Table 1-2 表 1-2
The World’s Top Nonfinancial MNGs from Developing Countries, Ranked by Foreign 按外资排名的全球发展中国家最大非金融多边新兴经济体
Assets, 2007 资产，2007 年
(in millions of dollars) （单位：百万美元）
The process of social, political, economic, cultural, and technological integration among countries around the world. 世界各国在社会、政治、经济、文化和技术方面的一体化进程。
offshoring 离岸外包
The process by which companies undertake some activities at offshore locations instead of in their countries of origin. 公司在境外而非原籍国开展某些活动的过程。
outsourcing 外包
The subcontracting or contracting out of activities to external organizations that had previously been performed by the firm. 将以前由公司进行的活动分包或承包给外部组织。
Globalization and Internationalization 全球化和国际化
International business is not a new phenomenon; however, the volume of international trade has increased dramatically over the last decade. Today, every nation and an increasing number of companies buy and sell goods in the international marketplace. A number of developments around the world have helped fuel this activity. 国际商业并不是一个新现象，但在过去十年中，国际贸易量急剧增加。如今，每个国家和越来越多的公司都在国际市场上买卖商品。世界范围内的一些发展助长了这一活动。
Globalization, Antiglobalization, and Global Pressures 全球化、反全球化和全球压力
Globalization can be defined as the process of social, political, economic, cultural, and technological integration among countries around the world. Globalization is distinct from internationalization in that internationalization is the process of a business crossing national and cultural borders, while globalization is the vision of creating one world unit, a single market entity. Evidence of globalization can be seen in increased levels of trade, capital flows, and migration. Globalization has been facilitated by technological advances in transnational communications, transport, and travel. Thomas Friedman, in his book The World Is Flat, identified 10 “flatteners” that have hastened the globalization trend, including the fall of the Berlin Wall, offshoring, and outsourcing, which have combined to dramatically intensify the effects of increasing global linkages. ^(5){ }^{5} Hence, in recent years, globalization has accelerated, creating both opportunities and challenges to global business and international management. 全球化可以定义为世界各国在社会、政治、经济、文化和技术方面的一体化进程。全球化有别于国际化，国际化是企业跨越国界和文化的过程，而全球化则是创建一个世界单位，即单一市场实体的愿景。全球化的证据体现在贸易、资本流动和移民水平的提高。跨国通信、运输和旅行技术的进步促进了全球化。托马斯-弗里德曼在《世界是平的》一书中指出了加速全球化趋势的 10 个 "扁平化因素"，其中包括柏林墙的倒塌、离岸外包和外包，这些因素结合在一起，极大地加强了全球联系不断加强的效果。 ^(5){ }^{5} 因此，近年来全球化加速发展，为全球商业和国际管理带来了机遇和挑战。
On the plus side, global trade and investment continue to grow, bringing wealth, jobs, and technology to many regions around the world. While some emerging countries have not benefited from globalization and integration, the emergence of MNCs from developing countries reflects the increasing inclusion of all regions of the world in the benefits of globalization. Yet, as the pace of global integration quickens, so have the cries against globalization and the emergence of new concerns over mounting global pressures. ^(6){ }^{6} These pressures can be seen in protests at the meetings of the World Trade 从好的方面看，全球贸易和投资继续增长，为世界许多地区带来了财富、就业和技术。虽然一些新兴国家没有从全球化和一体化中受益，但发展中国家跨国公司的出现反映出世界所有地区都越来越多地享受到全球化带来的好处。然而，随着全球一体化步伐的加快，反对全球化的呼声也日益高涨，人们对日益加剧的全球压力产生了新的担忧。 ^(6){ }^{6} 这些压力可以从世界贸易组织会议上的抗议活动中看出来。
Table 1-9
World Foreign Direct Investment Inflows
(in US$ millions)
Table 1-9
World Foreign Direct Investment Inflows
(in US$ millions)
| Table 1-9 |
| :--- |
| World Foreign Direct Investment Inflows |
| (in US$ millions) |
| |
2008 表 1-9 世界外国直接投资流入量（单位：百万美元） 2008 年
