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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 国会图书馆编目出版数据
Murray, Janet H. 珍妮特·H·穆雷
Inventing the medium : principles of interaction design as a cultural practice / Janet H. Murray. 媒介的创造：交互设计原则作为文化实践 / 珍妮特·H·穆雷
p. cm. 厘米页
Includes bibliographical references and index. 包含参考文献和索引。
ISBN 978-0-262-01614-8 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Human-computer interaction. 2. Digital media-Design. 3. Social media-Design. 4. Intercultural communication. I. Title. QA76.9.H85M87 2012 ISBN 978-0-262-01614-8（精装：碱性纸）1. 人机交互。2. 数字媒体设计。3. 社交媒体设计。4. 跨文化交流。I. 书名。QA76.9.H85M87 2012
004.1 '9-dc22
For my mother, Lillian Horowitz 献给我的母亲，莉莲·霍洛维茨
Whenever I design a chip, the first thing I want to do is look at it under a microscope-not because I think I can learn something new by looking at it but because I am always fascinated by how a pattern can create reality. 每当我设计芯片时，首先想做的就是用显微镜观察它——这并不是因为我认为能从中学到什么新东西，而是因为我总是对图案如何创造现实感到着迷。
-Danny Hillis, The Pattern on the Stone (1998) 丹尼·希利斯著，《石头上的图案》（1998）
Contents 目录
Acknowledgments … xi 感谢 … xi
Introduction: A Cultural Approach to Interaction Design … 1 介绍：一种文化导向的交互设计 … 1
I CHANGING TECHNOLOGIES, LASTING INNOVATIONS … 23 我在改变技术，带来持久的创新……23
1 Design in an Evolving Medium … 25 1 在不断演变的媒介中进行设计 … 25
2 Affordances of the Digital Medium … 51 数字媒介的两种可用功能 … 51
3 Maximizing the Four Affordances … 87 3 最大化四种可用性 … 87
II DESIGNING EXPRESSIVE PROCEDURES … 105 设计富有表现力的程序 … 105
4 Computational Strategies of Representation … 107 四种计算表示策略 … 107
5 Building Procedural Complexity … 137 5 建筑程序的复杂性 … 137
III SPATIAL DESIGN STRATEGIES … 159 第三部分：空间设计策略 … 159
6 Defining and Navigating Spaces and Places … 161 6 定义与导航空间和地点 … 161
7 The Library Model for Collocating Information … 191 7 图书馆模型用于信息整合 … 191
IV DESIGNING ENCYCLOPEDIC RESOURCES … 221 IV 设计百科全书资源 … 221
8 The Database Model: Strategies for Segmentation and Juxtaposition of 8 数据库模型：分割与并置的策略
Information … 223 信息 … 223
9 The Structured Document Model: Using Standardized Metadata to Share 9 结构化文档模型：利用标准化元数据进行共享
Knowledge … 253 知识……第 253 页
V SCRIPTING INTERACTION … 289 V 脚本交互 … 289
10 The Tool Model: Augmenting the Expressive Power of the Hand … 291 10 工具模型：提升手部表现力 … 291
11 The Machine Model: Visibility and Control as Design Goals … 321 11 机器模型：将可见性和控制作为设计目标 … 321
12 The Companion Model: Helpful Accompaniment as a Design Goal … 345 12 伴侣模型：有益陪伴作为设计目标 … 345
13 The Game Model: Scripting Interaction as Structured Play … 379 13 游戏模型：将互动作为结构化游戏进行脚本编写 … 379
Glossary … 409 术语表 … 第 409 页
Bibliography … 445 参考文献 … 445
Image Credits … 455 图片来源于 … 455
Index … 467 索引 … 第 467 页
Acknowledgments 致谢
It is a pleasure to acknowledge all the people who were helpful to me in writing this book. 我很高兴能感谢所有在我写这本书时给予帮助的人。
First and foremost I want to thank those very busy people who made time to read draft chapters and to offer me their expert feedback and suggestions, saving me from many errors and making this a much better book: I am enormously grateful to Chaim Gingold, Carl DiSalvo, Ali Mazalek, Gonzalo Frasca, William Murray, Celia Pearce, and Ozge Samanci for reading and commenting on parts of the manuscript and to Shelley Evanson for teaching with it at Carnegie Mellon and giving me her encouragement and feedback. I am also grateful to the anonymous readers for MIT Press whose insights were very helpful to me in the final stages of revision. 首先，我要感谢那些非常忙碌的人，他们抽出时间阅读草稿章节，并提供专业的反馈和建议，帮助我避免了许多错误，使这本书变得更好：我非常感谢 Chaim Gingold、Carl DiSalvo、Ali Mazalek、Gonzalo Frasca、William Murray、Celia Pearce 和 Ozge Samanci，他们阅读并评论了手稿的部分内容；同时也感谢 Shelley Evanson，她在卡内基梅隆大学教授这本书，并给予我鼓励和反馈。此外，我还要感谢 MIT 出版社的匿名读者，他们的见解在最后的修订阶段对我帮助很大。
I owe a great deal as well to my colleagues, collaborators, research assistants, and students at the two world-class toy shops where I have spent my career: MIT and Georgia Tech. I first learned about computational affordances, project development, and design from working on projects at MIT with Steve Lerman, Glorianna Davenport, Bob Berwick, Doug Morgenstern, Hal Abelson, Henry Jenkins, John Belcher, Claire Kramsch, Gilberte Furstenberg, Kurt Fendt, Pete Donaldson, Shigeru Miyagawa, Phil Bailey, Lestra Litchfield, Andrew McKinney, Michael Privat, Freedom Baird, Stuart Malone, Sue Felshin, Ayshe Farman-Farmaian, Michael Roper, Olga Brown, and Dorothy Shamonsky, and with our Stanford collaborators Larry Friedlander and Charles Kerns. I also learned a great deal from my then-students, especially Nick Montfort, Kevin Brooks, Philip Tan, Marleigh Norton, and the many others who took my interactive narrative course. The projects that we worked on together remain part of my creative imagination; the lessons we learned in those early days of digital media have stayed with me as touchstones of good practice. 我也非常感谢我的同事、合作者、研究助理以及在我职业生涯中所工作的两家世界级玩具店的学生：麻省理工学院和乔治亚理工学院。我第一次是在麻省理工学院与史蒂夫·勒曼、格洛里安娜·达文波特、鲍勃·伯威克、道格·摩根斯坦、哈尔·阿贝尔森、亨利·詹金斯、约翰·贝尔彻、克莱尔·克拉姆施、吉尔伯特·弗斯滕伯格、库尔特·芬特、皮特·唐纳森、宫川茂、菲尔·贝利、莱斯特·利奇菲尔德、安德鲁·麦金尼、迈克尔·普里瓦、弗里德姆·贝尔德、斯图尔特·马龙、苏·费尔申、艾莎·法尔曼-法尔马扬、迈克尔·罗珀、奥尔加·布朗和多萝西·沙蒙斯基一起工作时，学习到了计算能力、项目开发和设计的知识。此外，我还与我们的斯坦福合作者拉里·弗里德兰德和查尔斯·科恩进行了合作。 我也从我的学生们那里学到了很多，尤其是尼克·蒙特福特、凯文·布鲁克斯、菲利普·谭、马雷利·诺顿以及其他许多参加我互动叙事课程的同学。我们共同完成的项目依然是我创造性想象的一部分；在数字媒体早期阶段学到的经验，始终是我良好实践的基石。
I am tremendously fortunate to have been a professor at Georgia Tech since 1999, and although my ten-year stint as director of graduate studies in digital media (DM) certainly delayed the writing of this book, it was more than balanced by the unique opportunity of thinking about design in the context of the innovative theory and practice of my DM colleagues past and present: Jay Bolter, Ian Bogost, Carl DiSalvo, 我非常幸运，自 1999 年以来一直在乔治亚理工学院担任教授。虽然我作为数字媒体（DM）研究生项目主任的十年任期确实耽误了这本书的写作，但与我过去和现在的 DM 同事们——杰伊·博尔特、伊恩·博戈斯特、卡尔·迪萨尔沃——在创新理论和实践的背景下思考设计的独特机会相比，这一切都是值得的
Brian Magerko, Ali Mazalek, Celia Pearce, Michael Nitsche, Diane Gromola, Fox Harrell, Robert Kolker, Michael Mateas, and Sha Xin Wei. I am also grateful to our media-focused colleagues in literature, communication, and culture and in the interdisciplinary GVU center, and especially to Ken Knoespel and Jay Telotte, to Nancy Nersessian who introduced me to the work of Michael Tomasello and Merlin Donald, and to my fellow faculty investigators in the NSF InTEL project, Sue V. Rosser, Larry Jacobs, Wendy Newstetter, Christine Valle, John Leonard, and Sneha Veeragoudar Harrell. Most of all I am grateful to Sue Rosser for her leadership as dean of the Ivan Allen College of the Liberal Arts at Georgia Tech, during the period 1999 to 2009, which was crucial to the growth of the graduate program in digital media and the establishment of a strong humanities-focused research culture. 我感谢布莱恩·马格科、阿里·马扎莱克、塞莉亚·皮尔斯、迈克尔·尼切、黛安·格罗莫拉、福克斯·哈雷尔、罗伯特·科尔克、迈克尔·马特亚斯和沙·辛·韦。我还要特别感谢我们在文学、传播和文化领域以及跨学科 GVU 中心的媒体专注同事，尤其是肯·克诺斯佩尔和杰伊·特洛特，南希·内尔塞西安，她让我接触到迈克尔·托马塞洛和梅林·唐纳德的研究，以及我在 NSF InTEL 项目中的同事研究人员，苏·V·罗瑟、拉里·雅各布斯、温迪·纽斯特特、克里斯汀·瓦莱、约翰·伦纳德和斯内哈·维拉戈达尔·哈雷尔。 我最感激的是苏·罗瑟在 1999 年至 2009 年期间担任乔治亚理工学院伊万·艾伦文理学院院长的领导，这对数字媒体研究生项目的发展以及建立以人文学科为核心的研究文化起到了至关重要的作用。
I am grateful for the design insights that have come from working with so many talented, experienced, and deeply engaged Georgia Tech students, in courses and in project work. I want to thank all our pioneering PhD students and especially Calvin Ashmore, Hank Blumenthal, Ayoka Chenzira, Clara Fernandez-Vara, Sergio Goldenberg, David Jimison, Hartmut Koenitz, Susan Robinson, and Brian Schrank for their intellectual companionship and creative inspiration. I am enormously grateful to Sergio Goldenberg, Chaim Gingold, Drew Cogswell, and Gunthar Hartwig, who set up and ran several instantiations of my Georgia Tech project lab over the past ten years and generously contributed their deep technical knowledge and design insights to build up a sustained community of practice; to Brinda Cockburn, Sarah Cooper, and Sinhwa Kang, who were my first and wonderfully talented research assistants when I arrived at Georgia Tech; and to Zuley Clark, Karyn Lu, Daniel Upton, and Beth Schechter, who were such extraordinary managers of individual projects. 我非常感激与许多才华横溢、经验丰富且积极参与的乔治亚理工学院学生在课程和项目工作中所获得的设计见解。我想特别感谢我们的开创性博士生，尤其是卡尔文·阿什莫尔、汉克·布卢门塔尔、阿约卡·陈齐拉、克拉拉·费尔南德斯-瓦拉、塞尔吉奥·戈尔登堡、大卫·吉米森、哈特穆特·科尼茨、苏珊·罗宾逊和布赖恩·施兰克，感谢他们的智力陪伴和创造性启发。 我非常感谢塞尔吉奥·戈尔登堡、哈伊姆·金戈尔德、德鲁·科格斯威尔和冈萨尔·哈特维格，他们在过去十年中设立并运营了我的乔治亚理工学院项目实验室的多个实例，慷慨地分享了他们深厚的技术知识和设计见解，帮助建立了一个持续的实践社区；同时也要感谢布琳达·科克本、莎拉·库珀和辛华·康，他们是我到达乔治亚理工学院时的第一批才华横溢的研究助理；还要感谢祖莉·克拉克、卡琳·卢、丹尼尔·厄普顿和贝丝·谢赫特，他们在各个项目中表现出色，管理得非常出色。
The Georgia Tech DM and HCI (human-computer interaction) master’s degree students have played a crucial role in the evolution of this book, taking LCC 6313 Principles of Interactive Design, which I taught every spring since 2001 and offering me feedback after graduation from their experience in the fast-track worlds of Apple, CNN, Disney, EA, IDEO, IBM, Amazon, Google, Yahoo, Showtime, and other design, entertainment, and information firms. I could not have taught the course at all without the help of expert teaching assistants including Patrick Quattlebaum, Mayhew Seavey, Jason Alderman, Will Hankinson, Micah Horvath, Adam Rice, Joshua Cuneo, and Daniel Fuller. I particularly want to thank the students in the Spring 2010 course who found errors in the near-final manuscript for this book and offered such excellent design examples, including Mariam Asad, Matthew Drake, Daniel Fuller, Shiva Muthiah, Vedrana Novosel, Dilip Patharachalam, Andrew Quitmeyer, Nicole Blackwell, Jayraj Jog, Chip Schooler, and Cory Simon. 乔治亚理工学院的 DM 和 HCI（人机交互）硕士生在这本书的发展中发挥了重要作用。他们参加了我自 2001 年以来每年春季教授的 LCC 6313 互动设计原理课程，并在毕业后根据他们在苹果、CNN、迪士尼、EA、IDEO、IBM、亚马逊、谷歌、雅虎、Showtime 等设计、娱乐和信息公司快速发展的经验向我提供反馈。如果没有包括帕特里克·夸特尔鲍姆、梅休·西维、杰森·奥尔德曼、威尔·汉金森、米卡·霍瓦斯、亚当·赖斯、约书亚·库尼奥和丹尼尔·富勒在内的优秀助教的帮助，我根本无法教授这门课程。 我特别感谢 2010 年春季课程的学生们，他们在这本书的近终稿中发现了错误，并提供了许多优秀的设计示例，包括 Mariam Asad、Matthew Drake、Daniel Fuller、Shiva Muthiah、Vedrana Novosel、Dilip Patharachalam、Andrew Quitmeyer、Nicole Blackwell、Jayraj Jog、Chip Schooler 和 Cory Simon。
I also benefited during this time from many insightful conversations with Will Wright, Dale Herigstad, Nick DiMartino, Joe Garlington, Mary Flanagan, Kate Hayles, Marie-Laure Ryan, Katie Salen, Tracy Fullerton, Espen Aarseth, Chaim Gingold, Gonzalo 在这段时间里，我也从与威尔·赖特、戴尔·赫里格斯塔德、尼克·迪马蒂诺、乔·加林顿、玛丽·弗拉纳根、凯特·海尔斯、玛丽-劳尔·瑞安、凯蒂·萨伦、特雷西·富尔顿、埃斯彭·阿尔塞斯、哈伊姆·金戈尔德和冈萨洛的许多深刻对话中获益良多
Frasca, Jesper Juul, and Eric Zimmerman at Georgia Tech and elsewhere. I am grateful to them all for the inspiration of their work and for the encouragement and constructive challenges with which they have engaged my own projects and theoretical formulations. 我非常感谢 Frasca、Jesper Juul 和 Eric Zimmerman 在乔治亚理工学院及其他地方的工作所带来的灵感，以及他们对我的项目和理论构想给予的鼓励和建设性挑战。
I have been very fortunate to have the partnership of MIT Press throughout the long process of writing this book. Doug Sery’s patience and encouragement, and his astute insights about the evolving field, have been essential to its creation; I owe him a large debt of gratitude for this and for all he has done to nurture the work of scholars in this young and growing field. I also want to thank his assistant editor, Katie Helke Dokshina, and manuscript editor Mel Goldsipe for their care and expertise in shepherding this large and complex volume through the production process, and Julia Collins for her vigilant and skillful copyediting. I was very fortunate to have the help of PhD candidate Rebecca Rouse in preparing the final page proofs. Many very busy and productive people were kind enough to respond to my requests for permission to use their images and in many cases to supply higher-resolution files, and I am very grateful for these contributions, which are acknowledged in the image credits. 我很幸运在写这本书的漫长过程中得到了麻省理工学院出版社的支持。道格·塞里的耐心和鼓励，以及他对这一不断发展的领域的深刻见解，对这本书的创作至关重要；我对他在这方面的帮助以及他为培养这一年轻而不断发展的学者所做的一切深表感激。我还要感谢他的助理编辑凯蒂·赫尔克·多克希娜和手稿编辑梅尔·戈尔德西普，他们在制作过程中对这本庞大而复杂的书籍给予的关心和专业指导，以及朱莉亚·柯林斯在校对方面的细致和高超技巧。我很幸运能得到博士候选人丽贝卡·劳斯在准备最终校样时的帮助。 许多非常忙碌且高效的人友好地回应了我关于使用他们图像的请求，并在许多情况下提供了更高分辨率的文件，我对此深表感谢，这些贡献在图像版权中得到了认可。
The work of writing this book has benefitted from all of these richly collaborative activities, but any errors in it are mine alone. I thank in advance any readers who can point them out to me for correction on the web and in future editions. 写这本书的过程得益于所有这些丰富的合作活动，但其中的错误完全是我自己的责任。我提前感谢任何能够在网上和未来版本中指出这些错误的读者。
On a personal note, I want to thank my family: my daughter Elizabeth Murray, my son William Murray, and Will’s fiancée, April Holm, who have so generously encouraged my obsessions and shared their knowledge and keen insights on media, culture, and technology with me; and my mother, Lillian Horowitz, to whom this book is dedicated, whose own life now spans more than a century, whose mind remains vigorous and open, and who has avidly followed her unexpected baby’s circle of attention from century to century, from Victorian women to Holodeck gamers, inspiring meas she inspires everyone around her-with her energetic optimism, inexhaustible compassion, and relentless advocacy for a more humane and just society. 在个人层面上，我想感谢我的家人：我的女儿伊丽莎白·穆雷，我的儿子威廉·穆雷，以及威尔的未婚妻艾普丽尔·霍尔姆，他们慷慨地支持我的热情，并与我分享在媒体、文化和技术方面的知识和深刻见解；还有我的母亲莉莉安·霍洛维茨，这本书献给她，她的生活已经跨越了一个多世纪，思维依然活跃而开放，热切关注着她意外的孩子的成长，从维多利亚时代的女性到全息甲板游戏者，激励着我，就像她激励着周围的每一个人——以她充满活力的乐观、无尽的同情心和对更人道、公正社会的不懈倡导。
Introduction: A Cultural Approach to Interaction Design 介绍：一种文化导向的交互设计
We are, in sum, incomplete or unfinished animals who complete or finish ourselves through culture. 我们可以说是未完成的动物，通过文化来实现自我完善。
—Clifford Geertz (1973) —克利福德·吉尔茨（1973 年）
The Collective Process of Design 设计的集体过程
This book is meant for anyone whose work involves shaping new digital artifacts and the systems of behavior in which they are embedded, not just for those with designer in their job title. It aims to complement expertise in related fields such as graphic design, industrial psychology, or programming by providing lead designers and other team members with a set of common principles and a common design vocabulary to aid in the collective design process. Unlike other useful books in HCl (human-computer interaction) or interaction design, this book is written from a humanistic rather than a social science or industrial design perspective. One of the most important characteristics of humanistic inquiry is that it accommodates multiple frameworks of interpretation, a habit of mind that is a good fit for the design process, which never has a single right answer and is strengthened by an expanded palette of possibilities. 这本书适合任何从事新数字产品及其行为系统设计的人，不仅限于职位中带有“设计师”的人。它旨在通过为首席设计师和其他团队成员提供一套共同的原则和设计词汇，来补充图形设计、工业心理学或编程等相关领域的专业知识，以支持集体设计过程。与其他关于人机交互或交互设计的有用书籍不同，这本书从人文主义的角度出发，而非社会科学或工业设计的视角。 人文探究最重要的特点之一是它能够容纳多种解释框架，这种思维方式非常适合设计过程，因为设计过程从来没有唯一的正确答案，并且通过更广泛的可能性选择得到了增强。
From a humanities perspective, the design of digital objects is a cultural practice like writing a book or making a film. Culture is the name we give to the infinite web of meaning that human beings have been weaving for millennia. We participate in culture when we imitate one another’s behaviors, adopt common values and practices, share symbolic codes like language, music, or the latest dress style. To see any artifact (i.e., any human-made object) as part of culture is to understand how it becomes meaningful through the social activities, thoughts, and actions of the people who engage with it. Humanists understand that cultural objects and practices can be meaningful in many ways. For example, a digital telephone can be understood as a neutral piece of business equipment, a stylish status symbol, an intrusive disruptor of family rituals, or a lifeline between an isolated individual and a distant community. The humanist designer aims to see as much of this larger web of meaning as possible in order to 从人文学科的角度来看，数字对象的设计是一种文化实践，类似于写书或拍电影。文化是我们用来描述人类数千年来编织的无限意义网络的词汇。当我们模仿彼此的行为、采纳共同的价值观和实践、分享象征性符号（如语言、音乐或最新的穿衣风格）时，我们便参与了文化。将任何人工制品（即任何人造物）视为文化的一部分，就是理解它如何通过与之互动的人的社会活动、思想和行为而获得意义。人文学者明白，文化对象和实践可以以多种方式展现其意义。 例如，数字电话可以被视为一种中立的商业设备、时尚的地位象征、干扰家庭仪式的入侵者，或者是孤立个体与远方社区之间的生命线。人文设计师希望尽可能多地理解这个更广泛的意义网络
understand the context and connotations of particular design choices. This book provides a method for invoking this wider view of design possibilities, a vocabulary for identifying and characterizing design elements, and a set of principles for making choices within this expanded decision space. In referring to this practice as “inventing the medium” I am asserting three foundational design principles: 理解特定设计选择的背景和内涵。这本书提供了一种方法，帮助我们从更广泛的视角看待设计可能性，提供了一套识别和描述设计元素的词汇，以及在这个扩展的决策空间中做出选择的原则。当我将这种实践称为“发明媒介”时，我主张三个基本的设计原则：
All things made with electronic bits and computer code belong to a single new medium, the digital medium, with its own unique affordances. 所有由电子元件和计算机代码构成的事物都属于一种新的媒介——数字媒介，它具有独特的特性。
Designing any single artifact within this new medium is part of the broader collective effort of making meaning through the invention and refinement of digital media conventions. 在这个新媒介中设计任何单一的艺术品，都是通过发明和完善数字媒体规范来共同创造意义的重要努力。
When we expand the meaning-making conventions that make up human culture, we expand our ability to understand the world and to connect with one another. 当我们拓展构成文化的意义建构规范时，我们就能更好地理解世界并与他人建立联系。
This book is an effort to support the creation of an expanded range of meaningful cultural artifacts by clarifying the task and providing a unifying framework for many disparate but related efforts. 这本书旨在通过明确任务，为许多不同但相关的努力提供一个统一的框架，从而支持创造更丰富的有意义的文化艺术品。
The design of digital artifacts is very young (a matter of a few decades), compared to the design of alphabets and pencils (measured in millennia), printed books (over five hundred years), or sound and image recording (over a century). Until the invention of the PC around 1980, computers were mostly used as mainframe number crunchers, while only a handful of researchers, educators, and game designers were tentatively exploring the larger symbol-manipulating potential of the machines. Yet now, in the second decade of the twenty-first century, the once-restricted bitstream of numbers has become a global floodtide of images and sounds, flowing across rapidly expanding broadband and wireless networks, and the new generation of digital natives are fluently integrating computer-based devices into their daily lives. In fewer than thirty years we have moved from the cumbersome, colorless, command-driven desktop machine that had to be coaxed into processing simple spreadsheets and text files, to the multitasking and pervasive miniaturized processors that power our indispensable laptops and mobile devices, and are embedded in everything from the walls of banks to the dashboards of cars to the human body. 数字工件的设计相对年轻（仅有几十年的历史），与字母和铅笔的设计（以千年计）、印刷书籍（超过五百年）或声音和图像录制（超过一个世纪）相比，显得微不足道。直到 1980 年左右个人电脑的发明，计算机主要被用作大型机的数字运算器，只有少数研究人员、教育工作者和游戏设计师在探索这些机器更广泛的符号操作潜力。 现在，在 21 世纪的第二个十年，曾经受限的数字流已变成全球范围内的图像和声音洪流，迅速通过扩展的宽带和无线网络传播。新一代数字原住民正在自如地将计算机设备融入他们的日常生活。在不到三十年的时间里，我们从笨重、无色、依赖命令的桌面计算机，发展到如今无处不在的多任务微型处理器，这些处理器为我们不可或缺的笔记本电脑和移动设备提供动力，并嵌入到从银行的墙壁到汽车的仪表盘，再到人体的各个部分。
Digital artifacts pervade our lives, and the design decisions that shape them affect the way we think, act, understand the world, and communicate with one another. But the pace of change has been so rapid that technical innovation is outstripping design. We are making too many new things too quickly, with the result that as users of the devices we often feel overwhelmed and unable to take appropriate advantage of the opportunities they offer us. The icon bar of a photo-editing program, word processor, or roleplaying game can be as complicated as the cockpit of an airplane. This wealth of possibilities raises our expectations, but the functions are so mysteriously offered or 数字化产品无处不在，塑造它们的设计决策影响着我们的思维、行为、对世界的理解以及彼此的沟通。然而，变化的速度如此之快，以至于技术创新已经超越了设计。我们以过快的速度创造了太多新事物，结果是作为用户，我们常常感到不知所措，无法充分利用这些设备所提供的机会。照片编辑软件、文字处理器或角色扮演游戏的图标栏可能复杂得像飞机的驾驶舱。这种丰富的可能性提高了我们的期望，但功能的呈现方式却显得神秘莫测。
so compromised by unintended secondary consequences that we can find ourselves spending hours in frustrating trial and error in order to accomplish simple tasks, such as formatting a text document or adjusting the privacy setting in a social networking application. Vital information like a beloved family photo in a personal archive, a credit card number in an online account, or the name of a terrorist in a government database is stranded in an outdated format or falls into the wrong hands, or cannot be retrieved in the right context, with disastrous results. In order to get the benefit of the new digital environment in which we live, we will have to do a much better job of designing it. 由于意外的次要后果，我们可能会花费数小时进行令人沮丧的反复试验，以完成一些简单的任务，比如格式化文本文件或调整社交网络应用中的隐私设置。重要信息，如个人档案中的珍贵家庭照片、在线账户中的信用卡号码，或政府数据库中的恐怖分子姓名，可能会被困在过时的格式中，落入错误的手中，或无法在正确的上下文中检索，导致严重后果。为了更好地利用我们所处的新数字环境，我们必须在设计上做得更出色。
This book offers a new framework that I believe can help to speed the process of useful and lasting design innovation by focusing on the collective cultural task of inventing the underlying medium. 这本书提供了一个新的框架，我相信它可以通过关注集体文化任务来加速有用且持久的设计创新过程，即发明其基础媒介。
Designing the Unfamiliar 设计陌生事物
Designers in established fields are often engaged in a process of refinement, creating slightly improved or distinctive versions of a familiar artifact; for example, modifying the familiar metal toaster with cooler ceramic sides or larger bagel-sized slots (figure 0.1)0.1). The digital designer is more often inventing something for which there is no standard model, like word processing in the age of the typewriter, or video games in the age of pinball. 在成熟领域的设计师通常参与一个精细化的过程，创造出稍微改进或独特版本的熟悉物品；例如，改造传统的金属烤面包机，使用更时尚的陶瓷侧面或更大的贝果插槽（图 0.1)0.1) ）。而数字设计师则更常常是在创造一些没有标准模型的东西，比如在打字机时代的文字处理，或在弹球机时代的视频游戏。
There are three problems associated with this situation that differentiate digital design from other design practices. 这个情况有三个问题，使数字设计与其他设计实践区别开来。
First, we are dealing with an immature medium, which is much more diffuse and has much cruder building blocks at its disposal than a mature medium like print. Designers can draw on many standardized conventions to make a new history book, newspaper article, magazine layout, or romance novel without much thinking about how it will be produced, distributed, or navigated by the end-user. Any established medium has diverse, elaborated formats and genres that reflect a long collective process of trial and error, offering the designer many generic and specialized components to draw upon in creating a new work. 首先，我们正在处理一种尚不成熟的媒介，它比成熟的媒介（如印刷品）更加分散，且可用的构建块也更为粗糙。设计师可以依赖许多标准化的惯例，轻松制作一本新的历史书、报纸文章、杂志布局或浪漫小说，而无需过多考虑这些作品的生产、分发或最终用户的使用方式。任何成熟的媒介都有多样化且复杂的格式和类型，反映了漫长的集体试验与错误的过程，为设计师在创作新作品时提供了丰富的通用和专业组件。
In some ways it is easier to be innovative in an established domain of practice because of this larger and more differentiated repertoire of components. Stable media provide a reliable framework on which to experiment with useful and pleasing variations. Architecture, furniture, and clothing are always active areas of design innovation because human beings have been sheltering and clothing themselves for millennia, providing a well-stocked cultural inventory to match the range of material possibilities that arise from developing technology and crafts. Similarly, some media formats are old enough and stable enough to be open to innovation without confusion. Print magazines, for example, are a productive area of design because their basic 在某些方面，在一个成熟的实践领域中进行创新更容易，因为它拥有更丰富和多样化的组件库。稳定的媒介提供了一个可靠的框架，可以在其上进行有益且令人愉悦的实验。建筑、家具和服装始终是设计创新的活跃领域，因为人类已经为自己提供庇护和穿着了数千年，形成了丰富的文化库存，以匹配随着技术和工艺发展而出现的各种材料可能性。同样，一些媒体格式足够古老且稳定，可以在不产生混淆的情况下进行创新。例如，印刷杂志是一个富有成效的设计领域，因为它们的基本特征。
Figure 0.1 图示 0.1
Toasters are composed of known, stable elements that are open to refinement by designers. Ivo Vos’s concept toaster on the bottom right is calibrated to propel the toast onto the plate. 烤面包机由已知且稳定的元素构成，这些元素可以被设计师进一步改进。Ivo Vos 在右下角的概念烤面包机经过调校，能够将烤好的面包送到盘子上。
components are unchanging but open to stylistic variation. For example when Wired magazine appeared in the early 1990s it did not have to invent the table of contents or the page numbering system or the grid-based page layout; it was startlingly innovative by merely restyling familiar elements in a manner that reflected the energy and plasticity of the new digital world. And the stable conventions of magazines are also available for simple remediation into digital form (figure 0.2). 组件虽然是固定的，但可以进行风格上的变化。例如，当《连线》杂志在 1990 年代初期问世时，它并不需要发明目录、页码系统或基于网格的页面布局；它仅仅通过以一种反映新数字世界活力和灵活性的方式重新设计熟悉的元素，就显得极具创新性。而杂志的稳定惯例也可以轻松地转化为数字形式（图 0.2）。
But in the digital sphere we have often had to invent the building blocks of design while we are designing the specific artifact. In fact, much of the achievement of the first decades of digital design has been the establishment of such building blocks: the joystick game controller, the point-and-click mouse and cursor, the hypertext link, the search engine, 但在数字领域，我们常常需要在设计特定产品的同时发明设计的基本要素。实际上，数字设计的最初几十年中，最大的成就之一就是建立了这些基本要素：游戏操纵杆、点击式鼠标和光标、超文本链接以及搜索引擎。
Figure 0.2 图示 0.2
The FlipBoard application for the iPad platform rearranges web content, mimicking the layout of a magazine. FlipBoard 应用程序在 iPad 平台上重新排列网页内容，仿照杂志的排版。
the navigation bar, the online shopping basket, the TV remote control with scrolling channel display. But despite their wide adoption and usefulness, all of these design conventions are now stretched beyond their capacity, outpaced by the exponentially increasing quantities of online information and the escalating demands of users for more functionality and less frustration. Once the pop-up electric toaster was invented in 1919, it could be routinely improved for several decades without drastic change of form or function. Web pages and cell phones, in contrast, have incorporated wholly new functionalities and required new formal conventions almost every year since the mid-1990s. Designers need to become more aware of the process of design as the invention and refinement of media conventions in order to move more quickly toward more mature, coherent, and expressive digital genres. 导航栏、在线购物车和带有滚动频道显示的电视遥控器。尽管这些设计惯例被广泛采用且非常实用，但它们现在已经超出了自身的承载能力，无法跟上在线信息数量的快速增长，以及用户对更多功能和更少挫折的日益增长的需求。自 1919 年发明弹出式电烤面包机以来，它在几十年内可以不断改进，而形式和功能几乎没有发生剧烈变化。相比之下，自 1990 年代中期以来，网页和手机几乎每年都在引入全新的功能，并需要新的设计惯例。 设计师需要更加关注设计过程，理解媒体惯例的创造与完善，以便更快地向更成熟、一致和富有表现力的数字类型迈进。
Second, digital designers inherit too many building blocks that are quite familiar and practical, but suited to legacy media formats, and in conflict with one another. When newspaper editors and television producers work together on a news site should they be thinking in terms of soundbytes or headlines? or both? or neither? Design processes are often stalled by such unproductive attempts to apply legacy conventions to new digital frameworks. 其次，数字设计师继承了许多熟悉且实用的构建模块，这些模块适用于传统媒体格式，但彼此之间存在冲突。当报纸编辑和电视制作人在新闻网站上合作时，他们应该考虑音频片段、标题，还是两者都考虑？或者都不考虑？设计过程常常因为试图将传统惯例应用于新的数字框架而陷入停滞。
Figure 0.3 图示 0.3
Before playing Catan: The First Island, the iPhone version of the popular and appealing board game Settlers of Catan, the player must page through several consecutive screens of dense text like this one to learn the rules. 在玩《卡坦岛：第一岛》之前，玩家需要翻阅几屏密集的文本，以了解这款流行且引人入胜的桌面游戏《卡坦岛》的规则，这个版本是 iPhone 上的。
A robust digital media design process should pay attention to the values of all the relevant design disciplines and media traditions. But designers cannot merely transpose the design criteria of these contributory disciplines onto digital practice. Pages of text that read well in a board game manual can be irritatingly long-winded on a computer or mobile device screen, where the interactor expects to be in command of information (figure 0.3). The scrolling text of a news ticker, whose pace and size perfectly suited a billboard in Times Square in 1960, is much harder to follow when compressed at the bottom of a television newscast (figure 0.4). In order to avoid making such mistakes, developers need to become more aware of principles of design specific to digital media, such as the need to establish conventions of semantic segmentation for text in interactive environments. 一个有效的数字媒体设计过程应关注所有相关设计学科和媒体传统的价值观。然而，设计师不能仅仅将这些学科的设计标准直接应用于数字实践。在棋盘游戏手册中读起来流畅的文字，在计算机或移动设备屏幕上可能显得冗长乏味，因为互动者希望能够掌控信息（图 0.3）。1960 年在时代广场的广告牌上，滚动的新闻字幕的速度和大小非常合适，但在电视新闻播报的底部压缩后就变得难以跟随（图 0.4）。 为了避免犯这样的错误，开发者需要更加关注数字媒体特有的设计原则，比如在互动环境中建立文本语义分割惯例的重要性。
Third, though we have a well-developed design protocol for user need analysis and user testing of industrial products, users cannot tell us how to resolve problems that require new design strategies. Consumers of digital artifacts often cannot think past the familiar conventions of existing devices and applications, and may even claim to prefer more limited functionality because it is more familiar. Industrial design and the social 第三，尽管我们有完善的设计协议来进行用户需求分析和工业产品的用户测试，但用户无法告诉我们如何解决需要新设计策略的问题。数字产品的消费者往往难以超越现有设备和应用的熟悉惯例，甚至可能声称更喜欢功能有限的产品，因为它们更为熟悉。工业设计与社会
Figure 0.4 图示 0.4
Right-to-left scrolling text on a television screen creates disturbing gaps in information. If we tune in at this moment we see mention of a bombing, and viewers may not have any way of rewinding to find out where it happened. The convention that remedies this problem displays complete, shorter headlines refreshed with vertical wipes instead of horizontal scrolls. 电视屏幕上从右向左滚动的文字会造成信息的干扰性空白。如果我们在这个时刻调到这个频道，会看到提到了一次爆炸，而观众可能无法倒回去查找事件发生的地点。解决这个问题的做法是用垂直擦除的方式显示完整且较短的标题，而不是使用水平滚动。
sciences have methodologies for framing design questions by analyzing the needs and expectations of user communities. But if a needs assessment team had asked people what they wanted a computer to do in 1970 they would not have elicited a desire for the personal computer, let along the iPod or GPS-enabled cell phone. Innovation in digital media design is often driven by a small group of technologists consulting their own desires and targeting user communities that do not yet exist and cannot yet be studied. Sometimes a design team has to get ahead of the expressed desires of users, relying on a prototype to introduce potential users to new possibilities. In such circumstances it is useful to think of the individual project in the larger context of trends that run across the entire digital medium, in order to indentify kindred efforts that may not be immediately visible. For example, the makers of search engines might have paid more attention to online photo albums and digital video archives in the late 1990s if they had recognized the common thread of encyclopedic aggregation of information that was going to make searching as relevant for still and moving images as it already was for text. 科学有方法论，通过分析用户社区的需求和期望来界定设计问题。然而，如果在 1970 年，一个需求评估团队询问人们希望计算机能做什么，他们可能不会引发对个人计算机的渴望，更不用说 iPod 或 GPS 手机了。数字媒体设计的创新通常由一小群技术专家推动，他们关注自己的需求，并针对尚未出现且无法研究的用户群体。有时，设计团队需要超越用户的明确需求，依靠原型向潜在用户展示新的可能性。 在这种情况下，将个别项目放在整个数字媒介的趋势大背景下进行思考是非常有益的，这样可以识别出那些可能并不立即显现的相似努力。例如，如果搜索引擎的开发者在 1990 年代末期能够意识到信息的百科全书式聚合这一共同主题，他们可能会更加关注在线相册和数字视频档案，从而使得对静态和动态图像的搜索与对文本的搜索同样重要。
If users are unreliable, legacy conventions are inappropriate or conflicting, and existing digital conventions are often inadequate to the task at hand, how can designers make good choices? How do we know what is worth making that has not been made before? 如果用户不可靠，传统规范不合适或相互冲突，而现有的数字规范往往无法满足当前的需求，设计师该如何做出明智的选择？我们又如何判断值得制作的东西是否是之前没有制作过的呢？
How (Not) to Talk about Design 如何（不）讨论设计
Design problems involving computer-based interactive artifacts must be solved by bringing multiple forms of expertise to bear, including the very divergent fields of programming and graphic design. But digital design has been hampered by the lack of useful common vocabulary to express common design goals, a problem that this book (and its Glossary) addresses by drawing on multiple fields within a unified approach. But before we begin the conversation we have to clear the air by looking at some common misconceptions about the goals and values of good design. 设计计算机交互工件时面临的问题必须通过结合多种专业知识来解决，包括编程和图形设计这两个截然不同的领域。然而，数字设计受到缺乏有效的共同词汇来表达设计目标的困扰，这本书（及其词汇表）通过整合多个领域的知识来解决这个问题。在我们开始讨论之前，我们需要澄清一些关于良好设计目标和价值的常见误解。
New Media/Digital Medium 新媒体/数字媒体
Before we identify how we should design something we need to know what it is that we are designing. Academic departments and even some textbooks have used the blanket term “new media” to refer to the Internet, videogames, computer-based installations, mobile phones, and other artifacts that have been made possible by the rapidly increasing power and decreasing size of computers. The virtue of the term is that it puts computer-based artifacts into the category of media, which are aimed at complex cultural communication, in contrast to the instrumental view of computational artifacts as tools for accomplishing a task. “New media” also has the advantage of not specifying a particular application like games or hypertext, and of automatically including whatever is invented in the future. But the vagueness of the term encourages sloppy thinking about design by suggesting that novelty is the salient property of these phenomena. Video games and word processors have been around since the 1970s, but they pose design problems that are also found in the most cuttingedge robotics or virtual reality installation. Calling objects made with computing technology “new” media obscures the fact that it is the computer that is the defining difference not the novelty. After all, a newspaper printed on a cereal box would be a new medium if it were to appear tomorrow, but no one would refer to it as “new media” because it is not computer based. It can also be confusing to think about media convergence or transmedia properties, though older media are certainly migrating to digital formats, and entertainment and information products are indeed being linked across platforms. But these are secondary effects of the foundational change that is the arrival of a wholly new form of representation: the networked, programmable computer. 在我们确定如何设计某个事物之前，我们需要了解我们所设计的内容是什么。学术部门甚至一些教科书使用“新媒体”这一笼统术语来指代互联网、视频游戏、计算机装置、手机以及其他因计算机快速增强和体积缩小而得以实现的物品。这个术语的优点在于，它将计算机相关的物品归类为媒体，这些媒体旨在进行复杂的文化交流，这与将计算物品视为完成任务的工具的观点形成对比。“新媒体”还具有不特指像游戏或超文本等特定应用的优势，并且自动涵盖未来的任何发明。 但是，这个术语的模糊性导致人们在设计上产生粗心的思考，因为它暗示新颖性是这些现象的主要特征。视频游戏和文字处理器自 1970 年代以来就存在，但它们所面临的设计问题同样出现在最前沿的机器人技术或虚拟现实装置中。将用计算技术制作的物体称为“新”媒体掩盖了一个事实：决定性差异在于计算机，而非新颖性。毕竟，如果明天出现一份印在谷物盒上的报纸，它将被视为一种新媒体，但没有人会称其为“新媒体”，因为它并不是基于计算机的。 思考媒体融合或跨媒体特性时可能会感到困惑，尽管传统媒体确实在向数字格式转型，娱乐和信息产品也在不同平台之间相互连接。但这些只是根本变化的次要影响，而这种根本变化是全新表现形式的出现：网络化、可编程的计算机。
Therefore, throughout this book I argue for the advantage of thinking of digital artifacts as parts of a single new medium, which is best understood specifically as the digital medium, the medium that is created by exploiting the representational power of the computer. 因此，在本书中，我主张将数字文物视为一个新媒介的组成部分，这种媒介可以具体理解为数字媒介，即通过利用计算机的表现力而创造的媒介。
Focusing on computation allows us to see all of these disparate artifacts—games, web pages, cell phones, music players, interactive TV shows-as belonging to a single 专注于计算让我们能够将这些不同的事物——游戏、网页、手机、音乐播放器和互动电视节目——视为一个整体
evolving medium, in which formats that we once thought of as fixed and separate, like spoken and written messages, books and games, movies and file cabinets, television and telephones are being deconstructed into their component parts and reconfigured for interactivity. It also allows us to identify the distinct effects of the inscription of information on electronic bits rather than clay tablets or printed books, and its transmission across space and time through binary codes rather than analog waves. Most of all, as we will be exploring in detail, it allows us to focus on the four representational properties of digital environments (the procedural, participatory, spatial, and encyclopedic affordances) that provide the core palette for designers across applications within the common digital medium. 发展中的媒介使我们曾经认为固定和独立的格式，如口头和书面信息、书籍和游戏、电影和文件柜、电视和电话，得以解构为其组成部分，并重新配置以实现互动。这也让我们能够识别信息在电子比特上铭刻的独特效果，而不是在粘土板或印刷书籍上，以及通过二进制代码而非模拟波在空间和时间中传输的方式。 最重要的是，正如我们将详细探讨的，这使我们能够专注于数字环境的四个表现特性（程序性、参与性、空间性和百科全书性），这些特性为设计师在共同的数字媒介中提供了核心的设计基础。
Intuitive/Transparent 直观且透明
“Intuitive” is by far the most abused word in digital design and it is one that should perhaps be banned for a decade or so until it can once more be employed meaningfully. Properly used, intuitive means drawing on our unconscious expectations about how things behave, expectations that come from experience and from ideas about the world that we have internalized so deeply that we don’t think about them consciously. Intuitions about the world are often based on repeated experience (like our intuitions about balancing things, based on our repeated experiences with gravity) or established conventions (like our intuition that a big red button on a device will turn it on and off). As Donald Norman pointed out in his classic work The Design of Everyday Things (Norman 1988), we expect doors to open when we push or pull them, and if something new looks like a door we will look for the design cues that we should push it or pull it, without consciously reasoning. Intuition is also acquired by expert practice, becoming tacit knowledge that is hard to transmit because a skilled practitioner does not employ it consciously; for example, we are able to intuitively apply the rules of grammar in our native language without being able to explicitly state them. It is an appropriate design strategy to exploit the interactor’s unconscious expectations and knowledge to cue their interaction with a new artifact or process, making the experience feel “intuitive” rather than difficult to understand or hard to learn. But the designer or critic of the design should be able to name the conventions that make the interface seem familiar and to identify the reason why it works. For example, a trash can icon provokes an “intuitive” response that it is for deleting files because it looks like something that serves a similar function in the real world and because it has become a standard symbol in computer interfaces. Swiping to the right also feels “intuitively” right as a way to delete an email on an iPhone because it mimics the gesture of flicking something off a physical surface and the left-to-right orientation mimics the progression of western text. “直观”无疑是数字设计中最常被滥用的词汇之一，或许应该在未来十年内禁止使用，直到它能够再次被有意义地使用。正确理解“直观”意味着依赖我们对事物行为的无意识期望，这些期望源于经验和我们对世界深刻内化的观念，以至于我们在意识上并不去思考它们。我们对世界的直觉往往基于重复的经验（例如，我们对平衡事物的直觉，源于与重力的反复接触）或既定的惯例（例如，我们直觉上认为设备上的大红按钮会打开和关闭它）。 正如唐纳德·诺曼在他的经典著作《日常事物的设计》中所指出的，我们通常期望门在我们推或拉时会打开。如果某个新物体看起来像门，我们会下意识地寻找设计线索来判断是推还是拉，而不需要进行有意识的推理。直觉也是通过专家的实践获得的，成为一种难以传递的隐性知识，因为熟练的从业者并不会有意识地使用它；例如，我们能够在母语中直观地运用语法规则，但却无法明确地表达这些规则。 这是一种合适的设计策略，利用用户的无意识期望和知识来引导他们与新工具或流程的互动，使体验显得“直观”，而不是难以理解或学习。然而，设计师或设计评论者应该能够指出使界面看起来熟悉的设计惯例，并识别其有效的原因。例如，垃圾桶图标会引发一种“直观”的反应，让人联想到它是用来删除文件的，因为它的外观与现实世界中具有类似功能的物品相似，并且它已成为计算机界面中的标准符号。 在 iPhone 上向右滑动删除电子邮件的方式也让人觉得“直观”正确，因为这模仿了将物体从物理表面上抖掉的手势，而从左到右的方向又与西方文本的书写顺序相符。
It is important not to confuse a desire to give the interactor a satisfying experience that feels intuitive because it is so well thought out, with a magical faith in the designer’s creative 重要的是不要将希望给互动者带来一种经过深思熟虑、直观的满意体验的愿望，与对设计师创造力的盲目信仰混淆
intuitions. While it is essential to encourage creativity and exploration in the design process, intuitive design is rarely the result of lucky guesses. In order to make truly intuitive interfaces, designers must be hyperaware of the conventions by which we make sense of the world-conventions that govern our navigation of space, our use of tools, and our engagement with media. Furthermore, designers must be able to distinguish among the many possible conventions that can be employed in any application and decide which one is best suited to the artifact they are making. Intuition is a poor way to make that judgment, since we have so much unconscious knowledge to bring to any situation. Should a device that is combining the functions previously performed with a telephone, a typewriter, and an appointment book draw on our intuitions from one or all of these? 直觉。虽然在设计过程中鼓励创造力和探索至关重要，但直觉设计很少是偶然的结果。为了创造真正直观的界面，设计师必须对我们理解世界的各种惯例保持高度敏感——这些惯例影响着我们如何导航空间、使用工具以及与媒体互动。此外，设计师还需能够区分在任何应用中可用的多种惯例，并决定哪一种最适合他们所设计的作品。依靠直觉来做出这种判断并不理想，因为我们在任何情况下都积累了大量无意识的知识。 一种将电话、打字机和日程本功能结合在一起的设备，是否应该参考我们对这些设备的直觉？
A better design value than intuitive is transparent: a good interface should not call attention to itself, but should let us direct our attention to the task. Interfaces can be immediately transparent, like a conventional light switch in a room we have never been to before, or easy to learn like the mouse pointer was when first introduced. Both of these examples are intuitive because they provide immediate feedback when we manipulate them, and because they exploit the ease with which we absorb binary relationships like up/down, on/off, left/right, and the close mapping between hand and brain. Once we have learned how to use a light switch, we have a strong, takenfor-granted expectation that flipping the switch turns the light on. If we encounter a new object with an up/down switch, such as a digital sound mixer, we will intuitively assume that the up position is the on position because we will be drawing on our tacit experiential knowledge of the world. Instead of trying to create a magically intuitive interface by an unspecified process, designers should consciously exploit the user’s preexisting knowledge by looking for familiar interaction patterns that will be easy to learn and will quickly become transparent. 比直观更好的设计价值在于透明：一个好的界面不应引起注意，而应让我们将注意力集中在任务上。界面可以是立即透明的，比如在我们从未去过的房间里的传统灯开关，或者像首次引入的鼠标指针那样易于学习。这两个例子都是直观的，因为它们在我们操作时提供了即时反馈，并且利用了我们轻松理解二元关系（如上/下、开/关、左/右）以及手与大脑之间紧密联系的特点。一旦我们学会了如何使用灯开关，我们就会自然而然地期待翻动开关能打开灯。 如果我们遇到一个带有上下开关的新设备，比如数字音频混音器，我们会直观地认为上方是开启的位置，因为我们会依赖于对世界的潜在经验知识。设计师不应试图通过不明确的方式创造一个神奇的直观界面，而应有意识地利用用户已有的知识，寻找那些易于学习且能迅速变得自然的熟悉交互模式。
Interface Design/Interaction Design 界面设计与交互设计
Interface is a convenient but imprecise term for the outward appearance, the visible control and feedback apparatus, for interactive devices. The interface is what the user sees and operates; it sits between the machine and the person, like the knobs and dials on a toaster, or the icons on a computer screen. In industrial design, psychologists and graphic designers have long worked on creating interfaces like control panels for machinery or home appliances with the object of making them easier to operate and more “usable.” Similarly, in the early days of digital design, graphic designers were often brought in at the end of the development process and asked to create visually appealing “user-friendly” interfaces to wrap around the functional but unsightly code created by a separate team of programmers. This model has been replaced by a more inclusive design process and a focus on the interaction between the human being and the automated system. 界面是一个方便但不够精确的术语，用于描述交互设备的外观、可见的控制和反馈装置。界面是用户所看到和操作的部分，位于机器与人之间，就像烤面包机上的旋钮和刻度盘，或计算机屏幕上的图标。在工业设计领域，心理学家和图形设计师长期以来一直致力于设计像机器或家用电器控制面板这样的界面，旨在使其更易于操作和更具“可用性”。“同样，在数字设计的早期，平面设计师往往在开发过程的最后阶段被邀请，要求他们设计出视觉上吸引人的‘用户友好’界面，以掩盖由一个独立程序员团队编写的功能性但不美观的代码。这种模式已经被更具包容性的设计流程所取代，重点转向人类与自动化系统之间的互动。”
The design of any computer-based object or environment goes beyond the outward appearance to include the architecture of the code and the expectations of the user. Although it is still useful in some contexts to refer to an interface, and to think about the interface design as a distinct part of the design process, interaction design is the more appropriate term for capturing the many aspects of the system that have to be the subject of coordinated design decisions, including social and cultural elements as well as technical and visual components. 任何基于计算机的对象或环境的设计不仅仅是外观，还包括代码的架构和用户的期望。虽然在某些情况下提到界面仍然有其价值，并将界面设计视为设计过程中的一个独立部分，但交互设计更为恰当，因为它涵盖了系统的多个方面，这些方面需要协调设计决策，包括社会文化元素以及技术和视觉组件。
Interaction design can be applied to any system of behaviors, and need not involve digital artifacts. Although this book emphasizes the specific affordances of the digital medium, it is consistent with design programs that employ a transmedia approach to interaction design, resting on the same premises: the primacy of interaction and the interpretation of artifacts as part of larger social and cultural systems. 交互设计可以应用于任何行为系统，并不一定需要数字产品。虽然本书强调数字媒介的特定特性，但它与采用跨媒体方法的设计项目是一致的，基于相同的原则：交互的重要性以及将产品视为更大社会和文化系统一部分的理解。
User/Interactor 用户与交互者
In HCI research we often refer to the human being as the user. This is another convenient but narrow and somewhat outdated term like “interface,” reflecting a model of the computer as a tool that we put to use. We might think of someone as a user when they are setting a digital alarm clock or entering data in a spreadsheet program, but it seems much less appropriate for someone flying over a virtual landscape in a social networking world or shooting zombies in a cell phone video game. In this book we will refer to the “user” from time to time because it is a convenient and wellunderstood term, but we will always think of the human being more inclusively as the interactor, someone who is not so much using a device as acting within a system. Interactors focus their attention on a computer-controlled artifact, act upon it, and look for and interpret the responsive actions of the machine. A user may be seeking to complete an immediate task; an interactor is engaged in a prolonged give and take with the machine which may be useful, exploratory, enlightening, emotionally moving, entertaining, personal, or impersonal. Interactors are also engaged with one another through the mediation of the machine, and with the larger social and cultural systems of which the automated tasks may only be a part. By designing for interactors rather than users we remind ourselves of the larger context of design beyond mere usefulness. 在人机交互研究中，我们常常将人称为“用户”。这个术语虽然方便，但显得狭隘且有些过时，就像“界面”一样，它反映了将计算机视为我们使用的工具的观念。当某人在设置数字闹钟或在电子表格中输入数据时，我们可能会称他们为用户，但当某人在社交网络的虚拟世界中飞翔，或在手机游戏中与僵尸作斗争时，这种称呼就显得不太合适了。在本书中，我们会偶尔提到“用户”，因为这是一个方便且易于理解的术语，但我们始终会更全面地看待人，将其视为“交互者”，即在系统中行动而不仅仅是使用设备的人。 交互者将注意力集中在计算机控制的人工制品上，进行操作，并寻找和解读机器的反馈行为。用户可能在完成一个即时任务，而交互者则与机器进行长期的互动，这种互动可能是有益的、探索性的、启发性的、情感丰富的、娱乐性的、个人化的或非个人化的。交互者还通过机器与彼此进行交流，并与更广泛的社会和文化系统互动，而自动化任务可能只是其中的一部分。通过为交互者而非用户进行设计，我们提醒自己设计的更大背景，超越单纯的实用性。
Content/Information 内容与信息
Starting in the 1990s as CD-ROMS and the Internet become widespread, those seeking to develop products for the new digital platforms started to talk about “content providers” and “content” as separate from the “technology.” The problem with this way of thinking is that there is no such thing as content without form. Everything we put into the digital medium has to be explicitly shaped for it. Otherwise we are just using the computer as a fat telephone wire for shipping old-fashioned media artifacts around 从 1990 年代开始，随着 CD-ROM 和互联网的普及，寻求为新数字平台开发产品的人们开始谈论“内容提供者”和“内容”，并将其与“技术”区分开来。这种思维方式的问题在于，没有形式就没有内容。我们放入数字媒介的所有内容都必须经过明确的设计。否则，我们只是在把计算机当作一根粗大的电话线，用来传输过时的媒体作品。
the world. When we think of digital artifacts as content that is transported by technology we lose sight of an important focus of design, which is the medium: the point of intersection between the logical patterns of the technical layer and the cultural web of meaning in which human beings live. When the technical layer changes, the possibilities for meaning making change as well. The agenda for filmmakers in the beginning of the twentieth century was not to get better and better at photographing plays, but to figure out how to use the camera and the plasticity of film to invent movies. Attempts in our era to use computers to imitate books or television sets are equally shortsighted. Content is not a useful concept for designers because digital design is not about filling a neutral technical container with a preexisting package; digital design is about shaping interaction within new combinations of the format and genre conventions that make up a new medium. 当我们把数字文物视为由技术传递的内容时，我们就忽视了设计中一个重要的焦点：媒介。这是技术层的逻辑模式与人类生活的文化意义网络之间的交汇点。当技术层发生变化时，意义创造的可能性也会随之改变。二十世纪初，电影制作者的目标并不是不断提高拍摄戏剧的技巧，而是探索如何利用相机和胶卷的特性来创造电影。在当今时代，试图用计算机模仿书籍或电视机的做法同样是短视的。 对设计师而言，内容并不是一个有用的概念，因为数字设计并不是将一个中性的技术容器填充已有的内容；而是通过新的格式和体裁组合来塑造互动，从而形成一种新的媒介。
Information is a more useful term than content for what media convey, because it points us toward issues of information design, such as how best to label and organize media segments so that we can retrieve and navigate them Thinking of legacy genres as information rather than content also allows us to focus on the organizational features of the legacy media that we otherwise take for granted, such as the division of television shows into thirty- and sixty-minute segments with commercial breaks, or books into pages and chapters, or newspaper articles into headlines and leads, and how these genre conventions reflect the affordances of analog broadcast or ink on paper and the social and economic arrangements that support them. As designers we should be looking for ways to restructure legacy formats to create satisfying interactions and more expressive genres by exploiting the affordances of the digital medium. 信息这个术语比内容更有用，因为它更好地指向媒体传达的设计问题，比如如何有效地标记和组织媒体片段，以便我们能够方便地检索和浏览。将传统类型视为信息而非内容，让我们能够关注传统媒体的组织特征，这些特征往往被我们忽视，比如将电视节目分为三十分钟和六十分钟的片段并插入广告，或者将书籍分为页和章，报纸文章分为标题和导语。这些类型的惯例反映了模拟广播或纸质印刷的特性，以及支撑这些特性的社会和经济结构。 作为设计师，我们应寻找重构传统格式的方法，利用数字媒介的特性，创造更令人满意的互动和更具表现力的作品。
Interactivity/Agency 互动与代理
As we will be discussing in chapter 2, “interactivity” is an overused term that can be confusing when invoked as the goal of design. Properly understood, interactivity refers to the combination of the procedural and participatory properties of the digital medium: the structures by which we script computers with behaviors that accommodate and respond to the actions of human beings. Interaction cannot be a design goal in itself since there can be good and bad interactions between computers and humans. Although designers and others often praise a piece of software or a new device as "highly interactive, " the appropriate design goal for interactive environments is not the degree of interactivity, but whether or not the system creates the satisfying experience of agency for the interactor. Agency results when the interactor’s expectations are aroused by the design of the environment, causing them to act in a way that results in an appropriate response by the well-designed computational system. This matching of the interactor’s participatory expectations and actions to the procedural scriptings of the machine creates the pleasurable experience of agency. Bad design frustrates 正如我们将在第二章中讨论的，“互动性”这个术语被过度使用，当它被作为设计目标时，可能会引起混淆。正确理解互动性，实际上是指数字媒介中程序性和参与性特征的结合：我们通过这些结构为计算机编写行为，以适应并响应人类的行动。互动本身不能成为设计目标，因为计算机与人类之间可能存在良好的互动和不良的互动。尽管设计师和其他人常常称赞某个软件或新设备为“高度互动”，但互动环境的适当设计目标并不是互动的程度，而是系统是否能够为互动者创造令人满意的代理体验。 当交互者的期望因环境设计而被激发时，代理性就会产生，促使他们以某种方式行动，从而使设计良好的计算系统做出适当的反应。这种交互者的参与期望与机器的程序脚本相匹配，带来了愉悦的代理体验。糟糕的设计让人感到沮丧
the interactor by creating confusing or unsatisfiable expectations, or by failing to anticipate actions by scripting the machine with appropriate responses. 通过制造混淆或无法满足的期望，或未能预见到行动而为机器编写适当的响应来进行交互。
Creating the experience of agency does not mean always giving interactors what they want. An archive may not have the item they are seeking; a game may make it hard to level up. But interactors will still experience agency if the limits of the archive are made clear, and the difficulty of the game is conveyed as an intentional challenge rather than as faulty misdirection. Agency is much more helpful than the vaguer value of interactivity as a focus for design decisions, such as choosing an implementation platform, weighing conflicting professional values, assessing the importance of legacy media conventions, or prioritizing proposed features. The most appropriate elements for a design are always those that increase rather than obstruct the agency of the interactor. 创建代理体验并不意味着总是满足互动者的需求。档案中可能没有他们所寻找的项目，游戏可能会让升级变得困难。然而，只要明确档案的限制，并将游戏的难度视为一种有意的挑战而非错误的引导，互动者仍然会感受到代理的存在。在设计决策中，代理的价值比模糊的互动性更为重要，例如选择实施平台、权衡冲突的专业价值、评估传统媒体惯例的重要性或优先考虑提议的功能。设计中最合适的元素总是那些能够增强而非阻碍互动者代理的元素。
As you will have noticed by now, throughout this book I refer to the objects we design in a general way, as artifacts, environments, applications, devices, systems, and so on. This is because the design method of this book is meant to apply to anything made of bits. If you find this confusing I suggest you substitute something familiar. For example, when I say that agency is “the characteristic pleasure of interactive environments” you can substitute “word processors” or “video games” or “cell phones” or “websites” for the more general term. The examples and exercises in each chapter are meant to be helpful in pointing out the connections between the general principles and specific design environments. But since the digital medium is still evolving and the artifacts and systems that designers are working on today are not the ones they worked on ten years ago or the ones they are likely to be working on ten years from now, it is good to get in the habit of thinking of the methods and principles of design abstractly—as separate from specific formats and genres, and therefore more likely to be useful to you over the course of a long career. 正如你现在可能已经注意到的，在本书中我以一般的方式提到我们设计的对象，称之为工件、环境、应用程序、设备、系统等等。这是因为本书的设计方法适用于任何由比特构成的事物。如果你觉得这令人困惑，我建议你用一些熟悉的事物来替代。例如，当我说“代理是交互环境的特征乐趣”时，你可以用“文字处理器”、“视频游戏”、“手机”或“网站”来替代这个更一般的术语。每一章中的示例和练习旨在帮助你理解一般原则与特定设计环境之间的联系。 但是，由于数字媒介仍在不断发展，设计师今天所使用的工具和系统与十年前的截然不同，也与十年后可能使用的工具不同，因此养成抽象思考设计方法和原则的习惯是非常重要的——将其与特定的格式和类型区分开来，这样在漫长的职业生涯中更有可能对你有所帮助。
Media Expand the Scope of Our Shared Attention 媒体拓宽了我们共同关注的领域
Inventing a medium is a collective process as old as human culture. Media are important building blocks of culture: they form the basis of communication and knowledge transmission across time and space. Culture-the web of shared meaning in which we understand our lives and our world-is conveyed in large part through symbolic representations of various kinds-alphabetical writing, paintings, movies-and through the performance of symbolic rituals closely associated with media documentation, such as legal and religious ceremonies. Human beings, unlike other animals, are able to endow inscriptions, utterances, and performed actions with meaning because our minds can handle symbolic thought. Our media allow us to organize those shared symbolic meanings into more complex and expressive forms. New media technologies 发明媒介是一个与人类文化同样古老的集体过程。媒介是文化的重要组成部分，它们构成了跨越时间和空间的交流与知识传递的基础。文化——我们理解生活和世界的共享意义的网络——在很大程度上通过各种象征性表现形式传达，比如字母书写、绘画、电影，以及与媒体记录密切相关的象征性仪式的表演，如法律和宗教仪式。人类与其他动物不同，能够赋予铭文、言语和表演行为以意义，因为我们的思维能够处理象征性思维。我们的媒介使我们能够将这些共享的象征意义组织成更复杂、更具表现力的形式。新媒体技术的发展
are attractive to us because they offer new opportunities for the defining human activity of symbolic expression. 吸引我们的原因在于，它们为人类象征性表达这一重要活动提供了新的机会。
