even rise, although the advantage is to more than cover these costs through increased profits.
企业也一直在内部运作中应用快速反应理念，以满足自身营销工作的服务要求。快速反应理念被用来创造营销优势。萨克斯第五大道百货公司（Saks Fifth Avenue）就运用了这一理念，尽管其高额利润是通过高利润率获得的，而不是通过良好的物流管理来降低成本。供应链成本甚至可能上升，尽管其优势是通过增加利润来弥补这些成本。

Application 应用

Retailers go out of business at an alarming rate. To Saks Fifth Avenue, this fear alone may have been adequate motivation for management to integrate merchandising and logistics. The benefits are obvious when merchandising relies on manufacturers that might cut cloth in Bangladesh and finish garments in Italy before shipping them to a ritzy selling floor in the United States. The difference between profit and loss on hot-selling items may be as little as seven to ten days, so good logistics performance requires that such items be on the selling floor precisely when needed most. How does Saks do it?
零售商倒闭的速度惊人。对萨克斯第五大道百货公司来说，这种恐惧本身就足以促使管理层整合商品销售和物流。如果商品销售依赖的制造商可能在孟加拉国裁剪布料，在意大利加工成衣，然后再运往美国的高档卖场，那么这样做的好处是显而易见的。热销商品的盈亏可能只相差七到十天，因此，良好的物流表现要求这些商品能在最需要的时候准时到达销售现场。萨克斯是如何做到这一点的呢？

The company's 69 stores are served by just two distribution centers. One is in Yonkers, New York, close by Saks' flagship store on New York City's 5th Avenue. The second is in Ontario, California, well situated to serve the trendy southern California market. Rapid movement through the supply channel is key to profitability. Items are processed by the centers in a 24 -hour turnaround. About 80 percent of Saks' imported items arrive by airfreight-those from Europe are handled by Yonkers and those from the Far East by Ontario. Items are exchanged between the centers by airfreight, with a dedicated flight between New York and Los Angeles every business day. Distribution centers then serve their local stores with a combination of airfreight and trucking.

该公司的 69 家门店仅由两个配送中心提供服务。一个位于纽约扬克斯，靠近萨克斯位于纽约第五大道的旗舰店。第二个配送中心位于加利福尼亚州安大略，地理位置优越，可为加利福尼亚州南部的时尚市场提供服务。供应渠道的快速流动是盈利的关键。各中心在 24 小时内完成商品处理。约 80% 的萨克斯进口商品通过空运抵达--来自欧洲的商品由扬克斯处理，来自远东的商品由安大略处理。商品通过空运在各中心之间交换，纽约和洛杉矶之间每个工作日都有专机往返。然后，配送中心通过空运和卡车运输相结合的方式为当地商店提供服务。

Logistics/SC in Nonmanufacturing Areas
非制造业地区的物流/供应链

It is perhaps easiest to think of logistics/SC in terms of moving and storing a physical product in a manufacturing setting. This is too narrow a view and can lead to many missed business opportunities. The logistics/SC principles and concepts learned over the years can be applied to such areas as service industries, the military, and even environment management.
从生产环境中移动和存储实物产品的角度来考虑物流/供应链，也许是最简单的。这种看法过于狭隘，会导致错失许多商机。多年来所学到的物流/供应链原则和概念可应用于服务业、军事甚至环境管理等领域。

Service Industry 服务行业

The service sector of industrialized countries is large and growing. In the United States, over 70 percent of all jobs are in what the federal government classifies as the service sector. The size of this sector alone forces us to ask if logistics concepts are not equally applicable here as they are to the manufacturing sector. If they are, there is a tremendous untapped opportunity yet to be fulfilled.
工业化国家的服务业规模庞大且不断增长。在美国，超过 70% 的工作岗位属于联邦政府划分的服务业。仅这一部门的规模就迫使我们提出这样一个问题：物流概念是否与制造业一样适用于服务业？如果是的话，那么还有巨大的机会有待挖掘。

Many companies designated as service firms in fact produce a product. Examples include: McDonald's Corporation (fast foods); Dow Jones & Co., Inc. (newspaper publishing); and Sears, Roebuck and Co. (merchandise retailing). These companies carry out all the typical supply chain activities of any manufacturing firm. However, for service companies such as Bank One (retail banking), Marriott Corporation (lodging), and Consolidated Edison (electric power), supply chain activities, especially those associated with physical distribution, are not as obvious.
许多被指定为服务公司的公司实际上生产一种产品。这方面的例子包括麦当劳公司（快餐）、道琼斯公司（报纸出版）和西尔斯、罗巴克公司（商品零售）。这些公司开展了所有制造企业典型的供应链活动。然而，对于诸如 Bank One（零售银行）、Marriott Corporation（住宿）和 Consolidated Edison（电力）等服务公司来说，供应链活动，尤其是与实物分销相关的供应链活动，并不那么明显。

Even though many service-oriented companies may be distributing an intangible, nonphysical product, they do engage in many physical distribution activities and decisions. A hospital may want to extend emergency medical care throughout the community and must make decisions as to the locations of the centers. United Parcel Service and Federal Express must locate terminals and route pickup and delivery trucks. The East Ohio Gas Company inventories natural gas in underground wells during the off-season in the region where demand will occur. Bank One must locate and have cash inventory on hand for its ATMs. The Federal Reserve Bank must select the methods of transportation to move canceled checks among member banks. The Catholic Church must decide the number, location, and size of the churches needed to meet shifts in size and location of congregations, as well as to plan the inventory of its pastoral staff. Xerox's repair service for copying equipment is also a good example of the logistics decisions encountered in a service operation.
尽管许多服务型公司分销的可能是一种无形、无实物的产品，但它们确实参与了许多有实物的分销活动和决策。一家医院可能希望将紧急医疗服务扩展到整个社区，因此必须就中心的位置做出决策。联合包裹服务公司和联邦快递公司必须确定终点站的位置以及取货和送货卡车的路线。东俄亥俄天然气公司在需求淡季将天然气储存在需求地区的地下井中。第一银行必须确定自动取款机的位置并备有现金库存。联邦储备银行必须选择在成员银行之间转移已注销支票的运输方式。天主教会必须确定所需的教堂数量、地点和规模，以满足教徒规模和地点的变化，并规划教牧人员的库存。施乐公司的复印设备维修服务也是服务业务中物流决策的一个很好的例子。

Examples 实例

Promise Keepers is a Christian men's ministry that conducts 23 major events around the United States-with attendance ranging from 50 to 80,000 . Promise Keepers must rely on good logistics management to assure that their crusades can be conducted on time. The operation is large enough to involve a major motor carrier that handles the event logistics. Using the concept of time definite delivery, the carrier coordinates the receipt of supplies such as Bibles from Chicago, hats from Kansas City, in addition to trailer loads of stage equipment. The materials must be assembled and delivered to an event site and delivered precisely on time. Since events are held at stadiums, speedways, and the like, there are other events (ball games, races, etc.) also scheduled on the same weekend. There may be as many as 30 truckloads that must be coordinated to arrive precisely on time and leave just as precisely to avoid congestion with the
承诺守护者 "是一个基督教男性事工组织，在美国各地举办了 23 场大型活动，参加人数从 50 到 80,000 不等。守约者 "必须依靠良好的物流管理来确保他们的十字军东征能够按时进行。由于活动规模庞大，因此需要一家大型汽车运输公司负责活动物流。承运商利用定时交货的概念，协调从芝加哥接收圣经、从堪萨斯城接收帽子等物资，以及拖车装载舞台设备。这些物资必须按时组装并运送到活动现场。由于活动是在体育场、赛车场等地举行，因此同一周末还安排了其他活动（球赛、赛车等）。可能会有多达 30 辆卡车必须协调好，准时到达，同样准时离开，以避免与其他活动发生拥堵。
logistics of the other events. Computer technology is used to track trailer movements and ensure that the extremely close coordination can be achieved.
其他活动的后勤工作。计算机技术用于跟踪拖车的移动，确保实现极其密切的协调。
During the time span of one week, there were three major stories that drew the largest TV audience in history: England's Princess Diana was killed in an automobile crash in Paris, India's Mother Teresa died of heart failure in Calcutta, and there was a major bombing incident in Jerusalem. Suddenly, the media had major logistical problems with covering three major news stories in three corners of the world. For example, diverted a reporter from Paris to the Middle East, while other networks sent their Hong Kong correspondents to Calcutta. Then, there were the logistical problems of allocating airtime to the three stories. 22
在一周的时间里，有三件大事吸引了历史上最多的电视观众：英国戴安娜王妃在巴黎死于车祸，印度特蕾莎修女在加尔各答死于心脏衰竭，耶路撒冷发生重大爆炸事件。突然之间，媒体在报道世界三个角落的三个重大新闻时遇到了重大的后勤问题。例如，，将一名记者从巴黎调往中东，而其他网络则将香港记者派往加尔各答。此外，还有为三条新闻分配广播时间的后勤问题。22

The techniques, concepts, and methods discussed throughout this text should be as applicable to the service sector as they are to the manufacturing sector. The key, according to Theodore Levitt, may be in transforming an intangible service into a tangible product.

Problems will remain in carefully identifying the costs associated with the distribution of an intangible product. Perhaps because of this, few service firms or organizations have a physical distribution manager on their staff, although they frequently do have a materials manager to handle supply matters. However, managing logistics in service industries does represent a new direction for the future development of logistics practice.
本文所讨论的技术、概念和方法应与制造业一样适用于服务业。西奥多-莱维特认为，关键可能在于将无形服务转化为有形产品。

在仔细确定与无形产品分销相关的成本方面仍然存在问题。也许正因为如此，很少有服务公司或组织在其员工中配备实物分销经理，尽管它们经常配备一名材料经理来处理供应事宜。不过，服务业的物流管理确实是未来物流实践发展的一个新方向。

Military 军事

Before businesses showed much interest in coordinating supply chain processes, the military was well organized to carry out logistics activities. More than a decade before business logistics' developmental period, the military carried out what was called the most complex, best-planned logistics operation of that time-the invasion of Europe during World War II.
在企业对协调供应链流程表现出浓厚兴趣之前，军方就已经有组织地开展了物流活动。在企业物流发展期之前的十多年，军方开展了被称为当时最复杂、计划最周密的物流行动--第二次世界大战期间入侵欧洲。

Although the problems of the military, with its extremely high customer service requirements, were not identical with those of business, the similarities were great enough to provide a valuable experience base during the developmental years of logistics. For example, the military alone maintained inventories valued at about one-third of those held by all U.S. manufacturers. In addition to the management experience that such large-scale operations provide, the military sponsored, and continues to sponsor, research in the logistics area through such organizations as the RAND Corporation and the Office of Naval Research. With this background, the field of business logistics began to grow. Even the term logistics seems to have had its origins in the military.
尽管对客户服务要求极高的军方所面临的问题与商界并不完全相同，但两者之间的相似之处足以在物流发展时期提供宝贵的经验基础。例如，仅军方的库存价值就相当于美国所有制造商库存价值的三分之一。除了这种大规模运作提供的管理经验外，军方还通过兰德公司（RAND Corporation）和海军研究办公室（Office of Naval Research）等机构，赞助并继续赞助物流领域的研究。在此背景下，商业物流领域开始发展壮大。甚至连 "物流 "一词似乎也起源于军队。

The most recent example of military logistics on a large scale was the conflict between the United States and Iraq over Iraq's invasion of the small country of Kuwait. This invasion has been described as the largest military logistics operation in history.