Asia and Australasia 亚洲和大洋洲
$390,727\$ 390,727
$2609,790\$ 2609,790
East-central Europe 中东欧
56,389
27,092
Economies in transition 转型期经济体
140,187
70,630
G7
615,955
284,411
Latin America 拉丁美洲
105,021
59,166
North America 北美
360,824
137,897
Sub-Saharan Africa 撒哈拉以南非洲
13,281
8,684
Western Europe 西欧
435,096
317,751
"Table 1-9
World Foreign Direct Investment Inflows
(in US$ millions)
" 2008
Asia and Australasia $390,727 $2609,790
East-central Europe 56,389 27,092
Economies in transition 140,187 70,630
G7 615,955 284,411
Latin America 105,021 59,166
North America 360,824 137,897
Sub-Saharan Africa 13,281 8,684
Western Europe 435,096 317,751| Table 1-9 <br> World Foreign Direct Investment Inflows <br> (in US$ millions) <br> 2008 | | |
| :--- | ---: | ---: |
| Asia and Australasia | $\$ 390,727$ | $\$ 2609,790$ |
| East-central Europe | 56,389 | 27,092 |
| Economies in transition | 140,187 | 70,630 |
| G7 | 615,955 | 284,411 |
| Latin America | 105,021 | 59,166 |
| North America | 360,824 | 137,897 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 13,281 | 8,684 |
| Western Europe | 435,096 | 317,751 |
Asia and Australasia 2008 2009
East-central Europe 353,926 $281,602
Economies in transition 60,656 6,569
G7 1,089,270 532,913
Latin America 33,422 11,118
North America 389,462 194,966
Sub-Saharan Africa 1,793 1,640
Western Europe 958,934 505,040
Source: Economic Intelligence Unit 2010. | | | |
| :--- | ---: | ---: |
| Asia and Australasia | $\mathbf{2 0 0 8}$ | $\mathbf{2 0 0 9}$ |
| East-central Europe | $\mathbf{3 5 3 , 9 2 6}$ | $\$ 281,602$ |
| Economies in transition | 60,656 | 6,569 |
| G7 | $1,089,270$ | 532,913 |
| Latin America | 33,422 | 11,118 |
| North America | 389,462 | 194,966 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 1,793 | 1,640 |
| Western Europe | 958,934 | 505,040 |
| Source: Economic Intelligence Unit 2010. | | |
Table 1-10
World Foreign Direct Investment Outflows
(in US$ millions)
,,,Asia and Australasia,2008,2009,East-central Europe,353,926,$281,602,Economies in transition,60,656,6,569,G7,1,089,270,532,913,Latin America,33,422,11,118,North America,389,462,194,966,Sub-Saharan Africa,1,793,1,640,Western Europe,958,934,505,040,Source: Economic Intelligence Unit 2010.,,| Table 1-10 |
| :--- |
| World Foreign Direct Investment Outflows |
| (in US$ millions) |
| <br> Asia and Australasia $\mathbf{2 0 0 8}$ $\mathbf{2 0 0 9}$ <br> East-central Europe $\mathbf{3 5 3 , 9 2 6}$ $\$ 281,602$ <br> Economies in transition 60,656 6,569 <br> G7 $1,089,270$ 532,913 <br> Latin America 33,422 11,118 <br> North America 389,462 194,966 <br> Sub-Saharan Africa 1,793 1,640 <br> Western Europe 958,934 505,040 <br> Source: Economic Intelligence Unit 2010. |
"Table 1-10
World Foreign Direct Investment Outflows
(in US$ millions)
,,,Asia and Australasia,2008,2009,East-central Europe,353,926,$281,602,Economies in transition,60,656,6,569,G7,1,089,270,532,913,Latin America,33,422,11,118,North America,389,462,194,966,Sub-Saharan Africa,1,793,1,640,Western Europe,958,934,505,040,Source: Economic Intelligence Unit 2010.,,"| Table 1-10 <br> World Foreign Direct Investment Outflows <br> (in US$ millions) <br> <br> Asia and Australasia $\mathbf{2 0 0 8}$ $\mathbf{2 0 0 9}$ <br> East-central Europe $\mathbf{3 5 3 , 9 2 6}$ $\$ 281,602$ <br> Economies in transition 60,656 6,569 <br> G7 $1,089,270$ 532,913 <br> Latin America 33,422 11,118 <br> North America 389,462 194,966 <br> Sub-Saharan Africa 1,793 1,640 <br> Western Europe 958,934 505,040 <br> Source: Economic Intelligence Unit 2010. |
| :--- |