Before the invention of language, human beings communicated through gestures, and built up cultural patterns through imitation and synchronized behaviors like clapping and dancing (Donald 2001). This delight in imitating one another is apparent in babies and grows out of the recognition that other people have consciousness and intentionality just as we do. Cognitive scientists have identified a fundamental milestone in the cognitive development of children at around nine months of age when they start to point at things. It marks an awareness of the caretaker’s attention as something that can be directed by the child. Other primates do not spontaneously point in this way, although they can learn to point for the benefit of humans. The human baby’s pointing takes place in the context of the joint attentional scene. A baby, a caregiver, and a toy make up a joint attentional scene if the baby and the caregiver each know that the other is looking at the toy. The caregiver may hide the toy and make it appear again. The baby may repeatedly throw the toy out of the crib and make clear that he expects the caregiver to pick it up again. This common experience of shared attention lays the groundwork for language, since once we share attention with another person we can establish shared patterns of cultural behavior, and agree to associate particular gestures or sounds with specific meanings (Tomasello 2001). 在语言发明之前，人类通过手势进行交流，并通过模仿和同步行为（如拍手和跳舞）建立文化模式（Donald 2001）。这种模仿彼此的乐趣在婴儿身上非常明显，源于他们意识到其他人也像我们一样拥有意识和意图。认知科学家发现，儿童在大约九个月大时的认知发展中有一个重要的里程碑，那时他们开始指向事物。这表明他们意识到看护者的注意力可以被他们所引导。其他灵长类动物不会自发地以这种方式指向，尽管它们可以学习为人类的利益而指向。 人类婴儿的指点行为发生在共同注意的场景中。当婴儿和看护者都意识到对方在看玩具时，婴儿、看护者和玩具就形成了一个共同注意的场景。看护者可以把玩具藏起来，然后再拿出来。婴儿可能会反复把玩具扔出婴儿床，并清楚地表示他希望看护者把玩具捡回来。这种共享注意的体验为语言的发展奠定了基础，因为一旦我们与他人共享注意，就能建立共同的文化行为模式，并同意将特定的手势或声音与特定的意义相联系（托马塞洛 2001）。
This ability to use shared attention to externalize what we think in symbolic formthe ability to communicate by inventing and elaborating media of representation, starting with gesture and spoken language-has been the deciding factor in human achievement, differentiating us from other primates and allowing us to share our experiences with one another and to pass on knowledge from generation to generation. 这种利用共享注意力将思维外化为符号形式的能力，即通过发明和丰富表现媒介（如手势和口语）进行交流的能力，已成为人类成就的关键因素，使我们与其他灵长类动物区分开来，并使我们能够相互分享经验，将知识代代相传。
All of human media can be seen as an elaboration of the baby’s gesture of pointing at something in order to draw the caregiver’s attention to it. Media conventions extend our ability to point across time and space. For example, associating objects with uttered sounds-naming things with words-allows us to share the idea of something even if it is not physically present. Spoken language allows us to focus shared attention on events that have happened in the past or that we imagine might happen in the future. But oral culture puts great demands on memory, leading to the development of new media genres, such as poetry and song, which make words more memorable by arranging them in repetitive patterns of rhythm and rhyme and engage groups of people in the shared task of preserving knowledge. With centuries of collaborative effort, memory specialists in oral cultures can create and transmit encyclopedic works like the Homeric epics or the Indian oral epic the Mahabharata, which is composed of 100,000 two-line stanzas that in written form covers 3,000 pages. 所有的人类媒体都可以看作是婴儿用手指指向某物以引起看护者注意的行为的延伸。媒体的惯例扩展了我们在时间和空间中指向的能力。例如，将物体与发出的声音关联——用词语命名事物——使我们能够分享某种事物的概念，即使它并不在身边。口语使我们能够将共同的注意力集中在过去发生的事件或我们想象可能在未来发生的事件上。然而，口头文化对记忆的要求很高，这促使了新媒体类型的发展，如诗歌和歌曲，通过将词语以重复的节奏和韵律排列，使其更易于记忆，并让一群人共同参与知识的保存任务。 经过几个世纪的合作努力，口头文化中的记忆专家能够创作和传承像《荷马史诗》或印度口头史诗《摩诃婆罗多》这样的百科全书式作品，后者由 100,000 个两行诗节组成，书面形式长达 3,000 页。
Figure 0.5 图示 0.5
Engraved slate plaques from around 3000 BC Iberia are thought to have represented family lineage (Lillios 2003). 大约公元前 3000 年的伊比利亚地区的雕刻石板被认为象征着家族血统（Lillios 2003）。
Oral cultures often rely on inscription technologies such as representational drawings or symbolic markings on tally sticks or engraved stones (figure 0.5) to externalize and fix knowledge. Writing expands the amount of information that can be accessed without the need for memorization because we only need to remember where to look it up. It allows us to organize information as lists and tables, and to fix contracts with one another that can be consulted in the future. With the invention of alphabets capable of transcribing complex utterances, we can record discourse containing complex arguments and study it at a distance from the person who is the source of the information. Writing also increases the power of structures of social control. Laws can be carved in stone; orders can be transmitted to distant colonies; births and deaths can be tracked, taxes can be levied and payment recorded. The invention of a new form of external media augments our capacity for shared attention, potentially increasing knowledge, but also increasing the possibilities for imposing fixed ideas and behavior and for proselytizing for disruptive causes. Media can augment human powers for good or for evil; and they often serve cultural goals that are at cross purposes, as literacy served both the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity. 口头文化通常依赖于一些书写技术，如代表性绘画或在计数棒和雕刻石头上的符号标记（图 0.5），来外化和固定知识。书写扩大了我们可以获取的信息量，无需记忆，因为我们只需记住查找的地方。它使我们能够将信息组织成列表和表格，并与他人签订合同，以便将来查阅。随着能够转录复杂话语的字母的发明，我们可以记录包含复杂论点的讨论，并在与信息来源的人保持距离的情况下进行研究。书写还增强了社会控制结构的力量。 法律可以铭刻在石头上，命令可以传达给遥远的殖民地，出生和死亡可以被追踪，税收可以被征收，付款可以被记录。新型外部媒体的发明增强了我们共享注意力的能力，可能增加知识，但也可能加大强加固定观念和行为的风险，以及为颠覆性事业进行宣传的可能性。媒体可以增强人类的善恶能力，往往服务于相互矛盾的文化目标，正如识字既促进了罗马帝国的发展，也推动了基督教的兴起。
As with the development of language and manuscript writing, the invention of the printing press in 1455 augmented human cognition, by supporting new formats for our focused attention: scientific treatises and comic novels, personal letters and public newspapers. And as with other great advances in media technology, the rise of print 与语言和手稿书写的发展相似，1455 年印刷机的发明提升了人类的认知能力，支持了我们集中注意力的新形式：科学论文、漫画小说、个人信件和公共报纸。正如其他媒体技术的重大进步一样，印刷的崛起
culture has expanded the range and power of constructive and destructive ideas by exponentially increasing our ability to share ideas and coordinate behavior across time and space. 文化通过大幅提升我们分享思想和协调行为的能力，极大地扩展了建设性和破坏性思想的范围与影响。
The advent of the computer may mark the beginning of a cultural change of similar magnitude to the advent of language, writing, or print. We now have the power to make every book, every museum piece, and every university lecture available to anyone on earth who can receive a telephone call or a radio broadcast. We can engage a hundred thousand people in playing the same shooting game at the same time, or induce tens of millions of people to make donations to distant earthquake victims with an instant text message. The challenge for designers is how to make such an abundance of information coherent and how to coordinate such massive participation in interactive environments so that it best serves human needs. 计算机的出现可能标志着一种文化变革的开始，其影响力与语言、书写或印刷的出现相当。我们现在能够让地球上任何能够接听电话或收听广播的人都能获取每一本书、每一件博物馆藏品和每一场大学讲座。我们可以让十万人同时参与同一款射击游戏，或者通过即时短信促使数千万的人向远方的地震受害者捐款。设计师面临的挑战是如何将如此丰富的信息整合成一个连贯的整体，以及如何协调如此大规模的参与，以更好地满足人类的需求。
The Medium Is the Method 媒介就是方法
Our media make us human by externalizing symbolic thought so it can be shared. Media of representation extend the range of shared attention, providing us with an enormous repertoire of behaviors and ideas, and with a wide range of strategies for preserving them and sharing them with one another. In an oral culture we are dependent upon memory; in a written and print culture we can sustain longer thoughts, share them more widely, and record a greater variety of human experience. Now the cultural practices supported by print culture have led to the advent of another new and powerful medium of representation. By inventing and refining the format and genre conventions of the emerging digital medium, we are widening the circle of shared attention, and participating in the ancient project of expanding human cognition and enlarging human culture. 媒体通过外化象征性思维使我们更具人性，便于分享。表现性媒体扩展了我们共享注意力的范围，提供了丰富的行为和思想选择，以及多种保存和分享这些思想的策略。在口头文化中，我们依赖记忆；而在书面和印刷文化中，我们能够维持更长的思考，更广泛地分享，并记录更丰富的人类经验。如今，印刷文化所支持的文化实践催生了另一种新的强大表现媒介。 通过创造和完善新兴数字媒介的格式与体裁规范，我们正在扩大共享关注的范围，并参与扩展人类认知和丰富人类文化的古老事业。
Media conventions are important because they are part of the shared cultural patterns that allow us to make sense of complex information. The cognitive system of human beings can be thought of as a giant pattern-recognition and pattern-generating machine. We recognize objects in the world by the perceptual patterns associated with them (how they look and sound) and by the behavioral patterns they exhibit (the bird flies away as we draw near). Human beings can find coherence in a wider range of experience than bees (or any other living creature) because of our more extensive pattern-making abilities. Most important, we make symbolic patterns, patterns that do not directly correspond to what is immediately before our senses, and we assign them meaning by using them in the same way. Human beings routinely create patterns to refer to things not present (a dead ancestor) and things that do not exist (a magical tool). We can abstract general patterns from multiple specific experiences (kinds of animals, categories of food, the platonic idea of a chair), or apply patterns from one kind of experience to another (metaphorically thinking of the future as “in front of” us, or of earth as a spaceship). We can make up seemingly arbitrary 媒体惯例非常重要，因为它们是共享文化模式的一部分，帮助我们理解复杂的信息。人类的认知系统可以看作是一个巨大的模式识别和生成机器。我们通过与物体相关的感知模式（如它们的外观和声音）以及它们表现出的行为模式（例如，鸟在我们靠近时飞走）来识别世界中的物体。与蜜蜂（或其他生物）相比，人类能够在更广泛的经验中找到一致性，这得益于我们更强的模式创造能力。最重要的是，我们创造符号模式，这些模式并不直接对应于我们感官面前的事物，而是通过以相同的方式使用它们来赋予它们意义。 人类常常创造模式来指代不在场的事物（如已故的祖先）和不存在的事物（如魔法工具）。我们可以从多种具体经验中提炼出一般模式（例如动物种类、食物分类、椅子的理想概念），或者将一种经验的模式应用到另一种经验上（比如比喻性地将未来视为“在我们面前”，或将地球视作宇宙飞船）。我们可以随意编造一些内容
transmission patterns like the written alphabet or Morse code or the 00 s and 11 s of computer bits and assign interpretations to them. We are born with the ability to make meaningful patterns out of experience and we spend our lives acquiring, refining, elaborating, and reinventing these patterns. 像书写字母表、摩尔斯电码，或计算机位的 00 和 11 这样的传输模式，我们为这些模式赋予意义。我们天生具备从经验中创造有意义模式的能力，并在一生中不断获取、完善、阐述和重塑这些模式。
Although we are constantly processing information at both the symbolic and literal level, most of our pattern-recognition activity is automatic, below consciousness, as free of thought as a bee’s dance. The bees do not have to reinvent their dancing every time they find a new pollen source. They just have to adapt it to the current stimuli. Similarly, we do not have to relearn what a kitchen is every time we enter a house we haven’t visited before. We have a general pattern of expectations for the concept of a kitchen, and then we are free to pay attention to where the sink and refrigerator are, or to whether there is a gas or electric stove. Patterns of meaning in cognitive science are called schemas. A schema is an abstract model of experience or beliefs into which we can fit new experiences. Just as we have generalized cognitive schema for a house, a kitchen, a college course, or a blind date, we have media schema for a newspaper, a television show, and a website. Media formats and genres are externalized cognitive schemas, strategies for making us smarter by standardizing complex repeated experiences into recognizable patterns. They are part of the distributed cognition by which culture is propagated and shared: We do not have to figure out how to drive a car every time we get into one, because the placement of the steering wheel, ignition, gas pedal, and brake remain the same each time, reminding us of what to do. We do not have to figure out how to read a newspaper every time we consult one because the function of the front page, headlines, photo captions, and lead sentences remain the same, reminding us of how to find the most important story of the day. Design conventions are important parts of this elaborate, expanding, system of distributed cognition, the familiar organizing features of the world that provide consistent cues for individual intelligence (Minsky 1986; Lakoff 1987). 尽管我们在符号和字面层面上不断处理信息，但大多数模式识别活动都是自动进行的，低于意识，就像蜜蜂的舞蹈一样没有思考。蜜蜂不需要每次找到新的花粉源时重新发明舞蹈，只需根据当前的刺激进行调整。同样，我们每次进入一个未曾访问过的房子时，也不需要重新学习厨房的概念。我们对厨房有一个普遍的期望模式，因此可以自由关注水槽和冰箱的位置，或者是燃气炉还是电炉。在认知科学中，这些意义的模式被称为图式。 模式是经验或信念的抽象模型，我们可以将新的经验融入其中。就像我们对房子、厨房、大学课程或盲约有一般化的认知模式一样，我们对报纸、电视节目和网站也有媒体模式。媒体格式和类型是外化的认知模式，是通过将复杂的重复经验标准化为可识别的模式来提升我们的智慧。它们是文化传播和共享的分布式认知的一部分：每次我们上车时，不必重新学习如何驾驶，因为方向盘、点火器、油门和刹车的位置始终如一，提醒我们该如何操作。 我们在查阅报纸时不需要每次都去弄清楚如何阅读，因为头版、标题、照片说明和导语的功能始终如一，提醒我们如何找到当天最重要的新闻。设计惯例是这个复杂而不断扩展的分布式认知系统的重要组成部分，它是我们熟悉的世界组织特征，为个体智力提供了一致的线索（明斯基 1986；拉科夫 1987）。
To be a designer is to deal with the external patterns that correspond to existing cognitive schema or form the basis for new schema. Our job is to create the media templates that make new media artifacts understandable in the same way that new kitchens are understandable. A paper newspaper is a well-established template that we know how to map to cognitive schema so that we can take in the multiple stories it is telling us through media conventions like headlines, columns, and lead paragraphs. The templates of online news can potentially contain much more informationmoving images, original documents, previous stories, interactive visualizations, reader comments, recommendation systems-but we have yet to establish a stable media form comparable to the paper newspaper (figure 0.6). Creating the templates and conventions that will organize this expanded universe of news reporting is an ongoing collective task for digital designers. 成为设计师意味着处理与现有认知模式相对应的外部模式，或为新的认知模式奠定基础。我们的任务是创建媒体模板，使新的媒体作品能够像新厨房一样易于理解。纸质报纸是一个成熟的模板，我们知道如何将其映射到认知模式，以便通过标题、栏目和导语等媒体惯例理解它所传达的多个故事。在线新闻的模板可能包含更多信息——动态影像、原始文件、过往故事、互动可视化、读者评论、推荐系统——但我们尚未建立一个与纸质报纸相当的稳定媒体形式（图 0.6）。 创建组织这个扩展新闻报道宇宙的模板和规范是数字设计师们的一项持续集体任务。
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Figure 0.6 图示 0.6
Home page of the New York Times online, from 1996 and from 2010. The first screen of the newspaper is equivalent to the area “above the fold” of the print paper: the area where the most important news is communicated. In 1996 the designers aimed to reproduce online the authority and familiar look of the printed newspaper. By 2010 they had many more digital conventions at their disposal-grid columns, menus, tabs, popularity indexes-to support complex navigation and a more dense display of information. 纽约时报在线首页，分别来自 1996 年和 2010 年。报纸的首屏相当于印刷版的“折叠线”区域，主要传达最重要的新闻。在 1996 年，设计师们希望在线上重现印刷报纸的权威性和熟悉感。到 2010 年，他们拥有了更多数字化的设计规范，如网格布局、菜单、标签和热度指数，以支持更复杂的导航和更丰富的信息展示。
The argument of this book begins with the insight that everything made of bits is part of the same digital medium, because it shares the substructure of computation, which offers a unique combination of properties that can be used for symbolic communication. By understanding the affordances of the digital medium-its procedural, participatory, encyclopedic, and spatial properties-we can exploit them appropriately to develop more coherent media conventions, the digital formats and genres that will expand the scope of human expression. This book is an exploration of those properties and of the methods that designers can use to maximize them in the service of individual projects as well as the larger collective goal of advancing the expressive resources of the digital medium. 本书的论点源于一个洞察：所有由比特构成的事物都是同一数字媒介的一部分，因为它们共享计算的基础结构，这种结构提供了一种独特的属性组合，能够用于符号交流。通过理解数字媒介的特性——包括其程序性、参与性、百科全书式和空间属性——我们可以有效地利用这些特性，发展出更为连贯的媒体惯例，即那些能够扩展人类表达范围的数字格式和类型。本书探讨了这些特性以及设计师可以用来最大化这些特性的方法，以服务于个人项目和推动数字媒介表达资源的更大集体目标。
Part I of this book describes the basic components of the design process: the framing and reframing of design questions in terms of the core human needs served by any new artifact, the assembling of a palette of existing media conventions, and the search for ways to more fully serve the core needs that may lie beyond these existing conventions. It surveys the four affordances of digital media and key concepts drawn from diverse fields of study that can contribute to exploiting each of these affordances. Part I concludes with a framework for innovative thinking based on examining individual projects within a grid of possibilities. 本书第一部分描述了设计过程的基本组成部分：将设计问题进行框架和重构，以便更好地满足任何新产品所服务的核心人类需求，整合现有媒体惯例的调色板，并探索更全面地满足可能超出这些现有惯例的核心需求的方法。它探讨了数字媒体的四种可供性，以及来自不同研究领域的关键概念，这些概念有助于充分利用每一种可供性。第一部分最后提供了一个创新思维的框架，基于对个别项目在可能性网格中的审视。
Parts II-V deal in detail with each of the four affordances, exploring foundational models that provide useful conventions and strategies for the design of digital artifacts. 第二至第五部分详细探讨了四种可供性，研究了为数字工件设计提供有用约定和策略的基础模型。
Part II focuses on the procedural affordance of the medium, and on the powerful strategies of abstraction by which we can describe objects and behaviors with computer code. It presents key concepts for the design of digital artifacts such as modularity, encapsulation, instantiation, and state; and it presents methods for representing conditional processes and complex systems that facilitate communication between programmers and other team members. 第二部分着重于媒介的程序性特征，以及我们通过计算机代码描述对象和行为的强大抽象策略。它介绍了数字工件设计的关键概念，如模块化、封装、实例化和状态；并提供了表示条件过程和复杂系统的方法，以促进程序员与其他团队成员之间的沟通。
Part III surveys basic strategies for exploiting the spatial affordance of the medium in order to create meaning, in geographical virtual landscapes including Second Life that are inhabited by avatars and also in abstract information spaces such as the World Wide Web. It covers foundational building blocks of spatial design such as tables, containers, landscapes, maps, and places, and methods for establishing coherent navigation and fostering the collocation of like information, taking the library as a physical model for digital information spaces. 第三部分探讨了如何利用媒介的空间特性来创造意义，涉及由化身居住的地理虚拟景观（如第二人生）以及万维网等抽象信息空间。内容包括空间设计的基本要素，如表格、容器、景观、地图和地点，以及如何建立连贯的导航和促进相似信息的聚集，以图书馆作为数字信息空间的物理模型。
Part IV covers the encyclopedic affordance of the digital medium, focusing on the database and the structured document, two foundational models of information design in digital formats. The database is perhaps the oldest established digital genre of information organization, based on the fundamental principle of semantic segmentation, and offering designers many challenges and opportunities for expressive aggregation, juxtaposition, and visualization of information. The structured document is 第四部分探讨了数字媒介的百科全书式功能，重点是数据库和结构化文档，这两者是数字格式中信息设计的基础模型。数据库可能是信息组织中最古老的数字类型，基于语义分割的基本原则，为设计师提供了许多挑战和机会，以便对信息进行富有表现力的聚合、对比和可视化。结构化文档是
the basis of the World Wide Web, the model for the creation of meaning with metadata, and the foundation of next-generation information design including the Semantic Web envisioned by Tim Berners-Lee. The design of structured documents and structured archives will be crucial to the development of entertainment and information applications in the coming decades. 万维网的基础、元数据的意义创建模型，以及蒂姆·伯纳斯-李设想的语义网等下一代信息设计的基础。结构化文档和结构化档案的设计将在未来几十年内对娱乐和信息应用的发展起到关键作用。
Part V covers four foundational models for structuring the participatory affordance of the digital medium, all of which can be present within any single design problem. When we think of the computer as a tool we emphasize transparency of operation, and the support of virtuosity through direct manipulation that is an extension of the hand. When we think of the computer as a machine we value visibility of its internal workings and strategies for giving the interactor feedback and control over the automated processes it performs. The sense of the computer as a companion is a powerful model for interaction, but designers have to avoid triggering the pervasive fantasy of the magical mind-reading servant, while appropriately and politely anticipating the interactor’s needs. Finally, the game is a vital genre of digital media and also a powerful model for interaction in general, and especially for synchronizing the behavior of large groups of interactors and for structuring engagement with digital artifacts as sustained exploratory play. 第五部分涵盖了四个基础模型，用于构建数字媒介的参与能力，这些模型可以在任何设计问题中同时存在。当我们把计算机视为工具时，我们强调操作的透明性，以及通过直接操作来支持的技巧，这是一种手的延伸。当我们把计算机视为机器时，我们重视其内部工作原理的可见性，以及为用户提供反馈和控制自动化过程的策略。将计算机视为伴侣的概念是一个强大的互动模型，但设计师必须避免激发对神奇心灵感应仆人的普遍幻想，同时要适当地、礼貌地预见用户的需求。 最后，这款游戏不仅是数字媒体的重要类型，也是互动的强大模型，尤其在同步大量参与者的行为和与数字作品的持续探索性互动方面。
Each chapter of this book includes a set of Design Explorations that provide practice in the habits of analysis that lead to good design. Design can only be learned by focusing on particular artifacts, and these explorations offer the opportunity to apply the ideas in each chapter to specific design problems, starting with the close observation and critique of existing designs, and moving toward the design of original projects. Student responses to these assignments may be diagrams, essays, slide presentations, or interactive artifacts, depending on the students’ skill level and instructor’s course goals. The design explorations are meant to provide practice in important strategies for communicating design ideas such as flowcharts, storyboards, pseudocode, and rapid prototyping, and to serve as starting points for larger projects. 本书的每一章都包含一系列设计探索，旨在培养分析习惯，从而促进良好的设计。设计的学习必须聚焦于特定的作品，而这些探索为将每章的理念应用于具体设计问题提供了机会，首先是对现有设计的细致观察和批评，接着是原创项目的设计。学生对这些作业的回应可以是图表、论文、幻灯片演示或互动作品，具体取决于学生的技能水平和教师的课程目标。 设计探索旨在提供实践，帮助掌握重要的设计沟通策略，例如流程图、故事板、伪代码和快速原型制作，并为更大项目提供起点。
Instructors should feel free to pick and choose among the suggested exercises to suit the particular course, to modify them to suit time and resources, and are encouraged to use them as starting points for inventing your own design activities. However they are used, the most important result is that the students engage in focused discussion of the design of specific artifacts, and that the discussion be based on explicitly defined design values. It is important to encourage students to be constructive and critical in their assessment of one another’s design responses, to use specific language, and to refer to specific details of a design. 教师可以自由选择建议的练习，以适应特定课程的需求，或根据时间和资源进行调整，并鼓励将这些练习作为自己设计活动的起点。无论如何使用，最重要的是学生能够参与对特定作品设计的深入讨论，并且讨论应基于明确的设计价值观。鼓励学生在评估彼此的设计回应时保持建设性和批判性，使用具体的语言，并参考设计的细节，这一点非常重要。
The practicing designer reading this book mid-career may also want to read through these Design Explorations, using them as thought experiments to increase awareness of the possibility space for design. I encourage designers to spend time with the explorations that involve areas in which you have not yet had a chance to work, 这本书的中期职业设计师可能还希望阅读这些设计探索，将其作为思维实验，以提高对设计可能性空间的认识。我鼓励设计师花时间参与那些您尚未涉足的领域的探索。
in order to keep your thinking ahead of the curve of converging formats and evolving genres. 为了让你的思维始终走在不断变化的格式和演变的类型的前面。
Throughout this book, the emphasis is on connecting the design of individual artifacts with the larger cultural project of inventing the medium. Media of representation shape our understanding of the world. They do not just contain information; they also determine what can be communicated. They provide the loom on which we can weave the fabric of human culture. A stone tablet is a good medium for inscribing fixed laws of behavior. A multipage volume is a good medium for fixing the contents of a single consciousness over a long period of time. A television broadcast is a good medium for witnessing events at a distance as if they were happening near at hand. The computer combines elements of all of these, as well as its own unique affordances. It offers us a larger and more complicated cultural loom, one that can contain the complex, interconnected patterns of a global society, and one that can help us to see multiple alternate interpretations and perspectives on the same information. 本书强调将单个文物的设计与发明媒介这一更大文化项目相连接。表现媒介塑造了我们对世界的理解。它们不仅仅是信息的载体，还决定了可以传达的内容。它们为我们编织人类文化提供了基础。石碑是铭刻固定行为法则的理想媒介；多页书籍则适合于长时间固定单一意识的内容；而电视广播则能让我们远距离见证事件，仿佛它们就在眼前发生。计算机则结合了所有这些媒介的元素，并具备其独特的功能。 它为我们提供了一个更大更复杂的文化框架，能够容纳全球社会中复杂而相互关联的模式，并帮助我们看到对同一信息的多种不同解读和视角。
As a designer of interactive media who is also a student of literary history, I believe in the power of new genres of representation to expand our powers of understanding and our capacity for empathy with one another by expanding the circle of our shared attention. A printing press is just a mechanical device, but a scientific journal is a means of bringing our shared attention to the task of explaining the mysterious universe, a newspaper is a way of focusing our collective political thinking, and a novel is a means of changing the soul. A computer is just an electrical device, but when we exploit its affordances for symbolic expression we make possible new genres that hold a similar possibility for changing what we can know and what we can share with one another. That is why I have written this book. It is my hope that those who use it will find it helpful in our collective effort to invent the medium, to put the vast power of the computer to the task of expanding the boundaries of human understanding and deepening the ties of human connection. 作为一名互动媒体设计师和文学历史的学生，我相信新表现形式的力量能够拓展我们的理解能力和彼此的同理心，从而扩大我们共同关注的范围。印刷机只是一个机械设备，而科学期刊则是将我们共同关注引向探索神秘宇宙的工具；报纸则帮助我们集中集体的政治思考，小说则是改变灵魂的手段。计算机只是一个电气设备，但当我们利用它进行象征性表达时，就能创造出新的类型，这些类型同样有可能改变我们所能了解的和彼此分享的内容。 这就是我写这本书的原因。我希望使用它的人能够在我们共同努力发明媒介的过程中找到帮助，将计算机的强大力量用于拓展人类理解的边界，深化人类之间的联系。
I CHANGING TECHNOLOGIES, LASTING INNOVATIONS 我在不断变化的技术中追求持久的创新
Media expand the scope of our shared attention, making the design of media a crucial building block of human culture. 媒体拓宽了我们共同关注的领域，使媒体设计成为人类文化的重要组成部分。
All things made with electronic bits and computer code belong to a single new medium, the digital medium, with its own unique affordances. 所有由电子元件和计算机代码构成的事物都属于一种新的媒介——数字媒介，它具有独特的特性。
Designing any single artifact within this new medium is part of the broader collective effort of inventing and refining the shared conventions that allow us to understand new kinds of media objects. 在这个新媒介中设计任何单一的艺术品，实际上是我们共同努力发明和完善共享规范的一部分，这些规范帮助我们理解新型媒体对象。
Good design is aimed simultaneously at perfecting the object and at improving the overall practice of the field. 优秀的设计既追求物品的完美，又致力于提升整个领域的实践水平。
It is the designer’s task to foster the development of meaningful common conventions at all three levels of media making-inscription, transmission, and especially representation-to accelerate the collective project of expanding the expressive power of the new digital medium. 设计师的任务是在媒体创作的三个层面上促进有意义的共同规范的发展——记录、传输，尤其是表现——以加速扩展新数字媒介的表现力。
To design something new that transcends the expressive limitations of legacy media and existing formats and genres, the designer should think about the core human needs served by the new artifact, survey the ways those needs have been met across multiple media platforms, and then attempt to reimagine them as they might be served by the affordances of the emerging digital medium. 设计一些新事物，以超越传统媒体和现有格式与类型的表达限制，设计师应考虑新产品所满足的核心人类需求，调查这些需求在多个媒体平台上是如何被满足的，然后尝试重新构想它们如何通过新兴数字媒介的特性来满足。
All digital artifacts belong to a shared landscape of potential affordances, and designers should consider every individual project within the context of procedural, participatory, encyclopedic, and spatial design strategies. 所有数字化作品都处于一个共享的潜在可能性环境中，设计师应在程序性、参与性、百科全书式和空间设计策略的背景下考虑每个项目。
The characteristic goal of interactive environments is agency. We create agency by scripting the interactor and the computer so that the human being’s expectations and behaviors elicit appropriate responses from the machine. When an interdisciplinary team is confronted with a conflict in design values, the design goal of creating agency can serve as a touchstone to resolve the issue. 互动环境的主要目标是赋予用户自主权。我们通过编写交互者和计算机的脚本来实现这一点，使得人类的期望和行为能够引发机器的适当反应。当跨学科团队面临设计价值观的冲突时，创造自主权的设计目标可以作为解决问题的参考。
A recognizable pleasure of interactive environments is the interactor’s sense of immersion. We create immersion by increasing scope, detail, and consistency while establishing clear boundaries and means of navigation. 互动环境中一个显著的乐趣是互动者的沉浸感。我们通过扩大范围、增加细节和保持一致性，同时设定明确的边界和导航方式来营造这种沉浸感。
In a well-designed environment, agency and immersion reinforce one another through the active creation of belief. 在一个精心设计的环境中，代理性和沉浸感通过积极地建立信念相互促进。
1 Design in an Evolving Medium 在不断演变的媒介中进行设计
The best way to predict the future is to invent it. 预测未来的最佳方式就是创造未来。
—Alan Kay, http://www.smalltalk.org/alankay.html —艾伦·凯，网址：http://www.smalltalk.org/alankay.html
Design as Framing and Reframing 设计作为框架与重构
To design is to shape a specific artifact or process by choosing among alternate strategies in order to achieve explicit goals. Design is always concerned with discretionary choices that take into account the benefits and liabilities of alternate strategies. A designer must be able to envision multiple approaches to the same design problem, including novel approaches that exploit the affordances of new materials. 设计是通过在不同策略中进行选择，来塑造特定的物品或过程，以实现明确的目标。设计始终关注那些考虑到不同策略利弊的自主选择。设计师需要能够设想多种解决同一设计问题的方法，包括利用新材料特性的新颖方法。
Design can be directed at objects meant to last for a season or a century, for pleasure or utility, for comfort or style. But design is always the conscious creation of a particular artifact within a longer cultural tradition of practice. It always involves a choice of conventions in a context in which there is not just one correct way of doing something. Most of all, good design is aimed simultaneously at perfecting the object and at improving the overall practice of the field. This double focus is particularly important for the designer of digital media because the field is so new and because there are so many competing methodologies that are relevant to the design of a digital artifact. 设计可以针对那些旨在持续一个季节或一个世纪的物品，无论是出于愉悦还是实用，舒适还是风格。然而，设计始终是在更长的文化传统中有意识地创造特定的工件。它总是涉及在一个没有唯一正确做法的背景下选择不同的惯例。最重要的是，好的设计同时致力于完善物品和提升整个领域的实践。这种双重关注对于数字媒体设计师尤为重要，因为这个领域非常新颖，并且有许多相关的竞争性方法。
Professional designers in any field know how to frame a new design problem within existing traditions, practices, and goals. We know how to design a toaster because we know how people use it, and the underlying technology of heating element and regulators has not changed. Innovation in toaster design can focus on refining familiar elements: making them a little bit more reliable (less burnt toast), usable (easier to get the toast out of the slot), functional (more slots, bigger slots, a defrost setting), visually appealing (e.g., ceramic toasters with whimsical shapes), or marketable (designerbrand toasters). Some tasks in digital media design involve similar refinement of established artifacts. For example, the laptop computer can be designed for greater reliability (longer battery life, tougher shell, fewer viruses), usability (ergonomic keyboard design, less heat generation, lighter weight), functionality (faster operation, 专业设计师在各个领域都懂得如何在现有的传统、实践和目标中界定新的设计问题。我们之所以能设计出烤面包机，是因为我们了解人们的使用习惯，而加热元件和调节器的基本技术并没有改变。烤面包机设计的创新可以集中在对熟悉元素的改进上：提高可靠性（减少烤焦的面包）、提升可用性（更容易将面包取出）、增强功能性（增加槽位、加大槽位、增加解冻功能）、提升视觉吸引力（例如，设计成奇特形状的陶瓷烤面包机）或增强市场竞争力（设计师品牌的烤面包机）。数字媒体设计中的一些任务也涉及对既有工件的类似改进。例如，笔记本电脑可以设计得更加可靠（更长的电池寿命、更坚固的外壳、更少的病毒），更易于使用（符合人体工程学的键盘设计、产生更少的热量、重量更轻），以及更强的功能性（更快的操作，
Figure 1.1 图示 1.1
Standard web conventions for a retail site on http://www.landsend.com include logo banner, keyword search, store locator, order tracker, account sign-in, shopping bag, and menu bar with conventional clothing categories. 在 http://www.landsend.com 上，标准的零售网站网络规范包括 logo 横幅、关键词搜索、商店定位、订单跟踪、账户登录、购物袋以及包含常规服装类别的菜单栏。
优惠商店的优惠与促销：您喜欢的所有优惠，尽在这里！查看库存
GREA
SHOP ONUNE DEALS & PROMOTIONS
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SHOP ONUNE DEALS & PROMOTIONS
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sign in | create profile | my account
shopping bag: 0 a
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| :--- |
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for the home 为家庭而设
beds bath 床和浴室
women 女性
men 男性
juniors 初级选手
kids 小朋友们
beauty a fragrance 美丽的香氛
shoes 鞋子款式
handbags & accessories 手袋与配饰
jewelry a watches 珠宝与手表
sale 销售活动
search Key 搜索关键词
d, Web IO d，网络输入输出
co , 一起
CUSTOMERSTOPRAT
****
StOREs 商铺
GIFTSA GiP
aros 阿罗斯
widoinc 威多科技有限公司
GISTRY
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Figure 1.2 图示 1.2
Standard web conventions similar to the Lands’ End website are found on <http://www.macys. com >> with the additional features of a rotating ad space (here promoting “Online Deals”) and a rating system for customers to recommend purchases. 类似于 Lands' End 网站的标准网络惯例可以在< http://www.macys.com >> 上找到，此外还有一个旋转广告位（推广“在线优惠”）和一个供客户推荐购买的评分系统。
larger hard-drive capacity, increased connectivity), visual appeal (custom colors, minimalist design), or marketability (Apple or PC brand appeal). 更大的硬盘容量和更强的连接性，视觉上的吸引力（如自定义颜色和极简设计），以及市场营销（苹果或 PC 品牌的吸引力）。
Designing a website for a retail operation can be a matter of refining existing conventions, similar to designing a new toaster, because retail websites currently rest on standardized technical elements (shopping basket with secure credit-card entry, inventory stored in a database, web pages generated on the fly) and include genre features that consumers are familiar with (home page, menu navigation, product images, sorting by size, recommendation systems). Like toasters, retail websites are stable enough in design to compete on style and relatively small functional refinements (see figures 1.1-1.41.1-1.4 ) 为零售业务设计网站可以看作是对现有规范的优化，类似于设计一款新的烤面包机。因为目前的零售网站依赖于标准化的技术元素（如安全的信用卡输入的购物车、存储在数据库中的库存、即时生成的网页），并且包含消费者熟悉的特征（如主页、菜单导航、产品图片、按大小排序和推荐系统）。就像烤面包机一样，零售网站在设计上足够稳定，可以在风格和相对较小的功能改进上进行竞争（见图 1.1-1.41.1-1.4 ）。
But many tasks in digital media design are not a matter of refining clearly established traditions and practices, but of inventing new conventions within a more open-ended context of possibilities. Creating a virtual world, a social networking site, a media-playing device, a handheld communication device, a website for a newspaper or a television station are much more open-ended tasks that cannot be approached within a single-standard framework. They require us to reframe familiar practices to take advantage of the new affordances of digital technology. 但数字媒体设计中的许多任务并不是简单地完善已有的传统和实践，而是在更开放的可能性背景下创造新的规范。创建虚拟世界、社交网络网站、媒体播放设备、手持通信设备，或报纸和电视台的网站，这些都是更为开放的任务，无法在单一标准框架内处理。它们要求我们重新审视熟悉的做法，以充分利用数字技术带来的新机遇。
Innovative design is often the result of reframing familiar activities, such as rethinking the context in which they can be performed. The small portable radios introduced with the invention of transistors are based on reframing the activity of listening to music, which was previously thought of as something done in the home, or perhaps 创新设计往往源于对熟悉活动的重新思考，比如重新审视这些活动可以进行的环境。随着晶体管的发明，小型便携式收音机的推出重新定义了听音乐这一活动，过去人们通常认为听音乐是在家中进行的，或者也许
Figure 1.3 图示 1.3
Macy’s display of merchandise provides rollover text that duplicates the information below the picture. 梅西百货的商品展示提供了与图片下方信息相同的滚动文本。
Figure 1.4 图示 1.4
On the Lands’ End site, rolling over the front-view image of a swimsuit displays the back of the garment, a refinement of the standard retail web convention. 在 Lands’ End 网站上，将鼠标悬停在泳衣的正面图像上，可以看到服装的背面，这是一种对传统零售网站惯例的改进。
while sitting on the grass or the beach with a “portable” radio the size of a toaster. The addition of earphones to the transistor radio made music listening into something that you could do privately, even when walking around outdoors and in public, paving the way for later inventions such as the tape-driven (and later CD-based) Sony Walkman and the digital mpeg3 player like the widely popular iPod. Telephoning has seen a similar shift in the past twenty years, changing the circumstances under which people contact one another and conduct conversations. For designers of digital artifacts, there is always the possibility of introducing a similarly durable reframing of a common activity. 当你坐在草地或海滩上，手里拿着一个像烤面包机大小的“便携式”收音机时，耳机的加入使得收听音乐变成了一种可以私下进行的活动，即使在户外和公共场合走动时也能享受音乐，这为后来的发明铺平了道路，比如磁带驱动（后来是 CD 驱动）的索尼随身听和广受欢迎的数字 mpeg3 播放器 iPod。在过去的二十年里，电话通讯也经历了类似的变化，改变了人们联系和进行对话的方式。对于数字产品的设计师来说，总是有可能引入一种持久的方式来重新定义常见活动。
Reframing can also be done at the level of social context. We see this quite often in advertising. For example, the bathing suits in figures 1.3 and 1.4, though both meant to present images of attractive women, are based on very different assumptions about shopper’s motivations. The Macy’s models are photographed in sexually seductive poses, an exaggeration of the cultural convention of objectifying women’s bodies as objects of male desire; they also suggest urban sophistication about fashion trends since high fashion is often framed in risqué poses. The Lands’ End images reframe the conventional bathing suit pose to suggest wholesome athleticism and a less overtly sexual attractiveness. Similarly, the Apple “I’m a Mac/I’m a PC” advertising campaign framed the Microsoft operating system as the unreliable choice of unimaginative nerds and the Mac platform as the hassle-free choice of the creative and cool. Advertising works by exaggerating such cultural connotations, so it is a good guide to the stereotypes considered mainstream by corporate culture. The designer should strive to identify such stereotypes and conventional value assumptions, and to be aware of whose interest they serve. It is often useful to reframe the scenario by reversing roles. For example, suppose the Microsoft people rewrote the Apple ads: would the hip Apple guy seem pretentious and incompetent and the PC guy seem coolly efficient and in control? 重新框架也可以在社会背景层面进行。这在广告中非常常见。例如，图 1.3 和 1.4 中的泳衣虽然都旨在展示吸引女性的形象，但对购物者动机的假设却截然不同。梅西的模特以性挑逗的姿势拍摄，夸大了将女性身体物化为男性欲望对象的文化惯例；同时，这些形象也传达了关于时尚潮流的城市精致感，因为高端时尚常常以挑逗的姿势呈现。而 Lands' End 的图像则重新定义了传统泳衣的姿势，传达出健康的运动气息和不那么明显的性吸引力。 同样，苹果的“我是 Mac/我是 PC”广告活动将微软操作系统描绘成不可靠的选择，认为它是缺乏想象力的书呆子的选择，而 Mac 平台则被视为创意和酷炫的无忧选择。广告通过夸大这种文化内涵来发挥作用，因此它是企业文化中被视为主流的刻板印象的良好指南。设计师应努力识别这些刻板印象和传统价值观，并意识到它们服务于谁的利益。通过反转角色来重新构建场景通常是有益的。例如，假设微软的人重写了苹果的广告：那时，时髦的苹果家伙会显得自命不凡和无能，而 PC 家伙则会显得冷静高效、掌控全局吗？
Cultural values and economic imperatives drive the direction of design innovation in ways that we usually take for granted, making some objects the focus of intense design attention while others are ignored altogether. For example, over the past century, music distribution and listening devices have experienced intense redesign, including dramatic changes in technology, from wax cylinder recordings and crystal radios to vinyl, tape, CDs, and Internet distribution. As a result we have gone in one hundred years from poor reproduction of a limited range of music, available to relatively few people worldwide, to a massive, globally distributed shared library of every conceivable form of musical performance. If a similar level of engineering resources and design inventiveness had been devoted to solar energy devices in the past fifty years, we might have made similar progress in an area more directly related to human survival. 文化价值观和经济因素以我们常常视为理所当然的方式推动设计创新的方向，使某些物品成为设计关注的焦点，而其他物品则被完全忽视。例如，在过去的一个世纪里，音乐传播和播放设备经历了剧烈的重新设计，技术发生了巨大的变化，从蜡筒录音和水晶收音机到黑胶唱片、磁带、CD 以及互联网分发。因此，在一百年间，我们从对有限范围音乐的低质量再现，转变为一个庞大的、全球共享的音乐库，涵盖了每一种可以想象的音乐表演形式。 如果在过去五十年中，投入到太阳能设备的工程资源和设计创新与其他领域相当，我们或许在一个与人类生存更直接相关的领域取得了类似的进展。
Military technologies have been pursued with diligence over centuries, leading to many design innovations in the history of swords, missiles, vehicles, and gun mechanisms. But the massive funding of military equipment does not necessarily favor improvements. Organizations become attached to equipment because it is familiar, or because it has political support through the influence of the manufacturer. Contractors are most eager to innovate in areas of large profit, and may not give equal resources to developing body armor, for example, over much more lucrative missile systems. Design sometimes gets fossilized around “good enough” solutions. The Russian-made Kalashnikov rifle or AK-47 is widely believed to be easier for soldiers to maintain than the corresponding American weapon, the M16, which is more accurate. Despite the half century of hostility and proxy warfare between the United States and communist bloc countries, with billions spent on weapons, neither side has produced an assault rifle that combines accuracy and ease of maintenance. If research budgets were in the hands of infantry soldiers, body armor and assault rifles might have gotten more design attention than fighter jets and missile defense systems. 军事技术在几个世纪以来一直被认真追求，促成了剑、导弹、车辆和枪械机制历史上的许多设计创新。然而，对军事装备的大量资金投入并不一定能促进改进。组织往往对设备产生依赖，因为它们熟悉这些设备，或者因为制造商的影响力带来了政治支持。承包商通常更愿意在利润丰厚的领域进行创新，而在开发防弹衣等方面可能不会投入同等的资源，反而更倾向于更有利可图的导弹系统。设计有时会围绕“足够好”的解决方案而变得僵化。 俄罗斯制造的卡拉什尼科夫步枪（AK-47）被普遍认为比美国的 M16 步枪更容易维护，尽管后者的精准度更高。尽管美国与共产主义国家之间经历了半个世纪的敌对和代理战争，投入了数十亿用于武器，但双方都未能研发出一种兼具精准度和易于维护的突击步枪。如果研究预算由步兵士兵掌控，防弹衣和突击步枪可能会比战斗机和导弹防御系统获得更多的设计关注。
Everyone has cultural biases, expectations, and value judgments that are the result of living in a particular society or subgroup. It is the job of the designer to identify and consciously examine these biases so they can become the subject of active choices rather than passive acceptance. In order to uncover unspoken cultural biases for an assigned task, designers can bring multiple stakeholder groups into the design process and elicit their different perspectives and needs. They can also ask themselves how the project would be different if it were being designed for people of a different social class, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, profession, neighborhood, educational background, or physical ability. The more we imagine such alternatives, the richer the set of possible strategies from which to make our design choices. 每个人都有文化偏见、期望和价值判断，这些都是在特定社会或子群体中生活的结果。设计师的任务是识别并有意识地审视这些偏见，使其成为主动选择的对象，而非被动接受。为了揭示在特定任务中未被言明的文化偏见，设计师可以邀请多个利益相关者参与设计过程，倾听他们的不同观点和需求。他们还可以思考，如果这个项目是为不同社会阶层、种族、国籍、性别、年龄、职业、社区、教育背景或身体能力的人设计，会有什么不同。 我们想象的替代方案越多，设计选择的可能策略就越丰富。
For example, the joystick game controller is an explicitly phallic device, evocative of male sexual excitement and potency. It reinforces the macho cultural values of shooting and driving games, which are structured around pressured individual performance and competition. But in Mary Flanagan’s art installation piece [giantJoystick] (2006), the classic Atari game controller is reproduced in a ten-foot-tall version, turning it into a device that must be controlled collectively and cooperatively (see figure 1.5). Although we may not want to market a 10 -foot joystick commercially, it is important to keep such creative reframing in mind in order to understand the cultural assumptions and design conventions behind the familiar version. 例如，操纵杆游戏控制器是一种明显的阳物象征，唤起男性的性兴奋和能力。它强化了射击和驾驶游戏中男性文化的价值观，这些游戏围绕个体表现和竞争的压力而构建。然而，在玛丽·弗拉纳根的艺术装置作品《巨型操纵杆》（2006）中，经典的雅达利游戏控制器被制作成十英尺高的版本，变成一个需要集体和合作控制的装置（见图 1.5）。虽然我们可能不想将十英尺的操纵杆进行商业化，但牢记这种创造性的重新构思对于理解熟悉版本背后的文化假设和设计惯例是非常重要的。
Three Layers of Media Design: Inscription, Transmission, Representation 媒体设计的三个层面：刻印、传播、表现
In common parlance the word “medium” (and its plural form “media”) can refer to anything from a set of charcoal pencils to a multinational entertainment corporation, encompassing technologies as tangible as marble sculpture or as imperceptible as radio 在日常用语中，“媒介”一词（及其复数形式“媒介”）可以指从一套炭笔到一家跨国娱乐公司，涵盖了从大理石雕塑等有形技术到无线电等无形技术
Figure 1.5 图示 1.5
Mary Flanagan’s [giantJoystick]-ten-foot-tall giant working model based on the handheld controller from the classic Atari 2600 video game system-is an art installation that redefines the social context of the familiar device by increasing its scale to provoke group play. See <http:// www.maryflanagan.com/giant-joystick>. 玛丽·弗拉纳根的[巨型操纵杆]是一个十英尺高的巨型工作模型，基于经典的雅达利 2600 视频游戏系统的手持控制器。这个艺术装置通过放大设备的规模，重新定义了其社会背景，旨在激发团体游戏的乐趣。更多信息请访问。
waves. The term refers equally to a television news broadcast aimed at hundreds of millions of people or a private diary hidden under a teenager’s pillow. In order to understand how best to develop the digital environment as an expressive medium, we need to distinguish the common elements of all of these varied phenomena and to identify the several levels at which design takes place. 波浪。这个术语既可以指面向数亿人的电视新闻广播，也可以指藏在青少年枕头下的私人日记。为了更好地理解如何将数字环境发展为一种表达媒介，我们需要区分这些不同现象的共同元素，并识别设计发生的多个层次。
For our purposes, a medium is any combination of materials and cultural practices that is used by human beings to support the intentional communication of meaning. It is important to remember that a medium is both material and cultural: a stone and chisel only become a medium for writing when a society develops practices of marking the stone and interpreting the chisel marks. Furthermore, the materials and cultural practices that make up any medium serve three nested processes: inscription, transmission, and representation. Design choices shape all three levels, and a change in any one of these levels can have consequences up and down the structure. For designers, it is helpful to think of anything made out of electronic bits and meant to be directly used by human beings as an artifact created in the emerging digital medium. A digital artifact might be a website, a research archive, a video game, a mobile device, a virtual environment, a wired piece of clothing, an art installation, an interactive television 对于我们的目的，媒介是人类用来支持有意传达意义的各种材料和文化实践的组合。需要记住的是，媒介既包括物质层面，也包括文化层面：石头和凿子只有在社会发展出标记石头和解读凿子痕迹的实践时，才会成为书写的媒介。此外，构成任何媒介的材料和文化实践涉及三个相互关联的过程：铭刻、传输和表现。设计选择会影响这三个层面，任何一个层面的变化都可能对整体结构产生影响。 对于设计师而言，将任何由电子元件制成并直接供人类使用的物品视为在新兴数字媒介中创造的工艺品是非常有帮助的。数字文物可以是网站、研究档案、视频游戏、移动设备、虚拟环境、有线衣物、艺术装置或互动电视等
Figure 1.6 图示 1.6
Two inscription technologies: a modern reproduction of biblical-era stylus and clay tablets and a digital multitouch screen created by Jefferson Y. Han of New York University. 两种铭刻技术：一种是现代复刻的圣经时代的刻写工具和泥板，另一种是由纽约大学的杰斐逊·汉开发的数字多点触控屏。
program, and so on. Anything that is inscribed in bits and transmitted in computer code is part of the emerging, evolving, constantly changing, and significantly immature digital medium. 程序等。任何以比特形式记录并通过计算机代码传输的内容，都是新兴、不断演变、持续变化且尚不成熟的数字媒介的一部分。
In a mature medium, the processes of inscription-of making perceptible marks on a receptive material—are so reliable and well-learned that they become transparent: we can perform them with little conscious effort. Writing on paper with a pencil has been a transparent process only since the mid-nineteenth century. Before that, paper was scarce and the pencil was an unreliable tool, differing from one maker to another, producing uneven markings, breaking easily, and lacking an eraser (Petroski 2000). The digital medium includes some inscription technologies, like the desktop computer keyboard, that work as reliably as pencil and paper do today, and some, like the toosmall keyboards on mobile devices, that are more like pre-nineteenth-century pencils-unreliable and distractingly clumsy to use. Inscription remains an active area of digital innovation for input and output devices (figure 1.6). 在成熟的媒介中，刻写过程——在可接受的材料上留下可感知的痕迹——是如此可靠且经过良好学习，以至于变得透明：我们几乎可以在没有意识努力的情况下进行这些操作。自十九世纪中叶以来，用铅笔在纸上写字才成为一种透明的过程。在那之前，纸张稀缺，铅笔也不可靠，不同制造商的产品差异很大，标记不均匀，容易断裂，并且没有橡皮擦（Petroski 2000）。数字媒介中有一些刻写技术，比如桌面计算机键盘，它们的可靠性与今天的铅笔和纸张相当；还有一些，比如移动设备上过小的键盘，更像是十九世纪之前的铅笔——不可靠且使用时令人分心。 铭文依然是输入和输出设备数字创新的重要领域（见图 1.6）。
Similarly, in a mature medium, transmission-the transfer of a message across space or time or both-is stable, standardized, and transparent. Transmission involves turning a meaningful message into a coded signal of some kind, and conveying it from sender to receiver with a minimum of noise (meaningless transmissions like static in a radio broadcast or misprints in a newspaper). Inscription involves marking a malleable material with a perceptible imprint; transmission involves arranging the marking into recognizable patterns we can think of as a transmission codes. Transmission codes are logical structures established by social agreement, like Morse code patterns that correspond to letters of the alphabet, or the unique phone number assigned to every landline or cell phone. The digital medium includes some mature (though still evolving) transmission codes such as data transfer protocols, media compression formats, 类似地，在成熟的媒介中，信息的传输——即在空间、时间或两者之间传递信息——是稳定、标准化且透明的。传输过程将有意义的信息转化为某种编码信号，并以尽量减少噪音（例如广播中的静电或报纸中的印刷错误）将其从发送者传递给接收者。铭刻是指在可塑材料上留下可感知的印记；而传输则是将这些标记排列成我们可以视为传输代码的可识别模式。传输代码是由社会共识建立的逻辑结构，类似于与字母对应的摩尔斯电码模式，或分配给每个固定电话或手机的唯一电话号码。数字媒介包含一些成熟的（尽管仍在不断发展的）传输编码，例如数据传输协议和媒体压缩格式，
and computer languages, as well as some relatively inelegant and unreliable codes that make the medium less transparent, such as the triple tap system for writing alphabetically on a telephone keypad and the many password barriers that regularly challenge our memory and patience. In a mature medium, the inscription and transmission layers become standardized into formats by socially established customs, and are so well learned or so buried under more meaningful layers that they do not distract the human being who is depending on them. 以及计算机语言，还有一些相对不优雅和不可靠的代码，使得这种媒介变得不那么透明，比如在电话键盘上按三次以字母顺序输入的系统，以及那些经常考验我们记忆和耐心的密码障碍。在一个成熟的媒介中，铭刻和传输层通过社会习俗标准化为格式，学习得如此深入或被更有意义的内容所掩盖，以至于它们不会分散依赖于它们的人类的注意力。
Inscription technologies and transmission codes change over time (table 1.1). When they coalesce into lasting arrangements, we recognize stable formats or platforms. Representational forms are also changing, but they tend not to disappear even over long periods of time and remain available for meaning making. The digital medium rests on binary code inscribed on electrical charges, and it includes multiple evolving inscription and transmission technologies. Its formats and platforms are therefore also shifting, making it harder to stabilize conventions of representation. For example, electronic book readers and tablet computers have sold many millions of units and led to the downloading of billions of dollars worth of electronic books and magazines, even though the conventions for display and navigation are far from stabilized. 随着时间的推移，铭刻技术和传输代码不断变化（见表 1.1）。当这些技术融合成持久的形式时，我们能够识别出稳定的格式或平台。表现形式也在不断演变，但即使经过很长时间，它们通常不会消失，仍然可以用于意义的构建。数字媒介依赖于刻在电荷上的二进制代码，并包含多种不断发展的铭刻和传输技术。因此，它的格式和平台也在不断变化，使得稳定表现惯例变得更加困难。 例如，电子书阅读器和平板电脑的销量已达数百万台，下载的电子书和杂志价值也超过了数十亿美元，尽管显示和导航的标准仍然不够稳定。
In any medium, the transmission layer is logical and well organized but meaningless until it is interpreted through our shared systems of representation. Morse code or alphabetical writing, for example, mean nothing until translated into a message in a human language. But the meaning of words in a language is much more elusive than the one-to-one relationship of Morse code to written alphabets. The representational layer is characterized by open cultural codes in which meaning is fuzzier, less stable, and more dependent on interpretation by discourse communities than the meaning of logical transmission codes. 在任何媒介中，传输层是逻辑且组织良好的，但在通过我们共同的表现系统进行解释之前，它是没有意义的。例如，摩尔斯电码或字母书写，只有在被翻译成一种人类语言的信息时才有意义。然而，语言中单词的意义比摩尔斯电码与书写字母之间的一对一关系要复杂得多。表现层的特点是开放的文化代码，其中的意义更加模糊、不稳定，并且比逻辑传输代码的意义更依赖于话语社区的解释。
The words of a language, the images we create for one another, the stories that we tell are all part of the representational layer of media. The inscription layer is grounded in the physicality of the inscription materials; the transmission layer is grounded in the logic of the coding system. The representational layer is more diffuse, created by cultural tradition and open to an ongoing process by which we negotiate meaning with one another. We understand what words mean not because the meanings are fixed or absolute, but because we draw on shared contexts and associations to interpret them. The combination of the written letters D-O-G, or the vocalized sounds represented by this alphabetical sequence, denote an animal with four legs, a tail, and a loyal disposition because English speakers have collectively associated these letters and sounds with the perceptions and experiences that make up our familiarity with dogs. But words and other cultural constructs are also connotative. For example, we can standardize pronunciation of a word like “mother” so that all English speakers will recognize it as the same word, but we can never standardize all the meanings that the 语言的词汇、我们为彼此创造的图像以及我们讲述的故事，都是媒体表现层的一部分。铭刻层基于铭刻材料的物质性，传输层则基于编码系统的逻辑。表现层更为广泛，由文化传统所形成，并且在一个持续的过程中，我们通过协商来理解彼此的意义。我们理解词语的含义，并不是因为这些含义是固定或绝对的，而是因为我们依赖于共享的背景和联想来进行解释。 字母 D-O-G 的组合，或这个字母序列所代表的发音，指的是一种有四条腿、一个尾巴且性格忠诚的动物，因为英语使用者共同将这些字母和声音与我们对狗的认知和经验联系在一起。然而，词语和其他文化构造也具有内涵。例如，我们可以标准化“母亲”这个词的发音，使所有英语使用者都能将其识别为同一个词，但我们永远无法统一所有的含义
Table 1.1 表格 1.1
Examples of Stable Formats, Conventions, and Genres 稳定格式、规范和类型的示例
Loose sheets,
bound books,
conventions for
the direction of
writing and
reading (e.g., left
to right)| Loose sheets, |
| :--- |
| bound books, |
| conventions for |
| the direction of |
| writing and |
| reading (e.g., left |
| to right) |
News stories,
feature stories,
editorials, letters
to the editor| News stories, |
| :--- |
| feature stories, |
| editorials, letters |
| to the editor |
视频摄像头（模拟或数字）
Video cameras
(analog or
digital)
Video cameras
(analog or
digital)| Video cameras |
| :--- |
| (analog or |
| digital) |
通过卫星、有线或无线广播接收的模拟或数字电视信号
Analog or
digital TV
signals via
satellite, cable,
wireless
broadcast
Analog or
digital TV
signals via
satellite, cable,
wireless
broadcast| Analog or |
| :--- |
| digital TV |
| signals via |
| satellite, cable, |
| wireless |
| broadcast |
网络电视通过广播或订阅方式提供服务
Network TV
delivery by
broadcast or
subscription
Network TV
delivery by
broadcast or
subscription| Network TV |
| :--- |
| delivery by |
| broadcast or |
| subscription |
节目指南以网格形式呈现，遥控器用作频道选择器，包含标题序列、片尾字幕和幕间广告
Program guide
as a grid,
remote control
as channel
selector,
title sequences,
credit sequences,
commercial
breaks between
acts
Program guide
as a grid,
remote control
as channel
selector,
title sequences,
credit sequences,
commercial
breaks between
acts| Program guide |
| :--- |
| as a grid, |
| remote control |
| as channel |
| selector, |
| title sequences, |
| credit sequences, |
| commercial |
| breaks between |
| acts |
Electrical charges
in transistors
Multiple input
devices like
keyboard,
mouse, touch
screen, game
controller, and
multiple display
technologies like
computer
screens, mobile
device screens,
digital or analog
TV screens| Electrical charges |
| :--- |
| in transistors |
| Multiple input |
| devices like |
| keyboard, |
| mouse, touch |
| screen, game |
| controller, and |
| multiple display |
| technologies like |
| computer |
| screens, mobile |
| device screens, |
| digital or analog |
| TV screens |
Binary code
ASCII code
Audio and
video codices
Internet
protocols
HTML
RSS
Proprietary
encodings
(e.g., iTunes,
Kindle)| Binary code |
| :--- |
| ASCII code |
| Audio and |
| video codices |
| Internet |
| protocols |
| HTML |
| RSS |
| Proprietary |
| encodings |
| (e.g., iTunes, |
| Kindle) |
网络电视（IPTV）上的电子音乐和专有平台书籍
Webpage
Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV)
Electronic music
and books in
proprietary
platforms
Webpage
Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV)
Electronic music
and books in
proprietary
platforms| Webpage |
| :--- |
| Internet Protocol |
| Television (IPTV) |
| Electronic music |
| and books in |
| proprietary |
| platforms |
购物车、导航栏、标题，音频和视频播放器，电子书阅读器中的翻页和书签功能
Shopping carts,
navigation bars,
headings
Audio and video
software players
Page-turning
and
bookmarking in
electronic
"readers"
Shopping carts,
navigation bars,
headings
Audio and video
software players
Page-turning
and
bookmarking in
electronic
"readers"| Shopping carts, |
| :--- |
| navigation bars, |
| headings |
| Audio and video |
| software players |
| Page-turning |
| and |
| bookmarking in |
| electronic |
| "readers" |
零售网站、新闻网站、个人日记、大学网站、在线广播、搜索引擎等。
Retail sites,
news sites,
personal
journals,
university sites,
online radio,
search engines,
etc.