The logistics support in that war is yet another illustration of what worldclass companies have alway's known: Good logistics can be a source of competitive advantage. Lieutenant General William Pagonis, who was in charge of logistics support for Desert Storm, observed:
大规模军事后勤的最近一个例子是美国和伊拉克之间因伊拉克入侵小国科威特而发生的冲突。这次入侵被称为历史上最大规模的军事后勤行动。

这场战争中的后勤支持再次证明了世界级公司的一贯作风：良好的后勤保障可以成为竞争优势的源泉。负责 "沙漠风暴 "后勤保障的威廉-帕格尼斯中将指出："好的后勤保障是竞争优势的源泉：

When the Middle East started heating up, it seemed like a good time to pull out some history books on desert warfare in this region. . . . But there was nothing on logistics. Logistics is not a best seller. In a couple of his diaries, Rommel talked about logistics. He thought the Germans lost the battle not because they didn't have great soldiers or equipment-in fact, the German tanks outfought ours almost throughout World War II-but because the British had better logistics. 25
当中东局势开始升温时，似乎是时候拿出一些有关该地区沙漠战争的历史书籍了。. . .但没有任何关于后勤的内容。后勤并不畅销。隆美尔在他的几本日记中谈到了后勤问题。他认为德国人输掉这场战役并不是因为他们没有优秀的士兵或装备--事实上，德国坦克几乎在整个二战期间都胜过我们的坦克--而是因为英国人有更好的后勤保障。25

Good logistics performance was obvious. The first wave of 200,000 troops and their equipment was deployed in a month and a half, whereas troop deployment took nine months in the Vietnam conflict. In addition, the application of many good logistics concepts was evident. Take customer service, for example:
良好的后勤表现显而易见。第一波 20 万部队及其装备在一个半月内就完成了部署，而在越南冲突中，部队部署需要九个月。此外，许多良好的后勤理念的应用也是显而易见的。以客户服务为例：

We believed that if we took care of our troops, the objectives would be accomplished no matter whatever else happened. The soldiers are our customers. It is no different than a determined, single focus on customers that many successful businesses have. Now, you take care of your soldiers not only by providing them cold sodas, and burgers, and good food: you make sure they have the ammunition on the front line, so that when they go fight the war they know they have what they need.

我们相信，只要我们照顾好我们的部队，无论发生什么事情，目标都会实现。士兵就是我们的客户。这与许多成功企业坚定不移、一心一意为客户服务的理念并无二致。现在，你不仅要为士兵们提供冰镇汽水、汉堡和美味佳肴，还要确保他们在前线有充足的弹药，这样，当他们去打仗时，他们就会知道他们有自己需要的东西。

This meant that when

guns rather than

guns were desired on tanks, they were changed. When brown vehicles were preferred over the traditional camouflage green, they were repainted at the rate of 7,000 per month.
这意味着，当需要在坦克上安装

火炮而不是

火炮时，就需要更换火炮。当棕色车辆比传统的绿色迷彩更受欢迎时，就会以每月 7000 辆的速度重新喷漆。

Environment 环境

Population grow'th and resultant economic development have heightened our awareness of environmental issues. Whether it is recycling, packaging materials, transporting hazardous materials or refurbishing products for resale, logisticians are involved in a major way. After all, the United States alone produces more than 160 million tons of waste each year, enough for a conroy of 10-ton garbage trucks reaching halfway to the moon.

In many cases, planning for logistics in an environmental setting is no different from that in manufacturing or service sectors. However,
人口增长和随之而来的经济发展提高了我们对环境问题的认识。无论是回收、包装材料，还是运输危险品或翻新产品以便转售，物流人员都在其中发挥着重要作用。毕竟，仅美国每年产生的垃圾就超过 1.6 亿吨，足以让一个由 10 吨垃圾车组成的车队开到半个月球。

在许多情况下，环保环境下的物流规划与制造业或服务业的规划并无不同。但是

Graham Sharman, "Good Logistics Is Combat Power," McKinsey Quarterly, No. 3 (1991), pp. 3-21.

Tbid.

Graham Sharman，"良好的后勤就是战斗力"，《麦肯锡季刊》，第 3 期（1991 年），第 3-21 页。 Tbid.

E. J. Muller, "The Greening of Logistics," Distribution (January 1991), p. 32.
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in a few cases additional complications arise, such as governmental regulations that make the logistics for a product more costly by extending the distribution channel.
在少数情况下，还会出现其他复杂情况，如政府法规通过扩大分销渠道使产品的物流成本更高。

Example 示例

In Germany, the government requires retail grocers to collect cereal boxes at the point of sale. Typically, consumers pay for the product, then open the box and empty the contents into containers they brought from home, and put the empty boxes into collection bins. The seller has the responsibility either for recovery of the spent materials and their repackaging and reuse, or for their disposal.

在德国，政府要求零售杂货店在销售点收集谷物包装盒。通常情况下，消费者付款购买产品，然后打开包装盒，把里面的东西倒进从家里带来的容器里，再把空盒子放进收集箱。销售商有责任回收废旧材料并重新包装和再利用，或者进行处理。

Business Logistics/SC IN THE FIRM
企业物流/公司内部

It has been the tradition in many firms to organize around marketing and production functions. Typically, marketing means selling something and production means making something. Although few business people would agree that their organization is so simple, the fact remains that many businesses emphasize these functions while treating other activities, such as traffic, purchasing, accounting, and engineering, as support areas. Such an attitude is justified to a degree, because if a firm's products cannot be produced and sold, little else matters. However, such a pattern is dangerously simple for many firms to follow in that it fails to recognize the importance of the activities that must take place between points and times of production or purchase and the points and times of demand. These are the logistics activities, and they affect the efficiency and effectiveness of both marketing and production.
许多公司的传统是围绕营销和生产职能进行组织。通常情况下，营销意味着销售产品，生产意味着制造产品。尽管很少有商人会同意他们的组织结构如此简单，但事实是，许多企业都强调这些职能，而把其他活动，如交通、采购、会计和工程，视为支持领域。这种态度在一定程度上是合理的，因为如果企业的产品无法生产和销售，其他方面就不重要了。然而，这种模式对许多企业来说是非常危险的，因为它没有认识到在生产或采购的时间点与需求的时间点之间必须进行的活动的重要性。这些活动就是物流活动，它们影响着营销和生产的效率和效益。

Example 示例

General Motors (GM) hopes improving customer service will boost sales of Cadillacs, which have been squeezed as buyers shift to other U.S. cars as well as to imports. Cadillac loses substantial sales when customers are put off by lengthy delivery times. Research shows that 10 percent to 11 percent of sales are lost simply because the cars are not available in a timely manner.
通用汽车公司（GM）希望通过改善客户服务来提高凯迪拉克的销量，因为随着买家转向其他美国汽车和进口汽车，凯迪拉克的销量已经受到挤压。如果客户因交货时间过长而望而却步，凯迪拉克就会损失大量销量。研究表明，仅仅因为不能及时提供汽车，凯迪拉克就损失了 10% 到 11% 的销售额。

A production and distribution program was tested in Florida, a major market for Cadillacs. Under the program, about 1,500 Cadillacs were sent to a regional distribution center in Orlando, Florida, where they would be delivered to dealers state-wide within 24 hours. In some areas of Florida, many buyers wait two days for popularly equipped cars. Additionally, GM's Cadillac factory in Detroit increased production of specially ordered Cadillacs as well as reducing shipping time. Custom Cadillacs arrived at dealerships in about three weeks, compared with the usual 8 to 12 weeks. Under this program, GM expected dealership inventories to decline by about 50 percent.

在凯迪拉克的主要市场佛罗里达州测试了一项生产和配送计划。根据该计划，约 1500 辆凯迪拉克汽车被送往佛罗里达州奥兰多的一个地区配送中心，在 24 小时内交付给全州的经销商。在佛罗里达州的一些地区，许多买家要等两天才能买到热门配置的汽车。此外，通用汽车位于底特律的凯迪拉克工厂增加了特别定制凯迪拉克的产量，同时也缩短了运输时间。定制的凯迪拉克汽车大约在三周内到达经销商处，而通常需要 8 到 12 周。根据这一计划，通用汽车预计经销商的库存量将下降约 50%。

Scholars and practitioners of both marketing and production have not neglected the importance of logistics. In fact, each area considers logistics within its scope of action. For example, the following definition of marketing management includes physical distribution:
营销和生产领域的学者和从业人员都没有忽视物流的重要性。事实上，每个领域都将物流纳入其行动范围。例如，以下关于营销管理的定义就包含了实物分销：

Marketing (management) is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges with target groups that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.

市场营销（管理）是对创意、商品和服务的构思、定价、促销和分销进行规划和执行的过程，目的是与目标群体进行交流，以满足个人和组织的目标。

Marketing's concern is to place its products or services in convenient distribution channels to facilitate the exchange process. The concept of production/operations management often includes logistics activities. For example, "operations management has the responsibility for the production and delivery of physical goods and services." "31 Production/operations, on the other hand, is likely to be most interested in those activities that directly affect manufacturing and its primary objective of producing at the lowest unit cost. Now, viewing product flow activities as a process to be coordinated, product flow aspects within marketing, production, and logistics are collectively managed to achieve customer service objectives.
市场营销关注的是将产品或服务置于便利的分销渠道中，以促进交换过程。生产/运营管理的概念通常包括物流活动。例如，"运营管理负责实物商品和服务的生产与交付"。"31另一方面，生产/运营可能对那些直接影响生产及其以最低单位成本进行生产这一首要目标的活动最感兴趣。现在，将产品流动活动视为一个需要协调的过程，对营销、生产和物流中的产品流动方面进行集体管理，以实现客户服务目标。

The difference in operating objectives (maximize revenue versus minimize cost) for marketing and production/operations may lead to a fragmentation of interest in, and responsibility for, logistics activities, as well as a lack of coordination among logistics activities as a whole. This, in turn, may lead to lower customer service levels or higher total logistics costs than are necessary. Business logistics represents a regrouping, either by formal organizational structure or conceptually in the minds of management, of the move-store activities that historically may have been partially under the control of marketing and production/operations.
市场营销和生产/运营的经营目标（收入最大化与成本最小化）不同，可能导致对物流活动的兴趣和责任分散，以及物流活动之间缺乏整体协调。这反过来又可能导致客户服务水平降低或物流总成本高于必要水平。企业物流代表着一种重新组合，无论是通过正式的组织结构，还是在管理层的头脑中的概念，将历史上可能部分由市场营销和生产/运营控制的移动存储活动重新组合起来。

If logistics activities are looked upon as a separate area of managerial action, the relationship of logistics activities to those of marketing and production/operations would be as shown in Figure 1-7. Marketing would be primarily responsible for market research, promotion, sales-force management, and the product mix, which create possession value in the product. Production/operations would be concerned with the creation of the product or service, which creates form value in the product. Key responsibilities would be quality control, production planning and scheduling, job
如果将物流活动视为一个独立的管理领域，那么物流活动与市场营销和生产/运营活动的关系如图 1-7 所示。市场营销主要负责市场调研、促销、销售队伍管理和产品组合，从而创造产品的占有价值。生产/运营部门负责创造产品或服务，从而创造产品的形式价值。其主要职责是质量控制、生产计划和调度、岗位职责、生产管理和质量控制。

Figure 1-7 Logistics/SC Interfaces with Marketing and Production
图 1-7 物流/供应链与营销和生产的接口

design, capacity planning, maintenance, and work measurement and standards. Logistics would be concerned with those activities (previously defined) that give a product or service time and place value. This separation of the activities of the firm into three groupings rather than two is not always necessary or advisable to achieve the coordination of logistics activities that is sought. Marketing and production/operations, when broadly conceived and coordinated, can do an effective job of managing logistics activities without creating an additional organizational entity. Even if a separate functional area is created for logistics within the firm so as to achieve effective control of the firm's immediate logistics activities, logisticians will need to view their responsibility as one of coordinating the entire supply chain process rather than being just a local logistics activity administrator. To do otherwise may miss substantial opportunities for cost reduction and logistics customer service improvement.
设计、能力规划、维护以及工作测量和标准。物流将涉及那些赋予产品或服务时间和地点价值的活动（如前所述）。将企业的活动分为三类而不是两类，对于实现物流活动的协调并不总是必要或可取的。市场营销和生产/运营部门，如果有广泛的构想和协调，就可以有效地管理物流活动，而不需要建立额外的组织实体。即使在公司内部为物流设立了一个单独的职能部门，以便有效控制公司的直接物流活动，物流人员也需要把自己的职责看作是协调整个供应链过程，而不仅仅是当地物流活动的管理者。否则，可能会错失降低成本和改善物流客户服务的良机。