Global Economic Systems 全球经济体系
The evolution of global economies has resulted in three main systems: market economies, command economies, and mixed economies. Recognizing opportunities in global expansion includes understanding the differences in these systems, as they affect issues such as consumer choice and managerial behavior. 全球经济的发展形成了三大体系：市场经济、指令经济和混合经济。认识全球扩张的机遇包括了解这些体系的差异，因为它们会影响消费者选择和管理行为等问题。
Market Economy 市场经济
A market economy exists when private enterprise reserves the right to own property and monitor the production and distribution of goods and services while the state simply supports competition and efficient practices. Management is particularly effective here since private ownership provides local evaluation and understanding, opposed to a nationally standardized archetype. This model contains the least restriction as the allocation of resources is roughly determined by the law of demand. Individuals within the community disclose wants, needs, and desires to which businesses may appropriately respond. A general balance between supply and demand sustains prices, while an imbalance creates a price fluctuation. In other words, if demand for a good or service exceeds supply, the price will inevitably rise, while an excess supply over consumer demand will result in a price decrease. ^(19){ }^{19} 当私营企业保留拥有财产和监督商品与服务的生产和分配的权利，而国家只是支持竞争和有效的做法时，市场经济就存在了。在这种情况下，管理尤为有效，因为私有制提供了地方评估和理解，而不是全国统一的模式。这种模式限制最少，因为资源分配大致由需求法则决定。社区内的个人会公开自己的愿望、需求和欲望，企业可以对此做出适当的回应。供需之间的总体平衡会维持价格，而不平衡则会造成价格波动。换句话说，如果商品或服务供不应求，价格必然上涨，而供过于求则会导致价格下跌。 ^(19){ }^{19}
Since the interaction of the community and firms guides the system, organizations must be as versatile as the individual consumer. Competition is fervently encouraged to promote innovation, economic growth, high quality, and efficiency. The focus on how to 由于社区和企业之间的互动引导着整个系统，因此组织必须像个人消费者一样多才多艺。我们大力鼓励竞争，以促进创新、经济增长、高质量和高效率。重点是如何
through denial of civil liberties. The political environment in China is very complex because of the government’s desire to balance national, immediate needs with the challenge of a free-market economy and globalization. Since joining the WTO in 2001, China has made trade liberalization a top priority. However, MNCs still face a host of major obstacles when doing business with and in China. For example, government regulations severely hamper multinational activity and favor domestic companies, which results in questionable treatment such as longer document processing times for foreign firms. ^(12){ }^{12} This makes it increasingly difficult for MNCs to gain the proper legal footing. The biggest problem may well be that the government does not know what it wants from multinational investors, and this is what accounts for the mixed signals and changes in direction that it continually sends. All this obviously increases the importance of knowledgeable international managers. 剥夺公民自由。中国的政治环境非常复杂，因为中国政府希望在国家的当前需求与自由市场经济和全球化的挑战之间取得平衡。自 2001 年加入世贸组织以来，中国已将贸易自由化作为重中之重。然而，跨国公司在与中国和在中国开展业务时仍然面临着一系列重大障碍。例如，政府法规严重阻碍了跨国公司的活动，并偏向于国内公司，这导致了外国公司受到质疑，如文件处理时间较长。 ^(12){ }^{12} 这使得跨国公司越来越难以获得适当的法律地位。最大的问题可能是政府不知道自己想从跨国投资者那里得到什么，这也是政府不断发出混合信号和改变方向的原因。所有这些显然都增加了知识渊博的国际经理人的重要性。
China may be moving further away from its communist tendencies as it begins supporting a more open, democratic society, at least in the economic sphere. China continues to monitor what it considers antigovernment actions and practices, but there is a discernible shift toward greater tolerance of individual freedoms. ^(13){ }^{13} For now, China continues to challenge the capabilities of current international business theory as it transitions through a unique system favoring high governmental control yet striving to unleash a more dynamic market economy. ^(14){ }^{14} 随着中国开始支持更加开放、民主的社会，至少在经济领域，中国可能正在进一步摆脱共产主义倾向。中国将继续监控其认为是反政府的行为和做法，但有一个明显的转变，即对个人自由更加宽容。 ^(13){ }^{13} 就目前而言，中国仍在挑战当前国际商业理论的能力，因为它正在经历一个独特的体系转型，这个体系既倾向于政府的高度控制，又努力释放出更具活力的市场经济。 ^(14){ }^{14}
