Landslides (2014) 11:167-194
滑坡 （2014） 11：167-194
DOI 10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y
Received: 22 April 2013 收稿日期： 2013-04-22
Accepted: 23 September 2013
录用日期： 2013-09-23
Published online: 30 November 2013
在线发布：2013 年 11 月 30 日
( $)$$)$)) Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
（ $)$$)$)) Springer-Verlag Berlin， 海德堡 2013

Abstract The goal of this article is to revise several aspects of the well-known classification of landslides, developed by Varnes (1978). The primary recommendation is to modify the definition of landslide-forming materials, to provide compatibility with accepted geotechnical and geological terminology of rocks and soils. Other, less important modifications of the classification system are suggested, resulting from recent developments of the landslide science. The modified Varnes classification of landslides has 32 landslide types, each of which is backed by a formal definition. The definitions should facilitate backward compatibility of the system as well as possible translation to other languages. Complex landslides are not included as a separate category type, but composite types can be constructed by the user of the classification by combining two or more type names, if advantageous.
摘要 本文的目的是修改 Varnes （1978） 提出的众所周知的滑坡分类的几个方面。主要建议是修改滑坡形成材料的定义，以提供与公认的岩石和土壤岩土工程和地质术语的兼容性。由于滑坡科学的最新发展，建议对分类系统进行其他不太重要的修改。修改后的 Varnes 滑坡分类有 32 种滑坡类型，每种类型都有正式定义支持。这些定义应有助于系统的向后兼容性以及可能翻译成其他语言。复杂山体滑坡不作为单独的类别类型包括在内，但分类用户可以通过组合两个或多个类型名称来构建复合类型（如果有利）。

Keywords Classification of landslides • Typology • Materials • Mechanisms • Engineering geology • Geotechnical engineering
关键词 滑坡分类 • 类型 • 材料 • 机制 • 工程地质 • 岩土工程

The system of landslide classification devised by the late D.J. Varnes has become the most widely used system in the English language (Varnes 1954, 1978; Cruden and Varnes 1996). Its sustained popularity in North America and its variations in all other continents attest to its usefulness. The authors do not intend to propose an entirely new landslide classification system but aim to introduce modifications to the Varnes classification to reflect recent advances in understanding of landslide phenomena and the materials and mechanisms involved. The starting point of the modifications is the 1978 version of the classification (Varnes 1978), taking also into account concepts introduced by Cruden and Varnes (1996).
已故的 D.J. Varnes 设计的滑坡分类系统已成为英语中使用最广泛的系统（Varnes 1954、1978;Cruden 和 Varnes 1996 年）。它在北美的持续流行及其在所有其他大洲的变化证明了它的实用性。作者并不打算提出一个全新的滑坡分类系统，而是旨在对 Varnes 分类进行修改，以反映对滑坡现象及其所涉及的材料和机制的理解的最新进展。修改的起点是 1978 年版的分类 （Varnes 1978），还考虑了 Cruden 和 Varnes （1996） 引入的概念。

Type of material is one of the most important factors influencing the behavior of landslides. However, the threefold material division proposed by Varnes (1978), including “rock, debris, and earth,” is compatible neither with geological terminology of materials distinguished by origin, nor with geotechnical classifications based on mechanical properties (e.g., Morgenstern 1992; Leroueil et al. 1996). Thus, characterization of materials appears to be one aspect of Varnes’ classification that warrants updating. In addition to this important change, several other changes, related primarily to movement mechanisms, are described below.
材料类型是影响滑坡行为的最重要因素之一。然而，Varnes （1978） 提出的三重材料划分，包括“岩石、碎屑和泥土”，既不符合按来源区分的材料的地质术语，也不符合基于机械性能的岩土工程分类（例如，Morgenstern 1992;Leroueil 等人，1996 年）。因此，材料的表征似乎是 Varnes 分类的一个值得更新的方面。除了这一重要变化之外，下面还介绍了其他几项主要与运动机制相关的变化。