Figure 1-7 also shows activities that are at the interface of marketing and logistics and production/operations and logistics within the immediate firm. An interface activity is one that cannot be managed effectively within one functional area. The interface is created by the arbitrary separation of a firm's activities into a limited number of functional areas. Managing the interface activities by one function alone can lead to suboptimal performance for the firm by subordinating broader company goals to individual functional goals-a potential danger resulting from the departmental form of organizational structure so common in companies today. To achieve interfunctional coordination, some measurement system and incentives for cooperation among the
图 1-7 还显示了企业内部营销与物流、生产/运营与物流的接口活动。界面活动是指在一个职能领域内无法有效管理的活动。企业的活动被任意划分为有限的几个职能领域，从而产生了界面活动。仅由一个职能部门管理界面活动，可能会使公司更广泛的目标从属于单个职能部门的目标，从而导致公司业绩达不到最佳水平--这是当今公司普遍采用的部门组织结构形式所带来的潜在危险。要实现职能部门间的协调，就需要有一定的衡量系统和激励机制来促进各职能部门间的合作。

Figure

图

Scope of the Modern Supply Chain
现代供应链的范围

functions involved need to be established. This is equally true of the interorganizational coordination required to manage product flows across company boundaries.
需要确定所涉及的职能。这同样适用于管理跨公司产品流所需的组织间协调。

It is important to note, however, that establishing a third functional group is not without its disadvantages. Two functional interfaces now exist where only one between marketing and production/operations previously existed. Some of the most difficult administrative problems arise from the interfunctional conflicts that occur when one is attempting to manage interface activities. Some of this potential conflict may be dissipated if a new organizational arrangement is created whereby production/operations and logistics are merged into one group called supply chain.
但必须指出的是，建立第三个职能小组并非没有弊端。现在有两个职能界面，而以前市场营销和生产/运营之间只有一个界面。一些最棘手的管理问题来自于试图管理界面活动时发生的职能间冲突。如果作出新的组织安排，将生产/运营和物流合并为一个称为供应链的小组，就可以消除一些潜在的冲突。

Just as managers are beginning to understand the benefits of interfunctional logistics management, interorganizational management is being encouraged. Supply chain management proponents who view the area more broadly than some logisticians have been strongly promoting the need for collaboration among supply channel members that are outside the immediate control of a company's logistician, that is members who are legally separate companies. Collaboration among the channel members that are linked through buyer-seller relationships is essential to achieving cost-service benefits unable to be realized by managers with strictly an internal view of their responsibilities. Supply chain managers consider themselves to have responsibility for the entire supply channel of the scope as illustrated in Figure 1-8. Managing in this broader environment is the new challenge for the contemporary logistician.
就在管理者开始了解功能间物流管理的好处时，组织间管理也受到了鼓励。供应链管理的支持者比某些物流专家更广泛地看待这一领域，他们一直在大力宣传在公司物流师直接控制范围之外的供应渠道成员（即法律上独立的公司成员）之间开展协作的必要性。通过买方和卖方关系联系起来的渠道成员之间的合作，对于实现成本服务效益至关重要，而这是严格从内部角度看待自身责任的管理者所无法实现的。如图 1-8 所示，供应链经理认为自己对整个供应渠道的范围负有责任。在这种更广泛的环境中进行管理是当代物流人员面临的新挑战。

OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS LOGISTICS/SC
商业物流/供应链的目标

Within the broader objectives of the firm, the business logistician seeks to achieve supply channel process goals that will move the firm toward its overall objectives. Specifically, the desire is to develop a logistics activity mix that will result in the highest possible return on investment over time. There are two dimensions to this goal: (1) the impact of the logistics system design on the revenue contribution, and (2) the operating cost and capital requirements of the design.
在公司更广泛的目标范围内，企业物流师寻求实现供应渠道流程目标，以推动公司实现其总体目标。具体来说，企业物流师希望制定的物流活动组合能够在一段时间内带来尽可能高的投资回报。这一目标包括两个方面：(1) 物流系统设计对收益贡献的影响，以及 (2) 设计的运营成本和资本要求。

Ideally, the logistician should know how much additional revenue would be generated through incremental improvements in the quality of customer service provided. However, such revenue is not generally known with great accuracy. Often, the customer service level is set at a target value, usually one that is acceptable to customers, the sales function, or other concerned parties. At this point, the logistics objective may become one of minimizing costs subject to meeting the desired service level rather than profit maximization or return on investment.
在理想情况下，物流人员应该知道，通过逐步提高客户服务质量可以增加多少收入。然而，这种收入通常并不十分准确。通常情况下，客户服务水平被设定在一个目标值上，这个目标值通常是客户、销售部门或其他相关方可以接受的。此时，物流目标可能会变成在满足预期服务水平的前提下尽量降低成本，而不是利润最大化或投资回报。

Unlike revenue, logistics costs usually can be determined as accurately as accounting practice will allow and are generally of two types: operating costs and capital costs. Operating costs are those that recur periodically or those that vary directly with variation in activity levels. Wages, public warehousing expenses, and administrative and certain other overhead expenses are examples of operating costs. Capital costs are the one-time expenses that do not change with normal variations in activity levels. Examples here are the investment in a private trucking fleet, the construction cost of a company warehouse, and the purchase of materials-handling equipment.
与收入不同，物流成本通常可以在会计实践允许的范围内尽可能准确地确定，一般分为两类：运营成本和资本成本。运营成本是指定期发生的成本，或直接随活动水平变化而变化的成本。工资、公共仓储费用、管理费用和某些其他间接费用都属于运营成本。资本成本是不随活动水平的正常变化而变化的一次性支出。例如，对私人卡车车队的投资、公司仓库的建造成本以及材料处理设备的购买。

If it is assumed that there is knowledge of the effect of logistics activity levels on revenues of the firm, a workable financial objective for logistics can be expressed in the ratio known as ROLA (return on logistics assets). ROLA is defined as
如果假定物流活动水平对公司收入的影响是已知的，那么可行的物流财务目标就可以用 ROLA（物流资产收益率）来表示。ROLA 的定义是

The contribution to revenue refers to the sales resulting from the logistics system design. Logistics operating costs are the expenses incurred to provide the level of logistics customer service needed to generate sales. Logistics assets are the capital investments made in the logistics system. ROLA is to be maximized over time.
对收入的贡献是指物流系统设计所产生的销售额。物流运营成本是指为创造销售额而提供必要水平的物流客户服务所产生的费用。物流资产是对物流系统的资本投资。随着时间的推移，ROLA 将达到最大化。

If the value of money is high, maximizing the present value of cash flows or maximizing the internal rate of return is a more appropriate statement of the objective. Maximizing the cumulative return on investment over time is the single most important objective to ensure the long-run survival of the firm.
如果货币价值较高，则现金流现值最大化或内部收益率最大化是更恰当的目标表述。最大化长期累积投资回报率是确保企业长期生存的最重要目标。

Approach to the Study of LogIStics/SC
研究 LogIStics/SC 的方法

Now that a background of definition and significance has been provided, we can begin our study of the management of logistics in a systematic way. Two themes are used in this text; they follow what management does and the skills needed to perform in a technically complex world. First, the work of management can be looked upon as performing the tasks of planning, organizing, and controlling to achieve the objectives of the firm. Planning refers to deciding on the goals for the firm, organizing refers to collecting and positioning the resources of firm to accomplish the company goals, and controlling refers to measuring company performance and taking corrective action when performance is not in line with goals. Because these are central to
既然已经提供了定义和意义的背景，我们就可以开始系统地研究物流管理了。本文使用了两个主题；它们是关于管理的工作以及在技术复杂的世界中开展工作所需的技能。首先，管理的工作可以看作是执行计划、组织和控制等任务，以实现公司的目标。规划指的是决定公司的目标，组织指的是收集和定位公司资源以实现公司目标，控制指的是衡量公司业绩并在业绩与目标不符时采取纠正措施。因为这些都是
what management does, each will be discussed within the various chapters of this book.
本书各章将讨论管理层的工作。

Second, managers, whether at entry level or top level, spend a great deal of time in the planning activity. To do effective planning, it is useful to have a vision of the goals of the firm, to have concepts and principles for guidance on how to get there, and to have tools that help to sort among alternative courses of action. Specifically for logistics management, planning follows a primary decision triangle of location, inventory, and transportation, with customer service being the result of these decisions (see Figure 1-9). Although the logistics' planning triangle is the primary organizational theme for this book, additional topics that relate to it will also be discussed. We begin with, an overview of a strategy for logistics planning and the information systems and technology that support the strategy. A chapter follows on the customer, who drives all logistics decision making. Chapters covering transportation, location, and inventory, which form the cornerstones of the logistics' planning triangle, are all included. Finally, chapters on organization and control round out the planning, organizing, and control theme. Contemporary issues such as global logistics, service industry logistics, quality, collaborative logistics, and reverse logistics are important, but are recognized as extensions of the basic ideas presented in the text. Therefore, their discussion is integrated throughout the text. Numerous examples are given to illustrate how the concepts and tools for good logistics/supply chain management apply to the problems actually encountered in the real world.
其次，无论是初级管理人员还是高层管理人员，都要花费大量时间进行规划活动。要进行有效的规划，就必须对公司的目标有一个远景规划，有指导如何实现目标的概念和原则，并有有助于对备选行动方案进行分类的工具。具体到物流管理，规划主要遵循位置、库存和运输三角决策，而客户服务则是这些决策的结果（见图 1-9）。尽管物流规划三角形是本书的主要组织主题，但与之相关的其他主题也将在本书中讨论。首先，我们将概述物流规划战略以及支持该战略的信息系统和技术。接下来的一章介绍客户，客户是所有物流决策的驱动力。此外，我们还将讨论构成物流规划三角形基石的运输、地点和库存等章节。最后，关于组织和控制的章节完善了规划、组织和控制的主题。全球物流、服务业物流、质量、协作物流和逆向物流等当代问题非常重要，但这些问题被认为是本书基本思想的延伸。因此，对这些问题的讨论贯穿全文。书中列举了大量实例，说明良好物流/供应链管理的概念和工具如何应用于现实世界中实际遇到的问题。

From just about every standpoint-whether cost, value to customers, or strategic importance to a firm's mission-logistics/SC is vital. However, only in recent years have businesses on a broad scale begun to manage supply chain activities in an
无论是从成本、对客户的价值，还是对公司使命的战略重要性等任何角度来看，物流/供应链都是至关重要的。然而，直到最近几年，企业才开始大规模地管理供应链活动。

Figure 1-9 The Planning Triangle in Relation to the Principal Activities of Logistics/Supply Chain Management
图 1-9 与物流/供应链管理主要活动有关的三角规划图

integrated way-that is, to think about products and services flowing seamlessly from the sources of raw materials to the final consumers. Moreover, in recent times that flow must include backward movement in the supply channel, or reverse logistics. The economic forces-mainly increased worldwide deregulation of business, proliferation of free trade agreements, increased foreign competition, increased globalization of industries, and increased requirements for faster and more certain logistics performance--have all been instrumental in elevating logistics to a high level of importance in many firms. New opportunities for logistics management, brought about by growth in the service sector, environmental issues, and information technology, will continue to support the vital nature of logistics for many years to come.
即考虑产品和服务从原材料源头到最终消费者之间的无缝流动。此外，近来这种流动还必须包括供应渠道的后向流动，即逆向物流。各种经济力量--主要是全球范围内商业管制的日益放松、自由贸易协定的激增、外国竞争的加剧、产业全球化的发展，以及对更快、更可靠的物流绩效的更高要求--都有助于提升物流在许多企业中的重要性。服务业的发展、环境问题和信息技术为物流管理带来的新机遇，将在今后许多年里继续支持物流的重要性。

The primary emphasis of this text is directed toward dealing effectively with the managerial problems associated with moving and storing goods throughout the supply chain by business firms. These firms may be producing either goods or services and will have profit-making objectives.
本教材的主要重点是有效处理与商业公司在整个供应链中移动和存储货物相关的管理问题。这些公司既可以生产商品，也可以提供服务，并以盈利为目标。

This text is organized around the three primary tasks of management: planning, organizing, and controlling. Usually, the most difficult of these is planning, that is, the identification of, and selection among, alternative courses of action. Therefore, major emphasis will be given to this phase of management. It is the approach of this text to describe logistics problems as simply as possible and to apply definitive methodology in solving them that has proven to be of practical value in real applications. It is a decision-making approach.
本文围绕管理的三大主要任务展开：计划、组织和控制。通常，其中最困难的是规划，即确定和选择备选行动方案。因此，管理的主要重点将放在这一阶段。本教材的方法是尽可能简单地描述物流问题，并采用在实际应用中被证明具有实用价值的明确方法来解决这些问题。这是一种决策方法。