Retail sites,
news sites,
personal
journals,
university sites,
online radio,
search engines,
etc.| Retail sites, |
| :--- |
| news sites, |
| personal |
| journals, |
| university sites, |
| online radio, |
| search engines, |
| etc. |
"Inscription
Materials" "Transmission
Codes" Stable Formats "Conventions of
Representation" "Genres of
Representation"
"Pencils and
paper" "Alphabets,
numbers" "Loose sheets,
bound books,
conventions for
the direction of
writing and
reading (e.g., left
to right)" "Words, lists,
tables" "Letters,
shopping lists,
love notes,
financial records"
Printing presses "Alphabets,
numbers, letter
press machines" "Newsprint sizes
and folding
patterns, fonts,
photography in
newsprint" "Words, lists,
tables, headlines,
bylines,
photographs
with captions" "News stories,
feature stories,
editorials, letters
to the editor"
"Video cameras
(analog or
digital)" "Analog or
digital TV
signals via
satellite, cable,
wireless
broadcast" "Network TV
delivery by
broadcast or
subscription" "Program guide
as a grid,
remote control
as channel
selector,
title sequences,
credit sequences,
commercial
breaks between
acts" "Sit-coms, news
broadcasts,
police dramas,
hospital dramas,
reality shows,
quiz shows, live
sports, etc."
"Electrical charges
in transistors
Multiple input
devices like
keyboard,
mouse, touch
screen, game
controller, and
multiple display
technologies like
computer
screens, mobile
device screens,
digital or analog
TV screens" "Binary code
ASCII code
Audio and
video codices
Internet
protocols
HTML
RSS
Proprietary
encodings
(e.g., iTunes,
Kindle)" "Webpage
Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV)
Electronic music
and books in
proprietary
platforms" "Shopping carts,
navigation bars,
headings
Audio and video
software players
Page-turning
and
bookmarking in
electronic
"readers"" "Retail sites,
news sites,
personal
journals,
university sites,
online radio,
search engines,
etc."| Inscription <br> Materials | Transmission <br> Codes | Stable Formats | Conventions of <br> Representation | Genres of <br> Representation |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Pencils and <br> paper | Alphabets, <br> numbers | Loose sheets, <br> bound books, <br> conventions for <br> the direction of <br> writing and <br> reading (e.g., left <br> to right) | Words, lists, <br> tables | Letters, <br> shopping lists, <br> love notes, <br> financial records |
| Printing presses | Alphabets, <br> numbers, letter <br> press machines | Newsprint sizes <br> and folding <br> patterns, fonts, <br> photography in <br> newsprint | Words, lists, <br> tables, headlines, <br> bylines, <br> photographs <br> with captions | News stories, <br> feature stories, <br> editorials, letters <br> to the editor |
| Video cameras <br> (analog or <br> digital) | Analog or <br> digital TV <br> signals via <br> satellite, cable, <br> wireless <br> broadcast | Network TV <br> delivery by <br> broadcast or <br> subscription | Program guide <br> as a grid, <br> remote control <br> as channel <br> selector, <br> title sequences, <br> credit sequences, <br> commercial <br> breaks between <br> acts | Sit-coms, news <br> broadcasts, <br> police dramas, <br> hospital dramas, <br> reality shows, <br> quiz shows, live <br> sports, etc. |
| Electrical charges <br> in transistors <br> Multiple input <br> devices like <br> keyboard, <br> mouse, touch <br> screen, game <br> controller, and <br> multiple display <br> technologies like <br> computer <br> screens, mobile <br> device screens, <br> digital or analog <br> TV screens | Binary code <br> ASCII code <br> Audio and <br> video codices <br> Internet <br> protocols <br> HTML <br> RSS <br> Proprietary <br> encodings <br> (e.g., iTunes, <br> Kindle) | Webpage <br> Internet Protocol <br> Television (IPTV) <br> Electronic music <br> and books in <br> proprietary <br> platforms | Shopping carts, <br> navigation bars, <br> headings <br> Audio and video <br> software players <br> Page-turning <br> and <br> bookmarking in <br> electronic <br> "readers" | Retail sites, <br> news sites, <br> personal <br> journals, <br> university sites, <br> online radio, <br> search engines, <br> etc. |
word might have for different individuals (an eight-year-old child, a woman with twin babies) and subcultures (stereotypical Jewish mothers, Chinese mothers limited to one child), and in different contexts (the “mother of all battles,” a “mean mother” of a convict). We build up these related but divergent meanings experientially and we decode the meaning of our sentences by referring to these specifically situated experiences. 这个词对不同个体（如八岁的小孩、带着双胞胎的母亲）和亚文化（如刻板印象中的犹太母亲、只生一个孩子的中国母亲）可能有不同的含义，并且在不同的语境中（如“所有战斗的母亲”、“一个罪犯的严厉母亲”）。我们通过经验积累这些相关但不同的意义，并通过这些特定情境的经历来理解我们句子的含义。
Abstract nouns like “justice” require even more complex patterns of shared cultural interpretation. To explain what “dog” denotes we just point to Lassie and Fido. To explain what “mother” means in all these connotative contexts we might point to specific people in movies and news reports as well as in our own families. To explain what “justice” means we need an extensive system of shared schema and the ability to evoke multiple alternate outcomes and complex chains of events. Media help us to form these complex concepts by allowing us to organize our fluid culture codes into fixed units of meaning-sentences, manuscripts, diagrams, and rules-so that they can be externalized, shared, and refined. We need stability of inscription and transmission in order to focus our attention on what our words and images represent. New technologies and codes introduce new possibilities and destabilize older formats. 抽象名词如“正义”需要更复杂的文化共享解释模式。要解释“狗”的含义，我们只需指向拉西和菲多。要解释“母亲”在各种含义背景下的意思，我们可能会指向电影和新闻报道中的特定人物，以及我们自己家庭中的人。要解释“正义”的含义，我们需要一个广泛的共享框架系统，并具备唤起多种替代结果和复杂事件链的能力。媒体帮助我们形成这些复杂概念，使我们能够将流动的文化代码组织成固定的意义单元——句子、手稿、图表和规则——以便它们可以被外化、共享和完善。 我们需要铭刻和传递的稳定性，以便专注于我们的言语和图像所代表的内容。新技术和编码带来了新的可能性，同时也使旧有格式变得不稳定。
Design decisions involve all three levels of a medium—physical inscription, logical transmission codes, and cultural conventions of meaning. In the digital medium, inscription and transmission technologies are constantly changing, subverting existing formats and opening up new design possibilities. For example, digital technology has led to new kinds of mobile devices that contain degraded voice processing, making telephoning less reliable and harder to decipher, but opening up new uses for telephones as messaging devices, navigators, and cameras. Similarly, the shift from analog to digital televisionfrom inscribing the image on the screen as analog lines to inscribing it as an array of pixels-has given designers higher resolution to work with, increasing the amount of information that can be included in the frame, rendering the standard remote control obsolete while multiplying the choices available to the viewer. Refinement of digital transmission codes can change the platform available for design. For example, the first versions of HTML (the transmission code by which programmers tell browsers how to display pages on the World Wide Web) did not allow designers to create tables on web pages. The extension of HTML to include tables allowed designers to format a web page as a grid, a big step forward in the visual organization of the web. 设计决策涵盖了媒介的三个层面——物理刻录、逻辑传输代码和文化意义的约定。在数字媒介中，刻录和传输技术不断变化，颠覆了现有格式，开辟了新的设计可能性。例如，数字技术催生了新型移动设备，这些设备的语音处理能力下降，使得电话通话变得不那么可靠且更难以理解，但也为电话作为信息传递工具、导航仪和相机开辟了新的用途。 同样，从模拟电视到数字电视的转变，从将图像以模拟线条显示在屏幕上到以像素阵列显示，给设计师提供了更高的分辨率，增加了可以在画面中包含的信息量，使得标准遥控器变得过时，同时也增加了观众的选择。数字传输代码的改进可以改变设计的平台。例如，HTML 的早期版本（程序员用来告诉浏览器如何在万维网上显示页面的传输代码）并不允许设计师在网页上创建表格。 HTML 的扩展使得设计师可以将网页格式化为表格形式，这在网页的视觉组织上迈出了重要的一步。
When inscription and transmission conventions become linked and standardized, designers can think in terms of a stable format (like a web page, a video compression codec, a music CD). When delivery is linked to specific hardware and software combinations, like a particular game console or mobile device with its own operating system, hardwired (inscribed and coded) chips, and input technologies (keypad, game controller, accelerometer) system, a number of formats, each with their own affordances and constraints, are fused into a fixed platform. The establishment of a stable 当铭刻和传输规范相互关联并标准化时，设计师可以考虑使用稳定的格式（如网页、视频压缩编码、音乐 CD）。当交付与特定的硬件和软件组合相关联时，例如某款游戏机或具有独立操作系统的移动设备、硬件（铭刻和编码）芯片以及输入技术（如键盘、游戏控制器、加速度计）系统，许多格式各自具有不同的优缺点，最终融合成一个固定的平台。建立一个稳定的
Figure 1.7 图示 1.7
The Apple iPod device, iTunes software, and iTunes online store together make a stable platform for the distribution of music without infringement of copyright. 苹果 iPod 设备、iTunes 软件和 iTunes 在线商店共同构建了一个稳定的平台，使音乐分发在不侵犯版权的前提下得以实现。
platform like the Atari 2600, the Macintosh operating system, or the World Wide Web is an important precondition for the sustained development of expressive genres like arcade video games, word-processing applications, or retail websites. Platforms usually require social and economic arrangements, not just technical engineering (figure 1.7). 像雅达利 2600、麦金塔操作系统或万维网这样的平台，是街机视频游戏、文字处理应用程序或零售网站等表达性类型持续发展的重要前提。平台通常需要社会和经济的安排，而不仅仅是技术工程（见图 1.7）。
Limiting design to a strongly branded, widely used format or platform can provide assurance of technical support and a customer base for a new product. It can save development time and provide useful constraints to design, limiting the scope of a project within manageable, familiar boundaries. Every established format and platform configuration has its own set of affordances and constraints, which the designer should consider carefully. Designing a game for the Nintendo Wii offers different possibilities and problems than designing the same game for a smartphone. It is best to postpone format and platform decisions until the functional requirements and expressive goals of a project are clearly understood. Designers should then survey available options and perform a competitive analysis by creating a table that summarizes the relevant features and limitations of each implementation strategy. Wherever possible, components of the project should be developed in platform-independent formats to increase the flexibility of implementation and delivery. 将设计限制在一个强烈品牌化且广泛使用的格式或平台上，可以为新产品提供技术支持和客户基础的保障。这可以节省开发时间，并为设计提供有益的约束，将项目范围限制在可管理且熟悉的边界内。每种已建立的格式和平台配置都有其独特的可用性和限制，设计师应仔细考虑。为任天堂 Wii 设计游戏所面临的可能性和问题，与为智能手机设计同一款游戏的情况是不同的。在明确理解项目的功能需求和表现目标之前，最好推迟格式和平台的决策。 设计师应调查可用选项，并通过创建表格进行竞争分析，概述每种实施策略的相关特征和局限性。在可能的情况下，项目组件应以平台无关的格式开发，以提高实施和交付的灵活性。
Although it is easiest to work with stable platforms-with established combinations of inscription technologies and transmission codes-designers can also work with digital components to invent their own platforms. Inscription can be shaped with the choice of input and output devices: keyboard, mouse, joystick, gestural controller, environmental sensor, computer screen, vibrating tactile device, projected images, directional sound, and so on. Designers can also establish their own standardized transmission formats, such as customized database tables and fields, specialized tagging conventions for digital documents, unique sets of bar patterns to be read by mobile devices, or new gestural codes for the control of multitouch screens or sensors. 尽管与稳定的平台（如已建立的铭刻技术和传输代码组合）合作是最简单的，设计师也可以利用数字组件来创造自己的平台。铭刻可以通过选择输入和输出设备来实现，例如键盘、鼠标、操纵杆、手势控制器、环境传感器、计算机屏幕、振动触觉设备、投影图像、定向声音等。设计师还可以制定自己的标准化传输格式，比如定制的数据库表和字段、数字文档的专用标记约定、供移动设备读取的独特条形码模式，或用于控制多点触控屏幕或传感器的新手势代码。
Just as conventions of inscription and transmission become fixed in standardized configurations called formats, conventions in the representational layer (like newspaper headlines and bylines) coalesce into larger units of meaning that we refer to as genres (like newspaper news stories). Genres are sometimes tightly tied to specific formats (like print newspapers), but formats can support multiple representational genres (like advertising supplements, comics sections, television listing booklets as well as standard news pages) and genres can exist on multiple formats (like newspapers on line, or news reporting in print, radio, television, and web pages). The television sitcom genre and the game show genre both rest on the television format of the halfhour commercial television show, and they share common TV formatting conventions such as commercial breaks, intro music, credit screens, and so on. TV sitcoms and TV game shows can be thought of as media-specific genres. When we put a TV sitcom on the web, advertising and credit conventions are reinvented for the new transmission format. Genres can also transcend media. For example, a television sitcom might belong to the cross-media genre of romantic comedy, which exists on stage and film and has contributed to the plot of novels, poems, operas, and country songs. A game show belongs to the cross-media genre of games, which includes mystery dinner theater, radio game shows, and board games. 就像铭刻和传递的惯例在被称为格式的标准化配置中变得固定一样，表现层的惯例（例如报纸的标题和副标题）汇聚成我们称之为体裁的更大意义单位（如报纸新闻故事）。体裁有时与特定格式紧密相关（如印刷报纸），但格式可以支持多种表现体裁（如广告补充、漫画版块、电视节目手册以及标准新闻页面），而体裁也可以存在于多种格式中（如在线报纸，或在印刷、广播、电视和网页上进行的新闻报道）。 电视情景喜剧和游戏节目都基于半小时的商业电视节目格式，并共享商业广告、开场音乐、字幕等电视格式的惯例。电视情景喜剧和游戏节目可以视为特定媒体的类型。当我们将电视情景喜剧放到网上时，广告和字幕的惯例会为新的传播格式进行重新设计。类型也可以跨越媒体。例如，电视情景喜剧可能属于跨媒体的浪漫喜剧类型，这种类型不仅存在于舞台和电影中，还影响了小说、诗歌、歌剧和乡村歌曲的情节。游戏节目则属于跨媒体的游戏类型，包括神秘晚宴剧、广播游戏节目和桌游。
The communications theorist James Carey proposed the ritual model of communication as an alternative to the transmission model of information theory. In Carey’s view, reading a newspaper cannot be understood as the decoding of logical code, but as the performance of a meaningful social ritual: 传播理论家詹姆斯·凯瑞提出了仪式传播模型，作为信息理论传输模型的替代。在凯瑞看来，阅读报纸不仅仅是解码逻辑代码，而是一种有意义的社会仪式的表现。
A ritual view of communication will . . view reading a newspaper less as sending or gaining information and more as attending a mass, a situation in which nothing new is learned but in which a particular view of the world is portrayed and confirmed. News reading, and writing, is a ritual act and moreover a dramatic one. What is arrayed before the reader is not pure information but a portrayal of the contending forces in the world. . . . The model here is not that of information acquisition, though such acquisition occurs, but of dramatic action in which the reader joins a world of contending forces as an observer at a play. We do not encounter questions about the effect or functions of messages as such, but the role of presentation and involvement in the structuring of the reader’s life and time. (Carey 1989, 16-17) 一种仪式化的沟通观将阅读报纸视为参与弥撒的过程。在这个过程中，虽然没有获得新的知识，但却描绘和确认了一种特定的世界观。阅读和写作新闻是一种仪式行为，更是一种戏剧性的体验。读者面前呈现的不是单纯的信息，而是对世界中对立力量的描绘……这里的模型并不是信息获取，尽管这种获取确实存在，而是戏剧性的行动，读者作为观察者融入了一个充满对立力量的世界，就像在观看一场戏剧。 我们并不遇到关于信息本身的效果或功能的问题，而是关注呈现和参与在塑造读者生活和时间中的作用。（凯瑞，1989 年，第 16-17 页）
A media genre is more than the organizing structures that allow us to decode the words; it is a set of practices by the people who create and consume it, and a context of interpretation in which it is understood. When we introduce new media formats or disrupt established inscription and transmission technologies, we are also disrupting the rituals that have formed around these artifacts. Television was blamed, for example, for disrupting family rituals centered around reading together or playing board games or outdoor sports; more recently computers have been blamed for disrupting the shared ritual of family TV viewing. 媒体类型不仅仅是帮助我们解读文字的组织结构；它是创造和消费这些媒体的人们所形成的一系列实践，以及理解这些媒体的背景。当我们引入新的媒体格式或打破既有的记录和传播技术时，我们也在打破围绕这些媒介形成的仪式。例如，电视曾被指责打破了家庭共同阅读、玩桌游或进行户外运动的仪式；而最近，电脑则被认为打破了家庭共同观看电视的传统仪式。
In a mature medium, we rely on familiar formats and genres to guide us in making sense of complex media artifacts. Because so much of our communication is in cultural codes that require experiential knowledge to decode, we need to have our attention focused on the salient parts of the communication. Mature media have developed elaborate conventions like newspaper columns, headlines, sections, bylines, and so on, to focus us on the most important parts of the communication. We recognize the kind of communication we are receiving because it has common elements with similar communications. We know what to expect of a commercial television program in general, and of a sitcom or a game show in particular because we recognize the common format and the familiar genres. Similarly, we know what to expect of a first-person shooter video game or a retail website because we recognize the format and the genre that provide the conventions of interaction. 在成熟的媒介中，我们依赖熟悉的格式和类型来帮助我们理解复杂的媒体作品。由于我们的交流大多是以文化代码的形式进行的，这需要经验知识来解码，因此我们需要将注意力集中在交流的关键部分。成熟的媒体发展了复杂的惯例，如报纸专栏、标题、版块和署名等，以便让我们关注交流中最重要的内容。我们能够识别所接收的交流类型，因为它与类似的交流有共同的元素。我们知道商业电视节目通常是什么样的，尤其是情景喜剧或游戏节目，因为我们识别出共同的格式和熟悉的类型。 同样，我们对第一人称射击游戏或零售网站的期望是明确的，因为我们能够识别出提供互动规范的格式和类型。
In a mature medium, format and genre are well matched and reinforce one another. For example, television writers use commercial breaks to build suspense for the comic climax of the sitcom or the big-money question on the game show; newspaper editors use page position and headline size to indicate the importance of a story. In the digital medium, the mapping of a pointing device, like a game controller or a mouse, to a graphical user interface (GUI) has been foundational to establishing stable formats and genres by giving designers a set of conventions for coordinating the attention of the interactor with the attention of the machine (figure 1.8). The pointing system allows us to create icons that mean one thing to the human (a trash can, a Pac-Man figure) and another to the computer (a command to delete the addresses of particular places in memory, a change in a pattern of pixel display) but whose behavior is coherent to both. 在成熟的媒介中，格式和类型相辅相成，彼此增强。例如，电视编剧利用商业广告的间歇来制造情景喜剧的喜剧高潮或游戏节目的大奖问题的悬念；报纸编辑则通过页面位置和标题大小来表明故事的重要性。在数字媒介中，指向设备（如游戏控制器或鼠标）与图形用户界面（GUI）之间的映射为建立稳定的格式和类型奠定了基础，因为它为设计师提供了一套约定，以协调互动者的注意力与机器的注意力（图 1.8）。 指示系统让我们能够创建一些图标，这些图标对人类（如垃圾桶、吃豆人形象）和计算机（如删除特定内存地址的命令、像素显示模式的变化）有不同的含义，但它们的行为对两者都是一致的。
Where existing conventions, formats, and genres are a good fit for the immediate project, it is the designer’s responsibility to employ them and to refine them as necessary. Refining individual media conventions-how we open a file, how we choose the attributes of an avatar, how we steer a virtual vehicle, or what label we give to a database field, menu item, or website section-all contribute to the development of the medium as a whole. For example, the Lands’ End convention of showing the back of a garment on rollover of a catalog image (figure 1.4) is a refinement of the rollover convention of merely displaying a text message. If other designers use it, it could become a standard feature of retail sites. 当现有的惯例、格式和类型适合当前项目时，设计师有责任使用并根据需要加以改进。对单一媒体惯例的改进——例如我们如何打开文件、选择头像属性、操控虚拟车辆，或为数据库字段、菜单项和网站部分命名——都对整个媒介的发展起着重要作用。例如，Lands’ End 在目录图像上滚动时显示服装背面的做法（图 1.4）是对仅仅显示文本信息的滚动惯例的改进。如果其他设计师也采用这一做法，它可能会成为零售网站的标准功能。
Figure 1.8 图示 1.8
Image from the original mouse patent, filed in 1967 by Douglas Engelbart, showing it controlling a “tracking point” (cursor) on the screen, and a still image from Engelbart’s public demonstration of his system in 1968 in which he is using the mouse with his right hand and a chording system similar to command keys with his left hand. 这是 1967 年道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特提交的原始鼠标专利的图像，展示了鼠标如何在屏幕上控制“跟踪点”（光标），以及 1968 年恩格尔巴特公开演示其系统时的静态图像，他用右手操作鼠标，左手则使用类似于命令键的和弦系统。
In an evolving medium, formats are unstable and genre conventions of older media are disrupted, making it harder to create expressive works. There is disruption of inscription methods, such as the confusion over nonstandard keyboards and the pressure to use telephone keypads to do the work of typewriter keyboards. There is incompatibility of transmission formats, between older and newer versions of devices or software packages, and between competing operating systems and compression technologies. These shifts in the underlying technologies make for disruptions at the 在一个不断发展的媒介中，格式变得不稳定，旧媒体的类型规范受到冲击，使得创作富有表现力的作品变得更加困难。书写方式的混乱，例如对非标准键盘的困惑，以及使用电话键盘代替打字机键盘的压力，都是一种干扰。传输格式的不兼容性体现在旧版和新版设备或软件包之间，以及不同操作系统和压缩技术之间。这些基础技术的变化导致了各种干扰。
level of representation, leaving interactors confused about which conventions to employ to perform common tasks. 表现水平让交互者对执行常见任务时应该采用哪些惯例感到困惑。
In addition, formats and genres may prematurely fossilize around particular devices or authoring applications that are widely adopted but soon become outdated. This can make for stable platforms that have the wrong functionality. For example, designers of CD-ROMs in the 1990s relied on an authoring system that was optimized for animation, thereby limiting the possibilities for interactivity in their projects. Genres that have large numbers of enthusiastic early adopters-like specialized business applications, social networking sites, or certain kinds of games-may standardize around these highly specialized user communities, creating conventions of interaction that are unnecessarily hard for novice users to learn, but that developers cannot change for fear of alienating their most loyal customers. It is therefore not always good design to conform to an established genre, no matter how many people are using it. Instead, an innovative design team could take the longer-term view, and work to develop new conventions, formats, and genres that will better serve a broader range of applications. For example, DOS, the command-line operating system for PCs, had millions of loyal users in the mid-1990s when Microsoft belatedly followed Apple and Xerox PARC by introducing the now-standard Windows interface. The fact that PC users have become habituated to DOS, a severely limited form of representation based on a more limited inscription and transmission format (e.g., no graphics, slower processors), seems in hindsight like a foolish reason for retaining it. Yet the current digital environment includes many similarly feeble and cumbersome interfaces-such as the television remote, the joystick-and-button game controller, and the form-based query systems for many relational databases (such as course registration systems in universities). Designers should be alert to opportunities to radically rethink familiar interaction patterns when they no longer support the transparent interaction necessary for the experience of user agency. 此外，格式和类型可能会过早地围绕一些广泛使用但很快就过时的设备或创作应用程序而固化。这可能导致功能不匹配的稳定平台。例如，1990 年代的 CD-ROM 设计师依赖于一个专为动画优化的创作系统，从而限制了他们项目中的互动性。 拥有大量热情早期采用者的领域——如专业商业应用、社交网络网站或某些类型的游戏——可能会围绕这些高度专业化的用户社区进行标准化，形成一些对新手用户来说不必要的复杂互动规则，而开发者因担心疏远最忠实的客户而无法改变这些规则。因此，遵循一个已建立的类型并不总是好的设计，尽管有很多人在使用它。相反，一个创新的设计团队可以采取更长远的视角，努力开发新的规则、格式和类型，以更好地满足更广泛的应用需求。 例如，DOS 是一个用于个人电脑的命令行操作系统，在 1990 年代中期拥有数百万忠实用户。当时，微软迟迟跟随苹果和施乐 PARC 推出了如今标准的 Windows 界面。PC 用户习惯于 DOS，这种基于更有限的记录和传输格式（例如，没有图形、处理器较慢）的表现形式，事后看来似乎是一个愚蠢的保留理由。然而，当前的数字环境中仍然存在许多同样脆弱和笨重的界面，比如电视遥控器、操纵杆和按钮游戏控制器，以及许多关系数据库（如大学的课程注册系统）的表单查询系统。 设计师应当关注那些在无法支持用户自主体验所需的透明互动时，彻底重新思考熟悉互动模式的机会。
The digital medium is still in an immature state but it is evolving rapidly and unevenly, with some very stable genres and others still quite disorganized. It will continue to evolve and to experience disruptions and unexpected opportunities arising from changes in inscription and transmission technologies. It is the designer’s task to work at all three levels of media making-inscription, transmission, and especially representation-to accelerate the collective project of inventing a new medium by creating and refining the conventions that will bring coherence to new artifacts and enhance their expressive power. 数字媒介仍然处于不成熟的阶段，但正在快速且不均匀地发展，某些类型非常稳定，而另一些则仍显得相当混乱。它将继续演变，并经历由于铭刻和传输技术变化而带来的干扰和意外机会。设计师的任务是在媒介制作的三个层面上进行工作——铭刻、传输，尤其是表现——以加速集体创造新媒介的进程，通过创造和完善能够为新作品带来连贯性并增强其表现力的规范。
Designing for the Core Human Needs 设计满足人类核心需求
The design process begins by asking: Who needs this object and for what? This question must be asked at three levels: 设计过程的开始是要问：谁需要这个物品，目的是什么？这个问题需要从三个层面进行探讨：
Function How will specific end-users employ the product in particular tasks and activities? 特定的最终用户将如何在具体的任务和活动中使用该产品？
Context What social and cultural customs, relationships, institutions, and value structures does this product reflect or subvert? 这个产品反映或挑战了哪些社会文化习俗、关系、机构和价值观？
Core What deeper, enduring general human activities and values does this object serve? 这个物体满足了哪些更深层次和持久的人类活动与价值观？
It is simplest to frame a design problem in terms of known genres and formats and immediately observable functions. But innovative design requires that we look beyond received opinion and familiar solutions to identify the deeper, cultural connections. This method can uncover potential users and functionalities that might otherwise be overlooked and will help us to expand the design palette and to sharpen our design goals. 将设计问题以已知的类型、格式和可观察的功能进行框架化是最简单的。然而，创新设计要求我们超越传统观点和熟悉的解决方案，去识别更深层次的文化联系。这种方法能够发现潜在用户和功能，避免被忽视，并帮助我们扩展设计的可能性，明确设计目标。
The designer’s task must be in the service of specific human needs. A design is not good or bad because it uses a particular technology, makes money or fails to make money, or preserves or erodes a particular power structure. It is good or bad according to how well it serves a core human need whose value is larger than the immediate task. Examples of core needs would be: increasing understanding of complex phenomena, fostering the acquisition of skills, supporting works of the creative imagination, expanding communication across distances. We can recognize the core need (or needs) behind a design problem when it can be identified independent of the technology that currently supports it. We should not be focused on making an electronic version of a book, record collection, television show, etc.; we should be focused on serving the information, entertainment, or community needs that these particular books, records, television shows are addressed to, by rethinking those needs in terms of the affordances of digital media. 设计师的任务应当服务于特定的人类需求。一个设计的好坏并不在于它使用了什么技术、是否盈利，或是维护或削弱了某种权力结构。它的优劣取决于它在多大程度上满足了一个核心人类需求，而这个需求的价值超越了眼前的任务。核心需求的例子包括：加深对复杂现象的理解、促进技能的学习、支持创造性想象的作品、扩大跨距离的交流。当一个设计问题能够独立于当前的技术被识别时，我们就能发现其背后的核心需求。 我们不应只关注制作书籍、唱片、电视节目的电子版本，而应专注于满足这些特定书籍、唱片和电视节目所针对的信息、娱乐或社区需求，重新思考这些需求与数字媒体的优势之间的关系。
For example, if we are making an online newspaper with only a print newspaper as a guide, and a narrow sense of the end-user as a newspaper reader, then we might focus design on reproducing the masthead and the columns of the front page as accurately as possible. By shifting to a more open-ended assessment of needs, we widen our range of design choices. 例如，如果我们正在制作一个在线报纸，仅以印刷报纸为参考，并将最终用户狭义地理解为报纸读者，那么我们可能会专注于尽可能准确地再现头版的报头和栏目。通过对需求进行更开放的评估，我们扩大了设计选择的范围。
At the level of function, in addition to duplicating current coverage, we can look for unserved news needs of potential interactors, including those who do not currently read the newspaper (Do they want more local sports coverage? Are there local demographic or interest groups that would welcome more coverage?), and examine the likely conditions in which people would consume news in digital rather than paper form (on a mobile device in frequent, short bursts while out and about, or on a larger screen for longer periods?). 在功能层面，除了复制现有的报道范围外，我们还可以寻找潜在互动者未被满足的新闻需求，包括那些目前不阅读报纸的人（他们是否希望有更多地方体育的报道？是否有地方的人口或兴趣群体希望获得更多的报道？），并探讨人们在何种情况下会选择以数字而非纸质形式来消费新闻（是在外出时通过移动设备频繁、短时间地查看，还是在更大的屏幕上长时间观看？）。
At the context level, we would want to understand the role of the paper in the community it serves, and also how the switch to online publication would affect the social and economic structure of the newspaper organization. We would look for 在上下文层面，我们希望了解这篇论文在其服务的社区中的作用，以及转向在线出版将如何影响报纸组织的社会和经济结构。我们将会寻找
the strengths of the paper in particular genres of reporting (political news? sports? lifestyle?), each of which has its own associated social rituals and media conventions. 论文在特定报道类型（如政治新闻、体育或生活方式）中的优势，每种类型都有其独特的社会习俗和媒体惯例。
Most importantly we can identify the core human activities-the media-independent needs-that make newspapers important to us: our curiosity about what is happening around us; our need for speed, frequency, accuracy, and reliability in reporting; and our reliance on shared information to connect us to the communities we belong to. 最重要的是，我们能够识别出一些核心的人类活动——与媒体无关的需求——使报纸对我们变得重要：我们对周围发生的事情的好奇心；我们对报道的速度、频率、准确性和可靠性的需求；以及我们依赖共享信息来连接我们与所属于的社区。
By identifying the design task as furthering the media-independent core activity of news consumption, we can capture a wider range of potentially useful format and genre conventions. We can think historically and cross-culturally about oral news sources like town criers and barbershop gossips; print sources like letters, newspapers, and magazines; and broadcast sources like local and national TV and radio news, discussion, and documentaries. We can think about digital news genres, such as texting, webcasts, podcasts, aggregators, and blogs. This exercise reframes the immediate task, giving us a larger palette of design conventions to choose from, and helping us to see the advantages and liabilities of previous approaches. Framing our goals in terms of the core human needs also helps us to prioritize design choices so that we are not overwhelmed by all these alternatives. For example, in order to maximize the pleasure of satisfying curiosity we might increase the number of headlines and teasers we display, allowing interactors to choose which stories to follow, rather than limiting their choices with longer initial story segments or pop-up ads that block content. Knowing that news serves the important core human need of connecting us to others, we might prioritize popularity ratings or user-created content (like the neighborhood bulletin board). Or we might prioritize location-sensitive news bulletins to serve the core need for anticipating opportunities and dangers in our immediate surroundings (like the town crier). 通过将设计任务视为推进与媒体无关的新闻消费核心活动，我们能够捕捉到更广泛的潜在有用格式和体裁惯例。我们可以从历史和跨文化的角度思考口头新闻来源，比如城镇报信人和理发店的闲聊；印刷来源，如信件、报纸和杂志；以及广播来源，包括地方和国家的电视、广播新闻、讨论和纪录片。我们还可以考虑数字新闻体裁，如短信、网络直播、播客、聚合器和博客。这个练习重新定义了当前任务，为我们提供了更丰富的设计惯例选择，并帮助我们理解以往方法的优缺点。 将我们的目标框定为核心人类需求，有助于我们优先考虑设计选择，避免被众多替代方案所困扰。例如，为了最大化满足好奇心的乐趣，我们可以增加展示的标题和预告数量，让用户选择关注哪些故事，而不是通过更长的初始故事片段或遮挡内容的弹出广告来限制他们的选择。考虑到新闻满足了连接我们与他人的重要核心人类需求，我们可能会优先考虑受欢迎程度评分或用户创作的内容（如社区公告栏）。 或者我们可能会优先发布与位置相关的新闻简报，以满足我们对预测周围环境中机会和危险的基本需求（就像镇上的传令员一样）。
Although it may seem obvious that we as designers should orient ourselves to the core human needs served by the artifacts that we make, in practice other forces often dominate. Because digital artifacts are based on changing technologies, the demand for new applications is sometimes driven by a delight in novel features or an appeal to the status value of the latest gadgetry. But novelty cannot drive the design process because whatever is new and fashionable today will be displaced tomorrow by a yet newer fashion. New platforms come and go quite quickly, while the development of interactive applications is necessarily slow. Solutions that only work on one device or that emphasize a single innovative feature risk seeming out of date by the time they are released, or losing users when the novelty wears off. 尽管作为设计师，我们应该关注我们所制作的工件所满足的核心人类需求，这似乎是显而易见的，但在实际操作中，其他因素往往占据主导地位。由于数字工件依赖于不断变化的技术，对新应用的需求有时是出于对新颖特性的喜爱，或者是对最新小玩意的地位价值的追求。然而，新颖性不能主导设计过程，因为今天的新潮和时尚明天就会被更新的潮流所取代。新平台的兴起和消失非常迅速，而交互应用的开发则必然是一个缓慢的过程。 只在单一设备上有效或过于强调某一创新特性的解决方案，发布时可能显得过时，或者在新鲜感消退后失去用户。
Designers should therefore resist the easy excitement that comes from merely employing emerging technologies. Technical experimentation is crucial to keeping 设计师因此应当抵制仅仅依赖新兴技术所带来的短暂兴奋。技术实验对于保持
current in a changing field, but it should not drive the design process. A project that has no clear human need behind it may engage the skills of talented people, and may generate contracts for design firms, but it cannot be a focus for truly professional design because it will lack coherence. If you do not know why you are making something you will not be able to tell whether or not you are getting it right. The designer’s task must be grounded in the service of specific human needs: this is what gives the work clarity and direction. 在一个不断变化的领域中，当前的情况不应主导设计过程。一个没有明确人类需求的项目可能会吸引有才华的人，并为设计公司带来合同，但它无法成为真正专业设计的重点，因为缺乏连贯性。如果你不知道自己为什么要创造某样东西，就无法判断自己是否做对了。设计师的任务必须基于满足特定人类需求，这正是赋予工作清晰性和方向的关键。
Advancing the medium does not mean choosing the newest platform to implement a project or adding in the coolest new bells and whistles. Such superficial advances may appeal to a forward-thinking designer and may get immediate attention, but they do not serve the task. Because newly introduced technologies are unstable, they are best explored for demonstration projects, in a research context like a university or industry laboratory; they are risky for projects that have to be done within limited time spans and which must work on a regular basis for a wide population of users. 推进媒介并不意味着选择最新的平台来实施项目或添加最炫的新功能。这种表面的进步可能会吸引前瞻性的设计师，并获得即时关注，但并不真正满足任务需求。由于新技术往往不稳定，因此最好在演示项目中进行探索，比如在大学或行业实验室等研究环境中；对于那些必须在有限时间内完成并且需要为广泛用户群体正常运作的项目来说，这些新技术是有风险的。
Even if the new technology is stable, it is not helpful to use it if it distracts from the task served or meaning expressed by the artifact. For example, in the early days of the World Wide Web blinking buttons were an easily implemented, reliable, and therefore irresistible addition to websites. They expressed an exuberant embrace of the vitality of the new medium, but they very quickly went from being a sign of advanced skillfulness to the defining symbol of naive design. A clear focus on the expressive goals of your design can save you from similar missteps, while helping you to look for appropriate applications of new technologies. For example, a similar technique to the one that produced the annoying blinking buttons is now used routinely to rotate informational or promotional images on a home page, with each image linked to more information deeper in the site. The wise designer avoids employing novel technical formats-like blinking buttons-for their own sake and looks for the longer-lasting expressive uses-like the more slowly changing hyperlinked images-that might be built on top of them. 即使新技术很稳定，如果它分散了对任务或所表达意义的注意力，使用它也没有意义。例如，在万维网的早期，闪烁的按钮是一个容易实现、可靠且不可抗拒的网站附加功能。它们展现了对新媒介活力的热情，但很快就从先进技能的象征变成了幼稚设计的代名词。清晰地关注设计的表达目标可以帮助你避免类似的错误，同时也能帮助你寻找新技术的合适应用。 例如，产生恼人闪烁按钮的类似技术现在常用于主页上轮换信息或促销图像，每个图像都链接到网站更深处的更多信息。明智的设计师不会为了新奇而使用闪烁按钮等技术格式，而是会寻找更持久的表现方式，比如变化较慢的超链接图像，这些图像可以在其基础上进行构建。
To avoid seduction by mere novelty, it is best to keep a separate playpen or scratch pad area for trying out new technologies. It is often a good idea to test something out as an alternate version of an existing project. Project leaders often make the mistake of testing out an innovation with phony data or filler content, but the expressive potential of a new format only becomes clear when it is implemented with real content, when it is measured against a specific human purpose that exists outside of the excitement of technological wizardry. Because the digital medium depends on interaction, the true usefulness of a new approach cannot be assessed until it is mocked up with real information that will provoke interactors to come up with specific expectations and actions. 为了避免仅仅被新奇事物所吸引，最好为尝试新技术保留一个单独的游戏区或划痕垫区域。将某些东西作为现有项目的替代版本进行测试通常是个好主意。项目负责人常常犯的一个错误是用虚假的数据或填充内容来测试创新，但新格式的表现潜力只有在用真实内容实施时才会变得清晰，并且需要与超越技术魔法兴奋的特定人类目的进行比较。由于数字媒介依赖于互动，因此在用真实信息进行模拟之前，无法评估新方法的真正实用性，这些信息将促使互动者产生具体的期望和行动。
Identifying the core activity is useful as a counterweight to technophilia and infatuation with mere novelty. It is also useful in coping with the opposite problem: 确定核心活动有助于平衡对技术的热爱和对新奇事物的迷恋，同时也有助于应对相反的问题：
technophobia and resistance to change. Domain experts and design clients often define a task in terms of work patterns that have been shaped by legacy media. Users of consumer products can also be closely wedded to their familiar ways of doing things. Finding the alignment between the abstracted, generalized, core human needsomething so basic that you can state it without any specialized jargon-and the particular digital design task often takes patience and hard work. Designers have to think about the needs of their users that lie beneath the particular artifacts and practices by which they currently go about satisfying those needs. For example, a group of scholars once asked me for advice on how to make a better scholarly edition of Shakespeare’s works but became agitated at the thought that their end product might shift from a book to a digital artifact, such as a CD-ROM. They knew that the footnote on a paper-based page was a clumsy way of expressing the depth of research that went into a scholarly edition. Their own editions often separated the note from the text by several pages, or squeezed the text into a few lines per page in order to accommodate the dozens of lines of footnotes chasing after them. But an “edition” to them meant paper pages bound between covers. They were not thinking as designers, or even as scholars, but as members of a print culture with a deep attachment to the physical form of the book. 技术恐惧症和对变革的抵制。领域专家和设计客户通常根据传统媒体所形成的工作模式来定义任务。消费产品的用户也可能非常依赖他们熟悉的做事方式。在抽象和概括的核心人类需求之间找到一致性——这种需求简单到可以不使用任何专业术语来表达——与特定数字设计任务之间的关系，往往需要耐心和努力。设计师必须关注用户的需求，这些需求隐藏在他们当前满足这些需求的具体工具和实践之下。 例如，一群学者曾向我请教如何制作更好的莎士比亚作品学术版，但他们对最终产品可能从书籍转变为数字文物（如 CD-ROM）感到不安。他们意识到，纸质页面上的脚注无法充分表达制作学术版所需的深度研究。他们自己的版本通常将注释与文本隔开数页，或者将文本压缩成每页几行，以容纳后面数十行的脚注。但对他们来说，“版本”意味着封面之间装订的纸页。他们并没有以设计师或学者的身份思考，而是作为对书籍的物理形式有着深厚依恋的印刷文化的成员。
Designers should be prepared to encounter this mindset and they should be prepared to show appropriate respect for the core task-such as creating a variorum edition of a Shakespeare play or using a card catalog or “leaning back” to watch a conventional, noninteractive television program-while tactfully discounting panicky attachment to the physical formats of print and analog culture-such as an insistence on squeezing a complex, multisequential knowledge structure into the unisequential format of a bound book. Thinking as a designer means focusing on the core task of a variorum edition: the coherent presentation of centuries of commentary on Shakespeare’s plays. This is a task that has a clear human imperative behind it, linked to the more general goal of expanding human knowledge and understanding. Focusing on the physical format of the delivery medium-the creation of a bound book or a simulated bound book (as in a PDF photo facsimile of each page)—distorts the design task. 设计师应当准备好面对这种心态，并对核心任务表现出适当的尊重——例如创建莎士比亚戏剧的变体版，使用卡片目录，或“向后靠”观看传统的非互动电视节目——同时巧妙地忽视对印刷和模拟文化物理格式的恐慌性依赖——例如坚持将复杂的多序列知识结构压缩到一本装订书的单序列格式中。作为设计师思考意味着专注于变体版的核心任务：对莎士比亚戏剧数百年评论的连贯呈现。 这是一个明确体现人类需求的任务，旨在扩展人类的知识和理解。过于关注交付媒介的物理形式——无论是实际的装订书籍还是模拟的装订书籍（例如每页的 PDF 照片复制品）——都会使设计任务变得扭曲。
There is always a temptation to use the digital medium as a means of duplicating the appearance and behaviors of legacy media. We can make an excellent facsimile of a book in digital form, and in some circumstances it can be helpful to do so. But it is a poor use of the affordances of the digital medium to create an artifact that must be paged through, and in which footnotes remain cryptic abbreviations, displayed separately from the items they are commenting on. 总是有一种诱惑，想要将数字媒介用来复制传统媒体的外观和行为。我们可以制作一本优秀的数字书籍，在某些情况下这样做是有益的。但如果创建一个必须翻页的文档，并且脚注仍然是难以理解的缩写，且与其所评论的内容分开显示，这样使用数字媒介的特性就显得不够恰当。
Addressing the core need may be harder for others on the team than for the designer. Clients often resist rethinking media structures that legitimize wellestablished professional distinctions. For example, expanding the available space for 解决核心需求对团队中的其他成员来说，可能比对设计师更具挑战性。客户往往不愿意重新思考那些使专业区分合法化的媒体结构。例如，扩大可用空间以便于
commentary in a variorum edition reopens the awkward question of how the editors decide which commentaries to include and which to exclude. Such decisions may not be as easy to justify when space is no longer the constraint. Reconfiguring the database system of a complex organization, such as the index-card based catalog of a library, may eliminate some jobs, change the skill sets for other jobs, foster more open access to formerly closed information, or otherwise disrupt political and social arrangements. Changing the delivery structure of television disrupts the advertising model and therefore the revenue stream that supports the production of entertainment. The anxiety produced from such disruptions can make it harder to get a clear fix on the patterns of information and interaction that the designer most needs to serve. 在变异版中的评论重新引发了一个棘手的问题：编辑如何决定哪些评论应被纳入，哪些应被排除。当空间不再是限制时，这样的决定可能变得难以辩解。重新配置复杂组织的数据库系统，例如基于索引卡的图书馆目录，可能会导致一些职位消失，改变其他职位的技能要求，促进对以前封闭信息的更开放访问，或以其他方式扰乱政治和社会结构。改变电视的传输结构会影响广告模式，从而影响支持娱乐制作的收入来源。 这种干扰带来的焦虑可能使设计师更难清晰地理解他们所需的信息和互动模式。
Orienting oneself to the core human task provides the designer with a necessary corrective to the distractions of organizational politics and the fetishism of legacy formats, focusing design choices toward empowerment of the most enduring and valuable functions. Of course some clients may prefer outdated solutions. In that case it is the designer’s job to make sure that the client understands the trade-offs. As a practical matter, one might try in such situations to help people move to the next comfortable stage of digital organization, such as moving the production of the variorum editions from shoeboxes of index cards into a uniform electronic database, or delivering the variorum as a book with a CD-ROM tucked into it. In that way, the integrity of the information is preserved in the eyes of the clients, by the production of the book, and also for the designer, by the digital organization that might one day support a better-organized digital version. 定位核心人类任务为设计师提供了必要的纠正，帮助他们应对组织政治的干扰和对传统格式的迷恋，从而将设计选择集中在赋权于最持久和有价值的功能上。当然，一些客户可能更倾向于使用过时的解决方案。在这种情况下，设计师的职责是确保客户理解其中的权衡。实际上，在这种情况下，人们可以尝试帮助他们转向下一个舒适的数字组织阶段，比如将变体版的制作从装满索引卡的鞋盒转移到统一的电子数据库，或者将变体版作为一本书交付，并附带一个光盘。 通过书籍的制作，客户对信息的完整性得以保持；而设计师则可以通过数字化组织，未来支持更为有序的数字版本。
As we have seen, focusing on the core task can protect us against both the seduction of new technologies and the fetishism of older media. The scholars holding onto their shoeboxes of index cards are at the opposite end of the spectrum from the marketing manager who wants the latest bells and whistles on the company website. But sophisticated practitioners can also derail design by insisting on fitting each new project into their own favorite software or hardware framework. As the proverb goes, to a man with a hammer, everything looks like a nail. Designers should be skeptical of any project that begins with an implementation strategy. Instead, we must discipline ourselves to begin by identifying the core human need, without reference to whether it is going to be served with bits or boom boxes or bowling balls. 正如我们所见，专注于核心任务可以帮助我们抵御新技术的诱惑和对旧媒体的迷恋。那些依然使用索引卡片的学者与希望在公司网站上添加最新功能的市场经理截然相反。然而，经验丰富的从业者也可能因为坚持将每个新项目纳入他们自己喜欢的软件或硬件框架而偏离设计方向。正如谚语所说，拿着锤子的人看什么都像钉子。设计师应对任何以实施策略为起点的项目保持怀疑态度。 相反，我们必须自律，首先识别核心的人类需求，而不考虑它是通过小零件、音响还是保龄球来满足的。
Identifying the core task may make it clear that this is not a problem that calls for a computer at all. Maybe the fundamental design problem is in the social, political, or information structure itself, and the computer will not solve the problem, only distract from it. Maybe the computer will even make the problem worse. For example, suppose that in a large liberal arts university, students are extremely bright and motivated, but 20 percent of the freshman class is getting poor grades in a required course. This course is taught by lecture; students can be seen at all the lectures, their eyes glazed over, and some of them asleep in their seats. Suppose that money becomes available to the university to offer computer-based education, and the instructor of 确定核心任务可能会让我们明白，这根本不是一个需要计算机来解决的问题。也许根本的设计问题在于社会、政治或信息结构本身，而计算机并不能解决这个问题，反而可能会让人分心。甚至有可能计算机会使问题变得更糟。例如，假设在一所大型文理学院，学生们非常聪明且积极，但 20%的新生在一门必修课上成绩不佳。这门课是通过讲座授课的；可以看到学生们在所有讲座上，眼神呆滞，有些甚至在座位上睡着。假设学校获得资金提供基于计算机的教育，而这门课的讲师
this required course secures some of the funds. His plan is to put his lectures on digital video and make them available from a web page in all student dormitory rooms. This plan presents itself as a simple design problem: make a web page that students can find with clear links to digital video. But if the underlying problem is how to improve student performance in the course, this is not a satisfactory solution. If the lectures in this course are not effective in person they are unlikely to be more effective when seen remotely. The digital design is doomed to failure because it is not an appropriate response to the presenting problem of the high failure rate. The same logic holds if the presenting problem is a failing newspaper or an unpopular television program. Adding “interactive” bells and whistles for their own sake will not make for a successful application, and such projects undermine confidence in the medium and in the work of interactive designers. 这门必修课程确保了一部分资金。他的计划是将讲座录制成数字视频，并在所有学生宿舍的网页上提供。这看似是一个简单的设计问题：制作一个学生能轻松找到的网页，并提供清晰的数字视频链接。然而，如果根本问题是如何提高学生在课程中的表现，这并不是一个令人满意的解决方案。如果这门课程的讲座面对面时效果不佳，那么远程观看时效果也不太可能更好。数字设计注定要失败，因为它并没有针对高失败率这一根本问题提供合适的解决方案。如果根本问题是一本失败的报纸或一档不受欢迎的电视节目，同样的逻辑也适用。 仅仅为了“互动”而添加花哨功能并不会使应用成功，这样的项目会削弱人们对这一媒介及互动设计师工作的信心。
As the designers of interactive artifacts we are engaged in a collective task of inventing a new medium of representation. We cannot be satisfied with just reproducing older information formats in digital form, settling for mere remediation of the textbook, the lecture, the broadcast TV show, the paper newspaper. We have to think more radically. But we cannot redesign the world with every object we make. We have to accept the creative boundaries of the project at hand, such as resistant power structures, technophile or technophobe collaborators, preexisting platform commitments, and limited resources. Yet even on the most constrained project, the fully professional designer can make decisions based on the larger collective task. We can always do a better job with the immediate task by seeing it as a single step toward the development a future, more radical version. We can think of this future artifact as the endpoint of a collective journey, providing an orientation point, a general direction in which we are moving in the company of the larger body of designers, each of us at our pace and from our own starting point. 作为互动艺术品的设计师，我们参与了一个集体任务，旨在创造一种新的表现媒介。我们不能仅仅满足于将旧的信息格式以数字形式再现，停留在教科书、讲座、广播电视节目和纸质报纸的简单再现上。我们需要更为激进地思考。然而，我们无法通过每一个设计物品来重新设计整个世界。我们必须接受当前项目的创造性边界，例如抵抗的权力结构、技术爱好者或技术恐惧者的合作者、已有的平台承诺以及有限的资源。即便在最受限制的项目中，专业的设计师也能基于更大的集体任务做出决策。 我们总是可以通过将当前任务视为通往未来更激进版本的一个步骤来做得更好。我们可以把这个未来的产物视为集体旅程的终点，它为我们提供了一个方向点，指引着我们与更大设计师群体共同前进的方向，每个人都以自己的节奏和起点前行。
Orientation toward the core need and toward development of the affordances of the digital medium (as we will be discussing in chapter 2) can guide us even in creatively constrained projects. In the case of the boring college lectures, for example, we can design the underlying data structure so that it supports a more active learning style. Following good information design principles, we can semantically segment the lectures, labeling all segments that contain live demonstrations in a similar way so that they can be accessed by those students who will find them more effective than the whiteboard parts of the lecture. We can look for ways to link our project with those of other designers exploring more participatory learning tools. We can also steer the general design process in the direction of collective change by raising questions that orient the team toward the core human tasks and the expressive opportunities of the medium, preparing the way for more original projects in the future. Even if we use only a limited range of the representational power of the computer, we can remain fully professional by cultivating an awareness of wider possibilities, and doing our best 面向核心需求和数字媒介的可用性发展的方向（如我们将在第二章中讨论的）可以在创造性受限的项目中为我们提供指导。例如，在无聊的大学讲座中，我们可以设计基础数据结构，以支持更积极的学习方式。遵循良好的信息设计原则，我们可以对讲座进行语义分段，标记所有包含现场演示的部分，以便那些认为这些部分比黑板讲解更有效的学生能够访问。我们还可以寻找将我们的项目与其他设计师探索更具参与性的学习工具的项目相结合的方法。 我们还可以通过提出问题，引导整体设计过程朝着集体变革的方向发展，这些问题将团队的注意力集中在核心人类任务和媒介的表现机会，从而为未来更具原创性的项目铺平道路。即使我们只利用计算机有限的表现能力，只要培养对更广泛可能性的意识并尽力而为，我们依然可以保持专业
to orient the current project toward the collective goal of an increasingly mature medium. 将当前项目朝着一个日益成熟的媒介的共同目标进行引导。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: EXPLORING DESIGN IN A NEW MEDIUM 设计探索：在新媒介中进行设计探索
Increasing Awareness of Design Choices that Shape Everyday Experience 增强对影响日常体验的设计选择的意识
In a familiar environment, such as a room in your own home, look at three or more manufactured objects and identify the design decisions that went into producing each one, including size, materials, color, shape; placement of buttons, functions of buttons; relationship to human senses such as softness/roughness, retention of heat or cold; relationship to other objects, such as size of shelves or counters the object sits on, size and shape of any of its own container compartments (e.g., pockets on an apron, oven size in an appliance), need for electrical or other energy source, and portability (e.g., can it fit inside a pocketbook? A car trunk? Can it be carried from floor to floor?). What trade-offs were made in designing it (e.g., capacity versus portability, pleasing appearance versus cost)? 在一个熟悉的环境中，比如你自己家里的一个房间，观察三个或更多的制造物体，并识别出每个物体在生产过程中所做的设计决策，包括大小、材料、颜色、形状；按钮的放置和功能；与人类感官的关系，如柔软度/粗糙度、保温或散热能力；与其他物体的关系，比如物体所放置的架子或台面的大小、任何自身容器隔间的大小和形状（例如，围裙上的口袋、家电中的烤箱大小）、对电源或其他能源的需求，以及便携性（例如，它能放进手提包吗？汽车后备箱？能否从一层楼搬到另一层楼？）。在设计过程中做出了哪些权衡（例如。容量与便携性、外观与成本之间的权衡？
Choose a household object, such as a microwave oven or media-recording device or clock radio, that has been confusing to you or to someone you know. What design choices led to this confusion? Do you know of similar devices that employed alternate strategies for the same feature? How would you redesign the device to make it less confusing? 选择一个家庭用品，比如微波炉、录音设备或时钟收音机，这让你或你认识的人感到困惑。是什么设计选择造成了这种困惑？你知道有类似的设备采用了不同的策略来实现同样的功能吗？你会如何重新设计这个设备，使其更易于理解？
Compare two cell phones that have different approaches to providing a keyboard for dialing a telephone number. What requirements and constraints were common to both design teams? What different choices did they make? What similar or different trade-offs did they make in order to fulfill the requirements within the constraints? How would you justify both design paths? 比较两款在提供拨打电话号码的键盘方面采取不同方法的手机。两个设计团队的共同要求和限制是什么？他们做出了哪些不同的选择？为了在这些限制条件下满足要求，他们做出了哪些相似或不同的权衡？你如何为这两条设计路径进行辩护？
Increasing Awareness of the Cultural Traditions behind Familiar Media Conventions 增强对熟悉媒体惯例背后文化传统的理解
Take an aspect of a commonly used medium and trace its form back to a design innovation or design choice of at least a hundred years earlier. Report your findings in a brief essay, slide presentation, or interactive artifact. You may come up with your own example or choose one of the following: 选择一个常用媒介的某个方面，并追溯其形式至至少一百年前的设计创新或设计选择。请以简短的论文、幻灯片演示或互动作品的形式报告你的发现。你可以自己想一个例子，或者选择以下的其中一个：