Though the most common, the totalitarian form of government exhibited in China is not the only one. Other forms of totalitarianism exhibit other forms of oppression as well. Parties or governments that govern an entity based on religious principles will ultimately oppress religious and political expression of its citizens. Examples are Iran or Saudi Arabia, where the laws and government are based on Islamic principles. Conducting business in the Middle East is, in many ways, similar to operating a business in the Western world. The Arab countries have been a generally positive place to do business, as many of these nations are seeking modern technology and most have the financial ability to pay for quality services. Worldwide fallout from the war on terrorism, the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, and the ongoing Israel-Arab conflicts, however, have raised tensions in the Middle East considerably, making the business environment there risky and potentially dangerous. 中国的极权主义政府形式虽然最常见，但并非唯一。其他形式的极权主义也表现出其他形式的压迫。基于宗教原则治理一个实体的政党或政府最终会压制其公民的宗教和政治表达。例如，伊朗或沙特阿拉伯的法律和政府都以伊斯兰原则为基础。在中东开展业务在许多方面与在西方世界经营业务相似。阿拉伯国家总体上是一个积极的经商环境，因为其中许多国家都在寻求现代技术，而且大多数国家都有经济能力支付优质服务。然而，全球范围内的反恐战争、阿富汗战争和伊拉克战争以及持续不断的以色列-阿拉伯冲突，大大加剧了中东地区的紧张局势，使那里的商业环境充满风险和潜在危险。
One final form of totalitarianism, sometimes referred to as “right-wing,” allows for some economic (but not political) freedoms. While it directly opposes socialist and communist ideas, this form may gain power and support from the military, often in the form of a military leader imposing a government “for the good of the people.” This results in military officers filling most government positions. Such military regimes ruled in Germany and Italy from the 1930s to 1940s and persisted in Latin America and Asia until the 1980s when the latter moved toward democratic forms. Recent examples include Myanmar, where the military has ruled since the suspension of democracy in 1962. 极权主义的最后一种形式有时被称为 "右翼"，它允许一些经济自由（但不允许政治自由）。虽然它直接反对社会主义和共产主义思想，但这种形式的极权主义可能会从军方获得权力和支持，通常表现为军方领导人 "为了人民的利益 "而强制推行政府。这就导致军官担任大多数政府职位。20 世纪 30 年代至 40 年代，这种军事政权在德国和意大利执政，并在拉丁美洲和亚洲持续存在，直到 20 世纪 80 年代后者转向民主形式。最近的例子包括缅甸，自 1962 年中止民主制度以来，缅甸一直由军队统治。
Legal and Regulatory Environment 法律和监管环境
One reason why today’s international environment is so confusing and challenging for MNCs is that they face so many different laws and regulations in their global business operations. These factors affect the way businesses are developed and managed within host nations, so special consideration must be paid to the subtle differences in the legal codes from one country to another. Adhering to disparate legal frameworks sometimes prevents large MNCs from capitalizing on manufacturing economies of scale and scope within these regions. In addition, the sheer complexity and magnitude of bureaucracies require special attention. This, in turn, results in slower time to market and greater costs. MNCs must take time to carefully evaluate the legal framework in each market in which they do business before launching products or services in those markets. 当今的国际环境之所以让跨国公司感到困惑和充满挑战，原因之一是他们在全球业务运营中面临着如此多不同的法律法规。这些因素影响着东道国的企业发展和管理方式，因此必须特别注意各国法律法规之间的细微差别。遵守不同的法律框架有时会妨碍大型跨国公司利用这些地区的制造业规模经济和范围经济。此外，复杂庞大的官僚机构也需要特别关注。这反过来又导致产品上市时间变慢，成本增加。跨国公司在其开展业务的每个市场推出产品或服务之前，必须花时间仔细评估这些市场的法律框架。