A landslide is a physical system that develops in time through several stages (e.g., Terzaghi 1950; Leroueil et al. 1996). As reviewed by Skempton and Hutchinson (1969), the history of a mass movement comprises pre-failure deformations, failure itself and postfailure displacements. Many landslides exhibit a number of movement episodes, separated by long or short periods of relative quiescence. The following definition of the term “failure,” inspired by a discussion by Leroueil et al. (1996) is proposed for the purposes of this paper:
山体滑坡是一个物理系统，它通过几个阶段（例如，Terzaghi 1950;Leroueil 等人，1996 年）。正如 Skempton 和 Hutchinson （1969） 所回顾的那样，质量运动的历史包括失效前的变形、失效本身和失效后的位移。许多滑坡表现出许多运动事件，由或长或短的相对静止期分隔。为了本文的目的，受 Leroueil 等人 （1996） 的讨论启发，提出了以下术语“失败”的定义：

Failure is the single most significant movement episode in the known or anticipated history of a landslide, which usually involves
失败是已知或预期的山体滑坡历史中最重要的一次运动事件，通常涉及
the first formation of a fully developed rupture surface as a displacement or strain discontinuity (discrete or distributed in a zone of finite thickness, cf. Morgenstern and Tschalenko 1967).
首先形成完全发育的破裂表面，作为位移或应变不连续性（离散或分布在有限厚度的区域，参见 Morgenstern 和 Tschalenko 1967）。

The degree of strength loss during failure determines the postfailure velocity of the landslide. The failure stage may involve a kinematic change from sliding to flow or fall, which is also relevant to post-failure behavior and destructiveness of the landslide.
破坏过程中强度损失的程度决定了滑坡破坏后的速度。破坏阶段可能涉及从滑动到流动或下降的运动学变化，这也与破坏后的行为和滑坡的破坏性有关。

Cruden and Varnes (1996) proposed separate names for the movement mode during each stage of a given landslide. This is a desirable goal during detailed investigation and reporting. However, for communication, we also need to be able to assign simple names to the whole landslide process and such names should be compatible with established terminology.
Cruden 和 Varnes （1996） 为给定滑坡的每个阶段的运动模式提出了单独的名称。在详细调查和报告期间，这是一个理想的目标。然而，为了进行沟通，我们还需要能够为整个滑坡过程分配简单的名称，并且这些名称应该与既定术语兼容。

One practical statement illustrating the need for a typological classification was given by Professor J.N. Hutchinson (personal communication, 2000, paraphrased): “To provide labels for a filing system to store scientific paper reprints. A well-organized system will help the user to rapidly locate articles dealing with a given phenomenon and its typical characteristics.” A similar system of labels is needed also in one’s mind, to organize facts and ideas relevant to a given class of phenomena and communicate them to others. Of course, different individuals have different priorities and a classification system should be flexible enough to accommodate their needs.
J.N. Hutchinson 教授（个人通信，2000 年，转述）给出了一个实际的陈述，说明了类型学分类的必要性：“为归档系统提供标签，以存储科学论文的重印本。一个组织良好的系统将帮助用户快速找到处理给定现象及其典型特征的文章。一个人的脑海中也需要一个类似的标签系统，以组织与给定类别现象相关的事实和想法，并将它们传达给其他人。当然，不同的人有不同的优先事项，分类系统应该足够灵活以适应他们的需求。

To give an example: A landslide may begin with slow pre-failure deformation and cracking of surficial soil on a steep hillside. Then a shallow sliding failure develops. The landslide mass accelerates, disintegrates, enlarges through entrainment and becomes a flowlike debris avalanche. The avalanche enters a drainage channel, entrains water and more saturated soil and turns into a surging flow of debris. On entering a deposition fan, the flow drops the coarsest fractions and continues as a sediment-laden flood. This is a complex process. Yet, it is a common one and we should be able to apply the simple traditional term “debris flow” to the whole scenario. Otherwise, an article about such an event would need to be torn into fragments, before it can be filed. Several such comprehensive terms have been established in the professional literature for more than 100 years.
举个例子：滑坡可能始于陡峭山坡上表面土壤的缓慢破坏前变形和开裂。然后发展为浅层滑动失效。滑坡体通过夹带加速、分解、扩大，并变成流状碎屑雪崩。雪崩进入排水通道，夹带水和更饱和的土壤，变成汹涌的碎屑流。在进入沉积扇时，水流会下降最粗的馏分，并继续以充满沉积物的洪水形式出现。这是一个复杂的过程。然而，这是一个常见的问题，我们应该能够将简单的传统术语“泥石流”应用于整个场景。否则，关于此类事件的文章需要被撕成碎片，然后才能提交。100 多年来，专业文献中已经建立了几个这样的综合术语。