The forms of printed letters (i.e., A a, B b . . .) 印刷字母的形式（例如 A a, B b 等）
The arrangement of keys on a keyboard (e.g., QWERTY, telephone pad) 键盘上按键的布局（例如，QWERTY，电话拨号盘）
The image of a file folder in a computer operating-system interface. 计算机操作系统界面中的文件夹的图像。
Choose a website you are very familiar with. What features and functions does it have that resemble older media? Does it have conventions in common with a pamphlet, newspaper, television show, social experience, or other nondigital cultural form (e.g., captioned images, headlines, list of contents, opening credits, rituals for greeting other people)? How are these conventions changed in digital form? What aspects of 选择一个你非常熟悉的网站。它有哪些特征和功能与传统媒体相似？它是否与小册子、报纸、电视节目、社交体验或其他非数字文化形式（例如，带字幕的图片、标题、目录、开场字幕、问候他人的仪式）有共同的特点？这些特点在数字形式中是如何变化的？哪些方面
the site are unique to digital media? What computational inscription and transmission technologies (e.g., mouse, links, HTML code) make them possible? 这些网站在数字媒体中是否独特？哪些计算技术（如鼠标、链接、HTML 代码）使它们成为可能？
Differentiating Layers of Media Innovation 媒体创新的不同层次
Make a chart similar to table 1.1 for movies. What inscription and transmission code changes of the twentieth century changed the format of movies? What stable formats were important to the film industry as a business? What innovations in the technologies of inscription and transmission were important to the development of film art? 制作一个类似于表 1.1 的电影图表。二十世纪有哪些铭刻和传输代码的变化改变了电影格式？对电影行业作为商业来说，哪些稳定格式是重要的？在铭刻和传输技术方面，哪些创新对电影艺术的发展起到了关键作用？
Make a chart similar to table 1.1 for video games. Indicate important innovations in input and output (inscription) devices. What are some important innovations for mapping actions with the game controller to complex actions, like fancy fighting moves, on the screen (we can think of coordinated keystrokes as similar to Morse code, a symbolic transmission code for sending a message from the player to screen display)? Indicate important platforms and representational genres. What relationships do you see between changes to the inscription and transmission layers and changes in representation? 制作一个类似于表 1.1 的视频游戏图表。请指出输入和输出（铭文）设备的重要创新。将游戏控制器的操作映射到复杂动作（如华丽的战斗动作）上的一些重要创新是什么（我们可以将协调的按键输入视为类似于摩尔斯电码，这是一种将信息从玩家传输到屏幕显示的符号传输代码）？请指出重要的平台和表现类型。你认为铭文和传输层的变化与表现变化之间有什么关系？
Make a chart similar to table 1.1 for Internet-based formats and genres. What other inscription and transmission technologies can you identify? What formats and platforms have disappeared in the past five years? Which have lasted longer than five years? What are the most recent examples of a stable platform for building applications at the level of representation? What codes do they share? What genres have been built on top of these platforms (e.g., podcasts, blogs)? What conventions do they have in common? How have the underlying technologies shaped the level of representation? 制作一个类似于表 1.1 的图表，专注于基于互联网的格式和类型。你能识别出哪些其他的铭刻和传输技术？在过去五年中，哪些格式和平台已经消失？哪些平台持续了超过五年？最近有哪些稳定的平台可以用于构建应用程序的表示层级？它们共享哪些代码？在这些平台上构建了哪些类型（例如，播客、博客）？它们有什么共同的惯例？基础技术如何影响表示层级的构建？
Increasing Awareness of the Cultural Values Reflected in Design Decisions 增强对设计决策中体现的文化价值的认知
Choose a digital or mechanical artifact you use regularly and identify the cultural values that have shaped it. Does the design incorporate assumptions about privacy, space, leisure time, or other aspects of life that might vary across societies or groups? Does the artifact include features that reflect historical values, such as stricter gender roles? What activities does the artifact assume to be the most valuable? What related activities does it ignore or support less completely? How would the design be different if it came from a different cultural context? 选择一个你经常使用的数字或机械物品，并识别塑造它的文化价值观。它的设计是否包含关于隐私、空间、休闲时间或其他可能因社会或群体而异的生活方面的假设？这个物品是否反映了历史价值观，比如更严格的性别角色？它假设哪些活动是最有价值的？又忽视或支持哪些相关活动较少？如果这个设计来自不同的文化背景，会有什么不同？
Microsoft and Apple make operating systems that have very similar functions, but users identify themselves with either the Windows or Mac similarly to the way sports fans identify with teams. Look at the advertising campaigns for Apple and Microsoft products. What values do each of these companies emphasize in their approach to potential customers? Do the designs of the Mac and PC systems reflect these different corporate values? 微软和苹果的操作系统功能非常相似，但用户就像体育迷认同球队一样，选择认同 Windows 或 Mac。看看苹果和微软产品的广告活动。这些公司在吸引潜在客户时强调了哪些价值观？Mac 和 PC 系统的设计是否体现了这些不同的企业价值观？
Choose an artifact that you would like to see redesigned for a different demographic group. Identify the differences in experiences, expectations, and values between the two groups. How does the artifact reflect its current user group? How would it change to appeal to the new group? What features would remain the same across user groups? (Examples: How would you redesign a miniaturized music player so that it would be usable by the elderly? How would you redesign a shooting game so that it would appeal to pacifists or a cooperative game so that it would encourage competition?) 选择一个你希望为不同人群重新设计的物品。识别这两个群体在体验、期望和价值观上的差异。这个物品如何反映当前用户群体的特点？为了吸引新群体，它需要做哪些改变？哪些特征在不同用户群体中是相同的？（例如：你会如何重新设计一个迷你音乐播放器，使其适合老年人使用？你会如何重新设计一个射击游戏，使其吸引和平主义者，或者一个合作游戏，使其鼓励竞争？）
Increasing Awareness of Media-Specific Conventions 增强对媒体特定规范的认识
Compare any two platforms for listening to recorded music (e.g., vinyl records and cassette tapes or CDs and MP3 players) or for watching television programs (e.g., digital recorder; broadcast, cable, satellite, computer, or mobile device; DVD player). What features and conventions do the two systems have in common? What features and conventions differ? How does the experience of the user change with the change in delivery medium? Consider capacity, playing time, ways of acquiring the music, portability, ability to share, privacy, noise, and so on. What conventions remain the same across platforms? What new conventions (e.g., for labeling, playing, storing, advertising, purchasing) were invented to take advantage of the affordances of new delivery formats? 比较两个平台在收听录制音乐（如黑胶唱片与磁带，或 CD 与 MP3 播放器）和观看电视节目（如数字录音机、广播、有线、卫星、计算机或移动设备、DVD 播放器）方面的异同。这两个系统有哪些共同特征和惯例？又有哪些特征和惯例是不同的？随着交付媒介的变化，用户的体验会如何改变？请考虑容量、播放时间、获取音乐的方式、便携性、分享能力、隐私、噪音等因素。哪些惯例在不同平台间保持一致？为了充分利用新交付格式的优势，出现了哪些新的惯例（如标签、播放、存储、广告、购买等）？
Compare a paper newspaper to a web-based news site of the same newspaper on the same day. What purpose do headlines serve in the paper version? Do headlines change in any way when they move from paper to the web? What is on the masthead of the paper newspaper? Where is the same information presented or the same functions served on the website? What new conventions exist on the website that do not exist in the paper version? What purpose does the menu bar serve? How was this purpose served in the paper version? 比较纸质报纸与同一天的网络新闻网站。纸质版的标题有什么作用？当标题从纸质版转到网络版时，有什么变化？纸质报纸的报头上包含哪些信息？在网站上如何呈现相同的信息或实现相同的功能？网站上有哪些新的约定是纸质版所没有的？菜单栏的作用是什么？这个作用在纸质版中是如何体现的？
Make a two-column table, similar to table 1.2, listing at least five inscription methods you have used in the past week and the task you performed with each of them. How appropriate is each method for its task? How are the specific affordances that made them appropriate? 制作一个两列的表格，类似于表 1.2，列出你在过去一周使用过的至少五种书写方法，以及你用每种方法完成的任务。每种方法对其任务的适用性如何？是什么具体的特性使它们适合？
Table 1.2 表格 1.2
Inscription Methods 注册方式
Task 工作任务
Performed With 正在进行中
Bank withdrawal 银行提款
ATM kiosk keyboard 自动取款机键盘
Shopping list 购物列表
Pen and paper 笔记本和纸张
Appointment calendar 预约日程表
PDA stylus on screen PDA 触控笔在显示屏上
Slide presentation 幻灯片展示
Laser pointer and projection 激光指示器与投影仪
Task Performed With
Bank withdrawal ATM kiosk keyboard
Shopping list Pen and paper
Appointment calendar PDA stylus on screen
Slide presentation Laser pointer and projection| Task | Performed With |
| :--- | :--- |
| Bank withdrawal | ATM kiosk keyboard |
| Shopping list | Pen and paper |
| Appointment calendar | PDA stylus on screen |
| Slide presentation | Laser pointer and projection |
Now invent an algorithm for randomizing the two columns in relation to one another and execute it. (For example, you sort the items in one of the columns alphabetically while leaving the other column as is.) You now have new pairings (such as a PDA stylus for making a bank withdrawal). How would you perform each of these tasks with the mismatched inscription system? How would the experience change? What would be the challenges for accomplishing the task? Would there be any advantage in the new system or any opportunity for an innovative approach to a familiar task? 现在请发明一个算法，用于随机化两列之间的关系并执行它。（例如，您可以将其中一列的项目按字母顺序排序，而另一列保持不变。）这样您就得到了新的配对（比如，用于银行取款的 PDA 触控笔）。您将如何在不匹配的铭文系统中执行这些任务？体验会有什么变化？完成这些任务会面临哪些挑战？在新系统中是否会有任何优势，或者是否有机会对熟悉的任务进行创新？
One of the marks of an immature medium is the need for the interactor to have to pay attention to transmission codes (e.g., telephone numbers) rather than the representational layer (e.g., names of contacts). For a week, write down every time you are confronted with a code that is meaningful to a computer but not to you as a human being. How would you redesign the system so that interactors did not need to focus on the transmission code? 不成熟媒介的一个特征是互动者需要关注传输代码（如电话号码），而不是表现层（如联系人姓名）。在接下来的一周里，记录下每次你遇到对计算机有意义但对你作为人类却没有意义的代码。你会如何重新设计系统，使互动者不必关注传输代码？
Orienting Design toward the Underlying Human Needs, Not the Legacy Media Conventions 将设计聚焦于人类的基本需求，而非传统媒体的惯例
Telephones have been in use for a century and a half, but have changed tremendously in the past twenty years. What core human needs do they serve? How were these needs met before the invention of telephony? What communication conventions and rituals made the land-based original telephone system coherent (e.g., assigning of telephone numbers, invention of the dial, ringing, new greeting rituals, human operators)? How did mobile phones incorporate these older conventions? What new conventions and social rituals have been invented for the new devices (e.g., dialing by hyperlink, custom ringtones for different callers, texting)? What needs have been met by these new features that were not met by predigital telephones? 电话已经使用了一个半世纪，但在过去的二十年里发生了巨大的变化。它们满足了哪些核心人类需求？在电话发明之前，这些需求是如何被满足的？哪些沟通惯例和仪式使得传统的固定电话系统变得有序（例如，分配电话号码、拨号盘的发明、铃声、新的问候仪式和人工接线员）？手机是如何融入这些旧的惯例的？为新设备创造了哪些新的惯例和社交仪式（例如，通过超链接拨号、为不同来电者定制铃声、发送短信）？这些新功能满足了哪些在数字电话时代之前未被满足的需求？
Identify the core human needs or activities served by one of the following: Google, Amazon.com, eBay, iTunes (or choose another widely used digital environment such as an instant messaging or social networking site). How were the same needs met before the invention of writing? How were they met before the invention of the computer? How has the activity remained the same and how has it changed as a result of the switch to the digital framework? 确定以下之一所满足的核心人类需求或活动：谷歌、亚马逊、eBay、iTunes（或选择其他广泛使用的数字环境，如即时消息或社交网络网站）。在书写发明之前，这些需求是如何被满足的？在计算机发明之前又是如何满足的？随着转向数字框架，这些活动有哪些保持不变的地方，哪些又发生了变化？
Choose an example of a device or application that you find poorly designed. Analyze its design objectives in terms of core human needs. What design elements prevent it from serving those needs appropriately? Why do you think the design team made those unfortunate choices? What did they value more than the needs that you expected them to address? What other media artifacts serve these needs? Do they offer other conventions that might have been applied here? How would you redesign the artifact so that it better served the core needs? 选择一个你认为设计不佳的设备或应用作为例子。分析它的设计目标与核心人类需求之间的关系。哪些设计元素妨碍了它有效满足这些需求？你认为设计团队为什么会做出这些不理想的选择？他们更看重什么，而不是你期望他们关注的需求？还有哪些其他媒体作品能够满足这些需求？它们是否提供了可以在这里应用的其他设计惯例？你会如何重新设计这个作品，以更好地满足核心需求？
2 Affordances of the Digital Medium 数字媒介的两种功能
Think of the computer not as a tool but as a medium. 将电脑视为一种媒介，而非仅仅是工具。
—Brenda Laurel (1993) —布伦达·劳雷尔（1993 年）
The Four Affordances 四种可用性
All digital artifacts are made of a common substance: programmable bits that can be used for symbol manipulation. As a result, we can think of digital artifacts as part of a common medium, rather than as a diffuse collection of multiple “New Media.” Looking at the computer as a single new medium of representation, we can see its defining representational affordances: The computer is encyclopedic, spatial, procedural, and participatory (Murray 1997). These four properties constitute our design space, the context for all of our design choices. Individual projects will be located at various points in that design space, exploiting one property more than another. But thinking of the potential for any project to more fully exploit each of the four properties can help us to discover new directions that we may have previously overlooked. In approaching interaction design as a cultural practice our aim is always to make an object that is satisfying in itself and that advances the digital medium by refining or creating the conventions that best exploit these four affordances. This chapter provides a brief overview of these four properties as well as the most important contributory disciplines that designers can draw on to maximize the expressive potential of individual digital artifacts and of the larger digital medium. 所有数字作品都是由一种共同的物质构成：可编程的比特，用于符号操作。因此，我们可以将数字作品视为一种共同媒介的一部分，而不是多个“新媒体”的分散集合。将计算机视为一种新的表现媒介，我们可以看到它的四个主要特性：计算机是百科全书式的、空间性的、程序化的和参与性的（Murray 1997）。这四个特性构成了我们的设计空间，即我们所有设计选择的背景。各个项目将在这个设计空间的不同位置上展开，侧重于某一特性而非其他特性。 但考虑到任何项目更充分利用这四个属性的潜力，可以帮助我们发现之前可能忽视的新方向。在将交互设计视为一种文化实践时，我们的目标始终是创造一个本身令人满意的对象，并通过完善或创造最佳利用这四种可供性（affordances）的惯例来推动数字媒介的发展。本章简要概述了这四个属性，以及设计师可以借鉴的最重要的相关学科，以最大化单个数字工件和更大数字媒介的表现潜力。
The Computer Is a Procedural Medium 计算机是一种程序化的媒介
The biggest difference between the computer and earlier media of representation is its procedural property, its ability to represent and execute conditional behaviors. As I have argued elsewhere, one of the most striking early signs that the computer was a new expressive medium was Joe Weizenbaum’s Eliza, an interactive program that was widely mistaken for an actual person (box 2.1). Eliza was experienced as real even 计算机与早期媒介之间最大的区别在于它的程序特性，即能够表示和执行条件行为。正如我在其他地方所论述的，计算机作为一种新型表现媒介的早期显著标志之一是乔·韦岑鲍姆的 Eliza，这是一个互动程序，常常被误认为是真实的人（框 2.1）。人们体验 Eliza 时感到它是现实的，尽管
Box 2.1 盒子 2.1
Dialog with Eliza 和伊丽莎的对话
Men are all alike.
IN WHAT WAY
They are always bugging us about something or another.
CAN YOU BE MORE SPECIFIC
Well, my boyfriend made me come here.
YOUR BOYFRIEND MADE YOU COME HERE
He says I am depressed much of the time.
I AM SORRY TO HEAR YOU ARE DEPRESSED
It's true. I am unhappy.
DO YOU THINK COMING HERE WILL HELP YOU NOT TO BE UNHAPPY
I need some help, that much seems certain.
WHAT WOULD IT MEAN TO YOU IF YOU GOT SOME HELP
Perhaps I could learn to get along with my mother
TELL ME MORE ABOUT YOUR FAMILY
(From Weizenbaum 1966)
though there were no images or sound track to reinforce the illusion. The program played the role of a nondirective psychotherapist responding to free text input (unrestricted words typed in ordinary natural language) into a Teletype terminal. Eliza had no understanding of what was said to her, but looked for keywords like “depressed” or “mother” and applied cleverly formulated rules of response, including the use of simple grammatical inversions to echo back statements. Despite her many inappropriate replies, and to Weizenbaum’s dismay, many interactors believed she was an actual person. She was animated by the power of her procedural design, by the ingenuity of the rules of behavior that determined her reactions to novel input (Weizenbaum 1966, 1976; Murray 1997; Wardrip-Fruin 2009). 尽管没有图像或音轨来增强这种幻觉，该程序仍扮演了一个非指导性心理治疗师的角色，能够响应自由文本输入（在普通自然语言中输入的无限制单词）到电传打字机终端。Eliza 并不理解对她说的话，但会寻找“抑郁”或“母亲”等关键词，并运用巧妙设计的回应规则，包括使用简单的语法倒装来重复陈述。尽管她的许多回复不恰当，令 Weizenbaum 感到沮丧的是，许多互动者仍然相信她是一个真实的人。她的反应源于她程序设计的力量，以及决定她对新输入反应的行为规则的独创性（Weizenbaum 1966, 1976; Murray 1997; Wardrip-Fruin 2009）。
Draw on Computer Science Concepts and Conventions 计算机科学的概念与规范
The discipline most relevant to procedural design is of course computer science. Even for those who will not be doing the coding, understanding how computer science describes objects and processes is crucial to making sound design decisions. A key element of this process is abstraction. Computer science strives to master complexity by creating abstract representations that describe elements of systems in the most general terms that most accurately describe their most salient features. For example, to describe the items [apples, bananas, grapes] in a single abstraction we might choose fruit, food, or groceries depending on the context. Of these three terms, fruit would be the best term 与过程设计最相关的学科无疑是计算机科学。即使是那些不从事编码的人，理解计算机科学如何描述对象和过程对于做出合理的设计决策也至关重要。这个过程的一个关键要素是抽象。计算机科学通过创建抽象表示来应对复杂性，这些表示用最一般的术语描述系统的元素，最准确地反映它们的显著特征。例如，为了用一个抽象概念来描述[苹果、香蕉、葡萄]，我们可能会根据上下文选择“水果”、“食物”或“杂货”。在这三个术语中，“水果”是最合适的选择。
for limiting the category and establishing common qualities such as sweetness or perishability. If those qualities are not relevant to the task we are performing and if we want to add other items such as [bread, meat, cereal] to the system later on, then food would be a good choice. And if we are making a shopping list and distinguishing between hardware store and supermarket items then groceries might be best. The computational frame of mind sees the world as composed of multiple alternate abstraction systems such as this. 用于限制类别并建立共同特征，例如甜度或易腐烂性。如果这些特征与我们当前的任务无关，并且我们希望在未来将其他项目（如面包、肉类、谷物）添加到系统中，那么“食品”将是一个不错的选择。如果我们正在制作购物清单，并区分五金店和超市的商品，那么“杂货”可能是更好的选择。计算思维将世界视为由多个替代抽象系统构成。
Most important, programmers abstract behaviors. Before a programmer writes a line of code they conceptualize the processes the computer will be executing as an abstract set of instructions and rules known as an algorithm. A useful algorithm describes a process at its most generalized level but in such a way that every important variation and condition can also be accounted for and responded to appropriately. Deciding how flexible a program should be, how many possibilities it should anticipate and accommodate is an important part of the design process. The more possibilities it encompasses, the more powerful and widely useful it will be, but also the more challenging to design. 最重要的是，程序员会抽象出行为。在编写代码之前，程序员会将计算机将要执行的过程概念化为一组抽象的指令和规则，这被称为算法。一个有效的算法在最一般化的层面上描述一个过程，但同时也能考虑到每一个重要的变体和条件，并做出适当的响应。决定程序的灵活性、预见和适应多少种可能性，是设计过程中的重要环节。可能性越多，程序就越强大和广泛适用，但设计的挑战性也会随之增加。
Legacy media practices like animation and film editing specify unconditional sequences that are always executed in the same order. They are often represented in a timeline, and some computer-based authoring systems also use timelines as an organizing framework (figure 2.1). The problem with this approach is that it reinforces our tendencies toward linear or unisequential design. Programmable bits can imitate legacy media and present unisequential documents and film clips, but they are particularly well suited to more complex multisequential objects that can be assembled and navigated in more than one order. Computational structures allow us to describe entities as variables that can have different values at different times, and to make conditional statements that have more than one possible outcome. Objects in digital form can have multiple instantiations, existing as identical copies or as variant examples of a common pattern. Computational systems change over time, exhibiting different states. When we make something with computer code we are creating not a single version of an object or event, but many possible versions with interesting variations. Computational artifacts exist not as fixed entities, like books or movies (even though we may think of them that way), but as a set of easily altered bits governed by conditional rules. 传统媒体实践，如动画和电影编辑，规定了始终以相同顺序执行的无条件序列。它们通常以时间线的形式呈现，一些计算机创作系统也将时间线作为组织框架（见图 2.1）。这种方法的问题在于，它加深了我们对线性或单一序列设计的倾向。可编程的位可以模仿传统媒体，展示单一序列的文档和电影片段，但它们更适合于更复杂的多序列对象，这些对象可以以多种顺序进行组装和导航。 计算结构使我们能够将实体视为可以在不同时间拥有不同值的变量，并进行具有多个可能结果的条件语句。数字形式的对象可以有多个实例，既可以是相同的副本，也可以是共同模式的变体示例。计算系统随着时间的推移而变化，展现出不同的状态。当我们用计算机代码创建某个事物时，我们并不是在创造一个对象或事件的单一版本，而是许多可能的版本，具有有趣的变化。计算工件并不是像书籍或电影那样固定的实体（尽管我们可能会这样认为），而是一组由条件规则控制的易于修改的位。
By harnessing the procedural power of the computer to represent objects and processes we can create simulations, working models of complex systems that can be run with controlled variations and that aspire to reproduce the complexity we recognize in natural and social systems like the human body or the global financial markets. Such systems are made up of multiple independently operating objects or agents, whose complex interactions produce results too numerous and multicausal to be predictable in advance. Although many beginning programmers see the core computational structures as a branching tree, in fact the inner workings of computer code 通过利用计算机的程序能力来表示对象和过程，我们可以创建模拟，构建复杂系统的工作模型，这些模型可以在控制变化的情况下运行，并旨在再现我们在自然和社会系统中所认识的复杂性，例如人体或全球金融市场。这些系统由多个独立运作的对象或代理组成，它们之间复杂的交互产生的结果多种多样且多因性，无法提前预测。尽管许多初学者将核心计算结构视为一棵分支树，但实际上计算机代码的内部运作是复杂的。
Figure 2.1 图表 2.1
Timeline from Adobe Flash authoring environment, which is based on the metaphor of a movie. Flash also includes object-oriented scripting for more fully exploiting the procedural and participatory affordances of the medium. 来自 Adobe Flash 创作环境的时间线，这一环境以电影为隐喻。Flash 还包含面向对象的脚本，能够更充分地利用这一媒介的程序性和参与性特点。
have been growing more interactive: more like the ecology of a pond rather than the command structure of an army. Systems are now written that exhibit emergent behavior, behavior that is more than the sum of its parts, and therefore can be seen as similar to life forms. 变得越来越互动：更像是池塘的生态，而不是军队的指挥结构。现在的系统展现出涌现行为，这种行为超越了部分的总和，因此可以被视为类似于生命形式。
Computer programs are judged by how efficiently and reliably they perform. Programmers aim for robustness, for not failing under a variety of error-inducing conditions, including coping with unpredictable user input and portability to multiple systems; and for scalability, for being able to accommodate more users, more data, more related procedures without having to be reengineered. The programmer values predictability and formula, aiming for the most generic, reusable solution that is also the most adaptable. The digital media designer, like the computer scientist and the programmer, should think of the process of representing meaning on the computer as a process of abstracting objects and behaviors as efficiently as possible, and should be aware of the possibility of representing complex systems as composed of multiple abstract actors in multivariable configurations. 计算机程序的评判标准在于它们的效率和可靠性。程序员追求稳健性，力求在各种可能引发错误的情况下不发生故障，包括应对不可预测的用户输入和在多个系统上的可移植性；同时还追求可扩展性，能够在不重新设计的情况下容纳更多用户、更多数据和更多相关流程。程序员重视可预测性和公式，旨在找到最通用、可重用且适应性最强的解决方案。 数字媒体设计师与计算机科学家和程序员一样，应将计算机上表示意义的过程视为尽可能高效地抽象对象和行为的过程，并意识到可以将复杂系统视为由多个抽象角色在多变量配置中组成的可能性。
In part III we will be looking more closely at the procedural affordance and identifying ways in which designers can make use of the power of computational abstraction for the purposes of describing objects and processes in the most coherent and expressive manner. 在第三部分中，我们将更深入地探讨程序性赋能，并寻找设计师如何利用计算抽象的力量，以最连贯和富有表现力的方式来描述对象和过程。
The Computer Is a Participatory Medium 计算机是一种互动媒介
It is surprising that the Eliza program fooled people when it first appeared, since it now seems so primitive in its ability to simulate a conversation that the tendency for people to assume that computer programs are more capable than they actually are is often referred to as “Eliza effect.” But Eliza also owed her success to an element of Weizenbaum’s design that is often overlooked: Weizenbaum did not merely script the machine; by framing his experiment in natural language processing as the highly conventionalized and familiar scenario of a therapy session he was also scripting the interactor. His character was successful because it exploited the participatory affordance of computer environments as much as it did the procedural affordance. 令人惊讶的是，当 Eliza 程序首次出现时，它竟然能够欺骗许多人，因为现在看来它在模拟对话的能力上显得如此原始，以至于人们往往认为计算机程序的能力比实际更强，这种现象通常被称为“Eliza 效应”。然而，Eliza 的成功也得益于 Weizenbaum 设计中的一个常被忽视的因素：Weizenbaum 并不仅仅是为机器编写脚本；他通过将实验框定为自然语言处理的高度常规化和熟悉的治疗场景，也在为互动者编写脚本。他的角色之所以成功，是因为它充分利用了计算机环境的参与性特征，正如它利用程序性特征一样。
The relationship between the interactor and any digital artifact is reciprocal, active, and open to frustrating miscommunication. The designer must therefore script both sides so that the actions of humans and machines are meaningful to one another. Sometimes the script is quite rigid, as in a touchscreen ATM machine or a phone-based automated customer service system. Such rigid systems work best with screen-based multiplechoice answers, where there are a limited number of routine transactions, with each one taking few steps to complete. When used for more complex transactions, like the decision-tree diagnosis of a consumer problem, they can be maddeningly frustrating. 交互者与任何数字产品之间的关系是相互的、积极的，但也容易出现令人沮丧的误解。因此，设计师需要为双方编写脚本，使人类和机器的行为能够相互理解。有时，这些脚本会非常严格，例如在触摸屏 ATM 机或电话自动客服系统中。这类严格的系统在屏幕上的多项选择答案中效果最佳，因为常规交易的数量有限，每个交易只需几个步骤就能完成。然而，当用于更复杂的交易时，比如消费者问题的决策树诊断，它们可能会让人感到非常沮丧。
Sometimes the script is more flexible, offering the interactor an array of props with which to improvise their part of the exchange, like the iconized tool bars of word processors or role-playing adventure games. Some digital conventions are so familiar that they script us in a transparent way. For example, a blinking insertion point in a text box is a transparent cue to type in information; blue or underlined text on a website cues us to the presence of a link; arrows at the left edge or bottom-left corner of application windows cue us to the possibility of scrolling. A large part of digital design is selecting the appropriate convention to communicate what actions are possible in ways that the human interactor can understand. 有时，脚本更具灵活性，为交互者提供了一系列道具，让他们可以即兴发挥在交流中的角色，就像文字处理器或角色扮演游戏中的图标工具栏一样。一些数字惯例如此熟悉，以至于它们以透明的方式影响着我们。例如，文本框中闪烁的插入点是一个明显的提示，提醒我们输入信息；网站上蓝色或带下划线的文本提示我们有链接；应用窗口左边缘或左下角的箭头提示我们可以滚动。数字设计的很大一部分在于选择合适的惯例，以便以人类交互者能够理解的方式传达可能的操作。
Because the computer is a participatory medium, interactors have an expectation that they will be able to manipulate digital artifacts and make things happen in response to their actions. They will therefore become frustrated and impatient when they are not allowed to act. The responsiveness of digital media, whether accessed through a keyboard, mouse, joystick, touchscreen, scroll wheel, or gesture sensor, 由于计算机是一种参与性媒介，用户期望能够操控数字内容，并根据自己的操作使事情发生。因此，当他们无法进行操作时，往往会感到沮丧和不耐烦。数字媒体的响应性，无论是通过键盘、鼠标、操纵杆、触摸屏、滚轮还是手势传感器来访问，
excites our desire to do something, to see what will happen if we drag something around, click on an underlined word, or otherwise poke at the environment. 激发我们去做某事的欲望，看看如果我们拖动某个物体、点击下划线的词语或以其他方式与环境互动会发生什么。
Participation in digital media increasingly means social participation. Previous masscommunication technologies provided either one-to-one (telephone) or one-to-many (books, television) transmission channels. The computer provides one-to-one (e.g., email) and one-to-many (e.g., DVDs) communication. It also provides new forms of many-to-many communication, most notably on the World Wide Web, which provides the same potential distribution to an album of baby pictures as it gives to CNN. com’s coverage of a presidential inauguration, disrupting the media conventions for both. New participatory genres such as chat rooms, bulletin boards, discussion lists, blogs, wikis, instant messaging formats, virtual environments (Second Life), social networks (Facebook, Myspace, Twitter), and media-sharing technologies (Flickr, YouTube) convene communities of participants in discussions that are synchronous and asynchronous, spoken and written, individual and collective. They also quickly assimilate the functions of one another, posing new design challenges in providing coherence to a sustained collective conversation (see figures 2.2, 2.3). 参与数字媒体越来越意味着社会参与。以往的大众传播技术提供了一对一（如电话）或一对多（如书籍、电视）的传播渠道。而计算机则提供了一对一（例如电子邮件）和一对多（例如 DVD）的沟通方式。它还创造了许多对许多的新沟通形式，尤其是在万维网上，这使得一张婴儿照片专辑的传播潜力与 CNN.com 对总统就职典礼的报道相当，打破了两者的媒体惯例。 新的参与性形式，如聊天室、公告板、讨论列表、博客、维基、即时消息、虚拟环境（如第二人生）、社交网络（如 Facebook、Myspace、Twitter）以及媒体共享技术（如 Flickr、YouTube），在讨论中聚集了参与者社区，这些讨论可以是同步或异步的、口头或书面的、个体或集体的。它们迅速吸收彼此的功能，给持续的集体对话的连贯性带来了新的设计挑战（见图 2.2，2.3）。
Mass participation in digital environments has also raised questions of security and privacy. Designers have the power to capture input from users without their intentional action, and even without their knowledge and consent. As citizens of a digitally enabled world we are subject to many kinds of monitoring. Digital cameras record our images, digital networks record our purchases, and global positioning technology in our cars or cell phones pinpoints our personal location (figure 2.4). We are open to photographic and sound recording through portable devices that were once the domain of superspies and are now available at mass consumer prices. This capacity can be reassuring, as in devices that allow the elderly to call for help even if they are far from a telephone; or it can be menacing, as in spyware programs that surrepti- 大规模参与数字环境也引发了安全和隐私方面的问题。设计师可以在用户未主动行动的情况下，甚至在他们不知情和未同意的情况下捕捉用户的输入。作为数字化世界的公民，我们面临着多种监控。数字相机记录我们的影像，数字网络记录我们的消费，而汽车或手机中的全球定位技术则精确定位我们的个人位置（图 2.4）。我们通过曾经是超级间谍专用的便携设备，现在以大众消费价格可得的设备，暴露于摄影和录音之中。这种能力可以让人感到安心，例如一些设备可以让老年人即使远离电话也能呼叫帮助；但它也可能带来威胁，比如间谍软件程序
News Feed
Top News - Most Recent 21 最新的 21 条新闻动态
What's on your mind? 你在想些什么？
Figure 2.2 图表 2.2
Status line on Facebook. The status line, cued here by a generic question, is a convention that has been widely accepted as a way of formatting participation in large common spaces. The box provides a constrained container (even when longer posts are allowed) that focuses contributions so they can be composed easily, distributed widely, and collected in lists that can be scanned quickly by the recipient. This simple convention-a limited size, rapidly posted container for messages that can be targeted at one or many recipients-has created new, globally accessible channels of communication for personal and organizational use. Facebook 上的状态栏。通过一个通用问题提示的状态栏，成为了一种被广泛接受的格式，用于在大型公共空间中参与交流。这个框提供了一个有限的容器（即使允许更长的帖子），使得贡献能够集中，便于撰写、广泛传播，并以列表形式快速供接收者浏览。这个简单的惯例——一个有限大小、快速发布的消息容器，能够针对一个或多个接收者——创造了新的、全球可访问的个人和组织沟通渠道。
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Figure 2.3 图表 2.3
It has now become standard to provide a space for visitors to a website to talk back, like this customer review utility on Amazon.com. Other standard feedback conventions include email links, live chats, Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), and polls. The refinement of these features and the invention of new ways to support participation will be a growing area of digital design for decades to come. 现在，为网站访客提供反馈空间已成为一种标准，例如亚马逊的客户评论工具。其他常见的反馈方式还包括电子邮件链接、在线聊天、常见问题解答（FAQ）和投票。这些功能的不断完善以及新参与方式的发明，将在未来几十年内成为数字设计的重要发展方向。
tiously record our keystrokes and page views in order to steal passwords or deliver unwanted advertising. The increasing mediation of our actions by digital technology has led to new kinds of counterfeiting, including the crime of identity theft in which possession of data about someone becomes the power to act as that person. For the purposes of many social transactions, we are identical with the sum of the digital information we have input. Designers must therefore take care to limit access to information and to give interactors control over their own information and knowledge of how it is being collected and used. 我们谨慎地记录我们的键盘输入和页面浏览，以窃取密码或投放不必要的广告。数字技术对我们行为的日益介入导致了新型的伪造现象，包括身份盗窃罪，在这种情况下，拥有某人的数据就意味着可以以该人的身份行事。对于许多社会交易而言，我们的身份与我们输入的数字信息总和是相同的。因此，设计师必须谨慎限制信息的访问，并让用户掌控自己的信息，同时了解这些信息是如何被收集和使用的。
The participatory nature of the medium has also profoundly affected legacy media enterprises. Media now appears to us as something to be cut, pasted, reassembled, and 媒介的参与性本质也深刻影响了传统媒体企业。如今，媒体在我们眼中似乎是可以被剪切、粘贴和重新组合的。
Figure 2.4 图表 2.4
Google Map Street View of San Francisco includes a figure in a potentially embarrassing moment, an example of how once-private experiences are becoming publically—and even globally —visible. 谷歌地图街景中的旧金山展示了一个人在一个可能令人尴尬的瞬间，这例子说明了曾经私密的经历是如何变得公开，甚至在全球范围内可见的。
distributed with ease. The music industry underwent a tremendous change starting in the late 1990s when users began trading digital music files over the Internet. As sales of CDs fell and threats of prosecution escalated, Apple Computer came up with a design solution that included a commercial solution: the introduction of the iTunes website and the iPod device gave users a legal method for collecting digital music files. As increasing bandwidth and memory make it easier to collect moving-image files, movies and television face similar challenges and the need for similar design solutions. One of the key tasks for information designers is to satisfy increasing demand for access to media while preserving the property rights of those who create media artifacts. 随着数字音乐文件在互联网上的交易，音乐产业在 1990 年代末经历了巨大的变革。随着 CD 销量的下降和起诉威胁的加剧，苹果公司提出了一种设计方案，包括商业解决方案：iTunes 网站和 iPod 设备的推出为用户提供了合法收集数字音乐文件的方法。随着带宽和内存的提升，收集动态影像文件变得更加容易，电影和电视也面临着类似的挑战和对相应设计方案的需求。信息设计师的一个重要任务是满足日益增长的媒体访问需求，同时保护创作者的知识产权。
The production of entertainment is also becoming more participatory, with digital recording and editing equipment, and development platforms for interactive gaming, that were formerly the prerogative of studio professionals now available at consumer prices. One result is the exponential explosion of user-generated and self-published content, often indexed by other participants through popularity ratings (figure 2.5). 娱乐制作正变得更加参与化，数字录音和编辑设备，以及曾经是工作室专业人士专属的互动游戏开发平台，如今以消费者价格提供。这导致用户生成和自我发布内容的迅猛增长，通常通过其他参与者的受欢迎程度评分进行索引（图 2.5）。
Participatory structures are increasingly being incorporated into legacy frameworks. In England, television viewers have access to a remote control with a special button for 参与性结构正逐渐被融入传统框架。在英格兰，电视观众可以通过遥控器上的一个特殊按钮来使用
Figure 2.5 图表 2.5
YouTube displays user-created videos based on popularity. YouTube 会根据视频的受欢迎程度展示用户创作的内容。
interactivity, and interactive enhancements are added to hundreds of television shows every year, giving viewers a choice of which tennis match or garden tour to watch, letting them vote for their favorite British person, inviting them to take an IQ test in sync with a live audience, or allowing them to participate in interactive stories (figure 2.6). As television merges with games and the Internet and more powerful computing is incorporated into media players of various kinds, the opportunity for inventing new participatory conventions for entertainment and for information resources will expand. 每年都有数百个电视节目增加互动性和互动增强功能，让观众可以选择观看哪个网球比赛或花园游览，投票选出自己最喜欢的英国人，邀请他们与现场观众同步进行智商测试，或参与互动故事（图 2.6）。随着电视与游戏和互联网的融合，以及更强大的计算能力被应用于各种媒体播放器，创造新的参与性娱乐和信息资源的机会将不断扩大。
Draw on HCl Concepts and Conventions 依据 HCl 的概念和规范
The discipline that is explicitly concerned with the study of the relationship between human beings and computers is human-computer interaction (HCl)(\mathrm{HCl}), which has its roots in industrial design. In fact, one of the most influential books for the interactive designers, Donald Norman’s The Design of Everyday Things (1988), hardly mentions the computer. Norman, who began as a cognitive psychologist, called attention to the importance of the mental model formed by the user based on the appearance and behavior of the object. Mental models can derive from existing conventions and past experience. For example, we expect wall switches to turn on overhead lights. But they also derive more generally from what we perceive as the affordances of the artifact, 明确关注人类与计算机之间关系的学科是人机交互 (HCl)(\mathrm{HCl}) ，它源于工业设计。实际上，对于互动设计师来说，唐纳德·诺曼的《日常事物的设计》（1988）是一本极具影响力的书籍，但书中几乎没有提到计算机。诺曼最初是一名认知心理学家，他强调用户基于物体的外观和行为形成的心理模型的重要性。心理模型可以源于现有的惯例和过去的经验。例如，我们通常期望墙壁开关能打开天花板灯。但它们也更普遍地源于我们对物品可供性（affordances）的感知。
Figure 2.6 图表 2.6
Red Button TV in Great Britain was among the first widespread interactive services to be delivered as part of the standard television package. Interactive features are accessed through a dedicated red button on the remote control, including on-demand content like news and traffic reports, local government public services, and multifeed coverage of sports events and concerts. 英国的红色按钮电视是最早作为标准电视套餐提供的广泛互动服务之一。用户可以通过遥控器上的专用红色按钮访问互动功能，包括点播内容，如新闻和交通报告、地方政府公共服务，以及体育赛事和音乐会的多路直播。
that is, the functions that the physical properties of an object make possible. Wood, for example, affords carving and burning; blackboards afford writing and erasing. Other affordances are more like cultural signals to the users, like the door handle that affords pulling, triggering the mental model that the door will move toward us in response to our action. Much of our confusion in coping with an unfamiliar environment like a hotel shower in a foreign country, or a rental car in an unfamiliar make and model, derive from poor signaling of what functions a hidden knob or mysterious gizmo affords. Mental models are particularly important for machines whose workings are usually hidden from us. We need to know not only the results of a command but 也就是说，物体的物理特性所能实现的功能。例如，木材可以被雕刻和燃烧；黑板可以用来书写和擦除。其他的可供性更像是对用户的文化信号，比如门把手可以拉动，这触发了一个心理模型，让我们认为门会在我们的动作下向我们移动。在应对陌生环境时，比如在外国的酒店淋浴或不熟悉的租车，我们的困惑往往源于对隐藏旋钮或神秘装置所能实现的功能信号不清晰。心理模型对于那些工作原理通常对我们隐藏的机器尤为重要。我们需要了解的不仅仅是命令的结果，而是
also the causal relationship: such as why a digital music player has chosen a particular song, a search engine has prioritized certain sites over others, or a computer operating system has suddenly caused all my working windows to disappear. 这就是因果关系：比如，为什么数字音乐播放器会选择某首特定的歌曲，搜索引擎为何会优先显示某些网站而非其他网站，或者计算机操作系统为何会突然让我的所有工作窗口消失。
In digital design we must ask ourselves what mental models the interactor will bring to the object. For example, if we make a computer “notepad” how far should we follow the model and mimic the affordances of the paper notepad? Should we allow the user to turn its pages? To write on the “reverse side” of a page? To tear out a page and save it separately? With machines whose workings are complicated and hidden Norman advocates the key design principle of visibility. We should be able to see what the machine is doing-not by looking at the gears, but by understanding its behavior as determined by a logical system of cause and effect. In particular, we should have clear feedback from the machine on the effects of our own actions. For example, in an operating system, the mini-animations of a clock face or an hourglass are feedback mechanisms that acknowledge our commands and indicate the machine is working on executing them. In an electronic notepad, an animation may reinforce the model of turning a page as feedback for the interactor’s gesture and reinforcement of the legacy model. 在数字设计中，我们必须思考交互者会带来怎样的心理模型。例如，如果我们设计一个计算机“记事本”，我们应该在多大程度上遵循这一模型，并模仿纸质记事本的功能？我们是否应该允许用户翻页？在一页的“反面”写字？撕下某一页并单独保存？对于那些工作复杂且不易察觉的机器，诺曼提倡一个关键的设计原则：可见性。我们应该能够看到机器的工作状态——不是通过观察齿轮，而是通过理解其行为，这种行为是由因果关系的逻辑系统决定的。特别是，我们应该从机器那里获得清晰的反馈，以了解我们自己行为的后果。 例如，在操作系统中，时钟面或沙漏的微动画是反馈机制，能够确认我们的命令并指示机器正在执行它们。在电子记事本中，动画可能会强化翻页的概念，作为对用户手势的反馈，并加强传统模型的理解。
In digital as in mechanical design, our goal should be to remove distraction, to allow the user to focus on the task at hand rather than the tool, by making the interface elements transparent, and allowing the interactor direct manipulation, as we do, for example, when we drag a file folder to the trash can. Usability is a key concept in HCI. The usability design process starts with the gathering of all the stakeholders of a system, with an understanding that there will be multiple kinds of users of the end product and multiple criteria on which that final product will be evaluated. Such a process identifies tasks and models alternate ways of performing them, relying on repeated testing and revision with small groups of users, including groups that work with paper mock-ups before anything is built. User testing often focuses on the performance of tasks, and takes quantitative data on how long it takes new or experienced users to complete them, and how many mistakes these users make in performing them. Users may also be asked to provide think-aloud protocols describing their assumptions, intentions, and reactions as they use an object, which can provide insight into the mental models they are forming. Such testing can be part of an iterative and formative evaluation in which the designers repeatedly test and redesign versions of the product. Human-centered design is an important usability concept, emphasizing the physical and cognitive capabilities and limitations of human beings. Keyboard design, for example, is the subject of ergonomic standards that take into account the size of the human hand and the positioning that creates the least strain (figure 2.7). (For more on usability guidelines, see Jakob Nielsen’s website <http://useit. com>; government guidelines at http://www.usability.gov; and the guidelines issued by the International Standards Organization at http://www.iso.org). 在数字设计和机械设计中，我们的目标应该是消除干扰，让用户能够专注于当前任务，而不是工具。我们可以通过使界面元素透明，并允许用户直接操作来实现这一点，就像我们拖动文件夹到垃圾桶时那样。可用性是人机交互中的一个关键概念。可用性设计过程始于收集系统所有利益相关者的意见，理解最终产品将有多种用户和多种评估标准。 这个过程识别任务并模拟执行这些任务的不同方式，依赖于对小组用户的反复测试和修订，包括在任何产品建造之前使用纸质模型的小组。用户测试通常关注任务的执行，收集定量数据以了解新用户或经验丰富的用户完成任务所需的时间，以及他们在执行任务时犯的错误数量。用户还可能被要求提供思维大声说出协议，描述他们在使用物体时的假设、意图和反应，这可以帮助我们理解他们正在形成的心理模型。这种测试可以作为一个迭代和形成性评估的一部分，设计师在这个过程中反复测试和重新设计产品的不同版本。 以人为本的设计是一个重要的可用性概念，强调人类的身体和认知能力及其局限性。例如，键盘设计符合人体工程学标准，这些标准考虑了手的大小以及能够减少压力的最佳位置（见图 2.7）。有关可用性指南的更多信息，请访问雅各布·尼尔森的网站；政府指南请访问 http://www.usability.gov；国际标准化组织的指南请访问 http://www.iso.org。
Figure 2.7 图表 2.7
The Microsoft Natural Ergonomic Keyboard addresses the problem of repetitive motion injuries by providing wrist support and an angled split design to create a more “natural” rotated positioning for the hands. The buttons in the middle just above and below the spacebar are dedicated to zooming in and out on and moving between web pages, reducing the need for mousing. 微软自然人体工学键盘通过提供手腕支撑和倾斜的分离设计，有效解决了重复性运动伤害的问题，使手部能够保持更“自然”的旋转姿势。空格键上方和下方的按钮专门用于放大、缩小以及在网页之间切换，从而减少了对鼠标的依赖。
Usability studies work particularly well within the model of the computer as a tool or machine, requiring a “user” whose main goal is efficiency in performing a task. But interactors can be understood in larger contexts than as tool users and task performers. They also make complex judgments about what they want to know, what they want to do, and where they want to go in the digital realm. They make these judgments based on social and cultural contexts that can resist quantification. 可用性研究在将计算机视为工具或机器的模型中特别有效，这需要一个“用户”，其主要目标是在执行任务时提高效率。然而，交互者的理解可以超越工具用户和任务执行者的范畴。他们还会对自己想了解的内容、想要做的事情以及在数字领域的去向做出复杂的判断。这些判断是基于社会和文化背景，而这些背景往往难以量化。
Social anthropology, for example, has introduced the useful concept of situated action, as a way of understanding human-computer interaction. Situated action theory sees users not as interchangeable processors of information, who all behave the same way according to pre-scripted, machine-friendly rational plans, but as uniquely positioned, complex actors whose frame of reference is shaped by the surrounding social and material world. Lucy Suchman, studying the interaction of users with copier machines in the late 1980s, demonstrated the many ways in which their model of where they were in the process of copying and binding a document at any given moment differed from the machine’s model, and from that of the Help system. Instead of asking the user to conform more fully to the machine model of a generic process, Suchman argues for an embodied and relational model, in which humans and machines are constantly reconstructing their shared understanding of the task at hand (Suchman 1987) (figures 2.8, 2.9). 社会人类学引入了“情境行动”这一有用概念，以帮助理解人机交互。情境行动理论认为，用户并不是可以互换的信息处理者，他们的行为并不总是按照预先设定的、机器友好的理性计划进行，而是独特的、复杂的参与者，他们的视角受到周围社会和物质环境的影响。露西·萨奇曼在 1980 年代末研究用户与复印机的互动，展示了用户在任何时刻对复印和装订文档过程的理解与机器模型及帮助系统模型之间存在的诸多差异。 与其要求用户完全遵循机器的通用过程模型，萨赫曼主张一种具身和关系的模型，在这种模型中，人类与机器不断重建对当前任务的共同理解（萨赫曼 1987）（图 2.8，2.9）。
Ethnographic research, grounded in cultural anthropology, is a fruitful way of looking at interactors in online social networks and virtual communities as cultural 基于文化人类学的民族志研究，是观察在线社交网络和虚拟社区中互动者作为文化的一种有效方法
Figure 2.8 图表 2.8
A GPS navigational system must understand action as situated, adjusting to the current position of the car and the driver’s real-time changes in position, rather than expecting drivers to conform to a single invariant route. GPS 导航系统必须理解行动是基于情境的，能够根据汽车的当前位置和驾驶员实时的位移进行调整，而不是期望驾驶员始终遵循一条固定的路线。
Figure 2.9 图表 2.9
YELP provides location-sensitive information, including many user reviews of the same venue, and it does so for multiple platforms, illustrating three different ways in which the same interaction can be contextualized or “situated.” YELP 提供位置相关的信息，包括许多用户对同一场所的评论，并且在多个平台上展示了同一互动可以以三种不同方式进行情境化。
Figure 2.10 图表 2.10
Celia Pearce has documented the ways in which players who were exiled from the short-lived Uru, a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORG), have reconstructed elements of the game’s culture in other online environments. Shown here is the Uru Fountain, an important gathering place, in (clockwise from upper left): Uru, There.com, Adobe Atmosphere, and Second Life. 塞莉亚·皮尔斯记录了那些被短暂存在的《乌鲁》这款大型多人在线角色扮演游戏（MMORPG）驱逐的玩家，如何在其他在线环境中重建游戏文化的元素。图中展示的是乌鲁喷泉，这是一个重要的聚集地，顺时针方向依次为：乌鲁、There.com、Adobe Atmosphere 和 Second Life。
beings, actively creating and negotiating the meaning of shared actions and objects. For example, Celia Pearce has found striking resemblances between the communitymaking behaviors of a gaming community displaced from one virtual world to another and those of similarly displaced émigré communities in the real world (Pearce 2009) (figure 2.10). 生物体积极地创造和协商共享行动和物体的意义。例如，Celia Pearce 发现，一个从一个虚拟世界转移到另一个虚拟世界的游戏社区的社区建设行为，与现实世界中类似的流亡社区的行为之间存在显著的相似性（Pearce 2009）（图 2.10）。
Another useful approach to capturing the many ways in which objects participate in systems of meaning is participatory design, which engages the potential users of a new system in every step of the design process, not merely as informants or testers but as collaborating members of the design team. Participatory design emphasizes the empowerment of marginalized stakeholders in proposed designs, such as poor people receiving a government service like a homeless shelter, workers rather than managers in a business introducing a new IT system, or people without technological expertise who are expected to be the users of a new device. Participatory 另一种有效的方法来捕捉物体在意义系统中参与的多种方式是参与式设计。这种设计方法在每个步骤中都让新系统的潜在用户参与，不仅仅是作为信息提供者或测试者，而是作为设计团队的合作成员。参与式设计强调赋权于提议设计中的边缘利益相关者，例如接受政府服务（如无家可归者收容所）的贫困人群、在引入新 IT 系统的企业中作为工人而非管理者，或是那些没有技术专长但被期望成为新设备用户的人们。
designers look to such groups as providing valuable knowledge of the relevant realworld contexts and of the core human needs underlying the design brief (Dearden, Rizvi 2008). 设计师们认为这些群体能够提供关于相关现实世界背景和设计简报中核心人类需求的宝贵知识（Dearden, Rizvi 2008）。
Individual experiences with interactive environments can vary widely from one another and from the designers’ expectations. The emotional component of interaction, which is important to understanding players’ engagement with game environments, is particularly hard to capture with experimental user testing. Players may suppress emotional information in nondirective think-aloud protocols, and directed questioning can limit responses to predetermined categories. One promising approach is to ask game players to provide feedback by manipulating evocative but nonspecific tactile figures that serve as symbols for whatever emotions the individual player associates with them (Isbister et al. 2007) (figure 2.11). 个人在互动环境中的体验可能因人而异，也可能与设计者的期望大相径庭。互动中的情感成分对于理解玩家与游戏环境的参与度至关重要，但通过实验用户测试来捕捉这一点尤其困难。玩家在非指导性的思维大声表达中可能会抑制情感信息，而有针对性的提问可能会将回答限制在预设的类别中。一种有前景的方法是让游戏玩家通过操控引发情感但不具体的触觉图形来提供反馈，这些图形象征着个别玩家与之关联的情感（Isbister et al. 2007）（图 2.11）。
Figure 2.11 图表 2.11
The Sensual Evaluation Instrument (SEI) used by Katherine Isbister and her collaborators to engage interactors in playful self-assessment of their emotional responses to computer systems. The system is composed of eight clearly differentiated, warm-to-the-touch, nonrepresentational objects created by a sculptor. The objects are meant to be appropriate to the kinds of feelings reported by interactors, such as confusion, surprise, and flow, without imposing any particular meanings. Subjects tend to associate more negative feelings with the spiky objects and more positive feelings with the smooth objects. 由凯瑟琳·伊斯比斯特及其团队开发的感性评估工具（SEI），旨在让参与者以轻松的方式自我评估他们对计算机系统的情感反应。该系统由八个明显不同、触感温暖的非具象物体组成，这些物体是由一位雕塑家创作的。它们旨在与参与者所报告的情感相匹配，如困惑、惊讶和流畅，而不强加任何特定的意义。受试者通常将尖锐的物体与更消极的情感联系在一起，而将光滑的物体与更积极的情感联系在一起。
Participation in digital environments is always part of larger social and cultural contexts that the designer should bear in mind. In part V we will be examining several social and cultural models of interaction that designers can draw on to script the interactor. 参与数字环境始终与更广泛的社会和文化背景相关，这是设计师需要考虑的。在第五部分中，我们将探讨几种设计师可以参考的社会和文化互动模型，以便为互动者设计脚本。
The Computer Is an Encyclopedic Medium 计算机是一种百科全书般的媒介
The most capacious medium ever invented, the computer can contain and transmit more information in humanly accessible form than all previous media combined. Technically, this larger capacity is a function of engineering successes in electronic circuitry, signal processing, and a symbolic system of logical codes. Since the 1960s, advances in silicon technology have led to the creation of ever-larger repositories of bits in ever-smaller and cheaper machines. In 1965, Gordon Moore noticed that new computer chips seemed to be released every eighteen to twenty-four months and that each chip doubled the processing power of the preceding one. This rapidly accelerating growth became known as Moore’s Law and has held true for almost half a century. The removable tape drives of the 1960s held two million characters each (two megabytes, or approximately two books worth of information), and were the size of a household refrigerator. By the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century we were measuring personal computer capacity in terabytes and carrying around on our key chains removable storage equivalent to dozens of those refrigerator-sized tape drives. The size of the available storage space and the ease with which it can be retrieved and displayed also has meant an expansion in the kinds of media formats that can be inscribed and transmitted as electronic bits. New technologies of signal processing have made it possible to represent audio, images, and moving images in digital form and to display them in a single environment. The phenomenon of media convergence challenges designers by creating a convergence of conflicting conventions with which to structure information. The encyclopedic capacity of the medium raises the expectations of the designer and the interactor, making it important to communicate the limits of any collection, and to make clear decisions on what lies inside and outside of the project’s scope (figure 2.12). 计算机是有史以来最能容纳信息的媒介，它能够以人类可理解的形式存储和传输的信息量超过所有之前的媒介总和。从技术角度来看，这种更大的容量源于电子电路、信号处理和逻辑代码符号系统的工程成功。自 1960 年代以来，硅技术的进步使得越来越大的比特存储库在越来越小且更便宜的机器中得以实现。1965 年，戈登·摩尔注意到新的计算机芯片似乎每 18 到 24 个月就会发布一次，并且每个芯片的处理能力都比前一个翻了一番。这种快速增长被称为摩尔定律，近半个世纪以来一直保持有效。 1960 年代的可拆卸磁带驱动器每个可存储两百万个字符（约两兆字节，相当于两本书的信息），其体积与家用冰箱相当。到 21 世纪第一个十年末，我们开始以太字节为单位来衡量个人计算机的存储容量，并在钥匙链上携带相当于数十个冰箱大小的可拆卸存储设备。可用存储空间的大小以及检索和显示的便利性，促使了可以刻录和传输的媒体格式种类的扩展。新的信号处理技术使得以数字形式表示音频、图像和动态图像成为可能，并能够在同一环境中展示它们。 媒体融合现象通过将冲突的惯例融合在一起，给设计师带来了挑战，以便更好地构建信息。媒介的百科全书式能力提高了设计师和用户的期望，因此，清晰地沟通任何集合的界限变得至关重要，并且需要明确决定项目的范围内外的内容（图 2.12）。