Many NGOs recognize that MNCs can have positive impacts on the countries in which they do business, often adhering to higher standards of social and environmental responsibility than local firms. In fact, MNCs may be in a position to transfer “best practices” in social or environmental actions from their home to host countries’ markets. In some instances, MNCs and NGOs collaborate on social and environmental projects and in so doing contribute both to the well-being of communities and to the reputation of the MNC. The emergence of NGOs that seek to promote ethical and socially responsible business practices is beginning to generate substantial changes in corporate management, strategy, and governance. 许多非政府组织认识到，跨国公司可以对其开展业务的国家产生积极影响，它们往往比当地公司遵守更高的社会和环境责任标准。事实上，跨国公司可以将其在社会或环境方面的 "最佳做法 "从母国市场转移到东道国市场。在某些情况下，跨国公司和非政府组织合作开展社会和环境项目，这样做既有助于社区的福利，也有助于提高跨国公司的声誉。非政府组织力求促进有道德和对社会负责的商业行为，它们的出现开始在公司管理、战略和治理方面产生重大变化。
Response to Social and Organizational Obligations MNCs are increasingly engaged in a range of responses to growing pressures to contribute positively to the social and environmental progress of the communities in which they do business. One response is the agreements and codes of conduct in which MNCs commit to maintain certain standards in their domestic and global operations. These agreements, which include the U.N. Global Compact (see Table 3-1), the Global Reporting Initiative, the social accountability “SA8000” standards, and the ISO 14000 environmental quality standards, provide some assurances that when MNCs do business around the world, they will maintain a minimum level of social and environmental standards in the workplaces and communities in which they operate. ^(24){ }^{24} These codes help offset the real or perceived concern that companies move jobs to avoid higher labor or environmental standards in their home markets. They may also contribute to the raising of standards in the developing world by “exporting” higher standards to local firms in those countries. 对社会和组织义务的回应 跨国公司越来越多地参与一系列回应措施，以应对日益增长的压力，为其业务所在社区的社会和环境进步做出积极贡献。其中一种应对措施是协议和行为准则，跨国公司在这些协议和准则中承诺在其国内和全球业务中保持一定的标准。这些协议包括《联合国全球契约》（见表 3-1）、《全球报告倡议》、社会责任 "SA8000 "标准和 ISO 14000 环境质量标准，它们提供了一些保证，即跨国公司在世界各地开展业务时，将在其经营所在的工作场所和社区维持最低水平的社会和环境标准。 ^(24){ }^{24} 这些准则有助于消除人们对公司为逃避本国市场较高的劳工或环境标准而转移工作岗位的实际或感知上的担忧。它们还可以通过向发展中国家的当地公司 "输出 "更高的标准，促进提高这些国家的标准。
Another interesting trend among businesses and NGOs is the movement toward increasing the availability of “fairly traded” products. Beginning with coffee and moving 企业和非政府组织中另一个有趣的趋势是增加 "公平贸易 "产品的供应。从咖啡开始，到
Table 3-1
Principles of the Global Compact 表 3-1 全球契约的原则
Human Rights 人权
Principle 1: Support and respect the protection of international human rights within their sphere of influence. 原则 1：在其影响范围内支持和尊重对国际人权的保护。
Principle 2: Make sure their own corporations are not complicit in human rights abuses. 原则 2：确保本国企业不参与侵犯人权行为。
Labor 劳动
Principle 3: Freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining. 原则 3：结社自由和切实承认集体谈判权。
Principle 4: The elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labor. 原则 4：消除一切形式的强迫和强制劳动。
Principle 5: The effective abolition of child labor. 原则 5：切实废除童工。
Principle 6: The elimination of discrimination with respect to employment and occupation. 原则 6：消除就业和职业方面的歧视。
Environment 环境
Principle 7: Support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges. 原则 7：支持以预防方法应对环境挑战。