It is proposed here that the simple term assigned to a given landslide type (or a specific case) should reflect the particular focus of the researcher. If he or she is concerned with the runout of the event, then the overall term “debris flow” is appropriate. If the main focus is the pre-failure mechanism in the source area, then “debris slide” or “slope deformation” may be more relevant. The system should be flexible enough to accommodate all such uses. It should be left to the user whether he/she finds it advantageous to construct a composite class such as “translational rock slide—rock avalanche,” within the framework of the classification system.
这里建议，分配给给定滑坡类型（或特定案例）的简单术语应反映研究人员的特定关注点。如果他或她关心事件的耗尽，那么“泥石流”这个整体术语是合适的。如果主要关注点是源区域的破坏前机制，那么“泥石流”或“斜坡变形”可能更相关。该系统应该足够灵活，以适应所有此类用途。应该让用户决定他/她是否认为在分类系统的框架内构建一个复合类，例如 “translational rock slide—rock avalanche” 是有利的。

Even at a price of certain simplification, each class should be unique. A class defined as “complex” is not useful. Almost every landslide is complex to a degree. Thus, a “complex” class could hold most of the information, without the need for any other classes.
即使以一定的简化为代价，每个类也应该是唯一的。定义为 “complex” 的类没有用。几乎每一次山体滑坡在某种程度上都是复杂的。因此，“复杂”类可以保存大部分信息，而无需任何其他类。

Additional objectives for a classification system
分类系统的其他目标
The number of classes should be reasonably small, to make the system simple and easy to use and review.
类的数量应该相当少，以使系统简单易用，便于查看和复习。

The system should be respectful of previous usage and adopt established terms to the greatest extent possible, to enhance “backward compatibility” with older literature.
该系统应尊重以前的用法，并尽可能采用既定术语，以增强与旧文献的“向后兼容性”。

The system should be sufficiently flexible to allow application both in cases where only meager preliminary data exist, as well as those where data are detailed and abundant.
该系统应具有足够的灵活性，以便在仅存在少量初步数据的情况下以及数据详细且丰富的情况下应用。

Each class name should be supported by a concise, but comprehensive formal definition. Such class definition paragraphs can be translated to different languages without difficulty and class names can be attached in various languages according to established local usage. The principles of the classification will thus remain valid, repeatable, and refutable, regardless of the actual words that are used in forming the class name.
每个类名都应该由一个简洁但全面的正式定义来支持。这样的类定义段落可以毫无困难地翻译成不同的语言，并且可以根据既定的当地用法以各种语言附加类名。因此，分类的原则将保持有效、可重复和可反驳，而不管用于形成类名的实际单词如何。

Some of the earliest landslide classification systems originated in the Alpine countries. Baltzer (1875) in Switzerland seems to have been the first to distinguish between the various basic modes of motion: fall, slide, and flow. This division persists to the present time, supplemented by toppling and spreading (Fig. 1).
一些最早的滑坡分类系统起源于阿尔卑斯山国家。瑞士的 Baltzer （1875） 似乎是第一个区分各种基本运动模式的人：下落、滑动和流动。这种分裂一直持续到现在，辅以倾倒和蔓延（图 1）。

Several authors, including Heim (1932) and Zaruba and Mencl (1969) focused on landslide types that are characteristic of given material facies described in geological terms.
包括 Heim （1932） 和 Zaruba 和 Mencl （1969） 在内的几位作者专注于用地质术语描述的给定物质相特征的滑坡类型。