I use the word “encyclopedic” to refer to both a technical and cultural phenomenon: to the unequalled storage potential of the new medium and to its promise of an infinite tablet, a library as big as the world. As a culturally encyclopedic medium the computer inherits age-old traditions of human culture, expressive of our core need to collect, preserve, and transmit knowledge across generations. Homer’s epics, for example, include encyclopedic set pieces, such as a lengthy catalog of ships, similar to lists in other bardic works of preliterate orature. With the advent of a written alphabet the encyclopedic impulse appeared in scrolls of magical spells, detailed histories, Aristotle’s knowledge compendia, and Pliny’s thirty-seven-“book” survey of 我用“百科全书式”这个词来指代一种技术和文化现象：新媒介无与伦比的存储潜力，以及它所承诺的无限平板，一个如同世界般庞大的图书馆。作为一种文化百科全书式的媒介，计算机继承了人类文化的悠久传统，体现了我们收集、保存和跨代传递知识的核心需求。例如，荷马的史诗中包含了百科全书式的片段，如一份冗长的船只目录，这与其他无文字口述作品中的列表相似。随着书写字母的出现，百科全书式的冲动出现在魔法咒语的卷轴、详细的历史记录、亚里士多德的知识汇编以及普林尼的三十七本“书”的调查中。
Figure 2.12 图表 2.12
The “My Life Bits” Project is an attempt to record the life of Gordon Bell, a Microsoft researcher, as completely as possible, including photographs, video, and audio recordings of events as they happen. The challenge it poses is how to annotate such a wealth of data so that it can be retrieved. Merely recording everything would be similar to recording nothing, since human memory relies on forgetting and selecting. See http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/mylifebits. “我的生活片段”项目旨在尽可能全面地记录微软研究员戈登·贝尔的生活，包括事件发生时的照片、视频和音频录音。这个项目面临的挑战是如何对如此丰富的数据进行标注，以便于检索。单纯地记录一切就像什么都没记录，因为人类的记忆依赖于遗忘和选择。详情请见 http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/mylifebits。
“Natural History” published in the first century A.D. With the invention of the printing press, the accumulation of knowledge took on new, standardized forms, from scientific treatises to picaresque novels. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica felt confident enough to attempt an alphabetical survey of all of human knowledge, a project that lasted for two hundred years, with increasing numbers of volumes, and served as a respected and useful reference work for shared authoritative knowledge until overtaken at the turn of the twenty-first century by Internet information resources. The human encyclopedic aspiration is also reflected in data collection, for example census taking; in narrative traditions, such as Shakespeare’s history plays and the novels of Charles Dickens, Honoré de Balzac, and George Eliot; and in the increasing development of film and television series that 《自然历史》于公元一世纪出版。随着印刷机的发明，知识的积累以新的标准化形式出现，从科学论文到流浪汉小说。到十八世纪中叶，《大英百科全书》的编辑们自信地尝试对人类知识进行字母顺序的整理，这一项目持续了两百年，出版的卷数不断增加，成为一个受人尊敬且实用的参考书，为共享的权威知识提供服务，直到在二十一世纪初被互联网信息资源所取代。人类对知识的渴望也体现在数据收集上，比如人口普查；在叙事传统中，如莎士比亚的历史剧，以及查尔斯·狄更斯、奥诺雷·德·巴尔扎克和乔治·艾略特的小说；还有电影和电视剧的不断发展
follow multiple related characters and stories across time and space. All of these legacy genres are encyclopedic in scope, presenting sweeping panoramas and close-up detail of a particular complex society at a particular moment. Their strategies of organization are part of the rich palette of media conventions that the designer can draw upon to create encyclopedic digital artifacts. 追随多个相关角色和故事，穿越时间与空间。这些传统类型在范围上如同百科全书，展现了特定复杂社会在特定时刻的广阔全景与细致细节。它们的组织策略是设计师可以借鉴的丰富媒体惯例调色板的一部分，用以创造百科全书式的数字文物。
The designer can also draw upon the conventions of emerging encyclopedic digital genres: vast databases such as world health surveys, stock market prices, soccer statistics, and recordings of electromagnetic impulses collected by spaceships exploring distant planets; massively multiplayer virtual worlds in which hundreds of thousands of people share a common landscape; a World Wide Web of “pages” describing everything in the world that can be captured in text, image, or sound; participatory information structures like Wikipedia that are created by multiple contributors acting independently within a common information structure; maps and satellite image systems that reproduce the whole earth in navigable form at multiple levels of granularity. The creation of encyclopedic networked resources will be a continuing challenge for digital design, posing the problem of how to shape our expanding capacity into coherent genres so that we can access information without being overwhelmed. 设计师还可以借鉴新兴的百科数字体裁的惯例：庞大的数据库，如世界健康调查、股市价格、足球统计数据，以及由探索遥远行星的宇宙飞船收集的电磁脉冲记录；数以万计的人共享共同景观的大型多人虚拟世界；一个描述世界上所有可以用文本、图像或声音捕捉的事物的“页面”的万维网；像维基百科这样的参与性信息结构，由多个独立贡献者在共同的信息框架中创建；再现整个地球的可导航地图和卫星图像系统，具有多层次的细节。 创建百科全书式的网络资源将是数字设计面临的持续挑战，这带来了如何将我们不断扩大的能力整合成连贯的形式，以便我们能够在不被信息淹没的情况下进行访问的问题。
Draw on Information Science Concepts and Conventions 依托信息科学的概念与规范
The exponential increase in information presents us with the challenge of finding more powerful means to organize it than the ones we have developed for legacy media. In doing so we can build on the methods of information science, which are themselves changing to accommodate the convergence of libraries, document archives, and museums. Information science is faced with the task of inventing the transmission technologies-the common standards for preserving, describing, cataloging, and accessing an exponentially expanding global knowledge base, the vast repository of human culture in all its artifactual manifestations. 信息的快速增长给我们带来了挑战，我们需要寻找比传统媒体所用的更有效的组织方式。在这个过程中，我们可以借鉴信息科学的方法，而这些方法也在不断演变，以适应图书馆、档案馆和博物馆的融合。信息科学的任务是发明传输技术——制定共同标准，以便保存、描述、编目和访问一个不断扩大的全球知识库，这个知识库是人类文化在各种物质形式中的庞大宝库。
The digital medium differs from legacy media in that it can store the artifact itselfthe equivalent of the book, the audio tape, the film canister-as well as a description of the artifact, and it can link one to the other. The Google Book Search Library Project (http://books.google.com) is digitizing millions of volumes and making them directly searchable in the same way that web pages are searchable (figure 2.13). As scholarly journals, newspapers, magazines, and books move to digital delivery formats it will become increasingly possible to archive them in a manner that makes them open to free text searches for words and phrases. But free text search of large information resources (like typing words into a web search engine) produces too much information. The ability to find every mention of the word “freedom,” for example, in every book in the Library of Congress is a daunting prospect. The challenge for designers 数字媒介与传统媒体的区别在于，它不仅可以存储文物本身——相当于书籍、音频带和胶卷罐——还可以存储文物的描述，并将两者相互链接。谷歌图书搜索图书馆项目（http://books.google.com）正在数字化数百万本书籍，并以与网页相同的方式使其可以直接搜索（见图 2.13）。随着学术期刊、报纸、杂志和书籍逐渐转向数字交付格式，越来越有可能以开放的方式存档这些资料，从而支持对单词和短语的自由文本搜索。然而，对大型信息资源进行自由文本搜索（就像在网络搜索引擎中输入单词一样）往往会产生过多的信息。 比如，在国会图书馆的每一本书中找到“自由”这个词的所有提及，这是一项非常艰巨的任务。设计师所面临的挑战
Figure 2.13 图表 2.13
Google Books has scanned over seven million books held in research libraries, and it provides an online search that returns titles, images, and full or partial access to the text, depending on copyrights. It can also search for words and phrases within a single book. 谷歌图书已扫描超过七百万本存放在研究图书馆的书籍，并提供在线搜索功能，能够返回书名、图片以及根据版权情况提供的全文或部分文本访问。它还可以在单本书中搜索单词和短语。
is determining how to organize information so that it is retrievable in a coherent form that minimizes confusion and maximizes understanding. 正在确定如何组织信息，以便以一种清晰的方式进行检索，从而减少混淆并增强理解。
One of the key affordances of moving encyclopedic resources to digital form is the ability to index and retrieve information at multiple levels of granularity. We can search or browse by titles of books or by chapter headings or single words within multiple 100,000-word texts. We can retrieve whole books, or particular pages within a book. Furthermore, when we bring multiple media into a single format we have a chance to rethink the segmentation conventions with which we index, retrieve, and display them. Should films be accessed by title, chapter, shot, or frame? Or perhaps by line of dialog? When we make new resources for digital delivery we have the opportunity to segment information for the screen, and to avoid physical interruptions-like the end of a page-of sections that should be kept together by content. Design of encyclopedic resources involves active decision making on granularity and segmentation conventions, and careful assignment of appropriate labels. 将百科全书资源转为数字形式的一个重要优势是能够在多个层次上索引和检索信息。我们可以通过书名、章节标题或在多个 10 万字的文本中搜索单个词汇来进行搜索或浏览。我们可以获取整本书或书中的特定页面。此外，当我们将多种媒体整合为一种格式时，我们有机会重新思考用于索引、检索和展示它们的分段方式。电影应该通过标题、章节、镜头还是帧来访问？或者通过对话的台词呢？ 当我们为数字交付创建新资源时，我们有机会对屏幕上的信息进行分段，避免因页面末尾等物理中断而将应当保持在一起的内容分开。设计百科全书资源需要积极决策粒度和分段的标准，并仔细分配合适的标签。
An important goal of archive design is support for intellectual access to individual artifacts, that is, retrieval of the appropriate item not by its size or shape or media type or donor’s name, but by the relevant conceptual terms. This usually involves an 档案设计的一个重要目标是支持对单个文物的知识性访问，也就是说，检索适当的项目不是通过其大小、形状、媒体类型或捐赠者的名字，而是通过相关的概念术语。这通常涉及到一个
act of classification, of assigning objects to standardized categories, often through the use of metadata. Classification involves establishing controlled vocabularies, words that everyone agrees to use in the same way to refer to a class of artifacts. The subject index of the Library of Congress is a controlled vocabulary, as is the Getty Art and Architecture Thesaurus, which provides a taxonomy for everything from arches to urns. The virtue of a controlled vocabulary is that it allows us to juxtapose separate items that relate to one another by virtue of the fact that they carry the same label. In a library environment the number of labels by which we can juxtapose individual units of information is limited. We can sort them onto separate shelves, and we can cross-reference the shelves by assigning multiple subject labels. But one book can only be in one place at a time, and so can one index card describing the book. If a book is to be listed by various subjects it must have separate cards for each one, which limits the number of entries per book. But a digital artifact can be called up in multiple contexts without having to be duplicated. It takes up no more room in the computer’s memory, although it may appear on hundreds of virtual shelves. Every query to a search engine constructs a new shelf, customized to the individual searcher. 分类是将对象分配到标准化类别的过程，通常通过元数据来实现。分类需要建立受控词汇，即大家一致同意以相同方式使用的词汇，来指代某一类文物。国会图书馆的主题索引和盖蒂艺术与建筑词汇表都是受控词汇，它们为从拱门到 urn 的各种事物提供了分类法。受控词汇的优点在于，它使我们能够将那些因相同标签而相互关联的独立项目进行对比。在图书馆环境中，我们可以用来对比单个信息单元的标签数量是有限的。 我们可以将它们分类到不同的书架上，并通过分配多个主题标签来进行交叉引用。然而，一本书在任何时候只能放在一个地方，描述这本书的索引卡也是如此。如果一本书要按不同的主题列出，就必须为每个主题准备单独的卡片，这限制了每本书的条目数量。而数字文献可以在多个上下文中调用，而无需重复存储。它在计算机内存中不会占用更多空间，尽管它可能出现在数百个虚拟书架上。每次对搜索引擎的查询都会创建一个新的书架，专门为每位搜索者量身定制。
The values of information science are concerned with minimizing ambiguity and maximizing accessibility. A well-designed information structure is open-ended and can accept new elements without confusion about where they will be placed. It provides a means of finding items without memorizing the controlled vocabulary words, either by providing them as a navigation system, as in the stacks of a library, or by offering an intermediary-human or mechanical—who can find the right label when offered a synonym or related term. With the right labels attached to the right items, we can find any needle in the rapidly expanding global haystack. But our methods for labeling items of information are lagging behind our technologies for retrieving and juxtaposing them. Designers in the twenty-first century are faced with the need to bridge this gap, and must find new ways to maximize the power of the digital environment to retrieve information with precision and to juxtapose information from varying sources in coherent ways. We will explore these approaches further in part IV. 信息科学的核心价值在于减少模糊性和提高可获取性。一个设计良好的信息结构是开放的，能够无缝地接纳新元素，而不会造成放置上的混乱。它提供了一种查找项目的方式，无需记住受控词汇，既可以作为导航系统，比如图书馆的书架，也可以通过一个中介——无论是人还是机械——在提供同义词或相关术语时找到合适的标签。只要将正确的标签附在合适的项目上，我们就能在迅速扩展的全球信息海洋中找到任何针。然而，我们的信息标记方法却未能跟上检索和对比技术的发展。 二十一世纪的设计师需要弥合这一差距，必须找到新的方法来充分利用数字环境的力量，以精确检索信息，并将来自不同来源的信息以连贯的方式进行对比。我们将在第四部分进一步探讨这些方法。
The Computer Is a Spatial Medium 计算机是一种空间载体
Since space and time are the two foundational coordinates of human cognition, we experience everything spatially and we have many genres for representing it, such as paintings, sculpture, architectural plans, and film. But the computer constructs space in a different way from other media: it creates virtual spaces that are also navigable by the interactor. Digital space is created out of bits rather than bricks, and it rests upon the procedural and participatory affordances of computation: it is navigable because it responds to our navigational gestures in a consistent manner. 由于空间和时间是人类认知的两个基本坐标，我们以空间的方式体验一切，并且有许多表现空间的艺术形式，如绘画、雕塑、建筑设计和电影。然而，计算机构建空间的方式与其他媒体不同：它创造了可以被用户导航的虚拟空间。数字空间是由比特而非砖块构成的，依赖于计算的程序性和参与性特征：它之所以可导航，是因为它以一致的方式响应我们的导航手势。
Figure 2.14 图表 2.14
The Xerox Star (1981) was the first commercially produced computer with a GUI (graphical user interface). It included icons for files and windows for applications and it was mouse driven, which became standard features of the familiar desktop interface. There was no fixed desktop menu; the keyboard had several dedicated function keys. The mouse was used to select an icon, but a physical “Move” key was used to reposition it, in contrast to the later click-and-drag convention. The functionality of the interface is well documented in videos available at <http://www.digibarn. com >> or <http://video.google.com>>. 施乐星（1981 年）是第一台商业化生产的图形用户界面（GUI）计算机。它配备了文件图标和应用程序窗口，并通过鼠标进行操作，这些都成为了我们熟悉的桌面界面的标准特征。它没有固定的桌面菜单，键盘上有几个专用功能键。用户通过鼠标选择图标，但需要使用一个物理的“移动”键来重新定位图标，这与后来的点击拖动方式有所不同。该界面的功能在可用的视频中有详细记录，网址为< http://www.digibarn.com >> 或 < http://video.google.com >> 。
The spatial affordance of the computer does not rest on its ability to present us with images of real-world spaces (Murray 1997): for example, we perceive web pages as occupying “sites” that we “visit.” But the addition of spatializing images to computer displays has been an important part of the evolution of information organization. The familiar desktop graphical user interface, the world’s most successful GUI, was invented at Xerox PARC in the 1970s, further developed by Apple Computer as the commercially successful Macintosh in 1984, and fully established as the dominant world standard when it was deployed in a robust PC version in 1995. The objects and the space that make up the computer desktop-the file folders, windows, manipulable icons, and menus-were developed over time, not as literal reproductions of physical objects, but as abstractions that include only those spatial properties that reinforce their functions as chunks of information and programming code (figures 2.14-2.16). Computer file folders have customizable labels like real file folders but they are not depicted as vertical objects stacked in wooden drawers. Because there is no need to mimic the extraneous tasks of the physical world, like opening a drawer, we can focus our attention on the placement of the file within the hierarchy formed by the labels. The desktop GUI is now so well established that it is regularly lamented as too limited, 计算机的空间可供性并不依赖于其展示真实世界空间图像的能力（Murray 1997）：例如，我们将网页视为我们“访问”的“地点”。然而，将空间化图像添加到计算机显示器中是信息组织演变的重要组成部分。熟悉的桌面图形用户界面，世界上最成功的 GUI，最初是在 1970 年代的施乐 PARC 发明的，随后在 1984 年由苹果公司发展为商业上成功的 Macintosh，并在 1995 年以强大的 PC 版本推出时完全确立为全球主导标准。 组成计算机桌面的对象和空间——如文件夹、窗口、可操作的图标和菜单——是随着时间发展而来的，它们并不是物理对象的简单复制，而是只包含那些强化其作为信息块和编程代码功能的空间属性的抽象（见图 2.14-2.16）。计算机文件夹有可自定义的标签，类似于真实的文件夹，但它们并不是以垂直物体的形式堆叠在木抽屉中。由于没有必要模仿物理世界中的多余操作，比如打开抽屉，我们可以将注意力集中在文件在标签所形成的层级中的位置上。现在桌面图形用户界面已经非常成熟，以至于人们常常觉得它过于局限
Figure 2.15 图表 2.15
Apple Lisa GUI (1983) includes windows, files, icons (including the trash can), and a (rather verbose) top menu bar. The operating system, called Desktop Manager, was document driven like the Xerox Star, rather than application driven like the later Macintosh. To create a new document the user would “tear off” a new piece of virtual “Stationery.” Applications (or “tools” as they were called) like word processors would start up only when documents were opened and were otherwise hidden from the end-user within the operating system. 苹果丽莎 GUI（1983 年）包含窗口、文件、图标（包括垃圾桶）和一个（相当冗长的）顶部菜单栏。操作系统称为桌面管理器，像施乐星际一样以文档为中心，而不是像后来的麦金塔那样以应用程序为中心。用户创建新文档时，可以“撕下”一张新的虚拟“文具”。像文字处理器这样的应用程序（或称为“工具”）只有在打开文档时才会启动，平时在操作系统中对用户是隐藏的。
Figure 2.16 图表 2.16
The Apple Macintosh GUI (1984) included windows, files, click-and-dragging of icons, and a menu bar at the top. The Macintosh, inspired by the Xerox Star, initiated the full WIMP interface we have come to think of as the standard for personal computers and workstations. 苹果麦金塔图形用户界面（1984 年）包含窗口、文件、图标的点击与拖动，以及顶部的菜单栏。麦金塔受到施乐星的启发，开启了我们如今视为个人计算机和工作站标准的完整 WIMP 界面。
and even denigrated with the acronym WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointing devices), but it has yet to be superseded, although web browsers, mobile devices, and entertainment systems offer partial alternatives. 甚至被贬低为 WIMP（窗口、图标、菜单、指点设备）的缩写，但至今仍未被完全取代，尽管网络浏览器、移动设备和娱乐系统提供了一些部分替代方案。
By the 2000s proliferation of applications on the personal computer led to the addition of a “dock” at the bottom of the desktop screen, an abstraction of the function of docking a ship that allows users to park favorite applications in easy reach of top-level pointing. Desktops, windows, sites, tabs, and docks all occupy very different frameworks in the real world. We don’t find file folders floating with yachts, or windows arranged in tabs within our physical world. But as abstractions of spatial functions these conventions have proved to be learnable and are now transparent to users. However, the space of applets on mobile devices remains disorganized and will no doubt be an active focus of design in coming years. 到了 2000 年代，个人电脑上应用程序的激增促使桌面屏幕底部增加了一个“停靠栏”，这是停靠船只功能的抽象，允许用户将最喜欢的应用程序方便地停放在触手可及的地方。桌面、窗口、网站、标签和停靠栏在现实世界中占据了截然不同的框架。我们不会看到文件夹与游艇漂浮在一起，或者窗口在物理世界中以标签的形式排列。然而，作为空间功能的抽象，这些约定已被证明是可以学习的，现在对用户来说是透明的。然而，移动设备上小程序的空间仍然显得杂乱无章，毫无疑问，这将在未来几年成为设计的一个重要焦点。
Some of the earliest applications of computers, even before the wide availability of graphical displays, were spatial applications including Spacewar! (1962), the first action video game, and the Aspen Movie Map (1978), which preceded the Google Street View by two decades (figures 2.17, 2.18). Digital technologies have developed the two-dimensional screen into increasingly realized three-dimensional spaces, both for conventional movies and for interactive environments. For example we can fly through highly detailed models of real places like Disney World (figure 2.19), virtual 计算机的一些最早应用，甚至在图形显示广泛普及之前，就包括了《太空战争！》（1962 年）这款第一款动作视频游戏和《阿斯彭电影地图》（1978 年），后者比谷歌街景早了二十年（见图 2.17，2.18）。数字技术将二维屏幕发展为越来越真实的三维空间，既用于传统电影，也用于互动环境。例如，我们可以在像迪士尼乐园（见图 2.19）这样的真实地点的高度详细模型中飞行，虚拟。
Figure 2.17 图表 2.17
The Spacewar! game created for the PDP-1 computer (1962) was the first representational video game. It was created as a demonstration of the new graphics system by a group of researchers who were avid pinball players and science fiction fans (Graetz 1981). 为 PDP-1 计算机（1962）开发的《太空战争！》游戏是第一个具象视频游戏。它是由一群热爱弹球和科幻小说的研究人员创建的，旨在展示新图形系统（Graetz 1981）。
Figure 2.18 图表 2.18
Aspen Movie Map (1978) one of the first demonstration projects of the group led by Nicholas Negroponte and Andy Lippman that went on to found the MIT Media Lab. It made use of early optical videodisk inscription to create a computer-driven, interactive experience simulating a drive through parts of Aspen, Colorado, including the ability to make right-angle turns. In 2007, Google Street View introduced a similar interaction pattern. 阿斯彭电影地图（1978 年）是由尼古拉斯·尼葛洛庞帝和安迪·利普曼领导的小组开发的第一个演示项目之一，该小组后来成立了麻省理工学院媒体实验室。该项目利用早期的光学视频盘技术，创造了一种计算机驱动的互动体验，模拟在科罗拉多州阿斯彭地区的驾驶体验，包括进行直角转弯的功能。2007 年，谷歌街景推出了类似的互动模式。
Figure 2.19 图表 2.19
Fly-through of Disney World 3D model in Google Earth. 在谷歌地球中飞越迪士尼乐园的 3D 模型。
communities like Second Life, and inaccessible abstracted places like a detailed model of the inside of a cell or a chemical molecule (figure 2.20). As with video games, we can often switch camera positions within these environments and zoom in and out from overview to close-up. Such environments can be both captivating and overwhelming. Designers face challenges in providing a consistent model of the space as a whole and in making individual areas memorable and findable (Nitsche 2008). These challenges are similar to the design problems of filmmakers, landscape architects, and urban planners, combining problems of layout with consideration of point of view. 像第二人生这样的社区，以及细胞内部或化学分子的详细模型等难以接触的抽象场所（见图 2.20）。与视频游戏一样，我们通常可以在这些环境中切换摄像机位置，并在全景与特写之间进行缩放。这些环境既迷人又让人感到不知所措。设计师面临着提供整个空间一致性模型的挑战，同时还要确保各个区域既令人难忘又易于找到（Nitsche 2008）。这些挑战与电影制作人、景观建筑师和城市规划师所面临的设计问题相似，涉及布局问题和视角的考虑。
Draw on Visual Design Concepts and Conventions 依托视觉设计的概念与规范
The visual organization of digital environments should reflect the core principles of good graphic design, including the design values of contrast and regularity, which allow us to focus the interactor’s attention on the key informational elements and their relationship to one another. For example, we establish table-like grids for web pages and assign specific horizontal and vertical areas to specific purposes such as a site logo, a navigation menu, or a news box. Regularity of proximity, size, color, and font allows users to recognize similar items and to distinguish dissimilar items from one another (figures 2.21,2.222.21,2.22 ). 数字环境的视觉组织应体现良好图形设计的核心原则，包括对比和规律性的设计价值，这有助于我们将用户的注意力集中在关键信息元素及其相互关系上。例如，我们为网页创建类似表格的网格，并将特定的水平和垂直区域分配给特定的功能，如网站徽标、导航菜单或新闻框。接近度、大小、颜色和字体的一致性使用户能够识别相似的项目，并区分不同的项目（图 2.21,2.222.21,2.22 ）。
Because we are attuned to the spatial characteristics of digital environments, users assume that spatial positioning is meaningful and related to function. If an item calls attention to itself with a different color or size we will try to touch it or click 由于我们对数字环境的空间特性非常敏感，用户往往认为空间位置是有意义的，并与功能相关。如果某个物品以不同的颜色或大小吸引了我们的注意，我们会尝试去触摸或点击它。
Figure 2.20 图表 2.20
Three-dimensional, navigable visualization from the Allosphere, a huge scientific visualization facility similar to a planetarium, designed by JoAnn Kuchera-Morin at the University of California in Santa Barbara. Image is from an informational video at http://www.allosphere.ucsb.edu. Such installations hold the promise of new insight into otherwise unobservable phenomena, and they pose new challenges for the navigation of three-dimensional space. 三维可导航可视化来自 Allosphere，这是一个类似于天文馆的巨大科学可视化设施，由加州大学圣巴巴拉分校的 JoAnn Kuchera-Morin 设计。图像来源于 http://www.allosphere.ucsb.edu 上的一段信息视频。这种装置有望为那些无法观察的现象提供新的见解，同时也对三维空间的导航提出了新的挑战。
on it, assuming that it has some behavior or link associated with it. If two items are next to one another on a list we will assume that they are parallel and behave in similar ways. Designers must therefore be careful not to introduce purely decorative elements that resemble icons or linked text. Such items trigger expectations of interactivity and lead to user frustration when they do not respond to the user. 假设它具有某种行为或相关链接。如果列表中的两个项目相邻，我们会认为它们是平行的，并且表现相似。因此，设计师必须小心，不要引入纯粹装饰性的元素，这些元素看起来像图标或链接文本。这些项目会引发用户的互动期望，而当它们没有响应时，会导致用户感到沮丧。
Good graphic design matches visual elements with the meaning they are meant to convey, avoiding distraction and maximizing meaning. Graphic presentation of information can help to explain relationships and serve as an aid to brainstorming and discussing structure at every stage of the design process. Even those who are not good at sketching can use the organizing power of graphic design to clarify and communicate complex ideas by making use of graphic design software, including the many free charting and visualization programs available on the web. Information designer Edward Tufte, an influential exponent of the explanatory power of graphics, refers to extraneous decorative detail as “chartjunk” and insists that all the aspects of an image serve to convey salient information (Tufte 1983), such as magnitude, time, and causality. By these standards, Tufte has identified Charles Joseph Minard’s 1869 优秀的图形设计能够将视觉元素与其所要传达的意义相结合，避免分散注意力，最大化信息的表达。信息的图形化呈现有助于解释关系，并在设计过程的各个阶段作为头脑风暴和讨论结构的辅助工具。即使是不擅长绘图的人，也可以借助图形设计软件的组织能力，通过使用许多免费的在线图表和可视化程序，来清晰地表达和传达复杂的想法。 信息设计师爱德华·塔夫特，作为图形解释力的有影响力的倡导者，将多余的装饰细节称为“图表垃圾”，并强调图像的所有元素都应传达重要信息（塔夫特 1983），例如大小、时间和因果关系。根据这些标准，图夫特指出查尔斯·约瑟夫·米纳德在 1869 年的作品
Figure 2.21 图表 2.21 Amazon.com provides a great deal of coherent information on this page by using a grid that places navigational menus in the left-hand column, individual thumbnails of books in their own uniform grid within the middle column, and promotional displays in the right-hand column. The generous white space makes the page more readable and less aggressive. The banner at the top of the page includes the standard conventions of shopping cart and account access but is minimized to focus attention below. 亚马逊网站通过一个网格布局提供了丰富而连贯的信息：左侧列放置导航菜单，中间列展示书籍缩略图，右侧列则是促销展示。宽敞的白色空间使页面更易于阅读，显得不那么压迫。页面顶部的横幅包含购物车和账户访问的常规元素，但经过简化，以便更好地吸引用户的注意力。
map of Napoleon’s campaign against Russia as “probably the best statistical graph ever made” because it conveys so many aspects of a complex event in a single unified presentation, including the geographical route of the army in advance and retreat, the size of the army at each point in the journey, and severe winter temperatures (figure 2.23). 拿破仑对俄罗斯的战役地图被誉为“可能是有史以来最优秀的统计图表”，因为它在一个统一的展示中传达了复杂事件的多个方面，包括军队在进攻和撤退过程中的地理路线、旅程中每个时刻的军队规模，以及严酷的冬季气温（图 2.23）。
Tufte’s focus is on visual design, not as an end in itself, but as a means to communicate unambiguous information. Digital designers must be equally conscious of the weight of each design choice and equally critical of the merely decorative. But the culturally informed designer is also skeptical of claims to impartial factuality and to a simple one-to-one correspondence of code to meaning. As Tufte points out, the Minard map reflects antiwar values in its selection of details: it does not include the name “Napoleon” and is designed to dramatize the contrast between the large number of soldiers who began the campaign and the few who returned. Furthermore, the inclusion of so many data points does not mean that the presentation is 图夫特强调视觉设计的重点不在于其本身，而是作为传达明确无误信息的手段。数字设计师必须同样意识到每个设计选择的重要性，并对那些仅仅是装饰性的设计保持批判态度。然而，受文化影响的设计师对声称的客观事实以及代码与意义之间简单的一对一对应关系也持怀疑态度。正如图夫特所指出的，米纳尔地图在细节选择上反映了反战的价值观：它没有提到“拿破仑”这个名字，旨在戏剧化开始战役的众多士兵与返回的少数士兵之间的对比。此外，包含如此多的数据点并不意味着展示是
Figure 2.22 图表 2.22
This site, like Amazon.com, is a three-column grid, but less well organized, with a mixture of digital elements and reproduced print elements. The navigation is confusing and the advertisements poorly separated from the editorial content. Stronger content is hidden at the bottom of the page, which visitors are unlikely to scroll to. 这个网站像亚马逊一样，采用三列网格布局，但组织较差，混合了数字元素和复印的印刷元素。导航设计令人困惑，广告与编辑内容之间的分隔不够明显。更重要的内容被隐藏在页面底部，访客不太可能滚动到那里。
Figure 2.23 图表 2.23
Charles Joseph Minard’s 1869 map of Napoleon’s invasion of and retreat from Russia, which Edward Tufte has called “probably the best statistical graph ever made.” The brown lines were originally red, and represent the soldiers’ progress from France to Russia; the black line represents the return. The thickness of the lines indicates the size of the force. 查尔斯·约瑟夫·米纳尔于 1869 年绘制的拿破仑入侵和撤退俄罗斯的地图，被爱德华·塔夫特称为“可能是有史以来最优秀的统计图表”。棕色线条最初为红色，表示士兵从法国到俄罗斯的行进；黑线则表示返回。线条的粗细反映了部队的规模。
comprehensive. For example, Minard does not include statistics on the casualties among the Russians or the income level of Napoleon’s soldiers, or the number of fatherless children they may have left behind. 综合来看，米纳尔并未提供关于俄罗斯士兵伤亡人数的统计，也没有涉及拿破仑士兵的收入水平或他们可能留下的无父儿童的数量。
The genre of statistical presentation is itself a reflection of cultural values characteristic of Minard’s time, which saw a great growth of census taking and bureaucratic data gathering. Quantitative displays are important tools for understanding complex events, but they can prevent us from framing more open-ended questions. If we are to assess Minard’s map as a comment upon the costs of war we might compare it to work in other genres, such Tolstoy’s War and Peace (1869) which takes a great deal more space to cover some of the same ground from the Russian perspective, or Picasso’s Guernica (1937), an abstract image memorializing civilian victims of fascist bombing in the Spanish Civil War. Minard’s graphic is a powerful representation of the event, but it is not necessarily more informative or objective than other media artifacts, though its use of numbers may give it the appearance of impartial and comprehensive authority. 统计展示的类型反映了米纳尔时代的文化价值观，那时人口普查和官僚数据收集迅速增长。定量展示是理解复杂事件的重要工具，但有时会限制我们提出更开放的问题。如果我们将米纳尔的地图视为对战争成本的评论，可以将其与其他类型的作品进行比较，比如托尔斯泰的《战争与和平》（1869），它从俄罗斯的视角花费了更多篇幅来探讨相似的主题，或者毕加索的《格尔尼卡》（1937），这幅抽象画作纪念了西班牙内战中法西斯轰炸的平民受害者。 米纳德的图形生动地展示了这一事件，但它并不一定比其他媒体作品更具信息性或客观性，尽管其使用数字可能让人觉得它具有公正和全面的权威性。
Since the digital medium is more than a conveyer of quantitative information, aesthetic and stylistic strategies are an important part of the designer’s craft. Strategies that would work well in a paper poster can result in static and self-referential design in a participatory environment, so designers must remember that no element can be beautiful if it interferes with agency. But many poster-based strategies, like the grid, can be adapted to digital formats. The key to good design is to integrate the aesthetic elements so that they serve the meaning of the artifact and support (rather than distract from) interaction (figure 2.24). 数字媒介不仅仅是定量信息的传递工具，审美和风格策略是设计师工艺的重要组成部分。在纸质海报中有效的策略可能会在参与环境中导致静态和自我指涉的设计，因此设计师必须记住，任何元素如果干扰了用户的自主性，就无法被视为美丽。然而，许多基于海报的策略，如网格，可以适应数字格式。良好设计的关键在于整合审美元素，使其服务于作品的意义，并支持（而不是分散）互动（图 2.24）。
Graphic design in digital environments must always be in the service of interaction. Designers should therefore avoid purely decorative clutter, but they should also resist the seductions of extreme minimalism. The minimalist style adopted by graphic designers in the late twentieth century limited the number of colors and valued smaller fonts over larger ones. This aesthetic of understatement is an understandable reaction to the overly commercial, overly emphatic, visual shouting of the advertising and mass entertainment environments. The softer voice of the art poster or intellectual book jacket—a style soon co-opted by upscale advertising—draws attention to itself by its restraint. But minimalism can interfere with clear communication when the poster or printed page is so faint and the typeface is so small that the words cannot be read, and the problem is exacerbated in interactive environments where the user is looking for cues to how to behave or to what the computer is doing or how the information is organized. An interactive artifact may have great visual authority but will not be well made if the visual elements do not support the interactive function. A Macintosh may be delightful to look at but if the on/off switch is so elegantly hidden that infrequent users can’t find it, then visual design values have been allowed to subvert acceptable interaction design. 数字环境中的图形设计必须始终服务于互动。因此，设计师应避免纯粹的装饰性杂乱，同时也要抵制极简主义的诱惑。20 世纪末，图形设计师所采用的极简风格限制了颜色的使用，并更倾向于使用小字体而非大字体。这种低调的美学是对广告和大众娱乐环境中过于商业化和过于喧嚣的视觉表现的合理反应。艺术海报或知识性书籍封面的柔和风格——这种风格很快被高档广告所借用——通过其克制的表现吸引了人们的注意。 但极简主义可能会妨碍清晰的沟通，尤其是当海报或印刷页面过于模糊，字体过小，以至于无法阅读时。在互动环境中，这个问题会更加严重，因为用户在寻找如何操作的线索，或者计算机正在做什么，或者信息是如何组织的。一个互动产品可能在视觉上非常吸引人，但如果视觉元素无法支持其互动功能，那么它就无法做到优秀。虽然 Macintosh 看起来很美观，但如果开关隐藏得过于巧妙，以至于不常用的用户找不到它，那么视觉设计的价值就会影响到可接受的互动设计。
Figure 2.24 图表 2.24
Heart-shaped menu for the British Heart Foundation Annual Review site for 2008, a whimsical but readable alternative to a conventional menu or tag cloud. Mousing over any of the words causes related items to remain red while other choices fade, providing an organized overview of the contents of the site. Created by Sennep. 英国心脏基金会 2008 年年度回顾网站的心形菜单，是一种既富有创意又易于阅读的替代传统菜单或标签云的方式。当鼠标悬停在任意单词上时，相关项目会保持红色，而其他选项则逐渐淡出，从而提供网站内容的清晰概览。由 Sennep 设计。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: EXPLORING THE AFFORDANCES OF THE DIGITAL MEDIUM 设计探索：深入了解数字媒介的功能与可能性
Designing Coherent Behaviors 设计协调的行为
Game developers often paper-test a game before it is built to refine interaction and gameplay and to gain a sense of users’ actions and potential frustrations. For this 游戏开发者通常会在游戏构建之前进行纸上测试，以优化互动和游戏体验，并更好地理解用户的行为及可能遇到的挫折。
exercise, you will form teams to do the reverse. Take an actual computer-based single player game (like Tetris) with which you are very familiar and create a paper version of it. Take turns being the player and the operator of the game. What kinds of actions and decisions does it take to run the game as the computer? 在这个练习中，你将组成团队进行反向操作。选择一个你非常熟悉的计算机单人游戏（例如俄罗斯方块），并制作一个纸质版本。轮流担任玩家和游戏操控者。作为计算机运行游戏需要哪些动作和决策？
Based on the previous exercise, reverse-engineer the algorithm for the game. What variables would you have to keep track of? What player actions would you have to anticipate? What conditions would you have to check for? Are there randomized processes involved? How should they be constrained? (E.g., Should it generate more of one kind of shape than another? Should it become less random if the player is closer to winning?) 根据之前的练习，逆向推导游戏的算法。你需要跟踪哪些变量？你需要预见哪些玩家的动作？你需要检查哪些条件？是否涉及随机过程？这些过程应该如何限制？（例如，是否应该生成更多某种形状而不是另一种？如果玩家更接近胜利，是否应该减少随机性？）
Write out the rules of the game. For example, for Tic Tac Toe the rules might look like this: 请写出游戏的规则。例如，井字棋的规则可能是这样的：
TurnTaking is Player, Computer (randomized f rst)
First = X, Second = O
One mark per square
Three X or O horizontal, diagonal, vertical = win
After you write out the rules of your game, consider how you might change any of them to make the game harder or easier. For example, to make Tic Tac Toe easier, one could allow the player two turns in a row: 在你写出游戏规则后，考虑如何调整这些规则以使游戏变得更难或更简单。例如，为了让井字棋更简单，可以允许玩家连续进行两次回合：
TurnTaking is (Player, Player), Computer (randomized f rst) 轮流发言的顺序是（玩家，玩家），计算机（随机先行）
Use pseudocode to describe the step-by-step game play: Give names to all the variables and objects in the game and write a sequence of instructions that is in human-readable language similar to high-level computer code for the major game actions. Assume that there is one player per game and that the computer is running the game and playing the opponent. 使用伪代码描述游戏的逐步玩法：为游戏中的所有变量和对象命名，并编写一系列类似于高级计算机代码的人类可读指令，描述主要的游戏动作。假设每个游戏只有一个玩家，计算机负责运行游戏并扮演对手。
The goal of writing pseudocode is to improvise a notation that lets you specify the logical steps without worrying about the syntax of any particular programming language. Use // to indicate that what follows is a comment rather than an instruction to the computer. 编写伪代码的目的是创造一种符号，使您能够指定逻辑步骤，而无需担心任何特定编程语言的语法。使用 // 来表示后面的内容是注释，而不是计算机的指令。
For example, pseudocode for Tic Tac Toe could be something like this: 例如，井字游戏的伪代码可能如下所示：
Defne BoardSquares ABC DEF GHI
Defne Computer as O, layer as X
Random choice ( 0=Computer f rst, l=Player frst)
IF Computer frst, place O in BoardSquare E // E=center square
ELSE Go to PlayerTurn
Loop until WIN:
PlayerTurn (X, SquareN)
IF X (ABC) OR (DEF) or (GHI) or (AEI) or (CEG) or (ADG) or (BEH) or (CFI)
THEN WIN(Player)
ELSE MAKE_BEST_MOVE //blackboxing this for now
IF O (ABC) OR (DEF) or (GHI) or (AEI) or (CEG) or (ADG) or (BEH) or
(CFI)
THEN WIN (Computer)
ELSE LOOP AGAIN
I have simplified the system, assuming the computer would always play O and blackboxing the mathematical part of the game into an unspecified module called MAKE_BEST_MOVE. 我简化了系统，假设计算机总是下 O，并将游戏的数学部分封装在一个名为 MAKE_BEST_MOVE 的未指定模块中。
Doing this exercise should make clear how tricky it is to specify procedures so that the computer-which can only do what we explicitly tell it to do-will not make mistakes that any six-year-old would avoid. 进行这个练习应该能清楚地说明，指定程序是多么困难，以至于计算机——它只能执行我们明确指示的操作——不会犯任何六岁小孩都能避免的错误。
Scripting the Interactor 交互者脚本编写
Games often use expectations derived from other forms of entertainment or from highly gendered activities to script players’ actions and expectations. Take a familiar game that is mostly played by members of one gender or by a particular subculture (such as teenage girls or boys) and identify the elements in the game that set up player expectations. How would these elements be different if they were aimed at encouraging participation by a different group of people? 游戏常常利用来自其他娱乐形式或高度性别化活动的期望来引导玩家的行为和期望。以一个主要由某一性别或特定亚文化（如青少年女孩或男孩）参与的熟悉游戏为例，识别游戏中设定玩家期望的元素。如果这些元素旨在鼓励不同群体的参与，它们会有什么不同之处？
Create a digital scenario that scripts the interactor without explicit words. Put a visual element on a screen (or in some other interactive or sensor-driven artifact) that elicits an action from an interactor. Reward the action in a surprising way. 创建一个数字场景，通过隐含的方式引导互动者。在屏幕上（或其他互动或传感器驱动的设备中）放置一个视觉元素，以激发互动者的行动，并以意想不到的方式给予奖励。
Create a storyboard of the scenario (like a comic strip showing the sequence of events: before the interaction, the interaction, after the interaction) and then implement it if you are able to. 创建一个场景故事板（类似于展示事件顺序的漫画条：互动前、互动中和互动后），然后如果可能的话进行实施。
Example: Display a picture (or animation) of a group of birds and some breadcrumbs. The interactor will be “scripted” to pick up the breadcrumbs in order to try to feed the birds. But when the interactor mouses over the breadcrumbs, the birds will fly away. 示例：展示一群鸟和一些面包屑的图片（或动画）。交互者将被“编程”去捡起面包屑，以尝试喂养这些鸟。然而，当交互者将鼠标悬停在面包屑上时，鸟儿会飞走。
Note: Extra credit for avoiding guns, swords, and other forms of overly familiar conventions of game violence. 注意：避免使用枪支、剑以及其他常见的游戏暴力元素可以获得额外学分。
Create a digital scenario like the previous one, but this time, make three distinct items with three different effects. Create a reason for the interactor to try each of them. Remember you may not use words, so depict a scenario that will motivate interaction and items with strong dramatic or causal associations. 创建一个数字场景，类似于之前的，但这次设计三个不同的物品，每个物品都有独特的效果。为互动者尝试每个物品提供一个理由。请记住，不能使用文字，因此需要描绘一个能够激发互动的场景，并确保物品之间有强烈的戏剧性或因果关系。
Example: A crying baby with a choice of a teddy bear, a bottle, and a rattle. The baby will only quiet down if the items are given in the appropriate order: first the 示例：一个哭泣的婴儿面前有一个泰迪熊、一瓶奶和一个摇铃。只有按照正确的顺序给出这些物品，婴儿才会安静下来：首先是泰迪熊。
bottle to soothe hunger, then the rattle to tire himself out playing, then teddy bear to snuggle to sleep. Giving them in a different order should produce an escalation of unhappiness, possible destruction to the toys. 先给瓶子来缓解饥饿，然后是摇铃让自己玩累，最后是泰迪熊来依偎入睡。如果顺序不同，可能会导致更大的不快乐，甚至可能会损坏玩具。
Without providing any explicit directions or offering any hints, script the interactor to behave appropriately to elicit meaningful behaviors from your scenario. Take turns playing with one another’s scenarios while providing think-aloud commentary on your expectations, intentions, and reactions. Watch people playing with your environment without offering any comments or direction, and take notes on their self-reports. What worked best in your environment? What worked best for you in other people’s environments? 在没有提供任何明确指示或提示的情况下，编写交互者的脚本，使其能够适当地表现，以引发您场景中的有意义行为。轮流参与彼此的场景，同时分享您的期望、意图和反应。观察他人在您的环境中玩耍，而不做任何评论或指导，并记录他们的自我反馈。在您的环境中，什么效果最好？在其他人的环境中，什么对您来说效果最好？
Identifying Encyclopedic Design Elements and Issues 识别百科全书中的设计元素及相关问题
Identify a digital encyclopedic resource and compare it to a similar resource in legacy media, such as in box 2.2 . 确定一个数字百科全书资源，并将其与传统媒体中的类似资源进行比较，例如框 2.2 所示。
Box 2.2 盒子 2.2
Encyclopedic Resources 百科全书资源
Digital 数字化
Legacy 传统的
Search engine 搜索引擎工具
Telephone book or card catalog 电话簿或卡片索引
Online encyclopedia 在线百科全书内容
Multivolume print encyclopedia 多卷本印刷百科全书
Online dictionary 在线字典
Print dictionary 打印词典
Electronic Programming guide 电子编程手册
Newspaper TV listings 报纸上的电视节目安排
Electronic map 电子地图应用
Paper map 纸质地图（纸地图）
Digital Legacy
Search engine Telephone book or card catalog
Online encyclopedia Multivolume print encyclopedia
Online dictionary Print dictionary
Electronic Programming guide Newspaper TV listings
Electronic map Paper map| Digital | Legacy |
| :--- | :--- |
| Search engine | Telephone book or card catalog |
| Online encyclopedia | Multivolume print encyclopedia |
| Online dictionary | Print dictionary |
| Electronic Programming guide | Newspaper TV listings |
| Electronic map | Paper map |
What is the smallest unit of each? How is it standardized? How do you know what items are available? How are items chosen for inclusion? How reliable is the information? How is the resource updated? Which resource (digital or traditional) would you choose to use if both were available? (The answer may be different for different circumstances.) What use does the encyclopedic digital resource make of the procedural, participatory, and spatial affordances of the medium? 每个最小单位是什么？它是如何被标准化的？你如何得知可用的项目？项目是如何被选择纳入的？信息的可靠性如何？资源是如何更新的？如果数字资源和传统资源都可用，你会选择使用哪个？（答案可能因情况而异。）这个数字百科资源如何利用媒介的程序性、参与性和空间性特征？
The proliferation of encyclopedic resources has raised questions of freedom of access, criminal stalking, identify theft, and government and corporate surveillance of individuals. What countries are currently limiting their citizens’ access to online information resources? How have large corporations responded to the demand to restrict access to information or to turn over private records (e.g., consider the behavior of involving Google and Yahoo in China)? How have librarians responded to demands for government access to Internet use? How have corporations sought to amass 百科资源的激增引发了关于获取自由、犯罪跟踪、身份盗窃以及政府和企业对个人监视的问题。目前有哪些国家限制公民访问在线信息资源？大型企业如何回应限制信息访问或交出私人记录的要求（例如，考虑谷歌和雅虎在中国的行为）？图书馆员如何回应政府对互联网使用的访问要求？企业又是如何寻求积累这些信息的？
encyclopedic data on individual purchasing through covert and overt means? How have information resources like YouTube and Twitter been used to oppose authority? 关于个人通过隐秘和公开手段进行购买的百科信息？像 YouTube 和 Twitter 这样的资源是如何被用来对抗权威的？
Make a list of all the kinds of information that are produced by or about a particular individual over the course of their lifetime. Make a diagram by placing the image of a single person at the center of concentric circles. The circles represent information that is known about the person, with the innermost circles being the most secret (diary entries, love letters) and personal, and the outermost circles the most public (birth certificate, professional credentials, winning the lottery). Label each circle with who should gain access to the information, such as Best Friends, Immediate Family, Trusted Professionals, Accredited Institutions, General Public, and so on, and indicate what kinds of information should be known by/hidden from each group. 列出一个人在其一生中产生的所有信息类型。通过将一个人的图像放在同心圆的中心，制作一个图示。这些圆圈代表关于此人的已知信息，最内层的圆圈包含最私密（如日记、情书）和个人的内容，而最外层的圆圈则是最公开的（如出生证明、职业资格、中奖信息）。为每个圆圈标注谁可以访问这些信息，例如最好的朋友、直系亲属、可信赖的专业人士、认证机构、公众等，并指明每个群体应知晓或隐藏哪些信息。
How well does current information organization match your ideal categories? Where are the points of difference? 目前的信息组织与您理想中的分类有多匹配？有哪些不同之处？
Compare your diagram with those drawn by others. Are there common categories? 比较你的图表与他人绘制的图表，是否存在共同的类别？
Look at the kinds of information in the innermost circle of your diagram. Using the Internet-with the exception of illegal methods or sites-attempt to obtain this kind of information about yourself or other people. (Either use people whose permission you have obtained or use only voluntary self-revelations of public figures such as bloggers, celebrities, etc.) What conventions or standards make it harder or easier to obtain personal information? What are the trade-offs in designing a more secure environment? 请查看你图表最内圈中的信息类型。利用互联网（除了非法的方法或网站）尝试获取关于你自己或他人的这类信息。（要么使用已获得许可的人，要么仅使用公众人物（如博主、名人等）的自愿披露。）有哪些惯例或标准使得获取个人信息变得更难或更容易？在设计一个更安全的环境时，有哪些权衡？
Designing Coherent Spaces 设计统一的空间
Select at least five pages of a large website, such as the site of an online department store, a university, or a government agency. Is there a common grid underlying the visual layout of all the pages? Can you draw it? How does this grid stay the same and how does it vary from the home page to pages farther down the hierarchy? How do these inner pages resemble or differ from one another in layout? 选择至少五个大型网站的页面，例如在线百货商店、大学或政府机构的网站。所有页面的视觉布局是否存在共同的网格？你能画出来吗？这个网格在主页与更深层级的页面之间是如何保持一致的，又是如何变化的？这些内部页面在布局上有哪些相似之处或不同之处？
Explore a virtual environment in a game or online community that provides a visual landscape that can be navigated. Choose two distinct places and describe all the ways that one can move between them. Is there a map of the domain? Can you navigate by clicking on the map? Can you fly over the landscape? Can you move rapidly on the ground? Is it pleasurable to move between places? Could you draw a picture of where the places are in relation to one another? 在游戏或在线社区中探索一个虚拟环境，这里有可供导航的视觉景观。选择两个不同的地方，并描述在它们之间移动的各种方式。这个区域有地图吗？你可以通过点击地图进行导航吗？你可以在景观上空飞行吗？你可以在地面上快速移动吗？在这些地方之间移动是否令人愉快？你能画出这些地方相对位置的示意图吗？
Create a map for a confusing environment on or near campus that you know well, indicating landmarks as well as street names, and the best path from one familiar area to another, less-well-known area. For example, you might start at a central quad or public transit station and draw the route to a new coffee shop or specialized lab. Or you might start from your current classroom and find the nearest wheelchair-accessible bathroom or exit route. 制作一张你熟悉的校园内或附近复杂环境的地图，标出地标和街道名称，并指明从一个熟悉区域到另一个不太熟悉区域的最佳路径。例如，你可以从中央广场或公共交通站出发，绘制到新的咖啡店或专业实验室的路线。或者你可以从当前的教室出发，找到最近的无障碍卫生间或出口路线。
Trade maps with another member of the class and try to follow the directions. Notice what helped or hindered your decoding of the map. How well did the diagram abstract the salient elements of the space? What did it leave out? 与班级的另一位同学交换地图，并尝试按照指示进行操作。注意哪些因素帮助或阻碍了你对地图的理解。这个图表在多大程度上抽象了空间的关键元素？它遗漏了哪些内容？
You can use a think-aloud protocol for this exercise in the following way: 你可以通过以下方式使用思维大声表达法来进行这个练习：
The person following the map describes what they are doing, what their guesses are about what the map means, what decisions they are making, and what their reasoning is about the route. 跟随地图的人描述他们的行动、对地图含义的猜测、所做的决定以及对路线的推理。
The person who made the map should follow behind, remaining completely silent, giving no physical cues to the correct directions, and making no explanations about the written document. They should only record the behavior of the person they are following by taking notes or using recording equipment. 制作地图的人应在后面跟随，保持完全沉默，不提供任何身体信号来指示正确方向，也不对书面文件进行解释。他们只需通过记笔记或使用录音设备记录跟随者的行为。
Think-aloud protocols are powerful tools for designers because they make clear the gaps between what we think interactors will do and what they actually do. Take a confusing situation or information domain that you are already engaged with and are motivated to understand better. It could be a technical area, such as visualizing the human genome, or a recreational area, such as navigating television listings or choosing wines. Sketch a representation of the most important features of the subject you have chosen using three different visual frameworks such as: 思维大声说出协议是设计师非常有力的工具，因为它们清晰地揭示了我们认为用户会做的事情与他们实际所做之间的差距。选择一个你已经参与并且有动力更深入理解的复杂情况或信息领域。这个领域可以是技术性的，比如可视化人类基因组，或者是休闲性的，比如浏览电视节目表或选择葡萄酒。请使用三种不同的视觉框架，草绘出你所选择主题的最重要特征。
A table 一张餐桌
A flow chart 一张流程图
An organizational chart for a hierarchy of people or other actors 一种用于展示人员或其他参与者层级关系的组织结构图
A taxonomy (also a hierarchical chart) of categories, such as the genus and species of living things 一种分类体系（也称为层次图），用于对生物进行分类，如属和种
A network 一张网络
A map of a geographical area 一幅地理区域的地图
A timeline 时间轴
A bubble diagram 一个气泡图示
An arbitrarily chosen ordered arrangement, such as a subway system map from a particular city 随机选择的有序排列，比如某个城市的地铁地图
Notice how the act of diagramming forces you to clarify qualities and relationships. Notice how the different approaches change your perspective on the domain. Explain the topic to others in your group, using your illustrative drawings, and noting which specific visual features enhance or detract from your explanation. 注意到图示化的过程迫使你明确特质和关系。观察不同的方法如何改变你对该领域的看法。利用你的插图向小组中的其他人解释这个主题，并指出哪些具体的视觉特征能够增强或削弱你的解释。
3 Maximizing the Four Affordances 最大化四种可用性
All media as extensions of ourselves serve to provide new transforming vision and awareness. 所有媒体作为我们自身的延伸，旨在带来新的视角和意识的转变。
-Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan [1964] 1995) 马歇尔·麦克卢汉（McLuhan [1964] 1995）
The Grid of Affordances 适应性格局
The digital designer has two responsibilities: to create the artifact that best serves the needs of the people who will interact with it, and to advance the digital medium as a whole. One way to think about advancing the medium is to aim at maximizing all of its affordances. As we have seen, anything made of computer code has the potential for encyclopedic capacity, for modeling navigable spaces, for describing and performing conditional behaviors, and for supporting participation by interactors. By exploiting these properties we increase the expressive power of the particular artifact, and we advance our ability to create other expressive artifacts. 数字设计师有两个主要责任：一是创造最能满足与之互动的用户需求的作品，二是推动整个数字媒介的发展。推动媒介发展的一个方法是尽可能地发挥其所有功能。正如我们所见，任何由计算机代码构成的事物都具备百科全书式的潜力，能够建模可导航的空间，描述和执行条件行为，并支持用户的参与。通过利用这些特性，我们增强了特定作品的表现力，同时提升了创造其他表现力作品的能力。
The principle of maximizing the affordances of the medium does not mean that every artifact should include every possible application of digital technology. It does mean that the designer should imagine the many ways in which each of these affordances can be applied to the design task. Even though a particular artifact will only exploit some of these potential applications, it is still helpful to think of it as positioned within a more expansive design space in which all of these development paths are possible. 最大化媒介可供性原则并不意味着每个作品都必须包含数字技术的所有可能应用。相反，设计师应该设想这些可供性在设计任务中可以应用的多种方式。尽管某个特定作品只会利用其中的一部分潜在应用，但将其视为处于一个更广阔的设计空间中，其中所有这些发展路径都是可能的，仍然是有益的。
Let us imagine the approach of two designers, Charlie Competent and Victor Visionary. It is the mid-1990s, when the World Wide Web is just beginning, and Charlie and Victor are immersed in making websites for retail businesses moving toward the Internet. Charlie does not see beyond the immediate task. His goal is to remediate (translate from one medium to another) existing print artifacts like a sales catalog and print advertising for the web. He builds the site as a set of individual pages, cutting and pasting the content, and limiting the offering to selected items from the store. Given the era, this is received as an innovative project. Victor, however, sees the encyclopedic affordances of the web as offering the possibility of listing more items 让我们想象两个设计师的不同做法：查理·能干和维克多·有远见。那是 1990 年代中期，万维网刚刚起步，查理和维克多正忙于为向互联网转型的零售企业制作网站。查理只关注眼前的任务，他的目标是将现有的印刷品，如销售目录和广告，转化为网络格式。他将网站构建为一组独立的页面，剪切和粘贴内容，并将商品限制在商店的精选项目中。在那个时代，这被视为一个创新的项目。然而，维克多则认为，网络的百科全书式特性提供了列出更多商品的可能性。