Principle 8: Undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility. 原则 8：采取主动行动，促进承担更大的环境责任。
Principle 9: Encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies. 原则 9：鼓励开发和推广环保技术。
Anticorruption 反腐败
Principle 10: Business should work against all forms of corruption, including extortion and bribery. 原则 10：企业应努力打击一切形式的腐败，包括敲诈和贿赂。
Ten Key Factors for MNC Success 跨国公司成功的十大关键因素
Why are some international firms successful while others are not? Some of the main reasons are that successful multinational firms take a worldwide view of operations, support their overseas activities, pay close attention to political winds, and use local nationals whenever possible. These are the overall findings of a report that looked into the development of customized executive education programs. Specifically, there are 10 factors or guidelines that successful global firms seem to employ. Successful global competitors: 为什么有些国际公司取得了成功，而有些却没有？其中一些主要原因是，成功的跨国公司从全球角度看待业务，支持其海外活动，密切关注政治风向，并尽可能使用当地国民。这些是一份研究定制化高管教育课程发展的报告得出的总体结论。具体来说，成功的全球性企业似乎都会采用 10 项因素或准则。成功的全球竞争者：
See themselves as multinational enterprises and are led by a management team that is comfortable in the world arena. 将自己视为跨国企业，并由一个在世界舞台上游刃有余的管理团队领导。
Develop integrated and innovative strategies that make it difficult and costly for other firms to compete. 制定综合创新战略，使其他公司难以与之竞争，并付出高昂的代价。
Aggressively and effectively implement their worldwide strategy and back it with large investments. 积极有效地实施其全球战略，并以大量投资作为支持。
Understand that innovation no longer is confined to the United States and develop systems for tapping innovation abroad. 认识到创新不再局限于美国，并开发在国外发掘创新的系统。
Operate as if the world were one large market rather than a series of individual, small markets. 把世界当作一个大市场，而不是一系列单独的小市场来运作。
Have organization structures that are designed to handle their unique problems and challenges and thus provide them the greatest efficiency. 拥有专为应对其独特问题和挑战而设计的组织结构，从而提供最高效率。
Develop a system that keeps them informed about political changes around the world and the implications of these changes on the firm. 建立一个系统，让他们随时了解世界各地的政治变化以及这些变化对公司的影响。
Have management teams that are international in composition and thus better able to respond to the various demands of their respective markets. 拥有国际化的管理团队，从而能够更好地应对各自市场的各种需求。
Allow their outside directors to play an active role in the operation of the enterprise. 允许外部董事在企业运营中发挥积极作用。
Are well managed and tend to follow such important guidelines as sticking close to the customer, having lean organization structures, and encouraging autonomy and entrepreneurial activity among the personnel. 管理完善，往往遵循贴近客户、精简组织结构、鼓励员工自主创业等重要准则。
example, advertising in the United States should target individual achievement, be expressive and direct, and appeal to U.S. values of success through personal hard work. On the other hand, the focus in China and other Asian countries should be much more indirect and subtle, emphasizing group references, shared responsibility, and interpersonal trust. 例如，美国的广告应以个人成就为目标，表现力强且直接，迎合美国人通过个人努力获得成功的价值观。另一方面，中国和其他亚洲国家的广告则应更加间接和含蓄，强调群体参照、共同责任和人际信任。
The need to adjust global strategies for regional markets presents three major challenges for most MNCs. First, the MNC must stay abreast of local market conditions and sidestep the temptation to assume that all markets are basically the same. Second, the MNC must know the strengths and weaknesses of its subsidiaries so that it can provide these units with the assistance needed in addressing local demands. Third, the multinational must give the subsidiary more autonomy so that it can respond to changes in local demands. The nearby International Management in Action, “Ten Key Factors for MNC Success,” provides additional insights into the ways that successful MNCs address these challenges. 需要针对地区市场调整全球战略，这给大多数跨国公司带来了三大挑战。首先，跨国公司必须随时了解当地市场的情况，避免认为所有市场都基本相同。其次，跨国公司必须了解其子公司的强项和弱项，以便向这些单位提供满足当地需求所需的帮助。第三，跨国公司必须给予子公司更多的自主权，使其能够应对当地需求的变化。附近的《国际管理在行动》一书中的 "跨国公司成功的十大关键因素 "对成功的跨国公司如何应对这些挑战提供了更多的见解。