Debris flows represent a particularly important hazard in mountainous terrain and have attracted special attention from early days. The classic Austrian monograph “Die Muren” by
泥石流在山区地形中是一个特别重要的危害，从早期就引起了特别的关注。奥地利经典专著《Die Muren》 作者

Fig. 1 Types of movement (Cruden and Varnes 1996) The scale of the diagrams could vary from a few metres to hundreds of metres as shown by examples in the paper
图 1 运动类型 （Cruden 和 Varnes 1996） 图表的比例尺可以从几米到几百米不等，如论文中的示例所示

Stini (1910) brings attention to the variety of debris movement in mountain channels, ranging from floods to debris-charged floods (“Muren”) to boulder-fronted, surging debris flows (“Murgänge”). Similar phenomena have been described in the arid regions of the southwestern USA as “mud flows” by Bull (1964) and others. Debris-charged “hyperconcentrated” floods have been studied extensively on the volcanoes of the US North-West (e.g., Pierson 2005; Vallance 2005).
Stini （1910） 引起了人们对山道中碎石运动的各种关注，从洪水到碎石泛滥的洪水（“Muren”）再到巨石正面、汹涌的泥石流（“Murgänge”）。Bull （1964） 和其他人在美国西南部的干旱地区将类似的现象描述为“泥石流”。在美国西北部的火山上，已经对充满泥石流的“高度集中”洪水进行了广泛的研究（例如，Pierson 2005;Vallance 2005 年）。

In the USA, Sharpe (1938) introduced a tri-dimensional classification system recognizing type of movement, material and movement velocity. He also coined (presumably) the important terms debris flow (channeled), debris avalanche (open-slope), and earth flow.
在美国，Sharpe （1938） 引入了一个三维分类系统，用于识别运动类型、材料和运动速度。他还创造了（大概）泥石流（通道）、泥石流（开阔斜坡）和土流等重要术语。

The term “earth flow” was reinforced and thoroughly described in the work of Keefer and Johnson (1983) and is used in North America as a synonym for the British “mudslide” (Hutchinson 1988). The latter word is frequently misused in media reports. Therefore, “earth flow” is preferable.
Keefer 和 Johnson （1983） 的研究强化并彻底描述了“土流”一词，并在北美用作英国“泥石流”的同义词（Hutchinson 1988）。后一个词在媒体报道中经常被误用。因此，“土流”更可取。

Sharpe’s framework was expanded by Varnes $(1954,1978)$$(1954,1978)$(1954,1978)(1954,1978) in his influential articles prepared for the Transportation Research Board of the National Research Council in Washington. This was modified in 1996 by Cruden and Varnes, to concentrate on the type and rate of movement. The 1978 version of the “Varnes Classification System” was widely accepted by workers in many countries, albeit usually with modifications (e.g., Highland and Bobrowsky 2008; Dikau et al. 1996).
Varnes $(1954,1978)$$(1954,1978)$(1954,1978)(1954,1978) 在他为华盛顿国家研究委员会交通研究委员会准备的有影响力的文章中扩展了 Sharpe 的框架。1996 年，Cruden 和 Varnes 对此进行了修改，以专注于运动的类型和速度。1978 年版的“Varnes 分类系统”被许多国家的工人广泛接受，尽管通常经过修改（例如，Highland 和 Bobrowsky 2008;Dikau 等人，1996 年）。

The “Varnes classification,” is summarized in a poster-format Fig. 2.1 of Varnes (1978, as simplified in Table 1 in this paper). Here, within the framework of a matrix whose rows represent the type of movement and columns the type of material, are 29 landslide type names or keywords, which are further defined and described in the text of the paper. A velocity scale, later updated by International Geotechnical Society’s UNESCO Working Party on World Landslide Inventory (WP/WLI) (1995) and Cruden and Varnes (1996) completes the classification (Table 2).
“Varnes 分类”在 Varnes 的海报格式图 2.1 中进行了总结（1978 年，简化于本文的表 1）。在这里，在一个矩阵的框架内，其行代表运动类型，列代表材料类型，是 29 个滑坡类型名称或关键字，它们在论文正文中进一步定义和描述。后来由国际岩土工程学会的联合国教科文组织世界滑坡清单工作组 （WP/WLI） （1995） 和 Cruden 和 Varnes （1996） 更新的速度等级完成了分类（表 2）。