Questions and Problems 问题与难题

What is supply chain management? Contrast it with business logistics management.
什么是供应链管理？将其与商业物流管理进行对比。
Describe business logistics, as you would expect it to be practiced in the following countries or regions:
请描述以下国家或地区的商业物流实践：

a. United States a.美国

b. Japan b.日本

c. European Union c.欧洲联盟

d. Australia d.澳大利亚

e. South Africa e.南非

f. China f.中国

g. Brazil g.巴西

Summarize the factors and forces that give logistics importance among other functional areas (marketing, finance, production) of a firm.
总结使物流在企业其他职能领域（营销、财务、生产）中占据重要地位的因素和力量。
Discuss the similarities and differences between logistics management of a manufacturing firm and
讨论制造企业的物流管理与其他企业的物流管理之间的异同。

a. a service firm (bank, hospital, etc.)
a. 服务公司（银行、医院等）

b. a nonprofit organization (symphony orchestra, art museum, etc.)
b. 非营利组织（交响乐团、艺术博物馆等）

c. the military c. 军队

d. a retailing firm (general merchandise, fast food, etc.)
d. 零售公司（日用百货、快餐等）

Discuss the role that efficient and effective logistics systems play in encouraging a high level of foreign trade.
讨论高效和有效的物流系统在鼓励高水平对外贸易方面发挥的作用。
Why is it that both marketing and production may claim some or all of logistics activities as part of their area of responsibility?
为什么营销和生产部门都会将部分或全部物流活动视为其职责范围的一部分？
What are the key activities of the business logistics function? Discuss their existence and importance to the management of
企业物流职能有哪些关键活动？讨论它们的存在及其对企业管理的重要性。

a. a TV manufacturer (Sony)
A. 电视机制造商（索尼）

b. a touring musical group (Berlin Philharmonic)
b. 巡回演出的音乐团体（柏林爱乐乐团）

c. a hospital (Massachusetts General)
c. 一家医院（马萨诸塞州综合医院）

d. a city government (New York City)
d. 市政府（纽约市）

e. a fast-food chain (McDonald's)
e. 快餐连锁店（麦当劳）

How do you think international logistics differs from logistics for a firm with global operations?
您认为国际物流与全球运营公司的物流有何不同？
Suggest some products that benefit significantly from increased time and place value.
推荐一些从时间和位置价值的提高中受益匪浅的产品。
Establishing logistics as a separate area for management within a business firm creates an additional set of interface activities. What are interface activities? Why would the creation of an additional set of interface activities cause concern in most companies?
在企业内部将物流作为一个单独的管理领域，会产生一系列额外的接口活动。什么是接口活动？为什么新增的一系列接口活动会引起大多数公司的关注？
The political and economic barriers are continuing to come down among the several countries of the European Union. If you are a manager of physical distribution for a multinational company that sells finished consumer goods (e.g., Procter & Gamble of Italy) within your own country, what distribution decisions are facing you in the future?
欧盟几个国家之间的政治和经济壁垒不断减少。如果你是一家在本国销售成品消费品的跨国公司（如意大利的宝洁公司）的实体分销经理，你今后将面临哪些分销决策？
Suppose that a manufacturer of men's shirts can produce a dress shirt in its Houston, Texas plant for per shirt (including the cost of raw materials). Chicago is a major market for 100,000 shirts per year. The shirt is priced at at the Houston plant. Transportation and storage charges from Houston to Chicago amount to per hundredweight (cwt.). Each packaged shirt weighs 1 pound.
假设一家男式衬衫制造商在德克萨斯州休斯顿的工厂生产一件正装衬衫的成本为（包括原材料成本）。芝加哥是一个主要市场，每年销售 100,000 件衬衫。该衬衫在休斯顿工厂的售价为。从休斯顿到芝加哥的运输和仓储费用为每 100 磅 (cwt.) 。每件包装衬衫重 1 磅。

As an alternative, the company can have the shirts produced in Taiwan for

per shirt (including the cost of raw materials). The raw materials, weighing about 1 pound per shirt, would be shipped from Houston to Taiwan at a cost of

per cwt. When the shirts are completed, they are to be shipped directly to Chicago at a transportation and storage cost of

per cwt. An import duty of

per shirt is assessed.
作为替代方案，该公司可以在台湾生产衬衫，每件衬衫的价格为

（包括原材料成本）。每件衬衫重约 1 磅的原材料将从休斯顿运往台湾，运费为每磅

。衬衫完工后，将直接运往芝加哥，运输和仓储费用为每担

。每件衬衫的进口税为

。

a. From a logistics-production cost stand point, should the shirts be produced in Taiwan?
a.从物流和生产成本的角度来看，衬衫是否应该在台湾生产？

b. What additional considerations, other than economic ones, might be considered before making a final decision?
b.在做出最终决定之前，除了经济因素之外，还需要考虑哪些其他因素？

Use the following form as part of an in-class exercise. Be prepared to discuss your choices and to contrast them with others in the class. Identify the common elements making some companies successful logistically and the elements that are missing among others leading to logistics/SC failures.
将以下表格作为课堂练习的一部分。准备讨论你的选择，并与班上其他同学进行对比。找出一些公司在物流方面取得成功的共同要素，以及导致物流/供应链失败的其他公司所缺少的要素。

Examples of Good Logistics/ Supply Chain Strategy, or Lack Thereof
良好物流/供应链战略或缺乏良好物流/供应链战略的实例

Many firms use logistics/supply chain strategy as a central element in their corporate strategy. You are asked to identify those firms that have been successful because of their logistics/supply chain strategy execution and to note why you consider the execution outstanding (Hall of Famers). Conversely, identify those firms that suffer from poor execution of an important logistics/supply chain strategy (Hall of Shamers).
许多公司将物流/供应链战略作为公司战略的核心要素。请您找出那些因执行物流/供应链战略而获得成功的公司，并说明为什么您认为它们执行得非常出色（名人堂）。反之，请找出那些在重要的物流/供应链战略方面执行不力的公司（Hall of Shamers）。

Hall of Famers. Identify three firms that use a logistics/supply chain strategy as an important element of their overall business strategy.
名人堂。指出三家将物流/供应链战略作为其整体业务战略重要组成部分的公司。

Hall of Famers 名人堂成员

Logistics/Supply Chain 物流/供应链

Elements Well Executed 要素执行得当

Hall of Shamers. Identify three firms that have failed in the execution of a logistics/supply chain strategy important to their overall strategy.
耻辱大厅。指出三家在执行对其整体战略非常重要的物流/供应链战略方面失败的公司。

Hall of Shamers 羞辱者大厅

Logistics/Supply Chain 物流/供应链

Elements That Failed 失败的要素

From a logistics/supply chain viewpoint, what distinguishes the Hall of Famers from the Hall of Shamers?
从物流/供应链的角度来看，名人堂与耻辱堂的区别在哪里？

Distinguishing Features

显著特点

Chapter 2
Logistics/Supply Chain Strategy and Planning
第 2 章物流/供应链战略与规划

Abstract 摘要

While in the past physical distribution (logistics) has been referred to as the last frontier of cost economies, it is now the new frontier of the demand generation.
过去，实体配送（物流）被称为成本经济的最后前沿，而现在，它已成为创造需求的新前沿。

J n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Alice asks the Cheshire Cat, "Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?" "That depends a good deal on where you want to get to," said the Cat.

Deciding a company's strategic direction in order to meet its financial, growth, market share, and other objectives is an important first consideration for management. This is a creative, visionary process, usually conducted by top management, whereby a firm's overall direction is outlined and translated into a corporate action plan.
在《爱丽丝漫游奇境记》中，爱丽丝问柴郡猫："你能告诉我，从这里我应该走哪条路吗？""猫说："这在很大程度上取决于你想去哪里。

为了实现财务、增长、市场份额和其他目标，决定公司的战略方向是管理层首先要考虑的重要问题。这是一个富有创造性和远见的过程，通常由最高管理层负责，在这个过程中，公司的总体方向被勾勒出来，并转化为公司的行动计划。

For the functional areas of the firm, the corporate plan is then divided into subplans, such as marketing, production, and logistics. These subplans require making many specific decisions. Regarding the supply chain, these decisions include locating warehouses, setting inventory policies, designing order-entry systems, and selecting transportation modes. Many of these may be aided by the application of various concepts for logistics and decision-making techniques available to the supply chain manager.
就公司的职能领域而言，公司计划又分为营销、生产和物流等子计划。这些子计划需要做出许多具体决策。关于供应链，这些决策包括确定仓库位置、制定库存政策、设计订单输入系统和选择运输方式。供应链管理者可以通过应用各种物流概念和决策技术来辅助其中的许多决策。

This chapter focuses on the planning process, first from the corporate-wide perspective and then from the logistics function viewpoint. A framework is set for planning that will form the basis for later chapters. This chapter, as well as much of this book, will be focused on planning and the decision making that leads to good logistics/SC plans that contribute to a firm's financial goals.
本章首先从整个企业的角度，然后从物流功能的角度，重点介绍规划过程。本章为规划设定了一个框架，它将成为后面各章的基础。本章以及本书的大部分内容都将围绕规划和决策展开，从而制定出有助于实现公司财务目标的良好物流/供应链计划。

Corporate StRAtegy 企业战略

Corporate strategy creation begins with a clear expression of the firm's objectives. Whether the company is to seek profit, survival, social, return on investment, market share, or growth goals should be well understood. Next, a process of visioning is likely to take place where unconventional, unheard of, and even counterintuitive strategies are considered. This requires addressing the four components of good strategy: customers, suppliers, competitors, and the company itself. Assessing the needs, strengths, weaknesses, orientations, and perspectives of each of these components is a beginning.

Then, brainstorming about what may be possible as a niche strategy is the output of this visioning process. The following are examples of such visions:
制定公司战略首先要明确表达公司的目标。公司是要追求利润、生存、社会、投资回报、市场份额，还是要实现增长目标，这些都应清楚明了。接下来，可能会有一个远景规划的过程，在这个过程中要考虑非常规的、闻所未闻的，甚至是反直觉的战略。这需要解决好战略的四个组成部分：客户、供应商、竞争对手和公司本身。首先要评估这些组成部分的需求、优势、劣势、方向和观点。

然后，集思广益，探讨什么是可能的利基战略，这就是远景规划过程的成果。以下是此类愿景的实例：

General Electric's vision is to be number one or two in each market that it serves; it will get out of any market in which it cannot maintain that standard.
通用电气的愿景是在其服务的每个市场上都成为第一或第二；如果不能保持这一标准，它将退出任何市场。
Hewlett-Packard envisions serving the scientific community.
惠普公司希望为科学界提供服务。
IBM constantly reshapes itself to remain an effective competitor.
IBM 不断调整自己，以保持有效的竞争力。

Next, the broad, general visioning strategies need to be converted into plans that are more definitive. With a clear understanding of the firm's costs, financial strengths and weaknesses, market share position, asset base and deployment, external environment, competitive forces, and employee skills, a selection is made from alternative strategies that evolve from the threats and opportunities facing the firm. These strategies now become specific directions for how the vision will be made reality.
接下来，需要将广泛而笼统的愿景战略转化为更加明确的计划。在清楚了解公司的成本、财务优势和劣势、市场份额地位、资产基础和部署、外部环境、竞争力量和员工技能之后，就可以从公司面临的威胁和机遇中选出备选战略。现在，这些战略成为如何实现愿景的具体方向。

Examples 实例

Xerox's copier patents were running out, meaning the company would no longer have a differentiated product in the marketplace. Therefore, it adopted the strategy to be number one in field service.
施乐公司的复印机专利即将到期，这意味着该公司在市场上将不再拥有差异化产品。因此，施乐公司采取了在现场服务领域排名第一的战略。
StarKist Foods adopted a supply-side strategy of buying and packing all the tuna that its own fleet and its contracted fleets could catch. This would help it to be the dominant packer in the tuna business.
StarKist 食品公司采取供应方战略，购买和包装其自有船队和合同船队能够捕获的所有金枪鱼。这将有助于它成为金枪鱼行业的主导包装商。