than could be displayed in any print catalog. He understands that he can facilitate the entry, search, and display of inventory items by putting them in a database. He knows that existing 1990s technology can generate individual web pages off line and he anticipates that in time there will be increasingly powerful ways of generating web pages on the fly in response to interactors’ queries. Victor’s team creates a website that contains much more content than the one Charlie’s team builds and that is better positioned for expansion as the web evolves. Eventually Charlie’s clients have to redo their site, building up a new information structure from scratch. 比任何印刷目录中展示的内容都要丰富。他明白，通过将库存项目放入数据库，可以更方便地进行条目的输入、搜索和展示。他知道，1990 年代的现有技术可以离线生成独立的网页，并且他预见到，未来将会有越来越强大的方式，能够实时生成网页，以响应用户的查询。维克托的团队创建了一个内容远超查理团队的网站，并且在网络发展过程中更具扩展性。最终，查理的客户不得不重新制作他们的网站，从头开始建立新的信息架构。
Poor design is often limited to exploiting the novelty of superficial features like hyperlinks, blinking buttons, a presence on the web, social networking, or whatever is hot at the moment. For example, early producers of CD-ROMs relied solely on the capacity of the disk to bring value, flooding the market with products that came to be derided as “shovelware,” in contempt for the lack of discrimination in their creation and the difficulty of navigating all the texts and images that they contained. Early hypertext fiction and educational applications included so much associational linking that interactors found them confusing and lost interest in engaging with them. But encyclopedic websites like the IMDB and Wikipedia have endured and grown, in part because they were built with an understanding that they would contain large quantities of information and therefore needed computationally structured back ends (like databases and wikis) and well-segmented and labeled site navigation tools in order to support massive participation and reach their full encyclopedic potential (figures 3.1, 3.2). 糟糕的设计往往只是利用超链接、闪烁按钮、网络存在、社交网络或当下流行的表面特征。例如，早期的 CD-ROM 生产者仅依靠磁盘的容量来创造价值，市场上充斥着被称为“铲子软件”的产品，因其创作缺乏选择性，且难以浏览其中的文本和图像。早期的超文本小说和教育应用程序包含了过多的关联链接，导致互动者感到困惑，失去了参与的兴趣。 但是像 IMDB 和维基百科这样的百科全书网站已经经受住了考验并不断发展，部分原因是它们在创建时就意识到需要容纳大量信息，因此需要计算机结构化的后端（如数据库和维基）以及清晰分段和标记的网站导航工具，以支持大规模参与并发挥其完整的百科全书潜力（图 3.1，3.2）。
Successful applications are designed from the beginning with an awareness of the appropriate directions of growth, and an understanding of growth as part of the collective effort to maximize the four key affordances of the digital medium. We can think of the four affordances as a grid, offering conventions and genres that have become sufficiently standardized to be adopted across projects and platforms (figure 3.3). When we begin a new project it is useful to think of it as situated at the center of such a grid, and to ask ourselves which of the characteristic applications, such as those listed in the four quadrants displayed here, we could potentially apply to the design problem. We can accustom ourselves to thinking this way by analyzing existing applications in terms of how well they exploit each of these affordances. 成功的应用程序在设计之初就考虑到适当的增长方向，并理解增长是为了最大化数字媒介四个关键功能的集体努力的一部分。我们可以将这四个功能视为一个网格，提供已经足够标准化的惯例和类型，以便在不同项目和平台中使用（见图 3.3）。当我们开始一个新项目时，考虑它位于这个网格的中心是很有帮助的，并思考我们可以将这里展示的四个象限中的哪些特征应用程序应用于设计问题。 我们可以通过分析现有应用程序如何充分利用这些功能，来逐渐习惯这种思维方式。
The success of the original Google search engine is a good example of a sophisticated approach to the affordances of the medium. Google searches exceeded other first-generation web searches because they had a more processing-intensive algorithm that took on the challenge of assessing reliability and relevance. Other competing search engines used brute-force approaches, reading every word on a page and looking for matches to search terms. The Google engine analyzed the links between web pages, to capture information about who was pointing to a site and how they were describing it (in the words of the link). The Google team reframed the problem, thinking of the 原始谷歌搜索引擎的成功是对媒介可用性复杂方法的一个很好的例子。谷歌搜索超越了其他第一代网络搜索，因为它采用了更为复杂的算法，能够有效评估信息的可靠性和相关性。其他竞争搜索引擎则采用了蛮力方法，逐字阅读页面上的每一个词，寻找与搜索词的匹配。谷歌引擎分析了网页之间的链接，以获取关于谁在指向某个网站以及他们如何描述该网站（通过链接中的词语）的信息。谷歌团队重新思考了这个问题，考虑到
Figure 3.1 第 3.1 图
Graph showing the growth in articles written for Wikipedia, between January 2001 and 2008. In its first year Wikipedia grew to 20,000 articles and by 2010 it had reached over 3 million articles in English and over 15 million articles in all languages. 该图表展示了 2001 年 1 月至 2008 年间维基百科文章数量的增长情况。在第一年，维基百科的文章数量达到了 20,000 篇，到 2010 年，英文文章数量超过了 300 万篇，所有语言的文章总数超过了 1500 万篇。
web that they were searching not as a vast array of text strings but as a participatory social structure whose knowledge base could be mined by building social reasoning into the search procedures. As a result, Google is not just a more reliable search engine; it also has become a useful barometer of public opinion and a real-time index of public concerns. 他们所搜索的网络不仅是庞大的文本字符串，而是一个参与式的社会结构，其知识基础可以通过将社会推理融入搜索过程来进行挖掘。因此，谷歌不仅是一个更可靠的搜索引擎；它还成为了公众舆论的有用晴雨表和实时关注的索引。
If we were to place the original Google Search Engine on a grid representing the four affordances it would be strongest in the procedural quadrant (the algorithms of the search) and the encyclopedic quadrant (for its control over vast quantities of information), but also significantly present in the participatory quadrant (for its exploitation of user-created links and its later observation of which results users followed from similar search terms). But it clearly was not concerned with exploiting spatial affordances, keeping the home page free of clutter in an age when its competitor Yahoo was becoming an all-purpose portal. Google’s only use of space in its original implementation was to organize the search results in a list with highest relevance at the top. By the end of the 2000s, however, it had expanded strongly into all four quadrants (figures 3.4, 3.5). 如果我们将原始的谷歌搜索引擎放在一个代表四种可供性（affordances）的网格上，它在程序性象限（搜索算法）和百科全书象限（对大量信息的控制）中表现最强，但在参与性象限（对用户创建链接的利用以及后续观察用户从相似搜索词中跟随的结果）中也有显著表现。然而，它显然并不关注空间可供性的利用，在雅虎成为全能门户的时代，谷歌保持了主页的简洁。谷歌在其原始实现中唯一的空间利用方式是将搜索结果按相关性组织成一个列表，最相关的结果位于顶部。 然而，到 2000 年代末，它已经在所有四个象限中强劲扩展（见图 3.4 和 3.5）。
Of course no single artifact can exploit all the possibilities of the medium, and design can be quite successful in serving human needs by focusing on one or 当然，没有任何单一的艺术品能够充分利用媒介的所有可能性，设计可以通过专注于某一方面来有效满足人类的需求
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Wikipedia:UuU
From Wikjpedia, the free encyclopedia 来自维基百科，自由的百科全书
This is an old revision of this page, as edited by eiffel.demon.co.uk (talk) at 20:08, 16 January 2001. It may differ significantly from the current revialon. 这是该页面的旧版本，由 eiffel.demon.co.uk（讨论）于 2001 年 1 月 16 日 20:08 编辑。它可能与当前版本有很大差异。
(dif) - Previous revision I Current revision (diff) I Newer revision rarr\rightarrow (dif) （差异） - 之前的修订 I 当前的修订（差异） I 更新的修订版 rarr\rightarrow （差异）
UnitedKingdom 英国（联合王国）
United States 美国国土
Uruguay 乌拉圭共和国
Figure 3.2 第 3.2 图
The earliest still-extant Wikipedia editing entry. Founded as an adjunct to a traditionally authored online encyclopedia project, Wikipedia is based on wiki software, which was designed explicitly for collaborative networked projects and includes a particularly useful architectural feature that separates discussion about a collectively edited page from the text of the page itself. 最早仍然存在的维基百科编辑条目。维基百科作为一个传统在线百科全书项目的附属项目而成立，基于专为协作网络项目设计的维基软件，具有一个特别有用的架构特性，即将关于共同编辑页面的讨论与页面本身的内容分开。
Figure 3.3 第 3.3 图
The four affordances of the digital medium with examples of standard formats and genres that exploit each of them. 数字媒介的四种特性，以及利用这些特性的标准格式和类型的实例。
Figure 3.4 第 3.4 图
Google’s original search engine mapped against the four affordances of the medium. It used little of the spatial affordance, presenting the results of searches as a rank-ordered list with the most relevant item at the top. 谷歌的原始搜索引擎与媒介的四种可供性进行了对应。它很少利用空间可供性，而是将搜索结果以排名列表的形式呈现，最相关的项目位于最上方。
two affordances (see figures 3.6-3.8). But it is always useful to map an existing or proposed artifact against the larger design space in order to identify opportunities for growth and to predict the direction of media innovation. Affordance mapping can help to focus conversations about priorities. Perhaps the project is ignoring the possibility of spatial strategies. Perhaps it is overemphasizing participatory demands in the form of special features for individual users. Perhaps the major programming problems are coming from a particular procedural feature that is proving too hard to implement, but is not essential to the success of the project. The affordance grid can help to identify and clarify such design issues, and to organize thinking about paths not taken that may be worth revisiting on a future project. It can also suggest alternate ways of solving a problem, such as addressing a problem of user confusion (a participatory problem) with better information organization (an encyclopedic strategy) or a more orderly grid (a spatial approach). The affordance grid reminds us to contextualize design within the possibilities of the whole medium. 两种可供性（见图 3.6-3.8）。但将现有或提议的工件与更大的设计空间进行对比，总是有助于识别增长机会并预测媒体创新的方向。可供性映射可以帮助我们集中讨论优先事项。也许这个项目忽视了空间策略的可能性，或者过于强调个别用户的特殊功能需求。也许主要的编程问题来自某个特定的程序特性，这个特性实施起来过于困难，但对项目的成功并非必不可少。 赋能网格可以帮助识别和澄清设计中的问题，并组织对未选择路径的思考，这些路径在未来的项目中可能值得重新考虑。它还可以提出解决问题的替代方案，例如通过更好的信息组织（百科全书式的策略）或更有序的网格（空间方法）来解决用户混淆的问题（参与性问题）。赋能网格提醒我们要在整个媒介的可能性中对设计进行情境化。
Figure 3.5 第 3.5 图
In the first decade of the twenty-first century, Google did not merely grow in size, it also built on its procedural strength to expand its use of the other three affordances of the medium. The foundational search engine expanded its coverage and its algorithms became more complex, including the participatory ad auctions system being built on advanced mathematical models; the Book Digitizing Project, Google News, and the acquisition of YouTube expanded its encyclopedic coverage. Gmail and YouTube expanded Google’s exploitation of participatory structures; Google Maps and Google Earth established the standard for encyclopedic spatial exploration, from satellite image to road map to street view, while also providing for both procedural and participatory expansion with mash-ups. 在二十一世纪的第一个十年，谷歌不仅在规模上不断壮大，还利用其程序优势扩展了媒介的其他三种功能。基础搜索引擎扩大了覆盖范围，算法变得更加复杂，包括基于先进数学模型构建的参与式广告拍卖系统；图书数字化项目、谷歌新闻以及对 YouTube 的收购进一步丰富了其百科全书式的内容。Gmail 和 YouTube 增强了谷歌对参与结构的利用；谷歌地图和谷歌地球设立了百科全书式空间探索的标准，从卫星图像到道路地图再到街景，同时也通过混合应用实现了程序性和参与性的扩展。
One way to use the grid is to make it the focus of brainstorming at the beginning of a design process, placing an activity rather than an application at the center. For example, if we were making a new music player we might start with something like figure 3.9, thinking not of specific music-playing appliances but of the general activity of listening to music and asking how some of the existing digital formats and genres (like those listed in figure 3.3) might support that activity. 使用网格的一种方式是在设计过程的开始阶段，将其作为头脑风暴的核心，关注活动而非具体应用。例如，如果我们要设计一个新的音乐播放器，可以从图 3.9 入手，关注的不是特定的音乐播放设备，而是听音乐这一整体活动，并思考现有的数字格式和流派（如图 3.3 中列出的）如何能够支持这一活动。
Alternately we can start not with the existing media structures but with the human activity of listening to music, asking ourselves in what ways it is spatial, encyclopedic, procedural, or participatory (figure 3.10 ). 我们可以选择不从现有的媒体结构入手，而是从人类听音乐的活动开始，思考它在空间、百科、过程或参与等方面的表现（见图 3.10）。
Figure 3.6 第 3.6 图
The photo-sharing site Flickr.com was among the first successful networked media-sharing sites, relying on the affordance of vast amounts of storage, easily accessed and made available to others. It expanded its participatory affordances by partnering with social networking sites to syndicate content. Potential areas of growth would be to increase the procedural affordances, such as automated search and retrieval based on visual features or specialized tools for collages and photo editing; or to expand the encyclopedic affordances by including more kinds of media (such as moving images or sound files) or more structured annotation of images. 照片分享网站 Flickr.com 是最早成功的网络媒体分享平台之一，依靠大量存储空间的可用性，用户可以轻松访问并分享内容。它通过与社交网络平台合作，扩大了参与功能，实现内容的联合发布。未来的增长潜力包括增强程序性功能，比如基于视觉特征的自动搜索和检索，或提供拼贴和照片编辑的专业工具；也可以通过增加更多类型的媒体（如动态图像或音频文件）或对图像进行更系统的注释，来扩展其百科全书式的功能。
Or we could identify existing music applications and place them on the grid in order to get an overview of the design space (figure 3.11). 或者我们可以识别现有的音乐应用，并将它们放在网格上，以便更好地了解设计空间（图 3.11）。
Finally, we could ask ourselves what we wish we could do in relation to this activity if we had a magic wand to make it possible. The magic wand concept is useful because it takes us away from the existing media conventions and existing behaviors, and puts us in the realm of the desired innovation. The ideas that surface in this part of the exercise can then be examined to see if they are implementable by exploiting the appropriate affordance. 最后，我们可以问自己，如果我们有一根魔法棒，可以让这项活动成为可能，我们希望能做些什么。魔法棒的概念非常有用，因为它使我们摆脱了现有的媒体惯例和行为，带我们进入理想创新的领域。在这个练习的这一部分中浮现出的想法可以被审视，以判断它们是否可以通过利用适当的条件来实施。
Magic wand brainstorming can be based on questions like the following: 魔法棒的头脑风暴可以围绕以下问题展开：
Procedural brainstorming What actions do I wish that [the proposed device or application] could magically do for me? 程序性头脑风暴 我希望[提议的设备或应用]能够为我神奇地完成哪些操作？
Figure 3.7 第 3.7 图 Wikipedia.org has established itself as a global information source, redefining the encyclopedia as a digital rather than print genre. It has created a coherent information space by segmenting knowledge into consistent categories and establishing standardized formats for entries, making it possible for thousands of contributors to coordinate their work and build upon one another’s contributions. 维基百科已成为全球信息的来源，重新定义了百科全书的概念，使其成为数字化而非印刷的形式。通过将知识划分为一致的类别并建立标准化的条目格式，它创造了一个连贯的信息空间，使成千上万的贡献者能够协调工作，并在彼此的贡献基础上进行拓展。
Participatory brainstorming What actions do I want in my power that are not now in my power? What choices do I want to make explicitly? How do I want to perform the relevant task? 参与式头脑风暴：我希望掌握哪些目前不在我掌握中的行动？我希望明确做出哪些选择？我希望如何完成相关任务？
Encyclopedic brainstorming What is the extent of the information I want to command? What large resources do I want to control that I can’t reach or can’t organize with current technology? What kinds of media do I want to access, create, and share with this device? 进行百科式头脑风暴，我希望掌控的信息范围有多广？我想控制哪些大型资源，而这些资源是我无法接触或用现有技术组织的？我希望通过这个设备访问、创建和分享哪些类型的媒体？
Spatial brainstorming What kinds of mapping and visual organization of information would help me to use this device more fully? What kinds of information spaces do I want to enter or control? How do I think of physical space when using this device? How could the device help me to think more clearly about physical space? Should there be a geographical map and if so, at what granularity and with what information foregrounded? 空间头脑风暴：什么样的映射和信息可视化组织能帮助我更充分地使用这个设备？我希望进入或控制哪些信息空间？在使用这个设备时，我如何看待物理空间？这个设备如何帮助我更清晰地理解物理空间？是否应该有一张地理地图？如果有，应该以什么样的细节和哪些信息为重点？
Figure 3.8 第 3.8 图
Second Life, founded by Linden Lab in 2003, became the first successful shared virtual social space for a mass audience, with participatory opportunities for constructing, buying, and selling artifacts within the virtual world. 第二人生是由林登实验室于 2003 年创立的，成为第一个成功的共享虚拟社交空间，面向大众，提供了在虚拟世界中构建、购买和销售物品的机会。
Designers should first ask these questions of themselves in fantasy thought experiments and then use them to design surveys and conduct interviews, focus groups, and market research with real consumers. It is important not to limit our own ideas or the brainstorming of research subjects to functions that already exist or that we already know how to create: that is why the concept of the magic wand is useful. It brings to the surface unmet needs and wished-for powers that can become the basis of innovative features and conventions. The goal in eliciting and analyzing this information is not to design a specific artifact that will have all of these magical qualities, but to more fully understand the potential design space. The exercise helps us to expand our expressive palette by reframing the task beyond the most familiar legacy and digital conventions that we might otherwise limit ourselves to. It gives us insight into the long-term direction of innovation, providing a context for prioritizing goals and making design choices throughout the development process. 设计师首先应该在幻想思维实验中自问这些问题，然后利用这些问题设计调查、进行访谈、组织焦点小组和市场研究，针对真实的消费者。重要的是不要限制我们自己的想法或研究对象的头脑风暴，仅仅局限于已经存在的功能或我们已经掌握的创造方式：这就是魔法棒概念的价值所在。它能够揭示未被满足的需求和渴望的能力，这些都可以成为创新特性和惯例的基础。获取和分析这些信息的目标并不是设计一个具备所有这些魔法特质的具体产品，而是更全面地理解潜在的设计空间。 这个练习帮助我们通过重新定义任务，超越我们熟悉的传统和数字规范，从而扩展我们的表达能力。它让我们洞察创新的长期方向，为在整个开发过程中优先考虑目标和做出设计选择提供了背景。
Affordance mapping is also a useful way to synthesize the results of competitive analysis, which is used to survey the features of all the products in a design domain. In addition to creating the standard chart that lists which applications have which 可供性映射也是综合竞争分析结果的有效方法，竞争分析用于调查设计领域内所有产品的特征。除了制作列出各个应用程序及其功能的标准图表外，
Figure 3.9 第 3.9 图
Brainstorming for a new project using the affordance grid to ask how the core activity might be served by a wide range of existing digital formats and genres. 利用可供性网格进行新项目的头脑风暴，探讨核心活动如何能够通过多种现有的数字格式和类型来实现。
features, one could take all the features and map them against the affordance grid to get an overview of the whole field that will also make clear what areas remain uncovered in the design space. 特征方面，人们可以将所有特征与可供性网格进行对比，从而获得整个领域的概览，这也能清楚地显示在设计空间中哪些区域尚未被覆盖。
Although the affordance grid can help us to anticipate next-generation features, designers must resist the temptation to extend functionality just because it is possible. Good design is shaped by constraints as well as affordances: constraints of time, resources, screen space, physical form, and especially human attention. Sometimes mature applications, like a popular word processor or simulation game, grow less usable with each new release because increased functionality gets ahead of interaction design. Even in a single development cycle design teams can easily fall into patterns of “feature creep,” adding functionality without first finishing a basic version of the artifact, delaying the project and confusing testers. 尽管可供性网格可以帮助我们预测下一代功能，但设计师必须抵制仅仅因为可能而扩展功能的诱惑。优秀的设计不仅受到可供性的影响，还受到时间、资源、屏幕空间、物理形态以及人类注意力等约束的限制。有时，成熟的应用程序，比如流行的文字处理器或模拟游戏，随着每次新版本的发布，变得越来越难以使用，因为增加的功能超越了交互设计的考虑。即使在一个开发周期内，设计团队也很容易陷入“功能蔓延”的陷阱，在没有首先完成基本版本的情况下添加新功能，这样不仅延误了项目进度，还让测试人员感到困惑。
Shaping and Satisfying Interactors' Expectations 塑造并满足参与者的期望
Users do not think in terms of abstract affordances, but they expect new digital artifacts to have features similar to other digital artifacts, and even to have magical new 用户并不以抽象的可用性来思考，但他们期望新的数字产品具备与其他数字产品相似的功能，甚至拥有一些神奇的新特性
Figure 3.10 第 3.10 图
We can also use the affordance grid to brainstorm about the ways in which we perform the core cultural activity at the heart of a design process, independent of any particular device or media framework. 我们还可以利用可供性网格来集思广益，探讨在设计过程中如何独立于任何特定设备或媒体框架来进行核心文化活动。
qualities based on the general kinds of things that they think computers are capable of. In order to avoid potential confusions, the designer should attempt to anticipate the interactor’s expectations by imagining the interactor asking these four basic questions throughout the design process: 基于他们对计算机能力的普遍看法。为了避免潜在的混淆，设计师应通过设想交互者在设计过程中不断提出的四个基本问题，来预测交互者的期望：
Procedural Question: What does it do? 这个程序是做什么的？
Participatory Question: What can I do? 参与性问题：我可以做些什么？
Spatial Question: Where am I in relation to the whole? 空间问题：我在整体中处于哪个位置？
Encyclopedic Question: What are the boundaries to this domain? 百科问题：这个领域的界限是什么？
The best way to answer such questions is to actively shape the expectations of the interactor by drawing on familiar genres and conventions that can focus the interactor’s attention on productive actions. The more we can identify and create standardized conventions of interaction the less confused the interactor will be. Designers should be alert to their choice of conventions, avoiding the awkward and ad hoc solution, such as “quick links” on a poorly organized website or wordy instruction screens for an application that is not sufficiently self-explanatory. 回答此类问题的最佳方法是通过借鉴熟悉的类型和惯例，积极塑造互动者的期望，从而将他们的注意力集中在有效的行动上。我们越能识别和创建标准化的互动惯例，互动者就越不会感到困惑。设计师应对所选择的惯例保持警惕，避免使用尴尬和临时的解决方案，例如在组织不良的网站上设置“快速链接”或在不够自我解释的应用程序中使用冗长的说明屏幕。
Figure 3.11 第 3.11 图
Using affordance mapping to generate an overview of existing applications. 利用可供性映射来概述现有应用程序。
The goal is to make the interaction easily learnable if it cannot be made immediately familiar. 目标是让交互变得易于学习，即使无法立即熟悉。
Awkward strategies are sometimes unavoidable, but they should be recognized as symptomatic of an immature medium. As the medium matures, we collectively develop conventions to handle formerly awkward situations, often replacing indirect, multistep interaction patterns with direct manipulation. The examples in table 3.1 reflect the ongoing process of inventing and refining conventions that characterizes design in a new medium. Keeping in mind the four affordances can help us to focus that effort on specific areas within each project, looking for ways in which we can make the current application more coherent and thereby advance the expressiveness of the medium itself. 尴尬的策略有时是不可避免的，但它们应被视为不成熟媒介的表现。随着媒介的成熟，我们逐渐形成了处理以往尴尬情况的惯例，通常用直接操作取代间接的多步骤交互模式。表 3.1 中的例子反映了在新媒介中不断发明和完善惯例的过程。牢记四种可供性可以帮助我们将精力集中在每个项目的特定领域，寻找使当前应用更加连贯的方法，从而提升媒介本身的表现力。
We can also tune up our awareness of the areas in which conventions are insufficient by noticing our own frustrations in digital environments and our own daydreams for magical functionalities. Whenever we use a digital resource or device that we have not used before, we can ask ourselves what our expectations are for each of the digital affordances and how well these expectations are met. For example: 我们还可以通过关注自己在数字环境中的挫败感和对理想功能的幻想，来增强对惯例不足领域的认识。每当我们使用一个之前未接触过的数字资源或设备时，可以问自己对每个数字功能的期望是什么，以及这些期望得到了多大程度的满足。例如：
Table 3.1 表格 3.1
Answering the Four Questions with Immature and Mature Conventions 用不成熟和成熟的方式回答四个问题
普通用户提问
General User
Question
General User
Question| General User |
| :--- |
| Question |
More Mature
Convention| More Mature |
| :--- |
| Convention |
Why Better 为什么更好一些
这个东西有什么用？
What does it
do?
What does it
do?| What does it |
| :--- |
| do? |
如果我在文字处理软件中点击这个图标，会发生什么？
What will happen
if I click on this
icon in a word
processor?
What will happen
if I click on this
icon in a word
processor?| What will happen |
| :--- |
| if I click on this |
| icon in a word |
| processor? |
带有图标标签和简要说明的纸质备忘录。
Paper cheat sheet
with icon labels
and brief
explanations.
Paper cheat sheet
with icon labels
and brief
explanations.| Paper cheat sheet |
| :--- |
| with icon labels |
| and brief |
| explanations. |
与图标相关的提示文本。
Rollover text
associated with
the icon.
Rollover text
associated with
the icon.| Rollover text |
| :--- |
| associated with |
| the icon. |
根据上下文和需要提供的信息。
Information
available in
context and as
needed.
Information
available in
context and as
needed.| Information |
| :--- |
| available in |
| context and as |
| needed. |
我可以做些什么？
What can I
do?
What can I
do?| What can I |
| :--- |
| do? |
我该如何录制电视节目？
How do I record a
television
program?
How do I record a
television
program?| How do I record a |
| :--- |
| television |
| program? |
查阅报纸上的节目单以确定时间和频道；通过屏幕菜单和遥控器输入时间和频道，并参考手册。
Consult
newspaper listings
to determine time
and channel;
enter time and
channel using
onscreen menu
and remote, with
help of manual.
Consult
newspaper listings
to determine time
and channel;
enter time and
channel using
onscreen menu
and remote, with
help of manual.| Consult |
| :--- |
| newspaper listings |
| to determine time |
| and channel; |
| enter time and |
| channel using |
| onscreen menu |
| and remote, with |
| help of manual. |
使用遥控器从屏幕菜单中选择程序名称。
Use remote to
select program by
name from
onscreen menu.
Use remote to
select program by
name from
onscreen menu.| Use remote to |
| :--- |
| select program by |
| name from |
| onscreen menu. |
消除了传输代码（时间和频道），使交互者的心理模型更加简化。
Transmission
codes (time and
channel)
eliminated,
interactor's
mental model
simplified.
Transmission
codes (time and
channel)
eliminated,
interactor's
mental model
simplified.| Transmission |
| :--- |
| codes (time and |
| channel) |
| eliminated, |
| interactor's |
| mental model |
| simplified. |
Where am I? 我在什么地方？
我该如何从主页开始在报纸网站上查找电影排期？
How do I find the
movie listings in
a newspaper site
starting from the
home page?
How do I find the
movie listings in
a newspaper site
starting from the
home page?| How do I find the |
| :--- |
| movie listings in |
| a newspaper site |
| starting from the |
| home page? |
提供一个“快速链接”下拉菜单，方便访问网站结构中常用的资源。
Provide "quick
links" pull-down
menu for
frequently used
resources buried
in the site
structure.
Provide "quick
links" pull-down
menu for
frequently used
resources buried
in the site
structure.| Provide "quick |
| :--- |
| links" pull-down |
| menu for |
| frequently used |
| resources buried |
| in the site |
| structure. |
将本地电影评论列表放在网站层级导航系统的娱乐栏目下。
Put local listings
with movie
reviews under the
Entertainment
section of the
site's hierarchical
navigation
system.
Put local listings
with movie
reviews under the
Entertainment
section of the
site's hierarchical
navigation
system.| Put local listings |
| :--- |
| with movie |
| reviews under the |
| Entertainment |
| section of the |
| site's hierarchical |
| navigation |
| system. |
合理利用空间，增强用户对网站信息类别的认知，同时为列表的位置提供一个易于记忆的联想。
Logical use of
space that
reinforces the
interactor's
mental map of
the categories of
information
covered by the
site, as well as
providing a
memorable
association for
the location of
the listings.
Logical use of
space that
reinforces the
interactor's
mental map of
the categories of
information
covered by the
site, as well as
providing a
memorable
association for
the location of
the listings.| Logical use of |
| :--- |
| space that |
| reinforces the |
| interactor's |
| mental map of |
| the categories of |
| information |
| covered by the |
| site, as well as |
| providing a |
| memorable |
| association for |
| the location of |
| the listings. |
边界指的是什么？
What are
the
boundaries?
What are
the
boundaries?| What are |
| :--- |
| the |
| boundaries? |
我如何知道在点击链接时我正在访问哪个网站？
How do I know
which site I am
on when I follow
a link?
How do I know
which site I am
on when I follow
a link?| How do I know |
| :--- |
| which site I am |
| on when I follow |
| a link? |
网站内外的链接显示方式相同，且都在同一个窗口中打开。
Links to pages
inside and outside
a website are
displayed the
same way and
they all open in a
single window.
Links to pages
inside and outside
a website are
displayed the
same way and
they all open in a
single window.| Links to pages |
| :--- |
| inside and outside |
| a website are |
| displayed the |
| same way and |
| they all open in a |
| single window. |
内部链接和外部链接的标签及显示方式各不相同，外部链接会在新窗口或标签中打开。
Internal and
external links are
labeled and
displayed
differently, with
external links
opening in
another window
or tab.
Internal and
external links are
labeled and
displayed
differently, with
external links
opening in
another window
or tab.| Internal and |
| :--- |
| external links are |
| labeled and |
| displayed |
| differently, with |
| external links |
| opening in |
| another window |
| or tab. |
加强用户对一个独特且一致的网站的认知，这个网站是更大网络的一部分，但又与其有所区别。
Reinforces
interactor's
perception of a
distinct,
consistent site,
part of but
separate from
the larger Web.
Reinforces
interactor's
perception of a
distinct,
consistent site,
part of but
separate from
the larger Web.| Reinforces |
| :--- |
| interactor's |
| perception of a |
| distinct, |
| consistent site, |
| part of but |
| separate from |
| the larger Web. |
"General User
Question" Specific Question "Immature
Solution" "More Mature
Convention" Why Better
"What does it
do?" "What will happen
if I click on this
icon in a word
processor?" "Paper cheat sheet
with icon labels
and brief
explanations." "Rollover text
associated with
the icon." "Information
available in
context and as
needed."
"What can I
do?" "How do I record a
television
program?" "Consult
newspaper listings
to determine time
and channel;
enter time and
channel using
onscreen menu
and remote, with
help of manual." "Use remote to
select program by
name from
onscreen menu." "Transmission
codes (time and
channel)
eliminated,
interactor's
mental model
simplified."
Where am I? "How do I find the
movie listings in
a newspaper site
starting from the
home page?" "Provide "quick
links" pull-down
menu for
frequently used
resources buried
in the site
structure." "Put local listings
with movie
reviews under the
Entertainment
section of the
site's hierarchical
navigation
system." "Logical use of
space that
reinforces the
interactor's
mental map of
the categories of
information
covered by the
site, as well as
providing a
memorable
association for
the location of
the listings."
"What are
the
boundaries?" "How do I know
which site I am
on when I follow
a link?" "Links to pages
inside and outside
a website are
displayed the
same way and
they all open in a
single window." "Internal and
external links are
labeled and
displayed
differently, with
external links
opening in
another window
or tab." "Reinforces
interactor's
perception of a
distinct,
consistent site,
part of but
separate from
the larger Web."| General User <br> Question | Specific Question | Immature <br> Solution | More Mature <br> Convention | Why Better |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| What does it <br> do? | What will happen <br> if I click on this <br> icon in a word <br> processor? | Paper cheat sheet <br> with icon labels <br> and brief <br> explanations. | Rollover text <br> associated with <br> the icon. | Information <br> available in <br> context and as <br> needed. |
| What can I <br> do? | How do I record a <br> television <br> program? | Consult <br> newspaper listings <br> to determine time <br> and channel; <br> enter time and <br> channel using <br> onscreen menu <br> and remote, with <br> help of manual. | Use remote to <br> select program by <br> name from <br> onscreen menu. | Transmission <br> codes (time and <br> channel) <br> eliminated, <br> interactor's <br> mental model <br> simplified. |
| Where am I? | How do I find the <br> movie listings in <br> a newspaper site <br> starting from the <br> home page? | Provide "quick <br> links" pull-down <br> menu for <br> frequently used <br> resources buried <br> in the site <br> structure. | Put local listings <br> with movie <br> reviews under the <br> Entertainment <br> section of the <br> site's hierarchical <br> navigation <br> system. | Logical use of <br> space that <br> reinforces the <br> interactor's <br> mental map of <br> the categories of <br> information <br> covered by the <br> site, as well as <br> providing a <br> memorable <br> association for <br> the location of <br> the listings. |
| What are <br> the <br> boundaries? | How do I know <br> which site I am <br> on when I follow <br> a link? | Links to pages <br> inside and outside <br> a website are <br> displayed the <br> same way and <br> they all open in a <br> single window. | Internal and <br> external links are <br> labeled and <br> displayed <br> differently, with <br> external links <br> opening in <br> another window <br> or tab. | Reinforces <br> interactor's <br> perception of a <br> distinct, <br> consistent site, <br> part of but <br> separate from <br> the larger Web. |
A new phone might 一部新手机或许会
not allow me to access all the features of an old address book (not encyclopedic enough); 不让我访问旧地址簿的所有功能（不够全面）
make it difficult to switch between dialing and looking at my calendar (failures of procedurality and participation); 使拨号和查看日历之间的切换变得困难（程序性和参与性的问题）
make me scroll through long lists or flip through multiple screens in order to find the right application (failure of spatializing information). 让我在长长的列表中滚动或翻阅多个屏幕，才能找到合适的应用程序（信息空间化的失败）。
A new virtual community might 可能会出现一个新的虚拟社区
provide poor tools for building assets (poor procedurality); 提供不良的资产构建工具（程序性差）;
make it hard to operate my avatar (poor participation); 让我的头像操作变得很困难（参与度不高）;
leave me confused about how to get from place to place (poor spatializing); 让我对如何在不同地点之间移动感到困惑（空间感差）
provide too few choices of places to visit (not encyclopedic enough). 提供的旅游地点选择过于有限（不够全面）。
A new media player might not 一个新的媒体播放器可能无法使用
let me to open one application at a time (weaknesses in both procedurality and participation); 让我一次只打开一个应用程序（在程序性和参与性方面存在的不足）
play videos in a particular widely used format (not encyclopedic enough); 以特定的广泛使用格式播放视频（不够全面）
make me scroll through screenfuls of applications to find the one I want (poor use of space). 让我在一屏又一屏的应用程序中滚动，寻找我想要的那个（空间利用不合理）。
Having the four categories in which to think about these common frustrations can help us to generalize our difficulties with particular devices so that we will recognize the same problem on other projects, and look for the media conventions that will provide solutions that can work across multiple applications. 将这四个类别用于思考常见的挫折，可以帮助我们总结与特定设备相关的困难，从而在其他项目中识别出相同的问题，并寻找能够在多个应用中有效的媒体规范来提供解决方案。
Designing for Agency and Immersion 代理与沉浸体验的设计
When we maximize the affordances of the medium in any one artifact we create satisfying experiences that it is useful to think of as agency and immersion. 当我们充分利用媒介在任何一个作品中的可用性时，就能创造出令人满意的体验，这种体验可以被理解为代理性和沉浸感。
As mentioned in the introduction, and as I proposed in chapter 3 of Hamlet on the Holodeck (1997), interactivity is rightly used to refer to the combination of procedural (computer processing) and participatory (human-directed) affordances of the digital medium. When these two affordances fit together well, they create the satisfying experience of agency. A highly interactive environment is one in which the machine puts a high degree of processing power into our hands and is highly responsive to our input. When the behavior of the computer is coherent and the application is designed so that a human interactor knows what to do and receives clear and immediate feedback on the result of their actions, the interactor experiences the pleasure of agency, of making something happen in a dynamically responsive world. 正如引言中提到的，以及我在《全息甲胄中的哈姆雷特》第三章中所提到的，互动性确实是指数字媒介中程序性（计算机处理）和参与性（人类主导）特性的结合。当这两种特性良好结合时，它们会带来令人满意的自主体验。一个高度互动的环境是指机器将强大的处理能力交给我们，并对我们的输入做出高度响应的环境。 当计算机的行为一致，且应用程序设计得让人类交互者明确知道该做什么，并能迅速清晰地反馈他们的行为结果时，交互者会在这个动态响应的世界中体验到掌控的乐趣，感受到自己能够让事情发生。
Figure 3.12 第 3.12 图
The Pac-Man arcade videogame (1980) offered the player multiple kinds of agency: moving PacMan, making the dots disappear, evading the ghosts, chasing the ghosts, navigating the maze, collecting fruit, completing the level. 《吃豆人》街机游戏（1980 年）为玩家提供了多种操作方式：控制吃豆人移动、消除豆子、躲避鬼魂、追逐鬼魂、在迷宫中导航、收集水果以及完成关卡。
Agency is therefore a more useful and specific design goal than interactivity. The designer creates agency by exploiting the interactive affordances of the medium, by shaping the rules by which the computer processes information and the conventions by which the interactor engages with the machine, so that human expectations and actions mesh well with computational expectations and actions. Agency is a concrete design goal, but it is not a property of an artifact. It is present or absent in the experience of the interactor (figure 3.12). Its opposite is powerlessness, confusion, or frustration (figure 3.13). 因此，代理性比互动更具实用性和针对性，是一个更具体的设计目标。设计师通过利用媒介的互动特性，制定计算机处理信息的规则以及互动者与机器互动的惯例，从而创造出代理性，使得人类的期望和行为能够与计算机的期望和行为良好契合。代理性是一个明确的设计目标，但它并不是物品的属性。它在互动者的体验中是存在或缺失的（见图 3.12）。它的对立面是无能、困惑或挫败感（见图 3.13）。
As with interactivity, there is a widespread sense that “new media” are immersive, but not much agreement on what immersion is or how to achieve it. Just as interactivity is often confused with a volume of activity, immersion is often confused with sensory stimulation. A high-resolution image on a very large screen or an enriched localized audio stream coming from a powerful speaker system may arrest our attention more fully and hold it longer than the same content delivered on a smaller screen and less powerful speakers, but we soon get used to increases in scale and intensity and learn to filter out stimulants that are merely very large or very loud. Immersion, like agency, cannot be a property of an artifact. Immersion is experiential and not a function of the size or volume of the stimulus, but of the engagement or distractibility of the interactor. An immersive environment is 与互动性一样，人们普遍认为“新媒体”具有沉浸感，但对沉浸的定义或如何实现沉浸却没有太多共识。正如互动性常常与活动量混淆，沉浸感也常常与感官刺激混淆。高分辨率的图像在超大屏幕上，或来自强大扬声器系统的丰富本地音频流，可能会更全面地吸引我们的注意力，并比在较小屏幕和较弱扬声器上呈现相同内容时保持更长时间，但我们很快就会习惯于规模和强度的增加，并学会过滤那些仅仅是非常大或非常响的刺激。沉浸感，像能动性一样，不能成为物品的属性。 沉浸是一种体验，而不是刺激的大小或体积所决定的，而是与参与者的投入程度或分心程度有关。这是一个沉浸式的环境
The page at https://services.unum.com says: https://services.unum.com 的页面上写道：
Employer Division Number must be a 1 to 4 digit number. 雇主部门编号必须是 1 到 4 位的数字。
Home Phone invalid. Please enter a phone number in the format ###-###-####. 家庭电话无效。请按照格式###-###-####输入电话号码。
Work Phone invalid. Please enter a phone number in the format ###-###-####. 工作电话无效。请按照 ###-###-#### 的格式输入电话号码。
Annual Salary invalid. Please enter a whole dollar amount with no commas. 年薪无效。请您输入不带逗号的整数金额。
OK 可以
Figure 3.13 第 3.13 图
Frustration of agency is the mark of poor design. This error message is the result of an overly rigid data-entry form that rejects phone numbers separated by spaces instead of dashes. A better system would supply the dashes on input, automatically constrain input within three separate boxes, or accept multiple conventions for representing a ten-digit number. 代理的挫败感是设计不佳的标志。这个错误信息源于一个过于严格的数据输入表单，该表单拒绝用空格而非破折号分隔的电话号码。一个更好的系统应该在输入时自动添加破折号，限制输入在三个独立的框内，或者接受多种表示十位数字的方式。
one that captivates and holds our interest because it feels expansive, detailed, and complete. 一件能够吸引并保持我们兴趣的事物，因为它给人一种广阔、细致和完整的感觉。
In digital environments, the experience of immersion is reinforced by the encyclopedic and spatial affordances of the medium, by its enormous capacity and its openness to navigation in simulated landscapes or information spaces. We can also become immersed in old media, in compelling stories that hold our attention to the page or the image, in rhythmic experiences that focus us on music or movement, in puzzles or games that take over our thinking, causing us to lose awareness of the world around us. Immersion is related to the experience of being completely and pleasurably absorbed in a challenging task, identified as flow (Csíkszentmihályi 1990), and it can be produced by a wide range of complex artifacts and challenging tasks. Digital environments can create all of these varieties of immersion, with the added sense of navigation of a landscape (like Second Life) or an information space (like Wikipedia) or a magically generative and renewing space of possibilities (like Tetris or the Spore creature editor) and a perception of the artifact as encyclopedic in its variety and extent. 在数字环境中，沉浸体验通过媒介的百科全书式和空间特性得到了增强，这得益于其巨大的容量以及对在模拟景观或信息空间中导航的开放性。我们也可以沉浸在旧媒体中，沉醉于引人入胜的故事，这些故事吸引着我们关注页面或图像；沉浸在专注于音乐或运动的节奏体验中；以及沉迷于占据我们思维的谜题或游戏中，使我们失去对周围世界的意识。沉浸体验与完全愉悦地投入到具有挑战性的任务中相关，这种体验被称为“心流”（Csíkszentmihályi 1990），它可以通过各种复杂的物品和具有挑战性的任务来实现。 数字环境能够创造出各种沉浸体验，增加了对景观（如《第二人生》）或信息空间（如维基百科）以及一个神奇的、不断生成和更新的可能性空间（如《俄罗斯方块》或《Spore 生物编辑器》）的导航感，同时让人感受到这些作品在多样性和广度上如同百科全书一般。
Immersion is the experience produced by the pleasurable exploration of a limitless, consistent, familiar yet surprising environment. As designers we create immersion by increasing scope, detail, and consistency while establishing clear boundaries and means of navigation. These guidelines apply to information spaces such Wikipedia and virtual worlds such as Spore or Second Life. Immersion is created by rewarding exploration with consistent, detailed variation, and undermined by poorly defined boundaries, gaps in coverage, and confusion in navigation. 沉浸感是通过愉悦地探索一个无限、一致、熟悉而又充满惊喜的环境所带来的体验。作为设计师，我们通过扩大范围、增加细节和保持一致性，同时设定明确的边界和导航方式来创造沉浸感。这些原则适用于信息空间，如维基百科，以及虚拟世界，如 Spore 或 Second Life。沉浸感通过一致且详细的变化来奖励探索，而边界模糊、覆盖不全和导航混乱则会削弱这种体验。
Agency and immersion are mutually reinforcing. When we engage with an immersive world and it responds to us as we expect it to, revealing deeper levels of content, greater detail in its coverage, we become more deeply immersed. In the context of 代理和沉浸是相辅相成的。当我们与一个沉浸式的世界互动，并且它如我们所期待的那样回应我们，展现出更深层次的内容和更丰富的细节时，我们会更加深入地沉浸其中。
interactive narrative I have called this effect the active creation of belief, to emphasize that digital immersion is created not merely from what Coleridge called “suspension of disbelief” but also from testing out the imaginary world and seeing how responsive it can be and how deeply it is described. Developing each of the four affordances increases the potential expressive power of the other three. 我将这种效果称为信念的主动创造，旨在强调数字沉浸不仅源于科尔律治所说的“悬置怀疑”，还包括对想象世界的探索，观察其反应能力和描述的深度。提升这四种能力中的每一种，都会增强其他三种的潜在表现力。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: EXPLORATIONS FOR MAXIMIZING DIGITAL AFFORDANCES 设计探索：提升数字可用性的研究
Using the Affordance Grid 使用可供性格网
Make a grid of the four affordances of the medium and write down at least five specific examples (such as specific websites, databases, game levels, or devices) that make particularly good use of each of them. Justify your choices. Do your examples in the same quadrant have any common features or conventions? Are there some examples that are good illustrations of multiple affordances? 制作一个媒介的四种可供性网格，并列出至少五个具体例子（如特定的网站、数据库、游戏关卡或设备），这些例子特别有效地利用了这些可供性。请为你的选择提供理由。在同一象限中的例子是否有共同的特征或惯例？是否有一些例子能够很好地展示多种可供性？
For one of these artifacts you placed on the affordance grid, identify the most promising areas of unexploited potential outside its current boundaries (e.g., how can a strongly encyclopedic application better exploit the procedural power of the computer?). 针对您在可供性网格上放置的某个工件，识别其当前边界之外最具潜力的未开发领域（例如，如何让一个功能强大的百科全书应用更好地利用计算机的程序能力？）。
Find an example of a software application that is at least five years old and has gone through multiple releases (for example, Microsoft Word, Adobe Photoshop, Intuit TurboTax, Maxis’s SimCity). Compare a screen shot (or video or running version if available) of an earlier version with the current version. What features have been added? Is it easier or harder to perform the original functions now that the program has been expanded? Is the application making appropriate use of the four affordances of the medium? Is it displaying feature creep (or perhaps feature stampede!)? 找一个至少五年历史的软件应用程序的例子，并且经历过多个版本更新（例如，Microsoft Word、Adobe Photoshop、Intuit TurboTax、Maxis 的 SimCity）。比较早期版本的屏幕截图（或视频或可运行版本，如果有的话）与当前版本。添加了哪些新功能？现在执行原有功能是否更容易或更困难，因为程序已经扩展？该应用程序是否合理利用了媒介的四种可供性？是否出现了功能膨胀（或者说功能过剩）？
Create a comparative analysis chart for competing digital products in the same market space, listing all the features of each in a table that makes clear what features are matched and which are competitive advantages. Now take the same products and map them on the affordance grid. Are there areas that none of them are exploiting? Can you suggest product extensions in these areas? 创建一个竞争数字产品的比较分析图，列出同一市场中每个产品的所有功能，并以表格形式清晰显示哪些功能是相同的，哪些是竞争优势。现在将这些产品映射到可供性网格上。是否有任何领域是它们都未能利用的？你能在这些领域提出产品扩展的建议吗？
For a device that you use regularly, do a magic wand exercise, brainstorming what other functions you can imagine it performing within the four quadrants of the affordance grid. Be as imaginative as you like, assuming anything you wish for will be created with no effort, out of magical technology. Think very concretely about how the magical functions would ideally work. 对于一个你经常使用的设备，进行一次魔法思维练习，畅想它在可供性网格的四个象限中可以实现的其他功能。尽情发挥想象力，假设你所希望的一切都能轻松地通过魔法技术实现。具体考虑这些魔法功能理想的运作方式。
After detailed brainstorming, take a break and then return to your formulations. Are there existing or conceivable technologies that could be applied to implement some of the desired functions? Are there impediments of compatibility preventing the wish from becoming a reality? What kinds of expertise would have to be brought together to make the magic wand product a real product? 在经过详细的头脑风暴后，先休息一下，然后再回到你的构思中。是否有现有或可想象的技术可以用来实现一些期望的功能？是否存在兼容性障碍使得这些愿望无法实现？需要汇聚哪些专业知识才能将魔法棒产品变为现实？
II DESIGNING EXPRESSIVE PROCEDURES 设计富有表现力的程序
The design of digital artifacts rests on our ability to assign symbolic meaning to electrical impulses by building up abstraction layers, from the primitives of the 00 s and 11 s of the machine code, applying the principles of modularity and encapsulation. 数字工件的设计依赖于我们将电信号赋予象征意义的能力，这一过程通过从机器代码的基本元素 00 和 11 开始，构建抽象层，并应用模块化和封装的原则。
A key design goal for procedural systems is to increase human ability to think coherently about processes that have many variables that serve as parameters, modifying the way in which an action is performed. Designers should know how to represent complex, variable procedures using flow charts, pseudocode, and state diagrams. 程序系统的一个重要设计目标是增强人类对具有多个变量作为参数的过程的连贯思考能力，这些变量会影响动作的执行方式。设计师应掌握如何通过流程图、伪代码和状态图来表示复杂的可变过程。
Designers should recognize that the same process can be approached through more than one algorithm and that any fixed representation of a process, whether it is computer code or an earlier media genre such as a proverb, recipe, or automated mechanical device, reflects cultural biases and values and is subject to human error. 设计师应意识到，同一过程可以通过多种算法来实现。任何固定的过程表现形式，无论是计算机代码，还是早期的媒体形式，如谚语、食谱或自动机械装置，都反映了文化偏见和价值观，并且容易受到人为错误的影响。
Designers should be conversant with the computational concepts used in objectoriented programming, in which objects are described separately from their instantiation and within more generalized classes from which they can inherit qualities and behaviors (attributes and methods). 设计师应当熟悉面向对象编程中的计算概念，其中对象的描述与其实例化是分开的，并且在更通用的类中，这些类可以继承属性和行为（即属性和方法）。
Designers should know how to use discrete time steps, feedback loops, resource allocation structures, and focused scenarios to design simulations that afford modification and replay, so that interactors can increase their understanding of cause and effect within complex systems. 设计师应掌握如何利用离散时间步、反馈循环、资源分配结构和专注场景来设计可修改和重放的模拟，以帮助参与者更好地理解复杂系统中的因果关系。
Humanist designers should be aware of what values they are serving and what assumptions they are making about the world when creating the cause-and-effect structures of computer programs and simulations. Wherever possible, they should make these assumptions visible to the interactor. 人文主义设计师应当意识到，在创建计算机程序和模拟的因果结构时，他们所服务的价值观以及对世界的假设。在可能的情况下，他们应当让这些假设对互动者显而易见。
4 Computational Strategies of Representation 四种计算表示策略
The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. 分析引擎并不具备创造任何事物的能力。它只能执行我们能够指示它完成的任务。
—Ada Lovelace (1843) —阿达·洛夫莱斯（1843 年）
Computation as Symbol Manipulation 计算即符号操作
Designers need to understand the ways in which meaning is inscribed and encoded on electronic circuits, and the conceptual strategies by which software engineers represent the world. Computational concepts shape the fundamental structures of the digital medium, and no member of a design team can understand the plasticity of the medium without a conceptual understanding of computation, starting with the fact that the entire system is based on a very simple mechanism: an electrical switch that can be in either the on or off position. The interior of a computer can be thought of as composed of millions of such switches, each of which can change state in a very small fraction of a second. A computer program is a set of conditional rules, an executable script, for turning these switches on and off. Computers do only what they are explicitly instructed to do, and all of their instructions have to be translated into a changing pattern of on/off switches. We can imagine the inside of any computer-based device as filled with tiny circuits like Christmas lights, flashing on and off in rapidly changing patterns. 设计师需要理解意义是如何在电子电路中被铭刻和编码的，以及软件工程师用来表达世界的概念策略。计算概念塑造了数字媒介的基本结构，设计团队的任何成员都无法理解媒介的可塑性，除非具备对计算的概念理解。首先要明白，整个系统基于一个非常简单的机制：一个可以处于开或关状态的电开关。计算机内部可以看作是由数百万个这样的开关组成，每个开关都能在极短的时间内改变状态。 计算机程序是一组条件规则，是一个可执行的脚本，用于控制开关的开关状态。计算机只会执行明确指示的操作，所有指令都必须转化为不断变化的开关状态。我们可以想象任何计算机设备内部充满了像圣诞灯一样的小电路，快速闪烁着开和关。
The power of computation rests on a semiotic connection similar to the way spoken language associates meaning with arbitrary vocalizations. Just as there is no reason why the sound “Ma” should mean “Mother”-or anything at all for that matter-there is no reason why a particular electrical state should hold meaning, or why one state should be assigned a value of 0 , and another state should be assigned a value of 1 . In both cases, there has been a cultural consensus-we (as English speakers) all agree to assign the meaning of “Mother” to the sound “Ma” and we (as programmers) agree that we will think of physical electrical switches, like vacuum tubes or silicon transistors, as abstract entities called binary digits or bits that 计算的力量依赖于一种符号连接，类似于口语如何将意义与任意的声音联系起来。就像“妈”这个声音并没有理由意味着“母亲”——或者任何其他事物一样，特定的电状态也没有理由具有意义，或者为什么一个状态被赋值为 0，而另一个状态被赋值为 1。在这两种情况下，都存在一种文化共识——我们（作为英语使用者）一致同意将“母亲”的意义赋予“妈”这个声音，而我们（作为程序员）也同意将物理电开关，如真空管或硅晶体管，视为称为二进制数字或位的抽象实体。
Figure 4.1 第 4.1 图
Vacuum tubes in a 1950s IBM mainframe computer, the technology that preceded the transistor, as a means of creating variations in electrical current for use in media appliances such as computers, radios, and televisions. 1950 年代 IBM 主机计算机中的真空管，这种技术在晶体管出现之前，用于调节电流，以便在计算机、收音机和电视等媒体设备中使用。
can be arranged in recognizable patterns, usually tracked in eight-bit groups, each of which is called a byte. 可以以可识别的模式排列，通常以八位为单位进行跟踪，每个单位称为一个字节。
Everything symbolically represented within the machine-whether it is an urgent bank transfer or a thrilling video game or a mind-numbing game of solitaire-is stored as a pattern of on/off switches. A one-megabyte ( 1 Mb ) file in any format is composed of eight million tiny electrical switches (bits), whether that file contains the text of a Pulitzer prize-winning book or a silly cat trick video or the initiation sequence for a nuclear weapon. The encyclopedic capacity and rapid speed of today’s computers are the result of the successive miniaturization of these bits, from vacuum tubes to transistors to integrated circuits etched into the silicon (figures 4.1-4.3). 机器中象征性地表示的一切——无论是紧急的银行转账、刺激的视频游戏，还是令人麻木的接龙游戏——都以开关的开/关模式存储。任何格式的一兆字节（1 Mb）文件由八百万个微小的电开关（比特）组成，无论该文件是普利策奖获奖书籍的文本、搞笑的猫咪特技视频，还是核武器的启动序列。如今计算机的巨大存储能力和快速处理速度，源于这些比特的不断微型化，从真空管到晶体管，再到刻蚀在硅上的集成电路（图 4.1-4.3）。
But the invention of the computer predates the invention of the electrical technologies on which it currently rests. The invention of the modern computer as a system of symbolic representation is credited to nineteenth-century mathematician Charles Babbage, who drew up plans for a calculating machine that would be programmable by removable cards, similar to the cards used by the French inventor and weaver Jacquard to produce variable and intricate textile patterns. Ada Lovelace, the daughter 但是，计算机的发明早于其目前所依赖的电气技术的发明。现代计算机作为符号表示系统的发明归功于 19 世纪的数学家查尔斯·巴贝奇，他设计了一种可以通过可移动卡片编程的计算机，这些卡片类似于法国发明家和织工雅卡尔用来制作复杂纺织图案的卡片。阿达·洛夫莱斯是他的女儿。
Figure 4.2 第 4.2 图