In England, Hutchinson $(1968,1988)$$(1968,1988)$(1968,1988)(1968,1988) developed a system without a matrix framework, utilizing multiple dimensions such as material, morphology, water content, rate, kinematics, and focusing on failure and propagation mechanisms. An attempt to correlate Hutchinson’s and Varnes’ systems specifically for flow-like landslides was published by Hungr et al. (2001).
在英国，Hutchinson $(1968,1988)$$(1968,1988)$(1968,1988)(1968,1988) 开发了一个没有矩阵框架的系统，利用材料、形态、含水量、速率、运动学等多个维度，并专注于失效和传播机制。Hungr 等人（2001 年）发表了一项尝试，专门将 Hutchinson 和 Varnes 系统与流状滑坡相关联。

Experts interested in landslide classification are most often engineering geologists. Geotechnical engineers have been concerned primarily with sliding movements and have not developed a complete set of landslide names, concentrating instead on the classification of materials. A simplified system based primarily on geotechnical concepts such as liquefaction and pre-shearing of clays was proposed by Sassa (1999).
对滑坡分类感兴趣的专家通常是工程地质学家。岩土工程师主要关注滑动运动，并没有开发一套完整的滑坡名称，而是专注于材料的分类。Sassa （1999） 提出了一种主要基于岩土工程概念（如粘土的液化和预剪切）的简化系统。

One important engineering contribution is the term “flow slide,” designating an extremely rapid failure resulting from the liquefaction of saturated sand (Casagrande 1940), or remolding of sensitive clay (Meyerhof 1957). The term has long been widely used in geotechnical practice and it has important practical implications (e.g., Terzaghi and Peck 1967).
一个重要的工程贡献是术语“流滑”，指的是由饱和沙的液化 （Casagrande 1940） 或敏感粘土的重塑 （Meyerhof 1957） 导致的极快速的破坏。该术语长期以来在岩土工程实践中被广泛使用，具有重要的实际意义（例如，Terzaghi 和 Peck 1967）。

Rock engineers contributed the terms “wedge slide” (Londe 1965; Hoek and Bray 1981), “flexural topple,” and “block topple” (Goodman and Bray 1976). Specialized classifications have been devised for rock slope deformations (Hutchinson 1988), subaqueous landslides (e.g., Postma 1986), landslides in permafrost (McRoberts and Morgenstern 1974), and in sensitive (“quick”) clay (Locat et al. 2011).
岩石工程师贡献了术语“楔形滑行”（Londe 1965;Hoek 和 Bray 1981）、“弯曲倾倒”和“块倾倒”（Goodman 和 Bray 1976）。已经为岩石边坡变形 （Hutchinson 1988）、水下滑坡 （例如，Postma 1986）、永久冻土中的滑坡 （McRoberts 和 Morgenstern 1974） 和敏感（“快速”）粘土 （Locat et al. 2011） 设计了专门的分类。

Table 1 A summary of Varnes’ 1978 classification system (based on Varnes 1978, Fig. 2.1)
表 1 Varnes 1978 分类系统摘要（基于 Varnes 1978，图 2.1）

A Working Party of the International Geotechnical Societies, sponsored by UNESCO, produced a series of “suggested methods” for the World Landslide Inventory (International Geotechnical Society’s UNESCO Working Party on World Landslide Inventory (WP/WLI 1990, 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1994, 1995). These documents provide useful methodologies for preparing landslide reports and describing landslide causes, degree of activity and movement rate.
由联合国教科文组织赞助的国际岩土工程学会工作组为世界滑坡清单制定了一系列“建议的方法”（国际岩土工程学会的联合国教科文组织世界滑坡清单工作组（WP/WLI 1990、1991、1993a、1993b、1994、1995）。这些文件为准备山体滑坡报告和描述山体滑坡原因、活动程度和移动速度提供了有用的方法。