The corporate strategy drives the functional strategies because they are contained within the former, as shown in Figure 2-1. The corporate strategy is realized as manufacturing, marketing, finance, and logistics shape their plans to meet it. When StarKist Foods decided on a supply-side strategy, marketing and logistics responded
如图 2-1 所示，公司战略驱动职能战略，因为职能战略包含在公司战略中。公司战略在生产、营销、财务和物流部门制定计划时就已实现。当 StarKist 食品公司决定采用供应方战略时，市场营销和物流部门做出了以下反应

Figure 2-1 Overview of Corporate Strategic Planning to Functional Strategic Planning
图 2-1 从公司战略规划到职能战略规划的概述

Source: William Copacino and Donald B. Rosenfield, "Analytic Tools for Strategic Planning," International Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials Management, Vol. 15, No. 3 (1985), p. 48.
资料来源William Copacino 和 Donald B. Rosenfield，"战略规划的分析工具"，《国际实物分销和材料管理杂志》，第 15 卷，第 3 期（1985 年），第 48 页。

with their plan to control the potential excess inventories that would result. This plan was to place tuna on sale to reduce inventories when necessary. The plan works because tuna is in such demand that consumers often stock up when it is on sale. Let's now turn to the specific way logistics strategies are developed.
的计划，以控制可能造成的库存过剩。该计划是在必要时将金枪鱼出售，以减少库存。该计划之所以有效，是因为金枪鱼的需求量非常大，消费者通常会在打折时囤货。现在让我们来看看制定物流战略的具体方法。

LOGISTICS/SC STRATEGY 物流/供应链战略

Selecting a good logistics/SC strategy requires much of the same creative processes as developing a good corporate strategy. Innovative approaches to logistics/SC strategy can give a competitive advantage.
选择一个好的物流/供应链战略需要与制定一个好的企业战略相同的创造性过程。物流/供应链战略的创新方法可以带来竞争优势。

Examples 实例

An office machine company took a bold step to save on valuable machine repair time. Traditionally, repair technicians were sent by a central service center to the customer repair site. These highly trained and highly paid personnel spent a fair amount of their time traveling to and from these sites. The company redesigned its logistics system so that inventories of on-loan and replaceinent machines were placed at service centers around the country. When a machine broke down, a replacement machine would be sent to the customer, and the
一家办公设备公司采取了一项大胆举措，以节省宝贵的设备维修时间。传统上，维修技术人员由中央服务中心派往客户维修现场。这些训练有素的高薪人员需要花费大量时间往返于这些地点。该公司重新设计了物流系统，将库存的借用和替换机器放置在全国各地的服务中心。当机器发生故障时，将向客户发送替换机器，而
broken machine sent to the service center for repair. The new system not only saved on repair costs, but improved customer service as well.
坏掉的机器送往服务中心维修。新系统不仅节省了维修成本，还改善了客户服务。
American Hospital Supply developed an efficient purchasing system for its customers by putting terminals in each of its customers' offices. The system simplified and facilitated the ordering process for its customers, and guaranteed a higher proportion of orders for American Hospital Supply..
美国医院用品公司通过在每个客户的办公室安装终端，为客户开发了一套高效的采购系统。该系统简化并方便了客户的订购流程，保证了美国医院用品公司的订单比例提高。

It has been suggested that a logistics strategy has three objectives: cost reduction, capital reduction, and service improvement.
有人认为，物流战略有三个目标：降低成本、减少资本和改善服务。

Cost reduction is strategy directed toward minimizing the variable costs associated with movement and storage. The best strategy is usually formulated by evaluating alternative courses of action, such as choosing among different warehouse locations or selecting among alternative transport modes. Service levels are typically held constant while the minimum cost alternatives are being found. Profit maximization is the prime goal.
降低成本是一种战略，旨在将与运输和储存相关的可变成本降至最低。最佳战略通常是通过评估备选行动方案来制定的，例如从不同的仓库地点中进行选择，或从备选运输方式中进行选择。在寻找成本最低的替代方案时，服务水平通常保持不变。利润最大化是首要目标。

Capital reduction is strategy directed toward minimizing the level of investment in the logistics system. Maximizing the return on logistics assets is the motivation for this strategy. Shipping direct to customers to avoid warehousing, choosing public warehouses over privately owned warehouses, selecting a just-in-time supply approach rather than stocking to inventory, or using third-party providers of logistics services are examples. These strategies may result in higher variable costs than strategies requiring a higher level of investment; however, the return on investment may be increased.
资本缩减战略旨在最大限度地降低物流系统的投资水平。物流资产回报最大化是这一战略的动机。直接向客户发货以避免仓储，选择公共仓库而非私有仓库，选择即时供应方式而非库存，或使用第三方物流服务提供商，都是这方面的例子。与需要较高投资水平的战略相比，这些战略可能会导致较高的可变成本；但投资回报可能会增加。

Service improvement strategies usually recognize that revenues depend on the level of logistics service provided. Although costs increase rapidly with increased levels of logistics customer service, the increased revenues may offset the higher costs. To be effective, the service strategy is developed in contrast with that provided by the competition.
服务改进战略通常认为，收入取决于所提供的物流服务水平。虽然成本会随着物流客户服务水平的提高而迅速增加，但收入的增加可能会抵消成本的增加。要使服务战略行之有效，就必须与竞争对手的服务战略形成对比。

Example 示例

Parker Hannifin, a maker of seals and O-rings, won sales with superior logistics customer service. A customer's purchasing agent showed the Parker Hannifin salesperson two invoices for the same product, one from a competitor and one from Parker Hannifin. The competitor's price was 8 percent lower. However, if Parker Hannifin would maintain a service center (an inventory stocking point with additional valueadded services) for the customer, then Parker Hannifin stood to gain over a million dollars of business at the higher price. Parker Hannifin complied and established the center, getting the contract. The customer was satisfied and Parker Hannifin made a profit, since operating the service center cost 3.5 percent of the sale:
派克汉尼汾公司是一家密封件和 O 形圈制造商，它以卓越的物流客户服务赢得了销售业绩。一位客户的采购代理向派克汉尼汾公司的销售人员出示了两张相同产品的发票，一张来自竞争对手，另一张来自派克汉尼汾公司。竞争对手的价格低 8%。但是，如果 Parker Hannifin 能为客户维持一个服务中心（提供附加增值服务的库存储备点），那么 Parker Hannifin 就能以较高的价格获得超过一百万美元的业务。派克汉尼汾同意并建立了服务中心，从而获得了合同。客户很满意，而派克汉尼汾公司也获得了利润，因为运营服务中心的成本占销售额的 3.5%：

A proactive logistics strategy often begins with the business goals and customer service requirements. These have been referred to as "attack" strategies to meet competition. The remainder of the logistics system design can then be derived from these attack strategies.
积极主动的物流战略通常始于业务目标和客户服务要求。这些被称为应对竞争的 "进攻 "战略。物流系统设计的其余部分可以从这些攻击战略中衍生出来。

Examples 实例

Nabisco comfortably reigned as king of steak sauces with its A-1 brand. Then Kraft came out with a spicier version called Bulls Eye. This competitive move by Kraft threatened Nabisco's franchise. . Vabisco responded with A-1 Bold, throwing its supply chain into overdrive and putting Bold on the store shelves in a matter of months. Vabisco succeeded in knocking Bulls Eve off the market. Without Nabisco's fast-response supply chain, Bulls Eye, which was a very good product, would have had time to take market share.
纳贝斯克（Nabisco）以其 A-1 品牌轻松蝉联牛排酱之王。随后，卡夫推出了一款名为 "牛眼"（Bulls Eye）的辣酱。卡夫的这一竞争举措威胁到了纳贝斯克的专营权。.纳贝斯克以 A-1 Bold 作为回应，在几个月内将其供应链投入超负荷运转，并将 Bold 摆上了商店的货架。纳贝斯克成功地将 "公牛夏娃 "挤出了市场。如果没有纳贝斯克快速反应的供应链，牛眼这个非常好的产品就有时间抢占市场份额。
Domino Pizza is just one of many in the pizza market, serviced by competitors such as Pizza Hut as well as an army of independent retail operations. It has now become America's second-largest pizza chain by promising customers a discount on any pie not delivered within 30) minutes from the time it's ordered.'
多米诺披萨只是披萨市场上众多披萨连锁店中的一家，其竞争对手包括必胜客以及一大批独立的零售店。它现在已成为美国第二大披萨连锁店，它向顾客承诺，凡是在订餐后 30 分钟内未送达的馅饼，都可享受折扣。
Frito-Lay developed a strategic advantage with its direct-to-store delivery system, and Atlas Door recognized that no company in the industrial door business could get a door to a customer in less than three months. Atlas stepped in and dereloped a strategy: based on delivering a door in much less time, and it now enjoys a major share of the market.
Frito-Lay 公司凭借其直接到店的送货系统形成了战略优势，而 Atlas Door 公司则认识到，在工业门业务领域，没有一家公司能在三个月内将一扇门送到客户手中。阿特拉斯介入并制定了一项战略：在更短的时间内交付一扇门，现在它在市场上占有很大份额。

Each link in the logistics system is planned and balanced with each other in an integrated logistics planning process (see Figure 2-2). Design of the management and control systems completes the planning cycle.
在综合物流规划过程中，物流系统的每个环节都要进行规划并相互平衡（见图 2-2）。管理和控制系统的设计完成了规划周期。

Designing effective logistics customer service strategies requires no particular program or technique. It is simply the product of a sharp mind. Once the logistics service strategy is formulated, the task is then to meet it. This involves selecting among alternative courses of action. Such selection is amenable to various concepts and techniques for analysis. The next section sets the stage for such evaluation. A recurrent theme throughout this book is understanding the logistical alternatives open to the supply chain manager and how they can be evaluated.
设计有效的物流客户服务战略并不需要特别的程序或技术。它只是敏锐头脑的产物。一旦制定了物流服务战略，接下来的任务就是实现它。这就需要在备选行动方案中进行选择。这种选择适用于各种分析概念和技术。下一节将介绍如何进行评估。本书的一个经常性主题是了解供应链经理可以选择的物流方案，以及如何对这些方案进行评估。

Logistics Management (Śan Diego, CA: October 8-11, 1995), p. 164.
物流管理》（加州圣地亚哥：1995 年 10 月 8-11 日），第 164 页。

7"How Managers Can Succeed Through SPEED," Fortune (February 13, 1989), pp. 54-59.
7 "管理者如何通过速度获得成功"，《财富》（1989 年 2 月 13 日），第 54-59 页。

Ernst, "Visioning," pp. 153-165.