A solid-state transistor, introduced in the 1950s, could replace multiple vacuum tubes, making for increasingly portable electronic devices, and increased computational capacity. Transistors are connected in electrical circuits hardwired to execute the primitive (i.e., foundational, building-block) commands of a computer system. For example, an Adder circuit transmits current in a pattern that can be interpreted as binary addition. Starting in the mid-1960s transistors were further miniaturized into integrated circuit chips. 一种固态晶体管于 1950 年代问世，能够替代多个真空管，使电子设备变得更加便携，同时提升了计算能力。晶体管在电路中连接，硬连线以执行计算机系统的基本（即基础、构建块）指令。例如，加法电路以一种可以被解读为二进制加法的方式传输电流。从 1960 年代中期开始，晶体管进一步被微型化为集成电路芯片。
of the English poet, Lord Byron, designed the first such set of cards, thereby becoming the world’s first computer programmer. Babbage’s “Analytical Engine” was never built, but Babbage and Lovelace developed such detailed plans for it that Lovelace came to understand that such a symbolic logic machine would be more than a mere calculator and “might act upon other things besides number, were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of the abstract science of operations.” In particular, since she was trained in music as well as mathematics, she imagined a machine that could generate musical compositions: “Suppose, for instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of such expressions and adaptations, the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent” (Lovelace 1843). 英国诗人拜伦勋爵设计了第一套这样的卡片，从而成为世界上第一位计算机程序员。虽然巴贝奇的“分析机”从未建成，但他和洛夫莱斯为其制定了非常详细的计划，以至于洛夫莱斯意识到，这种符号逻辑机器不仅仅是一个简单的计算器，“它可能会对除数字之外的其他事物产生影响，只要找到那些其相互基本关系可以用抽象运算科学来表达的对象。”“特别是，由于她在音乐和数学方面都受过训练，她设想了一台能够生成音乐作品的机器：‘例如，假设和声科学和音乐创作中音高声音的基本关系可以用这样的方式表达和适应，这台机器可能会创作出任何复杂程度或范围的精致而科学的音乐作品’（洛夫莱斯 1843 年）。”
At the time that Lovelace was imagining such a machine, the most common form of automated sequence was the simple music box. Music boxes work by the action of a wheel with “pins” embedded in it and turned by a camshaft. The pins strike a keyboard called a “comb,” producing tones in the appropriate sequence to form a melody. The physical layout of the pins on the wheel corresponds to a sequence of notes that is executed by the motion of the wheel. What Babbage envisioned for his Analytical Engine was more like a player piano: a machine that could execute fixed sequences 当洛夫莱斯构思这样一台机器时，最常见的自动序列形式是简单的音乐盒。音乐盒的工作原理是通过一个带有“针”的轮子，由凸轮轴转动。针会击打一个称为“梳子”的键盘，按照特定的顺序产生音调，从而形成旋律。轮子上针的物理布局对应于通过轮子运动执行的音符序列。巴贝奇设想的分析机更像是一台自动钢琴：一台能够执行固定序列的机器。
Figure 4.3 第 4.3 图
The Intel Itanium chip with two billion transistors, each only sixty-five nanometers wide, was announced in 2008, two years after the release of a one-billion-transistor chip, reflecting the company’s continued aspiration to fulfill Moore’s Law of 1965 which predicts that integrated circuits will double in capacity every two years. In 2010 Intel announced work on a new chip that would have transistors only two nanometers wide. 英特尔 Itanium 芯片于 2008 年发布，拥有 20 亿个晶体管，每个晶体管仅宽 65 纳米，这比 2006 年发布的 10 亿晶体管芯片晚了两年，反映了公司对 1965 年摩尔定律的持续追求，该定律预测集成电路的容量每两年将翻一番。2010 年，英特尔宣布正在研发一种新芯片，其晶体管宽度仅为 2 纳米。
expressed on swappable cards. But Lovelace realized that such a machine could be programmed not with a particular tune, but with the rules of musical composition in symbolic representation. It could then apply those rules to generate new combinations. Lovelace was therefore the first person to understand the power of symbolic computation. The conceptual leap from invariant, unisequential, hardwired mechanical processes like music boxes to dynamic, rule-based, multisequential, symbolically coded sequences is what makes the computer a medium of representation. 表达在可互换的卡片上。但洛夫莱斯意识到，这样的机器可以用符号表示的音乐创作规则进行编程，而不是特定的旋律。它可以应用这些规则生成新的组合。因此，洛夫莱斯是第一个理解符号计算力量的人。从不变的、单一序列的、硬连线的机械过程（如音乐盒）到动态的、基于规则的、多序列的、符号编码的序列的概念飞跃，使计算机成为一种表现媒介。
It was not until the twentieth century that we had an inscription and transmission technology in the form of electrical current interpreted as bits that could hold such abstract symbols and execute the rules they contained. The state of any set of bits is unambiguous-they are each either on or off, 0 or 1 -but the meaning of the bits can change depending on the type of data structure of which they are part. The same bit configuration can be interpreted as numbers, letters, pixels on a screen, or as any other kind of data, display, or abstract symbol. For example, consider the following byte: 直到二十世纪，我们才拥有了以电流形式进行信息记录和传输的技术，这种电流被解读为可以承载抽象符号并执行其规则的比特。任何比特集合的状态都是明确的——它们要么是开，要么是关，0 或 1——但比特的含义可以根据它们所属的数据结构类型而变化。同样的比特配置可以被解读为数字、字母、屏幕上的像素，或其他任何类型的数据、显示或抽象符号。例如，考虑以下字节：
Hexadecimals represent four bits in a single digit. In binary form a byte takes up eight separate bits; the same information can be summarized for humans in two hexadecimal digits. 十六进制表示一个数字的四个位。在二进制中，一个字节占用八个位；同样的信息可以用两个十六进制数字来简洁地表达。
We can interpret it as a conventional (i.e., base 10) number, one million one thousand and ten: 1,001,0101,001,010. Or we can read it (as is customary for bits) as a binary (base 2 ) number, equivalent in quantity to the hexadecimal number 4 A , or the decimal number 74 (table 4.1). Because it is a number, we can perform arithmetic on it. If we added 1 to it (0000 0001), for example we would get 我们可以将其视为一个常规的（即十进制）数字，一百万一千零十： 1,001,0101,001,010 。或者我们可以按照位元的习惯将其视为一个二进制（基数 2）数字，其数量等同于十六进制数字 4A，或十进制数字 74（表 4.1）。因为它是一个数字，我们可以对其进行算术运算。例如，如果我们加 1（0000 0001），我们将得到
01001011
which is equivalent in quantity to 75 in the decimal system. 这在十进制系统中相当于 75。
But even though it is made up of 0 s and 1s, the bit pattern 01001010 need not be read as a number. It can also be interpreted as the letter J, within the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) system (table 4.2). 尽管由 0 和 1 构成，位模式 01001010 并不一定要被解读为数字。在 ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）系统中，它也可以被解释为字母 J（表 4.2）。
Or if we were to see the eight bits as part of an array representing one pixel per bit within a blue and red image, with 0 for blue and 1 for red, then 01001010 would represent the image shown in figure 4.4 . 如果我们将这八个比特看作一个数组，表示在蓝色和红色图像中每个比特对应一个像素，其中 0 代表蓝色，1 代表红色，那么 01001010 就表示图 4.4 所示的图像。
The bits could also represent true/false answers to a set of eight questions. In that case 01001010 might represent a complex set of knowledge such as: 这些位也可以表示对八个问题的真/假答案。在这种情况下，01001010 可能代表一组复杂的知识，例如：
Were you born in the South? NO (F)
Were you born in the Northeast? YES (T)
Were you born in Massachusetts? NO (F)
Were you born in Connecticut? NO (F)
Were you born in New York? YES (T)
Were you born upstate New York? NO (F)
Were you born in Queens? YES (T)
Were you born in the Bronx? NO (F)
Or 0100 1010 could represent items in a player's inventory within an adventure game:
Sword-
Dagger-TAKEN
Bread-
Book of spells-
PoisOn-TAKEN
Map-
Invisibility Cape-TAKEN
Candy-
Bits can also represent instructions to the computer. In fact, all computer instructions, no matter what programming language they originate in (such as Java, C++, PHP) end up being translated into machine code, or patterns of bits, usually in the form of one byte per instruction. For example, the instruction ADD might be written as 11110000 . Such basic instructions are the primitives, or smallest building blocks, of all computer code. 位可以表示计算机的指令。实际上，所有计算机指令，无论源自何种编程语言（如 Java、C++、PHP），最终都会被翻译成机器代码，或位的模式，通常以每条指令一个字节的形式呈现。例如，指令 ADD 可能被表示为 11110000。这些基本指令是所有计算机代码的基本构建块。
The literal mindedness of computers is discouraging to novice programmers, but it is helpful to remember that the arbitrariness of the machinery, its ignorance of the world, is an affordance as well as a constraint: it allows us to employ these readily available, easily changed bits to mean anything we want them to. As designers approaching the computer not merely as a tool for number crunching but as an expressive medium capable of many kinds of symbol processing, it is our job to expand the repertoire of meaningful qualities, ideas, and experiences that can be mapped onto those very simple but infinitely reconfigurable on/off switches. 计算机的字面思维对初学者程序员来说可能令人沮丧，但要记住，机器的任意性和对世界的无知既是限制也是一种便利：它让我们能够使用这些随时可用、易于更改的位来表达我们想要的任何内容。作为设计师，我们不仅将计算机视为处理数字的工具，更将其视为一种能够进行多种符号处理的表现媒介，我们的任务是扩展可以映射到这些简单但无限可重配置的开关上的有意义的特质、想法和体验的范围。
Abstraction of Processes into Flow Charts and Pseudocode 将过程抽象为流程图和伪代码
The principle strategy of representation in computer science is abstraction, a practice that underlies all representational media. Whenever we describe the world in any code we focus on part of it and not all of it, abstracting the thing we want to focus on away from the booming, buzzing chaos of our total experience. When the baby says “Mama” or “Dada” she is abstracting her parents away from the totality of sensation. When we use the word “mother” to refer to the category of people rather than to any 计算机科学中表示的主要策略是抽象，这是一种支撑所有表现媒介的实践。每当我们用代码描述世界时，我们关注的是其中的一部分，而不是全部，将我们想要关注的事物从整体体验的喧嚣和混乱中抽离。当婴儿说“妈妈”或“爸爸”时，她正在将父母从感官的整体中抽离。当我们使用“母亲”这个词来指代人类的类别，而不是任何特定的个体。
Table 4.2 表格 4.2
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) Representations for English Language Capital Letters ASCII（美国标准信息交换码）用于表示英语大写字母
Letter 信件
ASCII Code 美国标准信息交换码
A
01000001
B
01000010
C
01000011
D
01000100
E
01000101
F
01000110
G
01000111
H
01001000
I
01001001
J
01001010
K
01001011
L
01001100
M
01001101
N
01001110
O
01001111
P
01010000
Q
01010001
R
01010010
S
01010011
T
01010100
U
01010101
V
01010110
W
01010111
X
01011000
Y
01011001
Z
01011010
Letter ASCII Code
A 01000001
B 01000010
C 01000011
D 01000100
E 01000101
F 01000110
G 01000111
H 01001000
I 01001001
J 01001010
K 01001011
L 01001100
M 01001101
N 01001110
O 01001111
P 01010000
Q 01010001
R 01010010
S 01010011
T 01010100
U 01010101
V 01010110
W 01010111
X 01011000
Y 01011001
Z 01011010| Letter | ASCII Code |
| :--- | :--- |
| A | 01000001 |
| B | 01000010 |
| C | 01000011 |
| D | 01000100 |
| E | 01000101 |
| F | 01000110 |
| G | 01000111 |
| H | 01001000 |
| I | 01001001 |
| J | 01001010 |
| K | 01001011 |
| L | 01001100 |
| M | 01001101 |
| N | 01001110 |
| O | 01001111 |
| P | 01010000 |
| Q | 01010001 |
| R | 01010010 |
| S | 01010011 |
| T | 01010100 |
| U | 01010101 |
| V | 01010110 |
| W | 01010111 |
| X | 01011000 |
| Y | 01011001 |
| Z | 01011010 |
The Unicode standard is more inclusive; see http://unicode.org. Unicode 标准更加包容，详情请访问 http://unicode.org。
Figure 4.4 第 4.4 图
Pattern of pixels represented by the array of bits 01001010. 由位数组 01001010 表示的像素图案。
particular mother, we are abstracting in another way: generalizing from common elements in our experience to the general case that applies to all. 特定的母亲，我们以另一种方式进行抽象：从我们经验中的共同元素中概括出适用于所有人的普遍情况。
Computation, like language, rests on practices of abstraction. We find ways of identifying discrete items by giving them unique labels, addresses, descriptions; and we find ways of referring to multiple similar items with a single descriptor. Most important, since the computer is procedural we can specify a process once and then apply it iteratively to many similar items. For example, we refer to some people as “employees,” a socially defined abstraction that identifies people by a single role and allows us to treat different members of this class in the same way. We are familiar with the abstract genre of representation called a “paycheck” based on a standardized transmission and inscription format (paper of a certain size, with fixed arrangement of fields for date, payee, amount, signature, routing number, bank account number, etc.). We can build on these socially established abstractions to tell the computer to issue “paychecks” to all “employees” following the same general rules (a procedural abstraction) for calculating and issuing each individual paycheck. 计算与语言一样，依赖于抽象的实践。我们通过为离散项目赋予独特的标签、地址和描述来识别它们；同时，我们也能用一个描述符来指代多个相似的项目。最重要的是，由于计算机是程序化的，我们可以一次性定义一个过程，然后将其反复应用于许多相似的项目。例如，我们称一些人为“员工”，这是一个社会定义的抽象，通过单一角色来识别这些人，并允许我们以相同的方式对待这个类别中的不同成员。 我们熟悉一种称为“工资单”的抽象表现形式，它基于标准化的传输和记录格式（特定尺寸的纸张，固定排列的字段包括日期、收款人、金额、签名、路由号码、银行账户号码等）。我们可以利用这些社会建立的抽象概念，指示计算机按照相同的一般规则（程序抽象）向所有“员工”发放“工资单”，以计算和发放每个个体的工资单。
Computer code is a system for capturing similarity and variation in abstract terms. We capture variation of processes through conditional statements, and we capture variation in data by assigning parts of the data to different fields of a database. For example, our data about employees might be assigned to the general categories (fields) of first name, last name, address, hourly rate of pay, hours worked. Taken together the set of categories makes up an abstract representation of any employee. Any individual employee would be an instance of this abstract representation, and would have appropriate information populating each of the fields. 计算机代码是一个用于捕捉抽象术语中相似性和变化的系统。我们通过条件语句来捕捉过程的变化，通过将数据的不同部分分配到数据库的不同字段来捕捉数据的变化。例如，关于员工的数据可能被分配到一些基本类别（字段），如名字、姓氏、地址、小时工资和工作时长。综合来看，这些类别构成了对任何员工的抽象表示。每位员工都是这种抽象表示的一个实例，并且每个字段都有相应的信息进行填充。
Programmers specify instructions in computer code, which is written so that it is unambiguous for a computer. It is very beneficial for designers to understand the syntax of programming languages, but the coding step can be separated from the conceptual work of deciding how a program should work. Computational processes can be specified in two human-readable formats that are precise but independent of the coding layer: flow charts and pseudocode. Designers should be able to create and read documents in both of these genres in order to have a common language with the other members of the design team and in order to think more clearly about the computational representation of processes. For example, the flow chart for paying an employee might look like figure 4.5 . 程序员通过计算机代码来指定指令，这些代码的编写方式确保计算机不会产生歧义。设计师理解编程语言的语法非常重要，但编码步骤可以与决定程序如何运作的概念性工作分开。计算过程可以用两种人类可读的格式来描述，这两种格式既精确又独立于编码层：流程图和伪代码。设计师应能够创建和阅读这两种文档，以便与设计团队的其他成员建立共同语言，并更清晰地思考过程的计算表示。例如，支付员工的流程图可能类似于图 4.5。
Pseudocode captures the step-by-step logic of a process, the algorithm or abstract procedure, for performing it without worrying about the unforgiving syntax of any particular programming language. We can use pseudocode to describe the components of data structures like this: 伪代码能够逐步展示一个过程的逻辑、算法或抽象步骤，让我们在不必担心特定编程语言的复杂语法的情况下进行操作。我们可以用伪代码来描述数据结构的各个组成部分，例如：
Defne Datastructures:
timecard with name, hours, rate
paycheck with name, pay
Figure 4.5 第 4.5 图
Flow chart for a program that calculates pay and either writes and mails a check or does a direct deposit. There are two decision points, shown as diamond shapes, and one loop, which iterates the same sequence until the program runs out of timecards. A flow chart is a useful way to display the logic of a conditional process. 一个计算工资的程序流程图，该程序可以选择写信寄出支票或进行直接存款。图中有两个决策点，呈现为菱形，还有一个循环，重复相同的步骤，直到程序用完所有的时间卡。流程图是一种有效展示条件过程逻辑的方式。
We can incorporate aspects of programming syntax that are self-explanatory or commonly understood by team members. For example, a data field within a larger data object (like a name field on a timecard) is often referred to like this in programming syntax: 我们可以融入一些自我解释或团队成员普遍理解的编程语法方面。例如，在一个较大的数据对象中（比如时间卡上的姓名字段），数据字段通常在编程语法中被称为：
entity.attribute 实体的属性
So we can refer to fields in the timecard like this: 因此，我们可以这样引用时间卡中的字段： timecard.name 考勤卡.名称
We can use pseudocode to specify instructions to the computer processor as a series of functions. In the case of the payroll program we need functions to read timecards, copy information, calculate pay, and print out paychecks: 我们可以使用伪代码来为计算机处理器指定指令，这些指令以一系列函数的形式呈现。在工资程序中，我们需要一些函数来读取时间卡、复制信息、计算工资和打印支票。
READ next timecard
COPY timecard.name to paycheck.name
CALCULATE paycheck.pay = timecard.hours x timecard.rate
PRINT paycheck
Or if we were to write it closer to the actual code we might use the == sign without the “copy” or “calculate” command words: 或者如果我们将其写得更接近实际代码，可能会使用 == 符号，而不需要“复制”或“计算”这两个命令词：
READ next timecard 查看下一个考勤卡 timecard.name = paycheck.name 工时卡的名称等于薪水的名称
paycheck.pay = timecard.hours x timecard.rate 工资 = 工时 × 费率
PRINT paycheck 打印支票
There are many correct ways to write out the same procedure in pseudocode. It is only important that it be self-consistent, logical, and readable by all the appropriate team members. 有很多正确的方法可以用伪代码描述相同的过程。重要的是要保持自洽、逻辑清晰，并且所有相关团队成员都能理解。
Let us assume that some employees have direct deposit of their pay. In that case we want to calculate the pay in the same way but we do not want to print the paycheck. Let us assume there is a separate subroutine, a process that handles direct deposit, called DEPOSIT. We would just have to change the last instruction like this: 假设一些员工的工资通过直接存款的方式发放。在这种情况下，我们希望以相同的方式计算工资，但不需要打印支票。假设有一个单独的子程序，处理直接存款的过程，称为 DEPOSIT。我们只需将最后一条指令更改为如下：
COPY timecard.name to paycheck.name
CALCULATE paycheck.pay = timecard.hours x timecard.rate
DEPOSIT paycheck
To be efficient we want to combine both possibilities—PRINT and DEPOSIT— into a single program. To do that we have to add another field to our TIMECARD data structure: 为了提高效率，我们希望将打印和存款这两种功能合并到一个程序中。为此，我们需要在时间卡数据结构中添加一个新字段：
timecard with name, hours, rate, directDeposit 包含姓名、工时、工资和直接存款的考勤卡
The variable directDeposit can have a value of true or false. The pseudocode for processing either case could use the IF/THEN/ELSE structure that is a foundational convention of computer programming: 变量 directDeposit 的值可以是 true 或 false。处理这两种情况的伪代码可以采用 IF/THEN/ELSE 结构，这是计算机编程的基本规范。
START
READ next timecard
COPY timecard.name to paycheck.name
CALCULATE paycheck.pay = timecard.hours x timecard.rate
IF directDeposit = true
THEN DEPOSIT paycheck
ELSE PRINT paycheck
END IF
Furthermore, we need an instruction that will allow us to repeat this process in a loop until there are no more timecards to read. To do that we can create another IF/THEN/ ELSE statement, building up complexity of processing by nesting the original program within it: 此外，我们需要一个指令，以便在循环中重复这个过程，直到没有更多的时间卡可供读取。为此，我们可以创建另一个 IF/THEN/ELSE 语句，通过将原始程序嵌套在其中来增加处理的复杂性。
START
READ next timecard
IF no more timecards
THEN QUIT
ELSE
COPY timecard.name to paycheck.name
CALCULATE paycheck.pay = timecard.hours x timecard.rate
IF directDeposit = true
THEN DEPOSIT paycheck
ELSE PRINT paycheck
END IF
END IF
LOOP BACK to "READ next timecard"
The ability to keep track of nested processes is important as the conditions proliferate, so we use indenting to indicate the hierarchy, and we end each IF/THEN/ELSE sequence with an END IF command to keep the logic clear. We can also simplify the structure by expressing the outer loop as a WHILE DO statement, which can be written in pseudocode like this: 在条件不断增加的情况下，跟踪嵌套过程的能力非常重要，因此我们使用缩进来表示层次结构，并用 END IF 命令结束每个 IF/THEN/ELSE 序列，以保持逻辑的清晰性。我们还可以通过将外部循环表示为 WHILE DO 语句来简化结构，这可以用伪代码写成如下：
WHILE any timecard is left in the stack
DO
COPY timecard.name to paycheck.name
CALCULATE paycheck.pay = timecard.hours x timecard.rate
IF deposit = true
THEN PRINT paycheck
ELSE DEPOSIT paycheck 其他存款的工资
END IF 如果结束
END WHILE 结束循环语句
QUIT 离开
The instruction after the WHILE DO loop executes when the WHILE condition is no longer met. In this case, the program quits. 当 WHILE DO 循环的条件不再满足时，循环后的指令将执行。在这种情况下，程序将退出。
Conditional choices often have more than two possibilities, making it cumbersome to express them using IF/THEN/ELSE. Programming languages use case statements to express multiple conditions. The pseudocode for a CASE statement looks like this: 条件选择往往有多于两个的可能性，这使得用 IF/THEN/ELSE 表达变得繁琐。编程语言使用 case 语句来处理多个条件。CASE 语句的伪代码如下：
CASE
TODAY= Monday DO Monday_process
TODAY= Tuesday DO Tuesday_process
TODAY= Wednesday DO Wednesday_process
TODAY= Thursday DO Thursday_process
TODAY= Friday DO Friday_process
TODAY= Saturday DO Saturday_process
TODAY= Sunday DO Sunday_process
ELSE RETURN_ERROR
END CASE
Conditional instructions can be expressed in many ways, but the logic is the same. The computer is told to apply a test to some item, and to execute different instructions based on the results of this test. A computer program is usually made up of multiple such tests and a key part of computational abstraction is determining all the conditions that must be recognized and treated differently. 条件指令可以通过多种方式表达，但其逻辑是相同的。计算机会被指示对某个项目进行测试，并根据测试结果执行不同的指令。计算机程序通常由多个这样的测试组成，而计算抽象的一个关键部分是识别并以不同方式处理所有必须考虑的条件。
Part of the power of computational representation comes from our ability to abstract parts of a process as variables, as entities whose value will change during the execution of the code. For example, in the payroll example there were variables for: 计算表示的强大之处在于我们能够将过程中的某些部分抽象为变量，这些变量在代码执行过程中会改变其值。例如，在工资单的例子中，有以下变量：
the name of the employee 员工姓名
the number of hours worked 工作的小时数
the rate of pay 薪资水平
the direct deposit indicator 直接存款标识符
the amount of the paycheck 薪水的数额
We were able to describe how to deal with these variable items by labeling them and referring to them by an abstract label, ignoring the value the variable might have in any particular instance. 我们能够通过为这些可变项贴上标签，并用一个抽象标签来引用它们，从而描述如何处理这些可变项，而忽略变量在任何特定情况下可能具有的值。
The power of computing is the power of abstraction, of specifying how to handle many instances of something like an employee record in the same general way, with appropriate specific customizations. Thinking like a programmer means identifying 计算的力量在于抽象的能力，即以相同的方式处理多个实例，比如员工记录，同时进行适当的具体定制。像程序员一样思考意味着要识别
the appropriate generalizations and customizations necessary to perform a sequence of actions that accounts for all the likely variations of the target situation. 为了应对目标情况的各种可能变体，需要进行适当的概括和定制，以执行一系列动作。
Faced with a large set of similar but different items and a system of complex processes, such as filing tax returns or registering students for classes or selling books over the Internet, programmers impose order by abstracting away from the messy individual cases to the appropriate level of generality. They do this by asking themselves questions like these: 面对一大堆相似但又各有不同的项目，以及复杂的流程系统，比如报税、为学生注册课程或在互联网上销售书籍，程序员通过抽象化混乱的个别案例来建立秩序，以达到适当的概括层次。他们通过问自己类似的问题来实现这一点：
What are the most important categories of items in this domain? 这个领域中最重要的物品类别有哪些？
Within any category, what are the important qualities that all these items share? 在任何类别中，这些物品都具备哪些重要特质？
What actions have to be taken for every item in this category? 这个类别中的每个项目需要采取哪些措施？
How do these entities, attributes, and actions differ with individual cases? 这些实体、属性和行为在不同个案中有什么区别？
How do we decide which action to take in any individual case? 我们如何决定在每个个案中采取何种行动？
Since the answers to these questions will determine the representational structure of the digital artifact—how the processes in the real world are coded within the machinethey cannot be left to the programmers alone. They must be part of the fundamental process of design. Using pseudocode and flow charts, all team members can communicate and discuss these crucial abstractions. The more explicitly designers analyze such decisions, the better they will be able to anticipate the many variations that actual users will bring to the delivered system. 由于这些问题的答案将决定数字工件的表现结构——即现实世界中的过程如何在机器中编码——因此不能仅由程序员来决定。这些问题必须成为设计过程的核心部分。通过使用伪代码和流程图，团队中的所有成员都可以沟通和讨论这些关键的抽象概念。设计师越明确地分析这些决策，就越能预见实际用户在交付系统中带来的各种变化。
Scripting Behaviors 脚本化行为
Human culture can be seen as a progression of ever more elaborate strategies for scripting individual and group behaviors and for developing uniform behaviors within larger and larger groups. Rhythmic clapping and movement-the rudiments of music and dance-can be thought of as programmed behaviors, sufficiently general and recognizable actions that can be replicated by a wide range of performers in a varied but uniform manner. Hunting, fishing, gathering and sharing food, religious rituals, weddings, funerals, technologies of tool-making, child care, clothing, cooking, agricultural festivals of sowing and harvesting all require the transmission and reproduction of patterns of behavior that incorporate conditional rules for appropriate variations based on the immediate context. Symbolic forms of representation allow us to describe shared patterns of behavior without acting them out in real time, so that they can be remembered and reproduced with greater accuracy and complexity. 人类文化可以看作是越来越复杂的策略演变，这些策略用于规范个人和群体的行为，并在更大群体中形成统一的行为。节奏性的拍手和动作——音乐和舞蹈的基本元素——可以视为一种编程行为，这些行为足够普遍且易于识别，能够被多种表演者以多样而统一的方式复制。狩猎、捕鱼、采集和分享食物、宗教仪式、婚礼、葬礼、工具制作技术、儿童照料、服装、烹饪，以及播种和收获的农业节日，都需要传递和再现包含基于具体情境的适当变化条件规则的行为模式。 象征性表现形式使我们能够描述共同的行为模式，而无需实时演示，从而可以更准确和复杂地记忆和再现这些模式。
For people living in an oral culture, proverbs are a suitably brief genre, inscribing and transmitting useful general rules for behavior and for understanding the world by coding them in familiar language with conventions like rhyme, rhythm, and metaphor to make them memorable without having to write them down, for example: 对于生活在口头文化中的人来说，谚语是一种简洁的表达方式，它通过将有用的行为规则和理解世界的方式用熟悉的语言编码，运用押韵、节奏和隐喻等手法，使其易于记忆，无需书写，例如：
The early bird catches the worm. 早起的鸟儿有虫子吃。
A stitch in time saves nine. 及时处理可以节省更多的麻烦。
Leaves of three, let it be. (For avoiding poison ivy.) 三片叶子，别碰它。（以避免接触毒藤。）
The race is not always to the swift. 赛跑并不总是由快速者赢得。
Do unto others as you would have others do unto you. 你希望别人如何对待你，你就应该如何对待别人。
In a culture that has a writing system, people can inscribe behavioral scripts in stone or place them on sacred scrolls so they can be read out regularly as a guide to shared rules of behavior: 在拥有文字系统的文化中，人们可以将行为规范刻在石头上，或写在神圣的卷轴上，以便定期朗读，作为共同遵循的行为准则
For six days you shall labor and do all your work. But the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work. (Exodus 20:9-10) 六天内你要工作，完成所有的事务。但第七天是耶和华你神的安息日；你不可做任何工作。(出埃及记 20:9-10)
You shall keep the festival of unleavened bread. For seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, as I commanded you, at the time appointed in the month of Abib; for in the month of Abib you came out from Egypt. (Exodus 34:18) 你要守无酵饼的节期。在七天内，你要吃无酵饼，正如我所吩咐的，在亚比月的指定时间；因为你在亚比月从埃及出来。 (出埃及记 34:18)
Writing fixes behavior with greater uniformity for more people over longer periods of time, especially when it is accompanied by ritualized enactments that recur at predictable intervals. Time-keeping media technologies are also important in scripting behaviors. Synchronizing our reading of where we are in the sequence of natural events-for example, the daily, monthly, and yearly rhythms of sun and moon-allows us to coordinate our cultural patterns, like eating meals or planting crops, with nature and with one another. 写作修正行为，使更多人能够在更长时间内以更大的统一性进行，尤其是当它伴随着在可预测的时间间隔内重复的仪式性活动时。时间管理媒体技术在行为编排中也起着重要作用。同步我们对自然事件序列中所处位置的理解——例如，太阳和月亮的日常、每月和每年的节奏——使我们能够将用餐或种植作物等文化模式与自然和彼此协调。
The invention of the printing press helped us to standardize our observations and performance of complex processes-like the experiments that are the foundation of the scientific method or the best methods for dairy farming-and to share our strategies for improving them. The Industrial Revolution transformed many processes that are foundational to human culture by automating them, leveraging smaller amounts of human effort for vastly greater productivity. Manufacture of clothing and shelter and transportation was transformed by using compressed air, waterpower, carbonburning engines, and eventually electricity to perform tasks that were formerly done by hand. 印刷机的发明使我们能够标准化对复杂过程的观察和表现，比如科学方法的基础实验或乳制品生产的最佳方法，并分享我们改善这些过程的策略。工业革命通过自动化许多基础于人类文化的过程，利用较少的人力投入实现了更高的生产力。服装、住所和交通的制造通过使用压缩空气、水力、燃烧碳的引擎，最终到电力，来完成以前由手工完成的任务。
The invention of recording technologies for images and sounds has expanded our ability to observe and document processes, allowing us to repeat and segment events that would otherwise be lost in time, as well as to preserve and distribute our recordings. 录音技术的发明增强了我们观察和记录过程的能力，让我们能够重复和分段那些本会随着时间消逝的事件，同时也能保存和分享我们的录音。
The computer has augmented all of these modes of synchronizing, standardizing, automating, and recording sequences of behavior. It has increased scripting by word of mouth by facilitating voice, text, and image transmission-the equivalent of proverbial wisdom transmission for ever-larger social networks. Computer networks have also increased the dissemination, retrieval, and refining of more complex written rules, from legal contracts to the demanding rituals of French cooking. They have increased our control 计算机增强了同步、标准化、自动化和记录行为序列的所有模式。它通过促进语音、文本和图像的传输，提升了口耳相传的脚本——这就像是为越来越大的社交网络传递传统智慧。计算机网络还加速了更复杂书面规则的传播、检索和完善，从法律合同到法国烹饪的严格仪式。它们增强了我们的控制能力。
over mechanized processes, from automobiles to nuclear power plants to remotecontrolled weaponry and even to telescopes and probes in space by allowing us to control them through automated conditional processes. And they have augmented our ability to observe and record events over time. 机械化过程已经渗透到各个领域，从汽车、核电站到遥控武器，甚至是太空中的望远镜和探测器，通过自动化条件过程使我们能够控制这些设备。这些技术增强了我们观察和记录事件的能力。
Computers have given us the ability to fix, share, and refine procedural knowledge. A recipe in a book is descriptive (or declarative) knowledge. A recipe enacted by an expert is procedural knowledge. A computer displaying coded instructions is imparting descriptive knowledge; a computer running those instructions as a set of actions is demonstrating procedural knowledge. When we read a set of instructions in a book we can imagine what will happen when they are executed. When we run a set of instructions on a computer, we can explore what will happen under multiple conditions. It is descriptive like a recipe in a book; but it is also procedural like a chef executing a recipe-or like 1,000 chefs performing 1,000 variations of the same recipe. The power of procedural representation is a tremendous resource for design, a cultural power continuous with dances, proverbs, and rituals as well as with scientific experiments and mechanical engineering. 计算机让我们能够修正、分享和完善程序性知识。书中的食谱属于描述性（或声明性）知识，而由专家实际操作的食谱则是程序性知识。显示编码指令的计算机传递的是描述性知识，而运行这些指令并将其作为一系列动作的计算机则展示了程序性知识。当我们在书中阅读一组指令时，可以想象它们执行时的结果；而在计算机上运行指令时，我们可以探索在不同条件下的结果。它既像书中的食谱一样具有描述性，也像厨师执行食谱一样具有程序性——就像 1000 个厨师演绎 1000 种同一食谱的变体。 程序性表现的力量是设计的重要资源，这种文化力量与舞蹈、谚语、仪式，以及科学实验和机械工程密切相关。
Computer programmers think of the procedures for doing things as separate from the particular code with which the procedures are implemented and they refer to these more abstract procedures as algorithms. A key part of computational analysis is identifying the appropriate algorithm, the optimal sequence of instructions for performing a particular task or part of a task. Some algorithms are usable in multiple situations for the same kind of process, such as sorting a list, searching a database or archive, compressing files, or generating random numbers. The field of computer science is concerned with exploring the properties of algorithms and inventing new algorithms for processing information. The field of computer programming is concerned with applying and refining known algorithms for practical purposes. These algorithms are part of the cultural conventions that shape a particular software environment, although they may be hidden from the user or nonprogramming designer. 计算机程序员将执行任务的过程视为与实现这些过程的具体代码分开的内容，并称这些更抽象的过程为算法。计算分析的一个关键部分是识别合适的算法，即执行特定任务或其部分的最佳指令序列。一些算法可以在相同类型的过程中适用于多种情况，例如对列表排序、搜索数据库或档案、压缩文件或生成随机数。计算机科学领域致力于探索算法的特性，并发明新的信息处理算法。 计算机编程领域致力于将已知算法应用和优化，以满足实际需求。这些算法是形成特定软件环境的文化规范的一部分，尽管它们可能对用户或非编程设计师而言并不明显。
Mathematical formulas, like the ones for determining the area of geometrical shapes, are algorithms that always give the single correct answer, and that we therefore follow in precisely the same way each time we execute them. Much of computer science is concerned with mathematical precision in algorithms. But in daily life we generally make use of rougher algorithms called heuristics, sometimes called “rules of thumb.” Heuristics tells us in a mostly reliable way how to get to an acceptably closeto-accurate answer, such as estimating relative distances on a map by comparing them to the size of our thumb. Often the most advanced computational solution to a problem-the standard algorithm-is only a rough heuristic rather than a more precise methodology because the computer only has partial information, the outcome of a process is basically unpredictable, or a more mathematically accurate answer would take too much processing power for current machines. The proverbs discussed 数学公式，例如用于计算几何形状面积的公式，是总能给出唯一正确答案的算法，因此我们每次执行时都以相同的方式遵循它们。计算机科学的许多内容都关注算法的数学精确性。然而，在日常生活中，我们通常使用更粗略的算法，称为启发式算法，有时也叫“经验法则”。启发式算法以一种大致可靠的方式告诉我们如何得到一个可以接受的、接近准确的答案，比如通过将地图上的相对距离与我们拇指的大小进行比较来进行估算。 通常，解决问题的最先进计算方案——标准算法——只是一个粗略的启发式方法，而不是更精确的研究方法。这是因为计算机只能获取部分信息，过程的结果基本上是不可预测的，或者更精确的数学答案需要当前计算机过多的处理能力。所讨论的谚语
earlier in this chapter are heuristics that guide the thoughts and behavior of an individual toward the cultural norms and received wisdom of the larger group, without aiming for literal truth or mathematical accuracy. But a human being can compensate for the approximation of a proverb by not expecting " a stitch in time" to save exactly “nine” other stitches. Humans can also apply the same process description metaphorically, recognizing that other problems besides fabric tears are best taken care of before they get much bigger. Computer programs, on the other hand, need algorithms that explicitly state every condition they should be aware of and every action they should take. So human users need to be told how to gauge the reliability of the computer’s methods, by designs that bring visibility to the underlying algorithms. 本章早些时候提到的启发式方法引导个体的思想和行为，朝向更大群体的文化规范和接受的智慧，而不追求字面上的真理或数学的准确性。然而，人类可以通过不期望“及时缝合”能准确节省“九”针来弥补谚语的近似性。人类还可以将同样的过程描述进行隐喻性应用，意识到除了布料撕裂之外，其他问题在变得更严重之前最好先处理。相对而言，计算机程序则需要明确列出它们应关注的每个条件和应采取的每个行动的算法。 因此，人类用户需要了解如何评估计算机方法的可靠性，这可以通过设计来增强底层算法的可见性。
Although the algorithms on which computer programs are based are crucial parts of the structure of digital artifacts, they are often invisible to designers and interactors. Sometimes proprietary rights keep them invisible since the best search engine or recommendation system algorithm is a valuable invention in the marketplace. We also do not have many conventions for illustrating algorithms outside of mathematical notations. Algorithm visualization is a focus of research in information visualization (figure 4.6). It is useful as an aid to the teaching of computer science, and it should also be a focus for interaction designers. The more we understand about the way information is represented and processed within the machine, the greater our power to design it. And the better we can communicate the basis of the machine’s decision making to the interactor, the greater the experience of agency. 尽管计算机程序所依赖的算法是数字工件结构中至关重要的部分，但它们往往对设计师和交互者来说是不可见的。有时，专有权利使这些算法保持隐秘，因为最佳的搜索引擎或推荐系统算法在市场上是一项极具价值的发明。此外，我们在数学符号之外并没有很多展示算法的惯例。算法可视化是信息可视化研究的一个重点（见图 4.6）。它不仅对计算机科学的教学非常有帮助，也应成为交互设计师关注的重点。我们对信息在机器中如何表示和处理的理解越深入，我们的设计能力就越强。 我们越能清晰地向互动者传达机器决策的基础，体验的自主感就越强。
Figure 4.6 第 4.6 图
A comparative visualization of two sorting algorithms in the form of an animation with robots representing the actions of the processor. From a video by http://zutopedia.com, available on YouTube. 通过动画比较两种排序算法的可视化，机器人展示处理器的操作。视频来源于 http://zutopedia.com，可在 YouTube 上观看。
State 省
Since computer environments are always changing, we speak of them as having state. It is useful to remember that when we talk about state as a powerful abstract concept it is grounded in the physical reality of the underlying machine code and the millions of electrical switches set to 0 or 1 in patterns that we can interpret as representing higherlevel codes. Programs have state, and parts of programs can also have state. The state of a program is the state of all the bits in which it is instantiated. In early programming environments programmers made use of a “core dump,” a printout with a 0 or 1 representing every bit in computer memory. When a program crashed-when it could not figure out how to execute an instruction because of a typo or logic error of some kindthe program displayed its state at the moment of failure as a long list of 0 s and 1 s formatted into bytes. Programmers would find the bytes that indicated the location of the machine code instruction being executed at the time of the crash and the values of the variables, translating them from bits into ASCII characters, binary numbers, or primitive instructions, in order to determine what went wrong. We glimpse this underlying layer in error messages, usually expressed not in 0 s and 1 s but in hexadecimals (figure 4.7). We can think of an executing program as always in flux but capable of being captured in such snapshots when we need to, such as when we want to save a dynamic environment like a game or a tax return editor and restore it at a later time. 由于计算机环境总是在变化，我们称其为“状态”。值得注意的是，当我们将状态视为一个强大的抽象概念时，它实际上是基于底层机器代码的物理现实，以及数百万个以 0 或 1 的模式设置的电气开关，这些模式可以被我们解读为更高级别的代码。程序具有状态，程序的各个部分也可以具有状态。程序的状态就是其实例化时所有位的状态。在早期的编程环境中，程序员使用“核心转储”，这是一种打印输出，显示计算机内存中每个位的 0 或 1。 当程序崩溃时——因为某种拼写错误或逻辑错误而无法执行指令，程序会以一长串 0 和 1 的列表显示崩溃时的状态，这些列表被格式化为字节。程序员会找到指示崩溃时正在执行的机器代码指令位置和变量值的字节，将它们从位转换为 ASCII 字符、二进制数字或基本指令，以便确定问题所在。我们在错误信息中可以看到这一底层，通常不是以 0 和 1 的形式表达，而是以十六进制（图 4.7）。 我们可以把一个正在执行的程序看作是不断变化的，但在需要时可以通过快照来捕捉它，比如当我们想保存一个动态环境，比如游戏或税务申报编辑器，并在稍后恢复时。
Figure 4.7 第 4.7 图
System errors producing problem reports like this one provide end-users with a rare glimpse into the bit abstraction layer that underlies all digital representation. 系统错误生成的问题报告为最终用户提供了一个难得的机会，让他们得以了解所有数字表示背后的位抽象层。
Because computer applications are procedural, we do not have to reproduce the entire program and all the associated data structures to capture the state of a system. We only have to capture the values of all the variables. A “saved game” is not a bit-for-bit duplicate of the entire game; it is a file with the values of all the game variables. The master program can procedurally reproduce the desired state by reading this small data set and reloading these saved values into the appropriate variables. In a multiplayer world each player sharing the same virtual space has local copies of the large image files and the rules for generating the world, and the central server only needs to receive and send a limited number of variable values in a standard common format to keep everyone’s picture of the state of the world up to date. An image editor or word processor is similarly able to undo changes because it can keep track of the previous states of a document without having to save multiple copies. State is a useful concept for designers in any situation where users will want to save or share a procedural environment, or to undo/redo changes to a digital artifact. 由于计算机应用是过程导向的，我们无需重现整个程序及其所有相关的数据结构来捕捉系统状态。我们只需记录所有变量的值。“保存的游戏”并不是整个游戏的逐位复制，而是一个包含所有游戏变量值的文件。主程序可以通过读取这个小数据集，并将这些保存的值重新加载到相应的变量中，过程性地重现所需的状态。 在一个多人在线世界中，每个玩家共享同一个虚拟空间，拥有大型图像文件的本地副本和生成世界的规则，而中央服务器只需以标准格式接收和发送有限数量的变量值，以保持每个人对世界状态的最新理解。图像编辑器或文字处理器同样能够撤销更改，因为它可以跟踪文档的历史状态，而无需保存多个副本。在任何用户希望保存或共享程序环境，或撤销/重做数字作品更改的情况下，状态对设计师来说都是一个非常有用的概念。
State can also belong to entities within a world constructed of code. For example, all the characters in a multiplayer world can have individual states consisting of variables, like strength or intelligence, and possessions, like food and weapons. State is also a powerful conceptual framework for thinking about conditional processes. Instead of regarding a process as a unidirectional branching tree, with processing proceeding from beginning to end, we can see it as an interconnected network, with each node representing a distinct state and the lines or paths between them showing the preconditions for moving from one state to another. For example, figure 4.8 shows a state diagram of a virtual dog. If he is hungry he can pass to one of two states: 状态也可以属于由代码构建的世界中的实体。例如，在一个多人游戏世界中，所有角色都可以拥有由变量（如力量或智力）和物品（如食物和武器）组成的个体状态。状态还是一个强大的概念框架，用于思考条件过程。我们可以将过程视为一个互联的网络，而不是单向分支树，处理从开始到结束进行，每个节点代表一个独特的状态，节点之间的线或路径显示了从一个状态转移到另一个状态的前提条件。例如，图 4.8 展示了一个虚拟狗的状态图。如果它感到饥饿，它可以转移到两个状态之一：
sated if he is given a meal of food 如果他吃了一顿饭，他会感到满足
cranky if a second mealtime passes while he is already in a hungry state 如果在他已经饿的时候，第二次用餐时间到了，他会感到烦躁
The sated dog can become playful in the presence of a playmate or curious in the presence of a scent. He may run away if he is cranky, but he can be distracted by curiosity. We can represent all of these states as nested if/then statements or as a multibranching flow chart, but it makes more sense to represent them in a state diagram. 饱腹的狗在玩伴面前可能会变得活泼，或者在闻到气味时变得好奇。如果它心情不好，可能会跑开，但好奇心可以吸引它的注意力。我们可以用嵌套的条件语句或多分支流程图来表示这些状态，但用状态图来表示更为合适。
Many objects in computational systems can be understood in terms of a state diagram, such as a cursor that can change to a point, hand, highlighter, brush, and so on, with different functionalities associated with each state. The concept of state can summarize multiple variables in a complex system. For example, Will Wright’s original design for The Sims included motives such as hunger, hygiene, and entertainment that were summarized in an overall state of happiness of the character (figure 4.9). 计算系统中的许多对象可以通过状态图来理解，例如光标可以变为点、手、荧光笔、画笔等，每种状态都有不同的功能。状态的概念能够总结复杂系统中的多个变量。例如，威尔·赖特（Will Wright）为《模拟人生》的初始设计中包含了饥饿、卫生和娱乐等动机，这些动机被归纳为角色的整体幸福状态（图 4.9）。
State distinctions in real life and in virtual environments often reflect power relationships or special privileges. For example, credentials of various kinds (such as college degrees; birth, death, marriage, and divorce certificates; drivers licenses; 现实生活与虚拟环境中的状态差异常常反映出权力关系或特殊特权。例如，各种证书（如大学学位、出生、死亡、婚姻和离婚证书、驾驶执照等）；
Figure 4.8 第 4.8 图
State diagram of a virtual dog. The hungry state occurs at time steps representing meal times. The conditions for advancing to the other five possible states are indicated on the arrows. Drawing a diagram like this can suggest new possibilities or refinements of behaviors, such as considering the conditions under which the dog can be distracted from crankiness by curiosity. 虚拟狗的状态图。饥饿状态出现在代表用餐时间的时间步上。箭头上指示了转向其他五个可能状态的条件。绘制这样的图可以激发新的可能性或对行为的细化，例如考虑在什么情况下狗会因好奇心而从烦躁中分心。
and visa and citizenship documents) can also be understood in terms of state, with preconditions officially monitored, legal rituals accompanying the state transitions, and state-specific constraints and affordances. A power-up in a platform video game is a similar kind of state transition. For example, in the Super Mario Brothers video game, the Mario figure can become huge enough to stomp on obstacles he has to jump over in his usual state (figure 4.10) or small enough to fly into tiny places to find hidden treasures. State distinctions can provide a useful framework for distinguishing between stages of a process, and sometimes a master state can affect multiple variables. 签证和公民身份文件也可以从国家的角度来理解，具有官方监控的前提条件，伴随国家转变的法律仪式，以及特定国家的限制和机会。在平台视频游戏中，能量提升是一种类似的状态转变。例如，在《超级马里奥兄弟》游戏中，马里奥可以变得足够巨大，以便踩踏他在正常状态下必须跳过的障碍（图 4.10），或者变得足够小，以便飞入狭小的地方寻找隐藏的宝藏。状态的区分可以为区分过程的不同阶段提供一个有用的框架，有时一个主状态可以影响多个变量。
I/ calc and average happiness 我在计算平均幸福感
/I happy = mental + physical 我快乐 = 心理健康 + 身体健康
Motive[mHappyNow] = (Motive[mPhysical]+Motive[mMental]) / 2;
Motive[mHappyDay] = ((Motive[mHappyDay] * (DAYTICKS-1)) + Motive[mHappyNow]) / DAYTICKS;
Motive[mHappyWeek] = ((Motive[mHappyWeek] '(WEEKTICKS-1)) + Motivo[mHappyNow]) / WEEKTICKS;
Motive[mHappyLife] =((Motive[mHappyLife] *9) + Motive[mHappyWeek]) / 10;
for (z = 0; z < 16; z+t) ;
if (Motive[z] > 100) Motive[z]=100; _ /l check for over/under flow
it (Motive[z] < -100) Motive[z] = -100;
oldMotive[z] = Motive[z]:
/l save set in oldMotives (for deita tests)
)
1
Figure 4.9 第 4.9 图
Excerpts from Will Wright’s early draft code for The Sims, showing values for computing physical and mental motives and for combining multiple motives into a calculation of the character’s average state of happiness over multiple time steps. 威尔·赖特早期草稿代码《模拟人生》的摘录，展示了如何计算角色的身体和心理动机的数值，以及如何将多个动机结合起来，以计算角色在多个时间步骤中的平均幸福状态。
Cyberspace is increasingly populated by complex dynamic systems composed of thousands of variables, such as: 网络空间中越来越多地充斥着由成千上万变量构成的复杂动态系统，例如：
vast exploratory game worlds with hundreds of thousands of players 拥有数十万玩家的广阔探索游戏世界
social networking sites with thousands of associated media players and interactive games 拥有数千个相关媒体播放器和互动游戏的社交网络网站
stock trading systems providing access to globally available securities environmental monitoring systems 股票交易系统提供全球证券的访问和环境监测系统
Slide presentation systems that offer one-button changes of color scheme, formatting, and background for the same text content 提供一键式更改颜色方案、格式和背景的幻灯片演示系统，适用于相同的文本内容
control systems for automated manufacturing processes 自动化制造过程中的控制系统
Figure 4.10 第 4.10 图
Video game character Mario undergoing a state-transforming power-up that increases his size and the range of actions available to him. 视频游戏角色马里奥正在获得一种状态转变的能力提升，这使他的体型增大，并扩展了他的行动范围。
Each of these systems exists in a huge possibility space, making it increasingly difficult to keep track of the big picture, to know what variables to watch in order to understand the state of the system as a whole or to accurately track its individual parts. We are creating complex digital environments faster than we are creating the means of conceptualizing and overseeing them. The abstraction and visualization of the state of complex computational systems will therefore be an active area for design in the coming decades. 这些系统存在于一个巨大的可能性空间中，这使得我们越来越难以把握全局，难以确定哪些变量需要关注以理解系统的整体状态，或准确跟踪其各个部分。我们创造复杂数字环境的速度超过了我们构建概念化和管理这些环境的能力。因此，复杂计算系统状态的抽象与可视化将在未来几十年成为设计的一个重要领域。
Modularity and Encapsulation 模块化与封装
Modularity and encapsulation are key programming strategies for representing complex sequences of behavior by breaking them up into smaller parts that work independently but know how to exchange information with one another. 模块化和封装是关键的编程策略，它们通过将复杂的行为序列拆分成可以独立工作的较小部分，来实现这些行为的表示，同时这些部分能够相互交换信息。
The more modular a program, the better it can survive the inevitable changes of a development process, the more extensible it will be, and the more likely it will continue to be adaptable as new technologies emerge. Modularity allows programmers to change part of a large system without affecting the other parts, while sharing important elements across the whole system as appropriate. One way to think of modularity is to imagine a software program as an organization with employees, like a storefront bakery. The bakery may have one group of employees to make the pastries, one to wait on customers, and another to work the cash register. Each group understands what a cupcake is and how 一个程序越模块化，就越能应对开发过程中不可避免的变化，越具备可扩展性，也越有可能在新技术出现时继续适应。模块化使程序员能够在不影响其他部分的情况下更改大型系统的一部分，同时在整个系统中适当地共享重要元素。可以将模块化想象成一个软件程序，就像一个有员工的组织，比如一家店面面包店。面包店可能有一组员工负责制作糕点，一组负责接待顾客，还有一组负责收银。每个小组都明白什么是杯子蛋糕以及如何制作。
to pass it through the system, performing the appropriate actions at each stage. If the pastry chef is experimenting with a new cupcake recipe, it should not distract the other employees from doing their jobs. Similarly, a software program that supports Internet sales of baked goods might be written with a front-end module for customers, a backend module for employees, and shared database for keeping track of inventory. Redesigning the appearance or navigation of the customer interface should not disrupt the underlying database or the data entry done by the employees. 为了顺利通过系统处理，每个阶段都需执行适当的操作。如果糕点师正在尝试新的杯子蛋糕食谱，这不应影响其他员工的工作。同样，一个支持互联网销售烘焙食品的软件程序可能会为客户设计一个前端模块，为员工设计一个后端模块，并共享一个数据库来跟踪库存。重新设计客户界面的外观或导航不应干扰基础数据库或员工的数据录入。
One of the most useful applications of the strategy of modular design is the separation of the appearance of digital artifacts from their inner structure, of the user interface from the back end. For example: 模块化设计策略最有用的应用之一是将数字产品的外观与其内部结构、用户界面与后端分开。例如：
Databases that offer multiple views of the same data, such as graphs, pie charts, tables 提供同一数据的多种视图的数据库，例如图表、饼图和表格
Slide presentation systems that offer one-button changes of color scheme, formatting, and background for the same text content 提供一键式更改颜色方案、格式和背景的幻灯片演示系统，适用于相同的文本内容
Separation of display from structure with cascading style sheets in web environments 在网络环境中通过层叠样式表实现显示与结构的分离
Delivery of the same news and entertainment content on multiple-size screens and multiple hardware/software platforms 在不同尺寸的屏幕和多种硬件/软件平台上提供相同的新闻和娱乐内容
Modularity of design also allows developers to release expansion packs and level modifiers for games, by adding separate but compatible code onto an existing structure. 设计的模块化使开发者能够为游戏发布扩展包和关卡修改器，通过在现有结构上添加独立且兼容的代码。
Modularity is a fundamental principle of software engineering. It can be implemented in many ways. For example, in the payroll program we might make a subroutine called PAYCALCULATOR that would be called by the main program. Here it is in pseudocode: 模块化是软件工程的基本原则，可以通过多种方式实现。例如，在工资计算程序中，我们可以创建一个名为 PAYCALCULATOR 的子程序，由主程序调用。以下是伪代码：
PAYCALCULATOR (hours, rate) // calling program, passing parameters
CALCULATE calculatedPay = hours x rate //plugging in values passed as
parameters
RETURN (calculatedPay) //returning a value for calculatedPay
In the first line of the program we tell the subroutine PAYCALCULATOR what values to use to calculate the pay. When the program runs, the subroutine will receive two numbers separated by a comma. It will assume the first number represents a particular employee’s hours and the second represents the employee’s rate, and it will then plug these values into the equation hours x rate and come up with a new value, which it will send back to the program that called it in a variable called calculatedPay. In this example (hours, rate) and (calculatedPay) are variables that are passed as parameters between the master program and the subroutine. 在程序的第一行，我们告诉子程序 PAYCALCULATOR 使用哪些值来计算工资。当程序运行时，子程序会接收两个用逗号分隔的数字。它会假设第一个数字代表某位员工的工时，第二个数字代表该员工的工资率，然后将这些值代入公式“工时 x 工资率”，计算出一个新值，并通过一个名为 calculatedPay 的变量将其返回给调用它的程序。在这个例子中，（工时，工资率）和（calculatedPay）是作为参数在主程序和子程序之间传递的变量。
Having made this subroutine, we can change the master program so that it does not have to know how the pay is calculated. The relevant portion would read like this: 制作完这个子程序后，我们可以修改主程序，使其不需要知道工资的计算方式。相关部分将如下所示：
COPY timecard.name = paycheck.name
CALL PAYCALCULATOR (hours, rate) to get (calculatedPay)
Copy calculatedPay = paycheck.pay
IF DIRECTdeposit = true
THEN DEPOSIT paycheck
ELSE PRINT paycheck
END IF
The formula for calculating the pay has been encapsulated in the subroutine. 计算薪资的公式已经被封装在子程序里。
In general, programmers try to divide up the functional components of a software system so they can be tested separately and modified without affecting the other components. This also allows multiple people (or subteams) to work on the same system. As long as all the developers have a common representation of the data structures they will be sharing and the parameters they will be passing, each subteam can develop its own piece of the larger system independently of one another. For example, to handle the complexity of a real corporate payroll program, the functions for figuring out pension deductions or income taxes or charitable contributions can be treated as separate modules from one another and from the module that calculates net pay. As with many aspects of digital systems, standardization allows for coordination among multiple contributors. 通常，程序员会将软件系统的功能组件进行划分，以便能够单独测试和修改，而不影响其他组件。这也使得多个开发者（或子团队）可以在同一个系统上协作。只要所有开发者对共享的数据结构和传递的参数有共同的理解，每个子团队就可以独立开发更大系统的各自部分。例如，为了应对真实企业薪资程序的复杂性，计算养老金扣除、所得税或慈善捐款的功能可以被视为相互独立的模块，并与计算净工资的模块分开处理。 就像数字系统的许多方面一样，标准化使得多个贡献者之间能够更好地协调。