Cross-Cultural Differences and Similarities 跨文化的异同
As you saw in Chapter 4, cultures can be similar or quite different across countries. The challenge for MNCs is to recognize and effectively manage the similarities and differences. Generally, the way in which MNCs manage their home businesses often should be different from the way they manage their overseas operations. ^(9){ }^{9} After recognizing the danger for MNCs of drifting toward parochialism and simplification in spite of cultural differences, the discussion in this section shifts to some examples of cultural similarities and differences and how to effectively manage across cultures by a contingency approach. 正如第 4 章所述，不同国家的文化既可能相似，也可能大相径庭。跨国公司面临的挑战是认识并有效管理这些异同。一般来说，跨国公司管理国内业务的方式往往应不同于管理海外业务的方式。 ^(9){ }^{9} 在认识到跨国公司不顾文化差异而陷入狭隘主义和简单化的危险之后，本节的讨论将转向一些文化异同的例子，以及如何通过应急方法有效管理跨文化业务。
that does a great deal of business in Japan. This firm urges its people to strive for successful collaboration in their international partnerships and ventures. At the heart of this process is effective communication. As put by Kenichi Ohmae: 该公司在日本有大量业务。该公司敦促其员工在国际合作和风险投资中努力实现成功合作。这一过程的核心是有效沟通。正如大前研一所说
{:[" We must recognize and accept the inescapable subtleties and difficulties of intercompany "],[" relationships. This is the essential starting point. Then we must focus not on contractual "],[" or equity-related issues but on the quality of the people at the interface between organiza- "],[" tions. Finally, we must understand that success requires frequent, rapport-building meetings "],[" by at least three organizational levels: top management, staff, and line management at the "],[" working level. "^(45)]:}\begin{aligned}
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& \text { or equity-related issues but on the quality of the people at the interface between organiza- } \\
& \text { tions. Finally, we must understand that success requires frequent, rapport-building meetings } \\
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Managing Cross-Cultural Negotiations 管理跨文化谈判
Closely related to communications but deserving special attention is managing negotiations. ^(46){ }^{46} Negotiation is the process of bargaining with one or more parties to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to all. It has been estimated that managers can spend 50 percent or more of their time on negotiation processes. ^(47){ }^{47} Therefore, it is a learnable skill that is imperative not only for the international manager but for the domestic manager as well, since more and more domestic businesses are operating in multicultural environments (see Chapter 6). Negotiation often follows assessing political environments and is a natural approach to conflict management. Often, the MNC must negotiate with the host country to secure the best possible arrangements. The MNC and the host country will discuss the investment the MNC is prepared to make in return for certain guarantees or concessions. The initial range of topics typically includes critical areas such as hiring practices, direct financial investment, taxes, and ownership control. Negotiation also is used in creating joint ventures with local firms and in getting the operation off the ground. After the firm is operating, additional areas of negotiation include expansion of facilities, use of more local managers, additional imports or exports of materials and finished goods, and recapture of profits. 