恩斯特，《远景规划》，第 153-165 页。
}

Figure 2-2 Flow of Logistics Planning
图 2-2 物流规划流程

Source: William Copacino and Donald B. Rosenfield, "Analytic Tools for Strategic Planning," International Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials Management, Vol. 15, No. 3 (1985), p. 49.
资料来源William Copacino 和 Donald B. Rosenfield，"战略规划的分析工具"，《国际实物分销和材料管理杂志》，第 15 卷，第 3 期（1985 年），第 49 页。

LOGISTICS/SC PLANNING 后勤/规划

Levels of Planning 规划层次

Logistics planning attempts to answer the questions of what, when, and how, and it takes place at three levels: strategic, tactical, and operational. The major difference between them is the time horizon for the planning. Strategic planning is considered long-range, where the time horizon is longer than one year. Tactical planning involves an intermediate time horizon, usually less than a year. Operational planning is shortrange decision making, with decisions frequently made on an hourly or daily basis. The concern is how to move the product effectively and efficiently through the strategically planned logistics channel. Selected examples of typical problems with these various planning time horizons are shown in Table 2-1.
物流规划试图回答 "什么"、"何时 "和 "如何 "的问题，它在三个层面上进行：战略、战术和操作。它们之间的主要区别在于规划的时间跨度。战略规划被视为长期规划，时间跨度超过一年。战术规划涉及中期时间跨度，通常少于一年。运营规划是短期决策，经常是每小时或每天做出决策。关注的是如何通过战略规划的物流渠道有效、高效地运输产品。表 2-1 列出了不同规划时间跨度下典型问题的部分示例。

Each planning level requires a different perspective. Because of its long time horizon, strategic planning works with data that are often incomplete and imprecise. Data may be averaged, and plans are usually considered good enough if they are reasonably close to optimum. At the other end of the spectrum, operational planning works with very accurate data, and the methods for planning should be able to handle a great deal of these data and still find reasonable plans. For example, we may strategically plan all company inventories not to exceed a certain dollar limit or to
每个规划层次都需要不同的视角。由于时间跨度长，战略规划所使用的数据往往不完整、不精确。数据可能是平均值，如果计划合理地接近最佳值，通常就被认为是足够好的计划。在另一端，运营规划使用的是非常精确的数据，规划方法应该能够处理大量这些数据，并仍能找到合理的计划。例如，我们可以从战略角度规划公司的所有库存，使其不超过某一美元限额或

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Major Planning Areas 主要规划区

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对系统设计产生重要影响。

Figure 2-3 The Triangle of Logistics Decision Making
图 2-3 物流决策的三角关系

Customer Service Goals 客户服务目标

More than any other factor, the level of logistics customer service provided dramatically affects system design. Low levels of service allow centralized inventories at few locations and the use of less expensive forms of transportation. High service levels generally require just the opposite. However, when service levels are pressed to their upper limits, logistics costs will rise at a rate disproportionate to the service level. Therefore, the first concern in logistics strategic planning must be the proper setting of customer service levels.
与其他因素相比，物流客户服务水平对系统设计的影响更大。低水平的服务允许在少数地点集中库存，并使用成本较低的运输方式。高服务水平的要求通常恰恰相反。然而，当服务水平达到上限时，物流成本将以与服务水平不相称的速度上升。因此，物流战略规划的首要问题必须是正确设定客户服务水平。

Facility Location Strategy
设施选址战略

The geographic placement of the stocking points and their sourcing points creates an outline for the logistics plan. Fixing the number, location, and size of the facilities and assigning market demand to them determines the paths through which products are directed to the marketplace. The proper scope for the facility location problem is to include all product movements and associated costs as they take place from plant, vendor, or port locations through the intermediate stocking points, and on to customer locations. Assigning customer demand to be served directly from plants, vendors, or ports, or directing it through selected stocking points, affects total distribution costs. Finding the lowest cost assignments, or alternatively the maximum profit assignments, is the essence of facility location strategy.
库存点及其采购点的地理位置为物流计划勾勒出轮廓。确定设施的数量、位置和规模，并将市场需求分配给这些设施，就决定了产品进入市场的路径。设施选址问题的适当范围应包括从工厂、供应商或港口到中间储存点，再到客户所在地的所有产品流动和相关成本。是直接从工厂、供应商或港口满足客户需求，还是通过选定的库存点满足客户需求，都会影响总配送成本。寻找成本最低的配送点，或者利润最高的配送点，是设施选址战略的精髓所在。

Inventory Decisions 库存决策

Inventory decisions refer to the manner in which inventories are managed. Allocating (pushing) inventories to the stocking points versus pulling them into stocking points through inventory replenishment rules represent two strategies. Selective location of various items in the product line in plant, regional, or field
库存决策是指管理库存的方式。将库存分配（推送）到库存点与通过库存补充规则将库存拉入库存点代表了两种策略。在工厂、地区或现场选择性地放置产品线中的各种物品
warehouses or managing inventory levels by various methods of perpetual inventory control are others. The particular policy used by the firm affects the facility location decision and, therefore, the policy should be considered in the logistics strategy.
此外，还可以采用仓库或通过各种永久库存控制方法来管理库存水平。企业所采用的特定政策会影响设施选址决策，因此，在制定物流战略时应考虑到这一政策。

Transport Strategy 运输战略

Transport decisions can involve mode selection, shipment size, and routing and scheduling. These decisions are influenced by the proximity of warehouses to customers and plants, which, in turn, influence warehouse location. Inventory levels also respond to transport decisions through shipment size.
运输决策可能涉及模式选择、运输规模、路线安排和日程安排。这些决策受仓库与客户和工厂距离的影响，而客户和工厂又反过来影响仓库的位置。库存水平也会通过运输规模对运输决策做出反应。

Customer service levels, facility location, inventory, and transportation are major planning areas because of the impact that decisions in these areas have on the firm's profitability, cash flow, and return on investment. Each decision area is interrelated and transport strategy should be planned with at least some consideration of the trade-off effect.
客户服务水平、设施选址、库存和运输是主要的规划领域，因为这些领域的决策会对公司的盈利能力、现金流和投资回报产生影响。每个决策领域都是相互关联的，在规划运输战略时至少应考虑到权衡效应。

Conceptualizing the Logistics/SC Planning Problem
物流/供应链规划问题的概念化

Another way to look at the logistics planning problem is to view it in the abstract as a network of links and nodes, as shown in Figure 2-4. The links of the network represent the movement of goods between various inventory storage points. These storage points-retail stores, warehouses, factories, or vendors-are the nodes. There may be several links between any pair of nodes, to represent alternate forms of transportation service, different routes, and different products. Nodes represent points
另一种看待物流规划问题的方法是将其抽象地视为一个由链接和节点组成的网络，如图 2-4 所示。网络中的链接表示货物在各个库存存储点之间的流动。这些存储点--零售店、仓库、工厂或供应商--就是节点。任何一对节点之间都可能有多个链接，以表示不同的运输服务形式、不同的路线和不同的产品。节点代表点

Figure 2-4 An Abbreviated Network Diagram for a Logistics System
图 2-4 物流系统简略网络图

where the flow of inventory is temporarily stopped--for example, at a warehousebefore moving on to a retail store and on to the final consumer.
库存流动暂时停止的地方，例如在仓库，然后再转到零售店和最终消费者手中。

These move-store activities for inventory flows are only one part of the total logistics system. In addition, there is a network of information flows. Information is derived from sales revenues, product costs, inventory levels, warehouse utilization, forecasts, transportation rates, and the like. Links in the information network usually consist of the mail or electronic methods for transmitting information from one geographic point to another. Nodes are the various data collection and processing points, such as a clerk who handles order processing and prepares bills of lading

or a computer that updates inventory records.
这些库存流动的仓储活动只是整个物流系统的一部分。此外，还有一个信息流网络。信息来源于销售收入、产品成本、库存水平、仓库利用率、预测、运输率等。信息网络中的链接通常包括从一个地理点向另一个地理点传输信息的邮件或电子方式。节点是各种数据收集和处理点，如处理订单和准备提货单的办事员

或更新库存记录的计算机。

In concept, the information network is much like the product flow network in that both can be viewed as a collection of links and nodes. However, a major difference in the networks is that product mainly flows "down" the distribution channel (toward the final consumer), whereas information mainly, but not entirely, flows "up" the channel (toward raw material sources).
在概念上，信息网络与产品流通网络很相似，都可以看作是链接和节点的集合。然而，这两个网络的一个主要区别是，产品主要是在分销渠道 "向下 "流动（流向最终消费者），而信息主要是，但不完全是，在渠道 "向上 "流动（流向原材料来源）。

The product flow network and the information network combine to form a logistics system. The networks are combined, since designing each separately can lead to a suboptimal design for the entire system. Thus, the networks are dependent. For example, the design of the information network influences the order-cycle times for the system. Order-cycle times, in turn, affect the inventory levels that must be maintained at the nodes in the product network. The availability of inventory affects customer service levels, and customer service levels, in turn, affect order-cycle times and the information network design. In addition, still other interdependencies require viewing the logistics system as a whole rather than by its parts.
产品流网络和信息网络组合成一个物流系统。这两个网络是结合在一起的，因为单独设计每个网络可能会导致整个系统的次优设计。因此，这两个网络是相互依存的。例如，信息网络的设计会影响系统的订单周期时间。订单周期时间反过来又会影响产品网络节点必须保持的库存水平。库存量会影响客户服务水平，而客户服务水平又会影响订货周期时间和信息网络设计。此外，还有其他一些相互依存的关系，需要将物流系统视为一个整体，而不是由其各个部分组成。

Logistics planning is a design problem. The network is to be constructed as a configuration of warehouses, retail outlets, factories, deployed inventories, transportation services, and information processing systems that will achieve an optimum balance between the revenues resulting from the level of customer service established by the network design and the costs associated with the creation and operation of the network.
物流规划是一个设计问题。网络的构建是仓库、零售点、工厂、部署库存、运输服务和信息处理系统的组合，它将在网络设计所确定的客户服务水平所带来的收益与网络创建和运营的相关成本之间实现最佳平衡。

When to Plan
何时计划

In the planning process, when the network should be planned or planned again is the first consideration. If no logistics system currently exists, as in the case of a new firm or of new items within an existing product line, the need for planning a logistics network is obvious. However, in most cases in which a logistics network is already in place, a decision must be made either to modify the existing network or to allow it to continue to operate, even though it may not be an optimal design. A definitive answer to this question cannot be given without doing the actual planning. However, general guidelines for network appraisal and audit can be offered in the five key areas of demand, customer service, product characteristics, logistics costs, and pricing policy.
在规划过程中，首先要考虑何时应规划或再次规划网络。如果目前不存在物流系统，如新公司或现有产品系列中的新产品，则显然需要规划物流网络。然而，在大多数情况下，如果物流网络已经存在，就必须决定是修改现有网络，还是让它继续运行，尽管它可能不是一个最佳设计。在没有进行实际规划之前，无法对这一问题给出明确的答案。不过，可以从需求、客户服务、产品特点、物流成本和定价政策这五个关键方面提供网络评估和审计的一般准则。

Demand 需求

Both the level of demand and its geographic dispersion greatly influence the configuration of logistics networks. Firms often experience disproportionate growth or decline in one region of the country compared with others. Although only expansion or reduction at current facilities may be required, substantial shifting of demand patterns may require that new warehouses or plants be located in rapidly growing areas while facilities in slow growth or declining markets need to be closed. Such disproportionate growth of only a few percentage points a year often is sufficient to justify network replanning.
需求水平及其地理分布在很大程度上影响着物流网络的布局。与其他地区相比，企业在国内某一地区的增长或衰退往往不成比例。虽然可能只需要扩建或减少现有设施，但需求模式的重大变化可能要求在快速增长的地区建立新的仓库或工厂，而在增长缓慢或衰退市场的设施则需要关闭。这种每年只有几个百分点的不成比例的增长往往就足以证明有必要对网络进行重新规划。

Customer Service 客户服务

Customer service broadly includes inventory availability, speed of delivery, and order filling speed and accuracy. The costs associated with these factors increase at a higher rate as the customer service level is raised. Therefore, distribution costs will be quite sensitive to the level of customer service provided, especially if it is already high.
客户服务大致包括库存可用性、交货速度、订单填写速度和准确性。随着客户服务水平的提高，与这些因素相关的成本会以更高的速度增长。因此，配送成本对客户服务水平相当敏感，尤其是在客户服务水平已经很高的情况下。

Reformulating the logistics strategy is usually needed when service levels are changed due to competitive forces, policy revisions, or arbitrary service goals different from those on which the logistics strategy originally was based. However, minor changes in service levels, when they already are low, are not likely to trigger the need for replanning.
当服务水平因竞争力量、政策修订或任意设定的服务目标与最初物流战略所依据的目标不同而发生变化时，通常需要重新制定物流战略。然而，当服务水平已经很低时，服务水平的微小变化不太可能引发重新规划的需要。

Product Characteristics 产品特性

Logistics costs are sensitive to such characteristics as product weight, volume (cube), value, and risk. In the logistics channel, these characteristics can be altered through package design or finished state of the product during shipment and storage. For example, shipping a product in a knocked-down form can considerably affect the weight-bulk ratio of the product and the associated transportation and storage rates. Because altering a product's characteristics can substantially change one cost element in the logistics mix with little change to the others, this creates a new cost balance point for the logistics system. Thus, when substantial changes are made in the product characteristics, replanning the logistics system could be beneficial.
物流成本对产品重量、体积（立方体）、价值和风险等特征十分敏感。在物流渠道中，这些特性可以通过包装设计或产品在运输和储存过程中的成品状态来改变。例如，将产品拆开装运会大大影响产品的重量体积比以及相关的运输和仓储费率。由于改变产品的特性可以大幅改变物流组合中的一个成本要素，而对其他成本要素的影响很小，这就为物流系统创造了一个新的成本平衡点。因此，当产品特性发生重大变化时，重新规划物流系统是有益的。

