Cases a and c represent internal economies of scale because a single firm/factory is producing the output for the whole industry. As the output increases, average costs will fall. This can lead to imperfect competition as it supports a limited number of firms in the industry. Cases b and d represent external economies of scale as industry production is concentrated in a just a few locations. The benefits of geographical clustering include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations, access to a larger pool of specialized labour and thicker input markets.
案例a和c代表内部规模经济，因为一家公司/工厂为整个行业生产产品。随着产量的增加，平均成本将下降。这可能会导致不完全竞争，因为它支持了行业中数量有限的公司。情况B和d代表外部规模经济，因为工业生产集中在少数几个地点。地域集群的好处包括提供更多种类的专门服务以支持产业运作，获得更多的专门劳动力和更大的投入市场。

Q2.

The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.
生产地点相对较少，这表明存在外部生产规模经济。如果这些业务规模很大，也可能有很大的内部生产规模经济。

Because economies of scale are significant in uranium production, it tends to be done by a small number of firms at a limited number of locations.
由于规模经济在铀生产中很重要，因此往往由少数公司在有限的地点进行。

Because external economies of scale are significant in beef production, the industry tends to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. Soil, climactic conditions and historical breeding reflects the comparative advantage too.
由于外部规模经济在牛肉生产中很重要，该行业往往集中在某些地理位置。土壤、气候条件和历史育种也体现了比较优势。

“True” Champagne comes from France. The production of Champagne requires special techniques and it’s already a French trademark. This labor market pooling suggests external economy of scale. But soil and climactic conditions too are favorable for producing it and this reflects comparative advantage.
真正的香槟来自法国。香槟的生产需要特殊的技术，它已经是法国的商标。这种劳动力市场的集中体现了外部规模经济。但土壤和气候条件也有利于生产它，这反映了比较优势。

Because of climatic conditions, and due to a large market, Brazil generates external economies of scale in coffee production.
由于气候条件和庞大的市场，巴西在咖啡生产方面产生了外部规模经济。

The three forces driving external economies of scale are access to specialised suppliers, labour market pooling, and knowledge spillovers. As these forces weaken, so too do the cost advantages of geographic clustering. The location of production becomes increasingly driven by factor costs when industries move away from external economies of scale toward traditional constant returns to scale.
驱动外部规模经济的三个力量是获得专业艾德供应商、劳动力市场汇集和知识溢出。随着这些力量的减弱，地理集群的成本优势也会减弱。当产业从外部规模经济转向传统的恒定规模回报时，生产地点越来越受到要素成本的驱动。

Even with higher wages in China, the external economies of scale industries located in China may not move to lower-wage countries. Consider if for example, China’s average cost curve lies above that of Vietnam’s, reflecting higher wages in China, the external economies of scale industries located in China would not move to Vietnam. However, the fact that Chinese industry is established gives it a cost advantage over any Vietnamese firms who would enter the industry and face an initial cost higher than the established Chinese firms. Production would only shift to Vietnam if China’s average cost curve were to shift up enough so that the new equilibrium price and cost in China lies above the startup cost in Vietnam.
即使中国的工资较高，位于中国的外部规模经济产业也可能不会转移到工资较低的国家。例如，如果中国的平均成本曲线高于越南的平均成本曲线，反映出中国的工资水平较高，那么位于中国的外部规模经济产业就不会转移到越南。然而，事实上，中国工业的建立使其比任何越南公司都具有成本优势，这些越南公司将进入该行业，并面临比中国公司更高的初始成本。只有当中国的平均成本曲线向上移动到足以使中国的新均衡价格和成本高于越南的启动成本时，生产才会转移到越南。