与沟通密切相关但值得特别关注的是谈判管理。 ^(46){ }^{46} 谈判是与一方或多方讨价还价，以达成各方都能接受的解决方案的过程。据估计，管理人员在谈判过程中会花费 50% 或更多的时间。 ^(47){ }^{47} 因此，谈判是一种可学习的技能，不仅对于国际经理人，而且对于国内经理人都是必不可少的，因为越来越多的国内企业在多元文化环境中运营（见第 6 章）。谈判往往伴随着政治环境的评估，是冲突管理的一种自然方法。通常情况下，跨国公司必须与东道国进行谈判，以获得最佳安排。跨国公司和东道国将讨论跨国公司准备作出的投资，以换取某些保证或让步。最初的议题范围通常包括雇佣惯例、直接金融投资、税收和所有权控制等关键领域。谈判还用于与当地企业建立合资企业和使企业开始运营。公司运营后，谈判的其他领域包括扩建设施、使用更多的当地管理人员、增加材料和制成品的进口或出口，以及收回利润。
On a more macro level of international trade are the negotiations conducted between countries. The current balance-of-trade problem between the United States and China is one example. The massive debt problems of less developed countries and the opening of trade with Eastern European and newly emerging economies are other current examples. 在更宏观的国际贸易层面上，国家之间进行谈判。当前中美之间的贸易平衡问题就是一个例子。欠发达国家的巨额债务问题以及与东欧和新兴经济体的贸易开放也是当前的其他例子。
Types of Negotiation 谈判类型
People enter into negotiations for a multitude of reasons, but the nature of the goal determines what kind of negotiation will take place. There are two types of negotiations that we will discuss here: distributive and integrative negotiation. Distributive negotiations occur when two parties with opposing goals compete over a set value. ^(48){ }^{48} Consider a person who passes a street vendor and sees an item he likes but considers the price, or set value, a bit steep. The goal of the buyer is to procure the item at the lowest price, getting more value for his money, while the goal of the seller is to collect as much as possible to maximize profits. Both are trying to get the best deal, but what translates into a gain by one side is usually experienced as a loss by the other, otherwise known as a win-lose situation. The relationship is focused on the individual and based on a short-term interaction. More often than not, the people involved are not friends, or at least their personal relationship is put aside in the matter. Information also plays an important role, since you do not want to expose too much and be vulnerable to counterattack. 人们进行谈判的原因多种多样，但目标的性质决定了谈判的类型。我们将在此讨论两种类型的谈判：分配型谈判和整合型谈判。分配型谈判发生在目标截然相反的双方就某一设定值展开竞争时。 ^(48){ }^{48} 假设一个人路过街头小贩，看到一件他喜欢的物品，但认为价格或设定价值有点贵。买方的目标是以最低的价格购买该物品，让自己的钱花得更有价值，而卖方的目标是尽可能多地收钱，实现利润最大化。双方都想获得最佳交易，但一方的收益通常会被另一方视为损失，也就是所谓的双输局面。这种关系以个人为中心，以短期互动为基础。参与其中的人往往不是朋友，或者至少他们的私人关系被搁置一边。信息也起着重要作用，因为你不想暴露太多而容易遭到反击。
Research has shown that first offers in a negotiation can be good predictors of outcomes, which is why it is important to have a strong initial offer. ^(49){ }^{49} This does not imply that overly greedy or aggressive behavior is acceptable; this could be off-putting to the other negotiator, causing her or him to walk away. In addition to limiting the amount of information you disclose, it can be advantageous to know a little about the other side. 研究表明，谈判中的首次出价可以很好地预测谈判结果，这就是为什么有一个强有力的首次出价非常重要。 ^(49){ }^{49} 这并不意味着过度贪婪或咄咄逼人的行为是可以接受的；这可能会引起对方谈判人员的反感，导致其放弃谈判。除了限制披露的信息量外，了解对方的一些情况也有好处。
negotiation 协商
Bargaining with one or more parties for the purpose of arriving at a solution acceptable to all. 与一方或多方进行谈判，以达成各方都能接受的解决方案。
distributive negotiations Bargaining that occurs when two parties with opposing goals compete over a set value. 分配式谈判 当目标相反的双方就某一设定值展开竞争时，就会发生讨价还价。
Source: Reprinted by permission of the United Nations Global Compact. 资料来源经联合国全球契约许可转载。