Logistics Costs 物流成本

The costs that a firm incurs for physical supply and physical distribution often determine how frequently its logistics system should be replanned. All other factors being equal, a firm producing high-valued goods (such as machine tools or computers); with logistics costs being a small portion of total costs, will likely give little attention to the optimality of logistics strategy. However, when logistics costs are high, as they can be in the case of packaged industrial chemicals and food products, logistics strategy is a key concern. With high logistics costs, even the small improvements brought about by frequent replanning can result in substantial cost reductions.
企业在实物供应和实物配送方面的成本往往决定了其物流系统重新规划的频率。在所有其他因素相同的情况下，生产高价值产品（如机床或计算机）的企业，由于物流成本只占总成本的一小部分，可能很少会关注物流战略的优化问题。然而，当物流成本较高时，如包装工业化学品和食品，物流战略就会成为关键问题。在物流成本较高的情况下，即使是经常重新规划所带来的微小改进，也能大大降低成本。

Pricing Policy 定价政策

Changes in the pricing policy under which goods are purchased or sold will affect logistics strategy, mainly because it defines responsibility for certain logistics activities. A supplier that switches from an f.o.b. factory price (transportation costs not
货物采购或销售所依据的定价政策的变化会影响物流战略，主要是因为它界定了某些物流活动的责任。如果供应商将出厂价（运输成本不包括在出厂价内）改为到岸价（运输成本不包括在出厂价内），其物流战略就会受到影响。
included) to a delivered price (transportation costs included) will usually relieve the buying firm of the responsibility for providing or arranging for the inbound transportation. Similarly, price policy affects the transfer of title to goods and the responsibility for transportation in the distribution channel as well.
从交货价格（包括运输费用）到交货价格（包括运输费用），通常可以免除采购公司提供或安排进货运输的责任。同样，价格政策也会影响货物所有权的转移和分销渠道中的运输责任。

Although costs are transferable through the logistics channel regardless of how they are assigned by the pricing mechanism, some firms plan their logistics system based on the costs for which they are directly responsible. If a firm has a price policy where the customer pays for the delivery of goods, the resulting strategy is likely to be one where there are few stocking points, unless customer service restrictions force these to be increased. Due to the importance of transportation costs in total logistics costs, shifts in price policy will usually trigger strategy reformulation.
尽管无论定价机制如何分配成本，成本都可以通过物流渠道转移，但一些公司还是根据其直接负责的成本来规划物流系统。如果一家公司的价格政策是由客户支付货款，那么由此产生的战略很可能是库存点很少，除非客户服务限制迫使增加库存点。由于运输成本在物流总成本中的重要性，价格政策的变化通常会引发战略的重新制定。

When changes have occurred in one or several of these areas, replanning the logistics strategy should be considered. Next, let us consider some of the logistics principles and concepts that are useful for strategy formulation.
当其中一个或几个领域发生变化时，应考虑重新规划物流战略。接下来，让我们考虑一些有助于制定战略的物流原则和概念。

Guidelines for Strategy Formulation
战略制定指南

Many of the principles and concepts that guide logistics planning are derived from the unique nature of logistics activities, especially transportation. Others are a result of general economic and market phenomena. All give insight as to what the logistics strategy might be and set the stage for more detailed analysis. Several of these will now be outlined and illustrated.
指导物流规划的许多原则和概念都源于物流活动（尤其是运输）的独特性质。还有一些则是一般经济和市场现象的结果。所有这些原则和概念都为物流战略的制定提供了启示，并为更详细的分析奠定了基础。下面将对其中几种进行概述和说明。

Total Cost Concept 总成本概念

Central to the scope and design of the logistics system is trade-off analysis, which, in turn, leads to the total cost concept. The cost trade-off is the recognition that cost patterns of various activities of the firm frequently display characteristics that put them in conflict with one another. This conflict is managed by balancing the activities so that they are collectively optimized. For example, Figure 2-5 shows that when a transportation service is being selected, the direct cost of the transport service and the indirect cost effect on inventory levels in the logistics channel due to different delivery performance of carriers are said to be in cost conflict with each other. The best economic choice occurs at the point where the sum of both costs is lowest, as indicated by the dashed line in Figure 2-5.
权衡分析是物流系统范围和设计的核心，而权衡分析又导致了总成本概念。成本权衡是指认识到企业各种活动的成本模式经常显示出相互冲突的特点。处理这种冲突的方法是平衡各项活动，使其达到最优化。例如，图 2-5 显示，在选择运输服务时，运输服务的直接成本与承运商不同的交付绩效对物流渠道库存水平的间接成本影响相互冲突。如图 2-5 中虚线所示，最佳经济选择出现在两种成本之和最低的地方。

Choosing a transportation service based on lowest rates or fastest service may not be the best method. Therefore, the basic problem in logistics is one of cost conflict management. Wherever there are substantial cost conflicts among activities, they should be managed in a coordinated manner. The network, as previously described, incorporates most of the potential cost conflicts relevant to logistics.
根据最低费率或最快服务来选择运输服务可能不是最佳方法。因此，物流的基本问题是成本冲突管理。只要活动之间存在实质性的成本冲突，就应该对其进行协调管理。如前所述，网络包含了与物流相关的大多数潜在成本冲突。

The total cost concept applies to more than the problem of selecting transportation service. Additional examples of logistics problems, where a trade-off of costs is indicated, are shown in Figure 2-6. Figure 2-6(a) illustrates the problem of setting the customer service level. As customers receive a higher level of service, fewer of them are lost because of out-of-stock situations, slow and unreliable deliveries, and inaccurate order filling. The cost of lost sales decreases with improved service. Counterbalancing the lost sales cost is the cost of maintaining the level of service.
总成本概念不仅适用于选择运输服务的问题。图 2-6 举例说明了成本权衡的其他物流问题。图 2-6(a)说明了设定客户服务水平的问题。随着客户服务水平的提高，因缺货、送货速度慢且不可靠以及订单填写不准确而损失的客户数量会减少。随着服务水平的提高，销售损失的成本也会降低。与销售损失成本相抵消的是维持服务水平的成本。

Figure 2-5 Generalized Cost Conflict Between Transportation and Inventory Costs As a Function of Transportation Service Characteristics
图 2-5 运输成本与库存成本之间的一般成本冲突是运输服务特征的函数

Improved service usually means that more must be paid for transportation, order processing, and inventories. The best trade-off occurs at a point below 100 percent (perfect) customer service.
改善服务通常意味着必须为运输、订单处理和库存支付更多费用。最佳权衡点是低于 100%（完美）的客户服务。

Figure 2-6(b) shows the basic economic considerations in determining the number of stocking points in a logistics network. When customers purchase in small quantities and stocking points are replenished in large quantities, the cost of transportation from the stocking points exceeds the inbound costs so that transportation costs decline when the number of stocking points is increased. However, as the number of stocking points increases, the inventory level for the entire network increases and inventory costs rise. In addition, the customer service level is affected by this decision. The problem is one of balancing the combined inventory-transportation costs against the contribution to revenues from the customer service level provided.
图 2-6(b)显示了确定物流网络中库存点数量的基本经济考虑因素。当客户少量采购而库存点大量补货时，库存点的运输成本会超过进货成本，因此当库存点数量增加时，运输成本会下降。但是，随着库存点数量的增加，整个网络的库存水平也会增加，库存成本也会上升。此外，客户服务水平也会受到这一决策的影响。问题在于如何平衡库存-运输综合成本与客户服务水平对收入的贡献。

Figure 2-6(c) illustrates the problem of setting the safety stock level for inventories. Because safety stock increases the average level of inventories and affects the customer service level through the availability of stock when an order is placed, the cost of lost sales declines. Increasing the average level of inventories will increase the inventory carrying cost. Transportation costs remain relatively unaffected. Again, a balance is sought between these opposing costs.
图 2-6(c)说明了设定库存安全库存水平的问题。由于安全库存会提高平均库存水平，并通过下订单时的库存可用性影响客户服务水平，因此销售损失的成本会下降。提高平均库存水平会增加库存账面成本。运输成本相对不受影响。同样，我们要在这些对立的成本之间寻求平衡。

Finally, Figure 2-6(d) shows the basic features of a multiproduct scheduling problem. Production costs are affected by the sequence in which the products are produced and the length of production runs. As the production sequence is changed, inventory costs will increase, because orders will not necessarily be received at the optimum time to replenish depleted stocks. The effect is to raise the average inventory level. The best production sequence and run length to produce the products are found where the combined production and inventory costs are minimized.
最后，图 2-6(d)显示了多产品调度问题的基本特征。生产成本受产品生产顺序和生产运行长度的影响。随着生产顺序的改变，库存成本也会增加，因为不一定能在最佳时间收到订单来补充耗尽的库存。这样做的结果是提高了平均库存水平。最佳的生产顺序和产品生产周期是生产成本和库存成本之和最小的地方。

These examples illustrate the total cost concept as applied to the internal problems of the firm and specifically to logistics problems. However, at times, decisions made by a firm in a channel of distribution affect the logistics costs of another firm. For example, the inventory policies of a buyer affect both the inventory costs of the shipper and the operating costs of the carrier. In this case, it is necessary to extend the boundaries of the system beyond either the logistics function or the firm, possibly to include several firms. Thus, the total cost equation would be expanded, and the scope of managerial decision making would extend beyond the legal limits of the firm,
这些例子说明，总成本概念适用于企业内部问题，特别是物流问题。然而，有时一家公司在分销渠道中所做的决定会影响另一家公司的物流成本。例如，买方的库存政策既影响托运人的库存成本，也影响承运人的运营成本。在这种情况下，有必要将系统的边界扩大到物流功能或公司之外，可能包括多个公司。这样，总成本等式就会扩大，管理决策的范围也会超出公司的法律限制、

The point is that the total cost, or alternately the total system, concept is a concept without clear boundaries. Although one might argue that in some way all activities of the entire economy are economically related to the logistics problem of the firm, to attempt to assess all the various cost trade-offs that might relate to any decision problem is folly. It is left to managerial judgment to decide the factors considered relevant and to include them in the analysis. This defines whether the total cost analy'sis will include only factors within the logistics function as we have defined it, or whether the analysis should be extended to include other factors under the control of the firm and even some beyond the immediate control of the firm, as in the entire supply chain. The total cost concept is the trade-off of all costs that are in cost conflict with each other and that can affect the outcome of a particular logistics decision.
问题的关键在于，总成本或总系统概念是一个没有明确界限的概念。虽然有人可能会说，在某种程度上，整个经济的所有活动都与企业的物流问题有经济上的联系，但试图评估可能与任何决策问题有关的所有各种成本权衡是愚蠢的。应由管理者来判断哪些因素被认为是相关的，并将其纳入分析。这就决定了总成本分析是否只包括我们所定义的物流功能范围内的因素，或者分析是否应扩展到包括公司控制范围内的其他因素，甚至包括公司直接控制范围以外的一些因素，如整个供应链。总成本概念是对所有成本的权衡，这些成本之间存在成本冲突，并可能影响特定物流决策的结果。

Application 应用

A large manufacturer of marine products was constructing a warehouse in St. Louis. The choice of location was based on minimizing transportation costs. A follow-up study that included the effect of inventory consolidation on transportation costs showed that the warehouse was best located in Chicago. The more comprehensive analysis resulted in cost differences that were so dramatic that the company sold the partially constructed warehouse and moved the inventory to Chicago.
一家大型船舶产品制造商正在圣路易斯建造一座仓库。选址的依据是最大限度地降低运输成本。一项包括库存整合对运输成本影响的后续研究表明，仓库最好设在芝加哥。更全面的分析结果显示，成本差异如此之大，以至于该公司出售了部分建成的仓库，并将库存转移到芝加哥。