Landslide material terminology
滑坡材料术语

The authors’ view is that geotechnical material terminology is most useful, as it relates best to the mechanical behavior of the landslide. To describe materials modified by geomorphic processes, including landsliding itself, it is necessary to supplement the geotechnical terms by names of mixed materials, namely “debris” and “mud,” as described later in this section.
作者的观点是，岩土工程材料术语最有用，因为它与滑坡的机械行为最相关。要描述由地貌过程（包括滑坡本身）改性的材料，有必要用混合材料的名称（即“碎屑”和“泥浆”）来补充岩土工程术语，如本节后面所述。

The proposed list of material types, compiled by means of a simplification of existing soil and rock description systems, is summarized in Table 3. The first column of the table lists the material types that can be used directly in forming landslide names.
表 3 总结了通过简化现有土壤和岩石描述系统编制的材料类型列表。表格的第一列列出了可以直接用于形成滑坡名称的材料类型。

These types: “rock,” “clay,” “mud,” “silt,” “sand,” “gravel,” “boulders,” “debris,” “peat,” and “ice” replace the former threefold material
这些类型：“岩石”、“粘土”、“泥浆”、“淤泥”、“沙子”、“砾石”、“巨石”、“碎屑”、“泥炭”和“冰”取代了以前的三重材料
classes used by Varnes (1978). Characteristics listed in the second column of the table can be used as supplementary terms. For example, “sensitive” clay will lose strength on remolding, while “partially saturated” silt may lose apparent cohesion on wetting.
Varnes （1978） 使用的类。表格第 2 列中列出的特征可以用作补充术语。例如，“敏感”粘土在重塑时会失去强度，而“部分饱和”淤泥在润湿时可能会失去明显的内聚力。

Of course, many soils are transitional between textural classes. It is suggested that transitional terms be simplified to the component that is the most significant in terms of physical behavior. For example, a clayey silt should be called silt if it has very low plasticity, or clay if it is plastic.
当然，许多土壤是结构类别之间的过渡。建议将过渡项简化为在物理行为方面最重要的部分。例如，如果粘土质淤泥的可塑性非常低，则应称为淤泥，如果它是塑料性的，则应称为粘土。

Where the landslide source contains alternating zones of various materials (e.g., sand and clay), the material that plays the dominant role in the failure or propagation mechanisms should be used, even at the cost of a certain subjectivity. Where a dominant component cannot be identified, it is possible to use two terms, e.g., “rock and ice avalanche.”
当滑坡源包含各种材料（例如沙子和粘土）的交替区域时，应使用在破坏或传播机制中起主导作用的材料，即使以一定的主观性为代价。在无法确定主要成分的情况下，可以使用两个术语，例如“岩石和冰雪崩”。

The words “debris” and “mud” do not have clear equivalents in geotechnical terminology, but have acquired status in geology and landslide science and have therefore been retained (Bates and Jackson 1984). These are materials that have been mixed from various components by geomorphic processes such as weathering (residual soil), mass wasting (colluvium), glacier transport (till or ice contact deposits), explosive volcanism (granular pyroclastic deposits), or human activity (e.g., fill or mine spoil). Texturally,
“碎屑”和“泥浆”这两个词在岩土工程术语中没有明确的等价词，但在地质学和滑坡科学中已经获得了地位，因此被保留了下来（Bates 和 Jackson 1984）。这些材料是通过地貌过程从各种成分中混合而成的，例如风化（残余土壤）、质量浪费（崩积）、冰川运输（冰碛或冰接触沉积物）、爆炸性火山活动（颗粒状火山碎屑沉积物）或人类活动（例如填土或采矿弃土）。在质地上，

Table 2 Landslide velocity scale (WP/WLI 1995 and Cruden and Varnes 1996)
表 2 滑坡速度等级（WP/WLI 1995 和 Cruden 和 Varnes 1996）