Differentiated Distribution
差异化分销

Not all products should be provided the same level of customer service. This is a fundamental principle for logistics planning. Different customer service requirements, different product characteristics, and different sales levels among the multiple items that the typical firm distributes suggest that multiple distribution strategies should be provided within the product line. Managers have made use of this principle when they broadly classify their products into a limited number of groups, such as high, medium, and low sales volume, and then apply a different stocking level to each. To a lesser extent, the principle is also applied to inventory location. When a firm stocks all products at all warehouse locations, it may do so to simplify administration, but this strategy denies the inherent differences between products and their costs, and it leads to higher than necessary distribution costs.
并非所有产品都应提供相同水平的客户服务。这是物流规划的基本原则。不同的客户服务要求、不同的产品特性，以及一般企业所经销的多种产品之间不同的销售水平，都表明应在产品线内提供多种配送策略。管理者利用这一原则，将产品大致分为高、中、低销售量等几组，然后对每组产品采用不同的库存水平。在较小程度上，该原则也适用于库存位置。当一家公司在所有仓库地点储存所有产品时，可能是为了简化管理，但这种策略否认了产品及其成本之间的固有差异，导致配送成本高于必要水平。

An improved strategy might be first to differentiate those products that should move through the warehouse from products that should be shipped directly to
一个改进的策略可能是，首先区分哪些产品应通过仓库转移，哪些产品应直接运往目的地。
customers from plant, vendors, or other source points. Because the transportation rate structure encourages shipments in vehicle-load volumes, the products might first be divided according to shipment size. Those customers ordering in highvolume quantities would be served direct, while all others would be served from warehouses.
从工厂、供应商或其他来源地向客户发货。由于运输费率结构鼓励以汽车装载量进行运输，因此可以首先根据运输量对产品进行划分。大批量订购的客户将直接获得服务，而其他客户则从仓库获得服务。

Of the sales volume remaining, the products should be differentiated by location. That is, the fast-moving items should be placed in the field warehouses with the most forward locations in the distribution channel. Medium-volume items should be placed in fewer regional locations. The slow-moving items should be located only at centralized stocking points such as plants. As a result, each stocking point may contain a different product mix.
在剩余的销售量中，应按地点区分产品。也就是说，快销品应放在分销渠道中位置最靠前的外地仓库。中等销量的产品应放在较少的地区性仓库。流动缓慢的物品只应放在集中的库存点，如工厂。因此，每个存货点可能会有不同的产品组合。

Application 应用

A small specialty chemical company manufactured a variety of products for coating metals for corrosion prevention. All products were produced at a single location. A study of the distribution network recommended distribution patterns somewhat different from those historically used by the company. That is, all shipments that could be made in full truckload quantities were to be shipped direct from plant to customers. All large customer orders, the top ten percent of the company's volume, were also to be shipped direct to customers from the plant. The remainder of the product line, with its small shipment sizes, was to be shipped out of two strategically located warehouses as well as from the plant. This differentiated distribution strategy saved the company 20 percent of its distribution costs while preserving the existing level of logistics customer service.
一家小型特种化学品公司生产多种金属防腐涂层产品。所有产品都在一个工厂生产。在对分销网络进行研究后，建议采用与该公司以往使用的分销模式略有不同的分销模式。也就是说，所有可以整车装运的货物都要从工厂直接运给客户。所有大客户订单，即公司销量前 10%的订单，也将从工厂直接运往客户手中。其余的小批量产品则由两家地理位置优越的仓库和工厂发货。这种差异化分销战略为公司节省了 20% 的分销成本，同时保持了现有的物流客户服务水平。

Differentiated distribution may be applied to factors other than volume. That is, separate distribution channels may be established for regular customer orders and back orders. The regular distribution channel might be to fill orders from warehouses. When an out-of-stock situation occurs, a backup distribution system may come into play that fills the order from secondary stocking points and uses premium transportation to overcome the disadvantage of increased delivery distances. Similarly, many other examples can be offered where multiple distribution channels give lower overall distribution costs than a single channel design.
差异化分销可适用于数量以外的因素。也就是说，可以为常规客户订单和滞销订单建立不同的分销渠道。常规分销渠道可能是填补仓库的订单。当出现缺货情况时，后备分销系统可能会发挥作用，从二级库存点完成订单，并使用溢价运输来克服交货距离增加的不利因素。同样，还可以举出许多其他例子，说明多重分销渠道比单一渠道设计的总体分销成本更低。

Mixed Strategy 混合战略

The concept of a mixed strategy is similar to that of differentiated distribution. The concept is: A mixed distribution strategy will have lower costs than a pure, or single strategy. Although single strategies may benefit from economies of scale and administrative simplicity, they are at an economic disadvantage when the product line varies substantially in terms of cube, weight, order size, sales volume, and customer service requirements. A mixed strategy allows an optimal strategy to be established for separate product groups. This often has lower costs than a single, global strategy that must be averaged across all product groups.
混合战略的概念与差异化分销的概念类似。其概念是混合分销战略的成本低于纯粹或单一战略。虽然单一战略可以从规模经济和管理简便中获益，但当产品线在立方体、重量、订单大小、销售量和客户服务要求等方面存在巨大差异时，单一战略就会处于经济劣势。混合战略可以为不同的产品组制定最佳战略。与必须对所有产品组进行平均的单一、全局性战略相比，这种战略的成本往往更低。

Application 应用

One retailer of prescription drugs and sundry products was faced with expanding its distribution system to meet rapidly increasing sales brought about by a program of retail store acquisitions. A configuration of six warehouses was used to service about one thousand stores throughout the United States. The company's strategy was to use only privately owned warehouses and trucks to provide high levels of service to the stores. Expansion plans called for the construction of a new

million facility. The warehouse was to supplement an overloaded facility that served a primary market area around Pittsburgh and to lower costs by using up-to-date handling and storage equipment and procedures. Management was committed to this strategy and had begun searching for a site for the new building.
一家处方药和杂货零售商面临着扩大配送系统的问题，以满足零售店收购计划带来的快速增长的销售额。该公司拥有六个仓库，为全美约一千家商店提供服务。公司的战略是只使用私有仓库和卡车为商店提供高水平的服务。扩建计划要求新建一个价值

万美元的设施。该仓库将补充服务于匹兹堡周边主要市场地区的超负荷设施，并通过使用最新的处理和存储设备及程序来降低成本。管理层致力于实施这一战略，并已开始寻找新建筑的选址。

At this time, a network planning study was conducted. The results showed that while the Pittsburgh facility was expensive to operate, the savings generated by the new warehouse could not justify the

million investment. Although this was informative, it did not solve the company's need for additional space.
此时，进行了一项网络规划研究。研究结果表明，虽然匹兹堡仓库的运营成本较高，但新仓库所节省的费用并不能证明

万美元的投资是合理的。虽然这一研究提供了信息，但并没有解决公司对额外空间的需求。

A mixed strategy was suggested to the vice president of distribution (see Figure 2-7). The use of some public (for rent) warehouse space along with the company-owned space could offer lower total costs than the all-private strategy. The company was able to move the high-cube products into a nearby public warehouse, install new equipment, and recover enough space to meet foreseeable needs. The costs were about

for the new equipment and about

for additional annual transport expense for serving the stores from both facilities. Thus, the company was successfully able to avoid the

million that it had already agreed to spend if a single, or pure, distribution strategy were pursued.
公司向分销副总裁建议了一种混合战略（见图 2-7）。与全私有战略相比，使用一些公共（出租）仓库空间和公司自有空间的总成本更低。该公司能够将高立方体产品转移到附近的公共仓库，安装新设备，并收回足够的空间来满足可预见的需求。新设备的成本约为

，每年从两个设施为商店提供服务的额外运输费用约为

。因此，该公司成功地避免了如果采用单一或纯粹的分销战略而需要花费的

万美元。

Figure 2-7 A Total Cost Curve for Single and Mixed Warehousing Strategies
图 2-7 单一和混合仓储战略的总成本曲线

Postponement 延期

The principle of postponement can be stated as follows: The time of shipment and the location of final product processing in the distribution of a product should be delayed until a customer order is received.

The idea is to avoid shipping goods in anticipation of when demand will occur (time postponement) and to avoid creating the form of the final product in anticipation of that form (form postponement).
推迟原则可表述如下：产品分销中的发货时间和最终产品加工地点应推迟到收到客户订单之后。

这样做的目的是避免在预期需求出现时才发货（时间延迟），也避免在预期最终产品的形式出现时才制作最终产品的形式（形式推迟）。

Examples 实例

JCPenney regularly practices time postponement in its retail catalog operations by filling orders on demand from relatively few warehouse locations.
JCPenney 在其零售目录业务中经常采用时间延迟的做法，在相对较少的仓储地点按需完成订单。
Dell Computer, a manufacturer of mail-order personal computers, practices form postponement by configuring microcomputer systems to customer order from available options.
戴尔电脑公司是一家邮购个人电脑的制造商，它根据客户的订单，从现有的选项中配置微机系统，从而实现形式延迟。
Sherwin-Williams retail paint stores create an endless variety of colors for customers by mixing pigments in relatively few base colors, rather than stocking all colors ready mixed (form postponement).
Sherwin-Williams 油漆零售店通过在相对较少的基色中混合颜料，而不是将所有颜色都储存在现成的混合色中（形式延迟），为客户创造了无穷无尽的色彩。
Steel service centers cut standard shapes and sizes of steel products into custom products for customers (form postponement).
钢铁服务中心将标准形状和尺寸的钢铁产品切割成客户定制的产品（成型延期）。
Postponement was used by Hewlett-Packard as a critical element in DeskJet Plus product design-the relationship between design and the eventual customization, distribution, and delivery of the product to multiple market segments.
惠普公司将延期作为 DeskJet Plus 产品设计的关键因素，即设计与最终定制、分销和向多个细分市场交付产品之间的关系。
SW, a manufacturer of graphical software, developed its products at its U.S. headquarters. To save on transportation and inventory costs, it shipped master copies of the software to Europe for duplication and final customization for that market.
SW 公司是一家图形软件制造商，在美国总部开发产品。为了节省运输和库存成本，该公司将软件的母版运往欧洲进行复制，并为欧洲市场进行最终定制。

Specifically, consider how StarKist Foods reworked its distribution strategy using the principle of postponement.
具体而言，请考虑 StarKist 食品公司如何利用推迟原则重新制定其分销战略。

Application 应用

StarKist Foods, a canner of tuna products, changed its distribution strategy to take advantage of the postponement principle and lower inventory levels. Historically, the company packed fish in its California cannery for both company-label and private-label markets. The end products were shipped to field warehouses for storage. A decision had to be made at the time of canning as to what proportion of the catch would be committed to the two end products, since there was too little capacity to store fish as a raw material. There was no difference in the quality of the final product under the two labels.
StarKist 食品公司是一家金枪鱼罐头生产商，它改变了分销策略，以利用延期原则降低库存水平。一直以来，该公司在加利福尼亚州的罐头厂为公司品牌和私人品牌市场包装鱼类。最终产品被运往外地仓库储存。在装罐时，必须决定将多大比例的捕捞量用于两种最终产品，因为将鱼作为原料储存的能力太小。两种标签下的最终产品在质量上没有区别。

The company established a forward labeling operation on the East Coast to serve the eastern markets. The fish was packed in unlabeled cans called "brights" and shipped to the East Coast warehouse. As the market developed for the end products, the "brights" were labeled and shipped to customers. Inventories were lowered through avoiding the costs associated with having too little or too much of the product with a particular label.
公司在东海岸建立了一个前向贴标业务，为东部市场提供服务。鱼被装在没有标签的罐头中，称为 "鲜鱼"，然后运往东海岸的仓库。随着终端产品市场的发展，"鲜鱼 "被贴上标签，运往客户手中。这样就避免了因贴有特定标签的产品过少或过多而产生的成本，从而降低了库存。

Zinn and Bowersox classify five types of postponement and give suggestions as to the firms that might be interested in applying the principle. Form postponement can take four forms: labeling, packaging, assembly, and manufacturing; the fifth type is time postponement. Their suggestions are summarized in Table 2-2. Postponement is favored when the following characteristics appear to be present.
Zinn 和 Bowersox 将延期分为五种类型，并就可能有兴趣应用这一原则的公司提出了建议。形式推迟有四种形式：贴标签、包装、装配和制造；第五种是时间推迟。表 2-2 总结了他们的建议。当具备以下特征时，推迟生产会受到青睐。

Table 2-2 Types of Firms Potentially Interested in Using the Postponement Principle
表 2-2 可能有意采用推迟原则的公司类型

POSTPONEMENT TYPE 延期类型

POTENTIALLY INTERESTED FIRMS
可能感兴趣的公司

Labeling

Firms selling a product under several brand names
以多个品牌销售一种产品的公司