When the payroll program calls the CalculatePay subroutine by name it is taking advantage of the computational strategy of encapsulation, by which we hide the specific functional details of a module, drawing on it as if it were a black box known only by its name and the relevant protocols for sharing information. For example, we do not want to have to look at the binary machine code instruction for contacting the printer every time we want to print something. We encapsulate all of that within the PRINT command of a higher-level programming language or the PRINT menu item in a computer application. Encapsulation is sometimes spoken of as “information hiding” but it is better understood as standardizing the topmost level of an operation, so that other parts of the system can invoke the function without worrying about the details of how it is performed. Encapsulation reinforces modularity. By making one command PRINT for every printer we do not have to think about the individual print drivers for every operating system and every printer family each time we make an application. We just pass the PRINT command on to the system software and let the system find the appropriate device and driver. 当工资程序通过名称调用 CalculatePay 子例程时，它利用了封装的计算策略，这种策略让我们能够隐藏模块的具体功能细节，像使用一个仅通过名称和相关信息共享协议所知的黑箱一样来调用它。例如，我们不想每次打印时都查看联系打印机的二进制机器代码指令。我们将所有这些封装在高级编程语言的 PRINT 命令或计算机应用程序中的 PRINT 菜单项中。 封装有时被称为“信息隐藏”，但更准确的理解是将操作的最上层标准化，以便系统的其他部分可以调用该功能，而无需担心其具体实现细节。封装增强了模块化。通过为每个打印机使用统一的 PRINT 命令，我们在开发应用程序时无需考虑每个操作系统和打印机系列的具体打印驱动程序。我们只需将 PRINT 命令传递给系统软件，让系统自动找到合适的设备和驱动程序。
Often design of a complex software system starts with the topmost level and black boxes the constituent processes, leaving the details unspecified while the big picture is sorted out. For example, if we are making a procedure for preparing breakfast, we want the top level, the most general part of the program, to make sense regardless of what we are cooking. It might look like this: 复杂软件系统的设计通常从最高层开始，将各个组成部分视为黑箱，细节未作具体说明，而是先理清整体框架。例如，如果我们要制定一个准备早餐的程序，我们希望程序的最高层、最一般的部分无论我们做什么都能合理。它可能看起来是这样的：
PLAN menu
LIST ingredients
GATHER ingredients
COOK meal
SET table
SERVE meal
In listing the general steps we do not have to think about the details of performing any of them. We have encapsulated the multistep process of cooking the meal into a single “Cook” command. Because these routines are modular, the team that does the cooking does not have to think about gathering the ingredients. Each part of the larger program can be designed independently as long as the coders know how to pass information (shopping lists, groceries, prepared food) from one module to another. Encapsulation helps us to keep track of a large sequence of instructions without getting overwhelmed by the details. 在列出一般步骤时，我们不需要考虑执行每个步骤的细节。我们将烹饪餐点的多步骤过程封装成一个单一的“烹饪”命令。由于这些程序是模块化的，负责烹饪的团队无需担心收集食材。只要编码者知道如何将信息（如购物清单、杂货和准备好的食物）从一个模块传递到另一个模块，整个程序的各个部分就可以独立设计。封装帮助我们跟踪大量指令序列，而不会被细节所困扰。
Within each module we would specify the actions in greater detail, continuing to look for opportunities to encapsulate further, building up complexity with multiple abstraction layers. At the level of gathering the ingredients, we can begin to think about what generalized actions (functions) we would perform regardless of what we are cooking. For example, we have to 在每个模块中，我们会更详细地指定操作，继续寻找进一步封装的机会，随着多个抽象层的建立而增加复杂性。在收集材料的过程中，我们可以开始思考无论烹饪什么，我们都会执行哪些通用操作（函数）。例如，我们必须
GO to Refrigerator
OPEN Refrigerator
SELECT item
PLACE item on counter
GO to Pantry
OPEN Pantry
SELECT item
PLACE item on counter
We notice that there is some parallelism here. The Pantry and the Refrigerator are similar, and they belong to a category that could have other elements, such as ShoppingBag and BreadBox. All are FoodContainers. So we could save ourselves the trouble of making individual routines for each by making a generalized GATHER routine that would work for all of them, and that would also allow for other places besides the counter, as follows: 我们注意到这里存在一些相似之处。储藏室和冰箱是相似的，它们属于一个可能包含其他元素的类别，比如购物袋和面包箱。它们都是食品容器。因此，我们可以通过创建一个通用的收集例程来避免为每个容器单独编写例程的麻烦，这个例程可以适用于所有容器，并且还可以在柜台以外的其他地方使用，如下所示：
From [FoodContainer] select [Item] and Place [WorkLocation] 从[食品容器]中选择[物品]并放置在[工作地点]
To identify components of any process requires brainstorming all the examples of specifics while constantly thinking about how to abstract the general case. Food preparation immediately brings to mind refrigerators and pantries, which in turn suggest the general category of FoodContainer. Once we think of FoodContainer, shopping bags and breadboxes come to mind. Once we generalize the container, we realize we 识别任何过程的组成部分需要集思广益，列出所有具体的例子，同时不断思考如何抽象出一般情况。食品准备让人联想到冰箱和食品储藏室，这又引出了“食品容器”这一更广泛的类别。一旦想到食品容器，购物袋和面包箱便会随之而来。当我们对容器进行概括时，我们意识到我们
Table 4.3 表 4.3
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Basic Reference Model 开放系统互联模型（OSI）基本参考模型
Layer 层级
Function 功能性
Example of Components 组件的示例
7. Application 7. 应用程序
Provides network services to applications 为应用程序提供网络服务功能
文件传输协议 (FTP) 和超文本传输协议 (HTTP)
File Transfer Protocol
(FTP)
Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP)
File Transfer Protocol
(FTP)
Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP)| File Transfer Protocol |
| :--- |
| (FTP) |
| Hypertext Transfer |
| Protocol (HTTP) |
6. Presentation 第六部分：演示
对数据进行标准化和加密，以便在应用层和会话层之间传递
Standardizes and encrypts data to pass it
between application and session layers
Standardizes and encrypts data to pass it
between application and session layers| Standardizes and encrypts data to pass it |
| :--- |
| between application and session layers |
多用途互联网邮件扩展（MIME）
Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extensions (MIME)
Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extensions (MIME)| Multipurpose Internet |
| :--- |
| Mail Extensions (MIME) |
5. Session 第五次会议
在计算机之间建立连接，并优雅地结束会话
Establishes connections between
computers, ends sessions gracefully
Establishes connections between
computers, ends sessions gracefully| Establishes connections between |
| :--- |
| computers, ends sessions gracefully |
域名系统 (DNS)
Domain Name Server
(DNS)
Domain Name Server
(DNS)| Domain Name Server |
| :--- |
| (DNS) |
4.Transport 运输方式四
在用户之间传输数据，记录数据段及其传输是否正确
Transfers data between users, keeping
track of segments of data and whether
they transmitted correctly
Transfers data between users, keeping
track of segments of data and whether
they transmitted correctly| Transfers data between users, keeping |
| :--- |
| track of segments of data and whether |
| they transmitted correctly |
传输控制协议 (TCP)
Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)| Transmission Control |
| :--- |
| Protocol (TCP) |
3. Network 第三网络
通过一个或多个网络传输不同长度的数据块
Routing of data chunks of varying lengths
through one or more networks
Routing of data chunks of varying lengths
through one or more networks| Routing of data chunks of varying lengths |
| :--- |
| through one or more networks |
Internet Protocol (IP) 互联网协议（IP）
2. Data Link 2. 数据连接
将物理层的比特组织成称为“帧”的逻辑序列
Arranges bits from the physical layer into
logical sequences called frames
Arranges bits from the physical layer into
logical sequences called frames| Arranges bits from the physical layer into |
| :--- |
| logical sequences called frames |
WiFi，综合业务数字网络（ISDN）
WiFi, Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN)
WiFi, Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN)| WiFi, Integrated Services |
| :--- |
| Digital Network (ISDN) |
Provides the standardized electrical and
physical specifications for devices, such as
pins, voltages, cables, adapters, creating
the function of modulation-conversion
of digital data from user equipment to
signals that can be transmitted by a
communications network| Provides the standardized electrical and |
| :--- |
| physical specifications for devices, such as |
| pins, voltages, cables, adapters, creating |
| the function of modulation-conversion |
| of digital data from user equipment to |
| signals that can be transmitted by a |
| communications network |
Layer Function Example of Components
7. Application Provides network services to applications "File Transfer Protocol
(FTP)
Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP)"
6. Presentation "Standardizes and encrypts data to pass it
between application and session layers" "Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extensions (MIME)"
5. Session "Establishes connections between
computers, ends sessions gracefully" "Domain Name Server
(DNS)"
4.Transport "Transfers data between users, keeping
track of segments of data and whether
they transmitted correctly" "Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)"
3. Network "Routing of data chunks of varying lengths
through one or more networks" Internet Protocol (IP)
2. Data Link "Arranges bits from the physical layer into
logical sequences called frames" "WiFi, Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN)"
1. Physical "Provides the standardized electrical and
physical specifications for devices, such as
pins, voltages, cables, adapters, creating
the function of modulation-conversion
of digital data from user equipment to
signals that can be transmitted by a
communications network" "Modems, Coaxial Cable,
Fiber Optic Cable"| Layer | Function | Example of Components |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| 7. Application | Provides network services to applications | File Transfer Protocol <br> (FTP) <br> Hypertext Transfer <br> Protocol (HTTP) |
| 6. Presentation | Standardizes and encrypts data to pass it <br> between application and session layers | Multipurpose Internet <br> Mail Extensions (MIME) |
| 5. Session | Establishes connections between <br> computers, ends sessions gracefully | Domain Name Server <br> (DNS) |
| 4.Transport | Transfers data between users, keeping <br> track of segments of data and whether <br> they transmitted correctly | Transmission Control <br> Protocol (TCP) |
| 3. Network | Routing of data chunks of varying lengths <br> through one or more networks | Internet Protocol (IP) |
| 2. Data Link | Arranges bits from the physical layer into <br> logical sequences called frames | WiFi, Integrated Services <br> Digital Network (ISDN) |
| 1. Physical | Provides the standardized electrical and <br> physical specifications for devices, such as <br> pins, voltages, cables, adapters, creating <br> the function of modulation-conversion <br> of digital data from user equipment to <br> signals that can be transmitted by a <br> communications network | Modems, Coaxial Cable, <br> Fiber Optic Cable |
The OSI Basic Reference Model, describing the system of enabling technologies of the global information network, is a good example of the principle of encapsulation, which simplifies interaction in a nested hierarchy of functions by hiding information so that each level only sees what is relevant to its own process; for example, programs that are transferring files cannot see anything of the underlying hardware or radio waves, but they can rely on them working as needed because each component is following the official protocols for passing information up and down the hierarchy. OSI 基本参考模型描述了全球信息网络的技术系统，是封装原理的一个很好的例子。封装原理通过隐藏信息，简化了嵌套功能层次之间的交互，使得每个层次只关注与自身过程相关的信息。例如，传输文件的程序无法看到底层的硬件或无线信号，但它们可以依赖这些组件按需工作，因为每个组件都遵循官方协议来传递信息。
could also generalize the work location. Meanwhile other teams are thinking in more detail about the components of other parts of the process. The process of abstraction is iterative and collaborative. Although the advantage of modularity in development is information hiding, it is important for teams to establish clear standards and to remain in touch about shared structures. In 1999 NASA lost a $125\$ 125 billion Mars orbiter because “one engineering team used metric units while another used English units for a key spacecraft operation” (CNN 1999). 也可以对工作地点进行概括。同时，其他团队正在更详细地考虑过程其他部分的组成。抽象过程是一个迭代和协作的过程。尽管开发中的模块化优势在于信息隐藏，但团队建立明确的标准并保持对共享结构的沟通是非常重要的。在 1999 年，NASA 因为“一支工程团队使用公制单位，而另一支使用英制单位进行关键航天器操作”而损失了价值 $125\$ 125 十亿的火星轨道器（CNN 1999）。
Encapsulation is an important enabling strategy for the Internet (table 4.3), allowing a programming team to make significant changes to modules at any point in the hierarchy without having to worry about affecting or being affected by changes going on in the levels above and below, as long as the innovators observe the standard 封装是互联网中一个重要的使能策略（见表 4.3），它允许编程团队在层级的任何位置对模块进行重大更改，而无需担心会影响到上层或下层的变动，只要创新者遵循相关标准。
protocols for passing information up and down the line. The reliability of the Internet, which it is easy to take for granted on a day-to-day basis, can be seen as a triumph of computational abstraction. 传递信息的协议在上下之间。互联网的可靠性在日常生活中常常被视为理所当然，但实际上它是计算抽象的一项伟大成就。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: COMPUTATIONAL STRATEGIES OF REPRESENTATION 设计探索：表现的计算方法
Using Binary Codes for Symbolic Abstraction 利用二进制代码进行符号化抽象
Make up a coding scheme that describes one of the following using only eight bits: 创建一个仅用八位来描述以下内容的编码方案：
The politics of the members of your family 你家人的政治立场
The most important qualities of items in your music collection 你音乐收藏中物品的最重要特质
The factors that will determine whether a particular person (yourself, your roommate, your sibling, a famous person) will get married in the next three years 决定一个人（无论是你自己、室友、兄弟姐妹还是名人）在接下来的三年内是否结婚的因素
Evaluation criteria for something you are planning to buy 你打算购买的物品的评估标准
Try the following exercises in abstracting fictional characters: 尝试以下练习，以抽象出虚构角色：
Identify the variables in a character design system for a popular character-based game (e.g., Dungeons & Dragons, World of Warcraft, The Sims). What are the traits that are represented in the system? How are these traits reflected in the character’s behavior? What makes these traits suitable for a programmed environment-for example, are they easy to dramatize or quantify? What innovations in character design did the specific game introduce? 确定一个基于角色的游戏（如《龙与地下城》、《魔兽世界》、《模拟人生》）中的角色设计系统的变量。系统中有哪些特征？这些特征如何体现在角色的行为上？是什么让这些特征适合编程环境——例如，它们是否容易被戏剧化或量化？该游戏在角色设计方面引入了哪些创新？
Using a character design system from an existing game, represent one or more fictional characters from another medium such as novels, films, or television. What preexisting media conventions is the game system based on? What kinds of characters would be easiest to represent within the system? 利用现有游戏的角色设计系统，展现来自其他媒介（如小说、电影或电视）的一个或多个虚构角色。这个游戏系统是基于哪些已有的媒体惯例？在这个系统中，哪些类型的角色最容易被表现出来？
Using a character design system from an existing game, represent three people you know using the same variables. What would be left out? What moral, social, and cultural values are reflected in the abstraction system? 使用现有游戏的角色设计系统，运用相同的变量来表现你认识的三个人。会遗漏哪些内容？这个抽象系统反映了哪些道德、社会和文化价值观？
Invent a system that would capture a complex fictional character or a person that you know better than the existing game systems. What cultural values and media conventions can you draw upon to make your system? How would you create behaviors to illustrate the character traits you have invented? How would you differentiate between characters? 设计一个系统，能够更好地捕捉一个复杂的虚构角色或你熟悉的人，超越现有的游戏系统。你可以借鉴哪些文化价值观和媒体惯例来构建这个系统？你将如何创造行为来展示你所设定的角色特征？你将如何区分不同的角色？
Abstracting social identity: identify a website or networked mobile application that offers a questionnaire to match people romantically or to determine their chances of longevity or their carbon footprint or any other multifactor assessment. 抽象社会身份：找出一个网站或网络移动应用程序，该程序提供问卷，以帮助人们匹配浪漫关系，评估他们的长寿几率、碳足迹或其他多种因素。
Analyze the questions to determine what the underlying model of a person is. What kinds of activities do they expect people to engage in? What values do they expect them to have? What attributes or behaviors are not considered? 分析这些问题以了解一个人的潜在模型。他们期望人们参与哪些活动？他们希望人们具备什么样的价值观？有哪些属性或行为是被忽视的？
Compare two or more such sites addressing the same or different goals. Are these questionnaires overlapping at all? Do they look at the same characteristics in different ways? Do they have the same model of a person or a relationship or a healthy life? 比较两个或多个网站，看看它们是否针对相同或不同的目标。这些问卷之间是否有重叠？它们是否以不同的方式关注相同的特征？它们是否有相同的人、关系或健康生活的模型？
How much confidence do you have in the analysis done by each of these sites? What features seem the most helpful? What suggestions do you have for how one or more of these sites might change their abstraction of a person to shape better questions and offer a more useful analysis? 你对这些网站的分析有多大信心？哪些功能最有帮助？你有什么建议可以让这些网站在对一个人的理解上做出改变，从而提出更好的问题并提供更有价值的分析？
Representing Choices and Iteration in a Flow Chart 在流程图中展示选择与迭代
Flow charts are useful for representing branching processes based on conditional decisions that are repeated in a loop over multiple iterations, such as processing multiple timecards in a payroll program. Make a flow chart that represents a typical day in your life or the life of someone you know well, emphasizing routine decision points (e.g., what to wear, what to have for breakfast, whether to study or talk to a friend). In creating this flow chart: 流程图非常适合表示基于条件决策的分支过程，这些过程在多个迭代中循环进行，例如在工资程序中处理多张时间卡。请制作一个流程图，展示你生活中的典型一天或你熟悉的某个人的生活，重点突出日常决策点（例如，穿什么、早餐吃什么、是否学习或与朋友聊天）。在创建这个流程图时：
Represent any repetitive pattern during the day as a loop (e.g., leave housedid I forget something?-if yes—reenter/retrieve/leave house- did I forget something?. . .). 将一天中任何重复的模式视为一个循环（例如，离开家时我忘了什么吗？如果是的话，就重新进来/取回/再离开家，问自己我忘了什么吗？……）。
Represent the whole day as part of an iterative loop of a week. How would the iterations differ from one another? How would you represent those differences? 将整天视为一周迭代循环的一部分。这些迭代之间有什么不同？你会如何表达这些差异？
Compare your flow chart to those of others in the class. What did you put in that others left out? What did you leave out that others put in? 比较一下你的流程图和班上其他同学的。你添加了哪些内容是其他人没有的？你遗漏了哪些内容是其他人添加的？
Collaborate with others to make a more abstract and inclusive chart based on multiple individual decisions. 与他人合作，基于多个个人决策制作一个更具抽象性和包容性的图表。
Representing Lived Experience as Abstract Pseudocode 通过抽象伪代码表达生活经历
Using no more than ten verbs and twenty nouns, write a procedural description of a typical day in your life from waking to sleeping, as follows: 请用不超过十个动词和二十个名词，描述一下你从早上醒来到晚上睡觉的典型一天，格式如下：
Framing the task: decide on the kinds of actions and objects you will ignore (e.g., personal hygiene or private matters) and what kinds of actions and objects you will particularly focus on. Will you emphasize comic or studious activities? Will you aim for the idiosyncratic or the generic? 确定任务：决定你将忽略哪些类型的行为和对象（例如，个人卫生或私人事务），以及你将特别关注哪些类型的行为和对象。你会更强调幽默的活动还是学术的活动？你会追求独特的还是普遍的？
Use pseudocode syntax and consider whether you need to specify items that are implicit in English syntax. For example, not just Dress but Dress(Clothing). 使用伪代码语法，并考虑是否需要明确在英语语法中隐含的内容。例如，不仅仅是“Dress”，而是“Dress(Clothing)”。
Compress the representation by generalizing-for example by writing Meal instead of Breakfast, Lunch, Dinner-and keep a separate list of the kinds of objects and behaviors that are encapsulated in the more abstract term. 通过概括来简化表达，例如用“餐”来代替“早餐”、“午餐”和“晚餐”，并保持一个单独的列表，列出被更抽象术语所涵盖的对象和行为。
Follow up with groups: compare your verbs with those of three other students. Could you represent your day using only their verbs? 与小组进行跟进：将你的动词与另外三位同学的动词进行比较。你能仅用他们的动词来描述你的一天吗？
Working in groups of three, compress all of your actions and objects into no more than seven verbs and fifteen nouns. Wherever possible, generalize to create another abstraction layer. For example, if one person had BIKE to CAMPUS and another had DRIVE to CAMPUS, then create a top-level verb like TRAVEL. 以三人一组的方式，将你们的所有动作和物体压缩为不超过七个动词和十五个名词。尽量进行概括，以形成另一个抽象层。例如，如果一个人有“骑自行车去校园”，而另一个人有“开车去校园”，那么可以创建一个顶层动词，比如“旅行”。
Compare results with other groups to see who captures the most specificity with the fewest verbs. How many abstraction levels would be necessary to combine all of the groups’ lists into a single comprehensive vocabulary with only seven verbs and fifteen nouns at the top level? 比较其他组的结果，看看谁在使用最少动词的情况下能捕捉到最多的特异性。需要多少个抽象层次才能将所有组的列表合并成一个顶层只有七个动词和十五个名词的综合词汇？
Advanced exercise: create pseudocode or running code for a program that generates randomized variants on a typical student day. Start with a representation of seven to ten actions arranged in chronological sequence and described at their most general level (e.g., EAT, TRAVEL, STUDY, FLIRT, etc.). Specify specific variants for each of these actions, either by substitute verbs (e.g., TRAVEL/DRIVE/BIKE) or nouns (PLACE/HOME/CAMPUS/CAFÉ). What rules would you need to make coherent sequences? 高级练习：编写伪代码或运行代码，生成典型学生日常活动的随机变体。首先列出七到十个按时间顺序排列的动作，并以最一般的方式描述（例如，吃、旅行、学习、调情等）。为每个动作指定具体的变体，可以使用替代动词（如：旅行/驾驶/骑自行车）或名词（如：地点/家/校园/咖啡馆）。你需要什么规则来确保这些序列的连贯性？
Thinking of Processes Algorithmically 从算法的视角思考流程
Look up sorting algorithms on the web or in a computer science textbook. How many ways can you find for putting a list into alphabetical order? How would you choose when to use one over another? 在网上或计算机科学教科书中查找排序算法。你能找到多少种将列表按字母顺序排列的方法？你会如何选择使用哪种算法？
One of the most common forms of sorting is the Bubble Sort, in which two items are compared and the lesser of the two is placed beneath the greater. In an existing list, one can sort through every pair in this manner and the highest value will “bubble up” to the top of the list. Draw a flow chart for a bubble sort. With a set of 500 unalphabetized words on index cards, follow your flow chart and sort them. Was it difficult to follow the flow-charted rules? If so, what would you have preferred to do? 最常见的排序方法之一是冒泡排序，它通过比较两个元素，将较小的放在较大的下面。在一个已有的列表中，可以以这种方式对每一对元素进行排序，最大值会“冒泡”到列表的顶部。请绘制一个冒泡排序的流程图。使用 500 个未按字母顺序排列的单词卡片，按照你的流程图进行排序。遵循流程图的规则是否困难？如果是的话，你更愿意采取什么方法？
Implement the Bubble Sort algorithm in the programming language of your choice (or find an existing version) and test it with the same list of words. How is the computer performance different from the human performance? 在您选择的编程语言中实现冒泡排序算法（或找到现有的版本），并用相同的单词列表进行测试。计算机的性能与人类的性能有什么不同？
Abstracting the State of Complex Systems 抽象复杂系统的状态分析
Start any computer-based game, quit in the middle, and then restart it. Did the system duplicate the previous instantiation or were there differences between the original and restored version? What factors did the program have to keep track of in order to restore the game? How would you express these factors as a set of variables? 启动任何计算机游戏，途中退出后再重新启动。系统是复制了之前的状态，还是原始版本与恢复版本之间存在差异？程序需要跟踪哪些因素才能恢复游戏？你会如何将这些因素表示为一组变量？
Using yourself, someone you live or work with very closely, or a fictional person or celebrity you know from media reports, identify seven variables that taken together summarize your chosen person’s overall state at a particular segment in time (it could be by month, week, day, time of day-whatever you consider most important to keep track of). The seven variables can be logical (e.g., true/false), qualitative (e.g., healthy/so-so/sick), or quantitative (e.g., net worth in dollars). Using these seven variables: 通过你自己、与你非常亲近的人，或是你从媒体报道中了解的虚构人物或名人，识别出七个变量，这些变量共同总结了你所选择的人的整体状态在某个特定时间段（可以是按月、周、天或一天中的某个时间——无论你认为最重要的是什么）。这七个变量可以是逻辑的（例如，真/假）、定性的（例如，健康/一般/生病）或定量的（例如，净资产以美元计）。使用这七个变量：
Make a chart indicating all the possible values of each of the variables. 制作一张图表，显示每个变量的所有可能值。
Enter the values on index cards arranged in seven stacks or as a set of seven adjacent pull-down menus. This will allow you to experiment with different combinations of settings. How long would it take to manually look at every possible combination? 在七个堆叠或一组七个相邻的下拉菜单中输入索引卡的值。这将让您尝试不同的设置组合。手动查看所有可能的组合需要多长时间？
Are any of these variables causally linked or closely associated (e.g.: If a person’s number of days-to-deadline for an important project are less than 5 then are their hours-of-sleep likely to be less than 8 ?) 这些变量之间是否存在因果关系或紧密关联（例如：如果一个人在重要项目的截止日期前的天数少于 5 天，他们的睡眠时间是否可能少于 8 小时？）
Which combinations of variable settings are most worth keeping track of? 哪些变量设置的组合最值得关注？
Based on this description of a person with variable states, identify some important actions that will change the value of variables or whose performance will change based on the value of variables. For example, will the result of taking an examination change if the person’s hunger level is high? Draw a flow chart describing variant paths through a set of events based on decisions that change the state of variables. Or draw a state diagram for the character that describes how transitions are made from state to state. 根据对一个具有可变状态的人的描述，识别一些重要的行动，这些行动会改变变量的值，或者其执行会根据变量的值而变化。例如，如果一个人的饥饿水平很高，参加考试的结果会受到影响吗？绘制一个流程图，描述基于改变变量状态的决策而经历的一系列事件的不同路径。或者绘制一个角色的状态图，描述状态之间的转换过程。
Using Encapsulation to Abstract Behaviors as Discrete Modules 通过封装将行为抽象为独立模块
Using pseudocode or a flow chart or another form of system diagramming, describe in at least seven modules with at least two abstraction levels the planning process for an event such as a wedding, family reunion, professional conference, or political demonstration. This can be done as a group exercise and the situation can be based on experience, fiction, or invention. 使用伪代码、流程图或其他系统图示，描述一个事件的规划过程，例如婚礼、家庭聚会、专业会议或政治示威，至少包含七个模块和两个抽象层次。这可以作为小组活动进行，情境可以基于经验、虚构或创造。
Preparation for creating the modules: describe the event, giving examples of similar real or fictional instances, and indicating the general requirements (e.g., a wedding similar to the one in the movie Father of the Bride). 创建模块的准备：描述事件，举出类似的真实或虚构的例子，并指出一般要求（例如，类似于电影《新娘的父亲》中的婚礼）。
Start with the top-level process. It may help to think of yourself as the chair of a committee and to think of each of the second-level modules as a set of related tasks assigned to a particular committee member. 从顶层流程开始。可以把自己想象成委员会的主席，把每个第二级模块看作是分配给特定委员会成员的一组相关任务。
What processes are named within the top-level process? If they are well chosen then they will fully describe the general tasks needed to accomplish the goal. 顶层过程里有哪些被命名的过程？如果选择得当，它们将全面描述实现目标所需的基本任务。
Identify shared parameters and data structures, such as output from one module that is delivered to other modules as input (e.g., MakeGuestList would pass the GuestList to CreateInvitations and CreateSeatingPlan). 确定共享的参数和数据结构，比如一个模块的输出作为输入传递给其他模块（例如，MakeGuestList 会将 GuestList 传递给 CreateInvitations 和 CreateSeatingPlan）。
Include other levels of encapsulations as needed (e.g., CreateInvitations might include a black box for ChooseStationer. 根据需要包含其他层次的封装（例如，CreateInvitations 可能会包含一个 ChooseStationer 的黑箱）。
What behaviors (e.g., CheckBudget, CheckStillEngaged), variables (e.g., UrgeToElope), or information structures (e.g., Budget, GuestList) would all the modules need to share? 所有模块需要共享哪些行为（如 CheckBudget、CheckStillEngaged）、变量（如 UrgeToElope）或信息结构（如 Budget、GuestList）？
5 Building Procedural Complexity 五栋建筑的程序复杂性
Every computer program is a model, hatched in the mind, of a real or mental process. These processes, arising from human experience and thought, are huge in number, intricate in detail, and at the time only partially understood . . . they continually evolve; we change them as our perception of the model deepens, enlarges, generalizes until it attains a . . . place within still another model with which we struggle. The source of the exhilaration associated with computer programming is the continual unfolding within the mind and on the computer of mechanisms expressed as programs and the explosion of perception they generate. If art interprets our dreams, the computer executes them in the guise of programs! 每个计算机程序都是在头脑中形成的模型，代表着真实或心理过程。这些过程源于人类的经验和思考，数量庞大，细节复杂，且在当时只被部分理解……它们不断演变；随着我们对模型的理解加深、扩大和概括，直到它在另一个我们所挣扎的模型中占据一个位置。与计算机编程相关的兴奋感源于心灵和计算机中不断展开的机制，这些机制以程序的形式表达，并引发感知的爆炸。如果艺术诠释我们的梦想，那么计算机就是以程序的形式来实现这些梦想！
—Alan J. Perlis (1996) —艾伦·J·佩尔利斯（1996 年）
Objects, Classes, Methods, Inheritance 对象、类、方法与继承
One of the most important advances in computer science in the past thirty years was the movement toward object-oriented programming. While older programming languages separated data structures from procedures and emphasized central control programs with dependent subroutines, object-oriented systems provide a more integrated and decentralized model that allows designers to specify objects and behaviors at multiple levels of abstraction. 在过去三十年里，计算机科学最重要的进展之一就是面向对象编程的兴起。早期的编程语言将数据结构与程序分开，强调中央控制程序及其依赖的子程序，而面向对象的系统则提供了一种更为集成和去中心化的模型，使设计者能够在多个抽象层次上定义对象和行为。
In an object-oriented environment, the programmer creates objects with attributes and behaviors (often called methods). For example, in an object-oriented role-playing game system, a warrior object might have fighting methods and a magician object might have spell-casting methods. This kind of abstraction is also a feature of cultural life in which, as Erving Goffman pointed out, we see ourselves and one another as playing roles with scripted interactions characteristic of those roles (Goffman 1967). For example, a teacher and a student have characteristic behaviors individually (lecturing, studying) and interactively (administering and taking tests). Machines can also be seen as objects with methods. For example, microwave ovens have pre-scripted methods for dealing with popcorn or potatoes. 在面向对象的环境中，程序员创建具有属性和行为（通常称为方法）的对象。例如，在一个面向对象的角色扮演游戏系统中，战士对象可能具有战斗方法，而魔法师对象可能具有施法方法。这种抽象也是文化生活的一个特征，正如厄尔文·戈夫曼所指出的，我们看到自己和他人都在扮演角色，并进行具有这些角色特征的脚本化互动（戈夫曼 1967）。例如，教师和学生在个体行为上（讲课、学习）和互动行为上（进行和参加考试）都有其特征。机器也可以被视为具有方法的对象。 例如，微波炉有专门的程序来处理爆米花或土豆。
Objects are specified not as individuals but as members of a class, and the individual object created when the program is executing is considered an instance of the general class or template for that object. Instantiation does not only belong to object-oriented environments. It is one of the most powerful features of the digital medium: the ability to describe something as a general template or rule set and then to create an unlimited number of copies with unlimited possible variations. 对象的定义不是作为个体，而是作为类的成员。在程序执行时创建的个体对象被视为该对象的一般类或模板的实例。实例化不仅限于面向对象的环境。这是数字媒介最强大的特性之一：能够将某个事物描述为一般模板或规则集，然后创建无限数量的副本，并且可以有无限的变体。
Objects within a class inherit all the attributes and methods of the class, but they can have different values attached to them. For example, an instance of a dragon object might have a variable indicating whether or not (T/F) it was fire breathing, which would also determine whether its fight method included fire-breathing attack as one of its functions. 类中的对象继承了所有属性和方法，但它们可以有不同的值。例如，一个龙对象的实例可能有一个变量来指示它是否会喷火（是/否），这也会决定它的战斗方法是否包含喷火攻击。
Objects can also belong to subclasses that inherit attributes and methods from parent classes. For example, a knight class might be a child of the warrior class with fight methods that are parameterized using the sword subclass of the weapons object class and following the rules associated with the method for dueling. All warriors might have common attributes such as health, strength, and weapons proficiency, and common methods such as challenge, fight, and retreat. These common attributes and methods would only have to be specified once to apply to all warrior subclasses, with appropriate parameters to differentiate a dragon warrior from a knight warrior. Objects can inherit from multiple classes, so that the knights might inherit methods from the courtly lover class that would allow them to recite poetry and choose a beloved, as well as to perform the behaviors appropriate to warriors. 对象可以属于子类，这些子类从父类继承属性和方法。例如，骑士类可能是战士类的子类，其战斗方法使用武器对象类中的剑子类进行参数化，并遵循与决斗方法相关的规则。所有战士可能具有共同的属性，如生命值、力量和武器熟练度，以及共同的方法，如挑战、战斗和撤退。这些共同的属性和方法只需定义一次，就可以适用于所有战士子类，并通过适当的参数来区分龙战士和骑士战士。 对象可以从多个类继承，因此骑士可能会继承优雅情人类的方法，这使他们能够吟诵诗歌、选择心爱之人，并表现出战士应有的行为。
Object-oriented concepts are well suited to representing our increasingly parameterized view of the world-our sense that the way things are is just one version of the many ways they might be. 面向对象的概念非常适合表达我们日益参数化的世界观——我们对事物本质的理解只是它们可能存在的多种方式中的一种。
Substitution Systems 替代性系统
As systems become more complex, they become more difficult to represent as flow charts of branching trees. Consider for example the case of a narrative environment in which multiple events are possible at any time, some of them based on much earlier choices and events, some of them based on immediate actions. It is easy to imagine such a world but difficult to build it, and especially hard to understand while building it all the possible combinations of events the system will enable. Substitution systems, like the one that is the basis of human language, are good ways of approaching this level of complexity. 随着系统变得越来越复杂，它们的表示方式也变得更加困难，无法简单地用分支树的流程图来展示。例如，想象一个叙事环境，在这个环境中，任何时刻都可能发生多个事件，其中一些事件基于更早的选择和经历，而另一些则基于即时的行动。虽然想象这样的世界很容易，但构建它却非常困难，尤其是在构建过程中理解系统可能产生的所有事件组合更是挑战。像人类语言基础的替代系统，是应对这种复杂性的一种有效方法。
We can think of language as composed of standardized slots that can be filled in with a large range of content. For example, a simplified template for an English sentence might look like this: 我们可以把语言看作是由标准化的结构组成，这些结构可以填充各种内容。例如，一个简化的英语句子模板可能是这样的：
We can say an infinite number of things and still be understood by following this word order, substituting particular nouns and verbs for the appropriate slot in the template. The rules for which nouns and verbs go in which slots, for how they are spelled, for what they mean, and for which of the many variations of this simple template will be used (with or without adjectives, adverbs, embedded clauses, etc.) are enormously complicated, but the organizing format that makes meaning possible is a simple substitution system. 我们可以说无数的话，并且通过遵循这种词序，替换特定的名词和动词以适应模板中的相应位置，仍然能够被理解。关于哪些名词和动词放在哪些位置、它们的拼写、含义，以及使用这个简单模板的各种变体（包括或不包括形容词、副词、嵌入从句等）的规则非常复杂，但使得意义得以实现的组织格式是一个简单的替换系统。
Similarly, substitution systems of various kinds provide the structure for many predigital and digital media formats and genres. A few examples: 类似地，各种替代系统为许多数字前和数字媒体格式及类型提供了框架。以下是一些例子：
The rhyme scheme in a ballad 民谣的韵律模式
Print templates for marriage licenses, paychecks, birth certificates 婚姻许可证、工资单和出生证明的打印模板
The organization of popular music concerts into sets and of songs into sets 将流行音乐会和歌曲进行分组和组织
Layout schemes for magazines and newspapers 杂志和报纸的排版方案
The organization of talk shows into slots per guest, and of reality contest shows into slots for contestants and episodic challenges 将脱口秀按嘉宾分配时段，将真人秀比赛按参赛者和每集挑战分配时段
Pull-down menu choices on a computer application or web form 计算机应用或网页表单中的下拉菜单选项
Avatar creation and choice of weapons in video games (figure 5.1) 视频游戏中的角色创建与武器选择（图 5.1）
In all of these media genres, the schema of a substitution system allows the creators to produce multiple versions in a more efficient manner and it allows the consumer to anticipate the information and therefore take it in more efficiently. 在所有这些媒体类型中，替代系统的结构使创作者能够更高效地制作多个版本，同时也让消费者能够预见信息，从而更有效地理解和吸收。
In computer-based environments we can build up complexity by shaping multiple interconnected substitution systems and writing complex rules for assembling the elements, creating not just a uniform template but a proceduralized substitution system. 在计算机环境中，我们可以通过构建多个相互连接的替代系统和编写复杂的规则来组装元素，从而增加复杂性，创造出不仅仅是一个统一的模板，而是一个程序化的替代系统。
The elements of such a proceduralized substitution system can be dynamically generated based on multiple parameters. For example, the experimental interactive drama Façade (2005a) is a story game based on a visit by the player to a couple who are in a troubled marriage (figure 5.2). The visit can end in many ways, all of them variations on the couple reconciling, separating, or turning their anger on the player’s character. The story is composed of fifteen dramatic beats arranged in a substitution system that draws on twenty-seven possible beats in multiple possible combinations. Each beat is also a set of substitution systems made up of ten to one hundred segments of joint dialog, which can also be varied in multiple ways. In addition there are many “mix-ins” of possible actions, similar to the chopped nuts or broken chocolate candies and other treats that ice cream parlors offer as “mix-ins” to your choice of ice cream flavor. The use of the term “mix-ins” is in fact a programming pun associated with the artificial intelligence term of a “flavor system,” a kind of parameterized variant structure that is similar to object classes. But the flavors and mix-ins in Façade are many orders of magnitude larger than those of an ice cream parlor, and many times 这样的程序化替代系统的元素可以根据多个参数动态生成。例如，实验性互动戏剧《Facade》（2005 年）是一个故事游戏，玩家访问一对处于困扰婚姻中的夫妇（见图 5.2）。这次访问可以以多种方式结束，所有方式都是夫妇和解、分离或将愤怒转向玩家角色的变体。这个故事由十五个戏剧性节拍组成，这些节拍排列在一个替代系统中，基于二十七个可能的节拍以多种组合方式。每个节拍也是一组替代系统，由十到一百个联合对话段落组成，这些段落也可以以多种方式变化。 此外，还有许多可能的“混合配料”，就像冰淇淋店提供的切碎坚果、碎巧克力糖果和其他零食，作为您选择的冰淇淋口味的“混合配料”。“混合配料”这个术语实际上是一个与人工智能中的“风味系统”相关的编程双关语，这是一种参数化的变体结构，类似于对象类。但是 Façade 中的口味和配料种类远远超过冰淇淋店，且数量多得惊人
Figure 5.1 第 5.1 图
World of Warcraft character builder is a multipart substitution system. 《魔兽世界》角色构建器是一个多功能的替代系统。
Figure 5.2 第 5.2 图
Façade (2005), an experimental drama by Michael Mateas and Andrew Stern that generates thousands of possible variations of a dramatic story, based on fifteen of the twenty-seven highly parameterized beats listed here. The interactor confronts a quarrelsome couple in a visit that results in varying degrees of mutual revelation and self-awareness. 《外墙》（2005）是一部由迈克尔·马提亚斯和安德鲁·斯特恩创作的实验性戏剧，基于这里列出的二十七个高度参数化的情节中的十五个，生成成千上万种可能的戏剧故事变体。在一次互动中，参与者面对一对争吵的情侣，最终导致不同程度的相互揭示和自我意识。
more than could be drawn as a branching structure or enumerated as a list of possibilities, because they are procedurally determined, based on multiple factors including the input of the player in game gestures and free text dialog that is parsed and interpreted by the system. 由于这些内容是程序性决定的，受到多个因素的影响，包括玩家在游戏中的手势和系统解析的自由文本对话，因此无法将其简单地表示为分支结构或可能性列表。
Creating variation in a digital system is not hard, but keeping track of the variation is very challenging. In the case of Façade there are a number of strategies for selecting and composing the beats, including a relatively fixed order for the beginning and end of the encounter and a “drama manager” who seeks to create a pattern of rising tension and resolution. There is also an architecture that allows the author to specify preconditions and postconditions for each beat: variables that control when a beat is eligible for selection and what aspects of the story change after it has been played. For example, an escalation in insults between the husband and wife would raise tension variables and might make it more likely that the next beat selected will focus on the revelation of a wounding secret. The result is an multilayered story system capable of generating thousands of possible dramatic sequences, while remaining consistent and coherent, because all of the variation occurs within a fixed set of possible substitutions (Mateas and Stern 2003, 2005b). 在数字系统中创建变体并不难，但跟踪这些变体却非常具有挑战性。在 Façade 中，有多种策略用于选择和组合节拍，包括在开始和结束时相对固定的顺序，以及一个“戏剧管理者”，旨在营造逐渐上升的紧张感和解决的模式。此外，还有一种架构，允许作者为每个节拍指定前提条件和后置条件，这些条件控制着节拍何时可以被选择，以及在播放后故事的哪些方面会发生变化。 例如，丈夫和妻子之间的侮辱升级会增加紧张气氛，可能使得接下来选择的情节更倾向于揭示一个伤人的秘密。最终形成的是一个多层次的故事系统，能够生成成千上万种可能的戏剧序列，同时保持一致性和连贯性，因为所有变化都发生在一组固定的替代选项中（Mateas 和 Stern 2003, 2005b）。
Simulations of Complex Systems 复杂系统的仿真
A system is a set of processes and actors that work together in an integrated manner. Knowledge in many fields-such as biology, economics, organizational management, civil engineering, and history-is increasingly understood in terms of complex interrelated systems. In the past thirty years it has become commonplace to think of the earth itself as a single complex ecosystem that we must learn to take collective responsibility for managing. Systems can be natural, human made, or mixed. They can be open (subject to input from other systems, like the ecology of the oceans) or closed (like a game of checkers). The development of computational methods has made it easier for us to think about systems because we can mimic them in simulations. 系统是由一系列相互协作的过程和参与者组成的整体。许多领域的知识——例如生物学、经济学、组织管理、土木工程和历史——越来越被理解为复杂的相互关联的系统。在过去的三十年中，人们普遍将地球视为一个复杂的生态系统，我们必须学习共同承担管理的责任。系统可以是自然的、人造的或混合的。它们可以是开放的（受到其他系统输入的影响，如海洋生态）或封闭的（如跳棋）。计算方法的发展使我们更容易理解系统，因为我们可以在模拟中对其进行仿真。
A simulation is a model that changes in ways that imitate the changes observed, assumed, predicted, or proposed in the original system. Simulations do not necessarily involve computers. For example, live-action simulation games are a standard part of training for emergencies and dangerous situations such as natural disasters, medical rescues, diplomatic crises, or military actions. Computer simulations allow for complex mathematical modeling and for detailed observation of results. Most important, computer simulations allow us to introduce time into the description of events and to observe the results of system interactions over large and small time spans. Computer models are most often built to compute effects in discrete time steps so that the state of the model can be recalculated all through the process, and appropriate actions can be triggered by small changes in state. 模拟是一种模型，它以模仿原始系统中观察到、假设、预测或提出的变化方式进行变化。模拟不一定需要计算机。例如，实景模拟游戏是应对紧急情况和危险情境（如自然灾害、医疗救援、外交危机或军事行动）培训的常见方式。计算机模拟可以进行复杂的数学建模，并详细观察结果。最重要的是，计算机模拟使我们能够将时间引入事件描述中，从而观察系统交互在不同时间跨度下的结果。 计算机模型通常是为了在离散时间步中计算效果而构建的，这样可以在整个过程中重新计算模型的状态，并通过状态的小变化触发相应的行动。
Figure 5.3 第 5.3 图
Feedback loop for a thermostat, the classic illustration of a self-regulating system. 温控器的反馈回路，经典的自我调节系统示例。
System models often include feedback loops, which are characteristic of systems in the real world and purposely built into many automated systems. The canonical example of a feedback loop is a household thermostat: when the thermostat senses cold air in the room, it will signal the heating system to increase the heat, which will cause the temperature in the room to rise, which in turn will signal the thermostat to turn off the heat. When the heat is turned off it will cause the temperature in the room to fall, which will eventually cause the thermostat to turn the heat back on (figure 5.3). The feedback loop keeps the system in homeostasis, self-regulating equilibrium, never allowing the room to get too hot or too cold. Ecological and biological systems are often described as containing feedback loops. For example, predator and prey species create a feedback loop that regulates population growth: a decrease in predators leads to an increase in prey, which leads to an increase in predators, which leads to a decrease in prey, which leads to a decrease in predators, and so on. When feedback loops lead to spiraling bad effects, as in the accelerating deterioration of a 系统模型通常包含反馈回路，这些回路是现实世界中系统的特征，并且被故意设计在许多自动化系统中。反馈回路的经典例子是家庭恒温器：当恒温器感应到房间内的冷空气时，它会向供暖系统发出信号，要求增加热量，这会导致房间温度上升，进而又会使恒温器发出信号关闭加热。当加热关闭后，房间温度会下降，最终导致恒温器重新开启加热（见图 5.3）。反馈回路使系统保持在稳态，自我调节的平衡中，始终防止房间过热或过冷。 生态和生物系统通常被描述为包含反馈循环。例如，捕食者和猎物之间形成了一个反馈循环来调节种群的增长：捕食者数量的减少会导致猎物数量的增加，而猎物数量的增加又会促使捕食者数量的增加，接着捕食者数量的增加又会导致猎物数量的减少，猎物数量的减少又会使捕食者数量减少，如此循环往复。当反馈循环导致不断恶化的负面影响时，情况就会加速恶化
neighborhood from crime, they are called vicious cycles. When feedback loops lead to good effects, they are called virtuous circles. For example, compound interest payments create a virtuous circle, building up the principle, which leads to more interest, which leads to more principle, and so on. Feedback loops can be an important component of modeling systems; however, most real-world systems are not closed loops, but rather are open to variation from multiple sources. 从犯罪中形成的邻里被称为恶性循环。当反馈循环产生积极效果时，它们被称为良性循环。例如，复利支付形成了一个良性循环，积累本金，进而产生更多的利息，导致本金不断增加，依此类推。反馈循环可以是建模系统的重要组成部分；然而，大多数现实世界的系统并不是封闭的，而是受到多种来源的变化影响。
Simulations are useful because they can be repeated with variable assumptions, providing us with a way of juxtaposing alternate outcomes. Financial simulations offer alternate assessments of the marketplace, and can generate numbers that can be easily compared. They can help us to think about the future, to analyze a situation that we don’t understand by trying out alternate ways of reproducing it, or they can help novices to learn well-understood systems by providing a working model that can be examined under multiple circumstances. Simulations are also a useful way of providing training on dangerous systems without real-world risks. 模拟非常有用，因为它们可以在不同的假设下反复进行，从而为我们提供对比不同结果的方式。金融模拟能够提供市场的替代评估，并生成易于比较的数据。它们可以帮助我们思考未来，通过尝试不同的方法来分析我们不理解的情况，或者帮助新手通过提供一个可以在多种情况下检验的工作模型来学习已知的系统。此外，模拟也是在没有现实风险的情况下对危险系统进行培训的有效手段。
Computers are suited to simulating complex systems because they can model a world of interacting objects, changing variables, and measured time-steps. As we understand more and more of the world in terms of interconnected systems, computers become more and more important in keeping track of our knowledge and testing out our hypotheses about how things work. Simulations are most often used as specialist tools, however, and designers have not yet had many opportunities to craft complex simulations for the nonspecialist. However, as programming skills become more common and computers become more powerful, the opportunities for the design of simulations should increase. 计算机非常适合模拟复杂系统，因为它们能够建模一个由相互作用的对象、变化的变量和测量的时间步组成的世界。随着我们越来越多地以互联系统的视角理解世界，计算机在记录我们的知识和验证我们对事物运作方式的假设中变得愈发重要。然而，模拟通常被视为专业工具，设计师尚未有太多机会为非专业人士设计复杂的模拟。但随着编程技能的普及和计算机性能的提升，模拟设计的机会应该会增加。
The most active design community in making simulations for a mass audience has been game designers. Computer simulations can be thought of as a game without a winning condition. Urban planners used simulations for decades before Will Wright adopted their algorithms for his genre-creating game SimCity (1989), which is one of the most widely used computer simulations in the world (figure 5.4). SimCity works as a resource allocation simulation based on time steps. The player is in sole control of the online world, in the role of an all-powerful mayor who must make decisions about infrastructure, such as where to create zoning for home or work, when to raise or lower taxes, where to put an electrical plant, and how much of a fixed budget to spend on education. The strategy of the player is constrained by limited resources, such as space and money. The game calculates the effects of the player’s decisions, which it demonstrates concretely by the visible growth of the city-houses and factories spring up-and the reactions of the unseen citizens, which are reflected in newspaper headlines and in occasional cheers of approval or howls of discontent (Wright 1989). 在为大众制作模拟方面，最活跃的设计社区是游戏设计师。计算机模拟可以看作是一种没有胜利条件的游戏。城市规划者在几十年前就开始使用模拟，直到威尔·赖特将这些算法应用于他开创的游戏《模拟城市》（1989），这也是全球最广泛使用的计算机模拟之一（见图 5.4）。《模拟城市》是一种基于时间步长的资源分配模拟。玩家完全控制这个在线世界，扮演一个全能的市长，必须就基础设施做出决策，比如在哪里划分住宅或商业区，何时提高或降低税收，在哪里建设电厂，以及在教育上花费多少固定预算。 玩家策略受到空间和金钱等有限资源的限制。游戏通过城市房屋和工厂的明显增长，以及看不见的市民的反应，具体展示玩家决策的影响，这些反应体现在报纸头条和偶尔的赞同欢呼或不满的哀号中（Wright 1989）。
One of the most important elements in simulation design is establishing the boundaries of the world, both physical and conceptual. SimCity has a clear physical 在模拟设计中，最重要的元素之一是确定世界的边界，包括物理和概念上的边界。《模拟城市》有着清晰的物理边界。
Figure 5.4 第 5.4 图
Screenshot from SimCity 2000, one of the many re-releases of the classic 1989 simulation game created by Will Wright. The city grows automatically as time progresses, based on decisions made by the player and the game’s own programmed rules about the patterns of urban growth and decay. 来自《模拟城市 2000》的截图，这是威尔·赖特创作的经典 1989 年模拟游戏的众多重发版本之一。随着时间的推移，城市会根据玩家的决策和游戏内关于城市增长与衰退模式的编程规则自动发展。
boundary of a single city. The gameworld simulates many aspects of the technical, economic, and organizational life of a city including the electrical grid, the relationship of industry to job growth, the role of the police and fire departments, and the effect of greenspace on the happiness of the citizenry, but it also leaves out large aspects of actual cities, such as the ethnic politics of the inhabitants, the regional traditions that determine which industries dominate the local economy, and how much corruption is tolerated in city officials. SimCity presents at city planning as basically a top-down engineering task, relying as much as possible on quantifiable relationships (factories create a certain number of jobs, requiring housing located nearby; more housing requires more commercial areas nearby; if taxes are too high, the citizens will leave; if fire stations are not close enough, buildings will burn). 单个城市的边界。游戏世界模拟了城市技术、经济和组织生活的多个方面，包括电网、工业与就业增长的关系、警察和消防部门的作用，以及绿地对市民幸福感的影响。然而，它也忽略了实际城市中的许多重要因素，比如居民的民族政治、决定地方经济主导行业的区域传统，以及城市官员对腐败的容忍程度。 《模拟城市》将城市规划视为一种自上而下的工程任务，尽量依赖可量化的关系（工厂创造一定数量的就业机会，需要附近的住房；更多的住房需要更多的商业区；如果税收过高，市民会选择离开；如果消防站距离不够近，建筑物就会面临火灾风险）。
SimCity represents the cultural milieu only in terms of generic civic buildings, such as sports arenas or libraries, without distinguishing the rich human flavor and tone of the city-the many things that make our experience of San Francisco so different SimCity 只是通过一些通用的市政建筑，比如体育场和图书馆，来展现文化氛围，却没有体现出城市丰富的人文气息和特色——这些正是让我们对旧金山的体验如此独特的诸多因素
from our experience of Chicago. Because the abstraction level is clear, players form the appropriate expectations for what they can do and what kinds of things can happen within the simulated world. 根据我们在芝加哥的经验，由于抽象层次明确，参与者能够形成对自己可以做什么以及在模拟世界中可能发生的事情的合理预期。
Of course not all computational systems are models of the actual world. We can also set up cause-and-effect situations that model fanciful thought experiments or represent purely mathematical relationships. The computer can offer us worlds where gravity and time behave differently or where dead people and vanished places are brought back to life. The advantage of the computer as a modeling environment is that we can fiddle with the rules of the model and the input we give it to find out how the model will behave under different conditions-without the effort and serious consequences of making things in the actual world. In a scientific simulation, like a model of an ecosystem, we can keep some values constant, like the initial population of a pond, and change others, like the mean temperature of the water, to juxtapose the results over multiple runs. In a military or economic simulation we could retry the same situation with varying strategies and tactics. 当然，并非所有计算系统都是现实世界的模型。我们还可以创建因果关系的情境，模拟幻想的思想实验或纯粹的数学关系。计算机可以为我们提供重力和时间表现不同的世界，或者让已故的人和消失的地方复活。计算机作为建模环境的优势在于，我们可以调整模型的规则和输入，以了解模型在不同条件下的表现，而无需在现实世界中付出努力和承受严重后果。 在科学模拟中，例如生态系统模型，我们可以保持一些值不变，比如池塘的初始人口，同时改变其他值，比如水的平均温度，以便在多次运行中对比结果。在军事或经济模拟中，我们可以用不同的策略和战术重新尝试相同的情境。
Simulation design often requires trade-offs between complexity of the model and readability of the results. Chains of cause and effect are easier to follow when the variant conditions are clear and outcomes are readable and easily distinguished, as they are in the popular casual games based on small-business simulations where profitability provides a readable score (figure 5.5). But more complex systems cannot be summed up in a single quantifiable outcome. 模拟设计通常需要在模型的复杂性和结果的可读性之间进行权衡。当变体条件清晰、结果易于阅读且容易区分时，因果关系链更容易理解，就像在基于小型企业模拟的流行休闲游戏中，盈利能力提供了一个清晰的分数（图 5.5）。然而，更复杂的系统无法用单一的可量化结果来概括。
Sometimes changes in a complex system occur as a result of multiple preconditions being met. For example, a simulated creature in a virtual ecosystem may continue to eat, grow, and live, but it may not reproduce until certain preconditions exist, such as sufficient nourishment over a specified period of time, absence of nearby predators, and availability of a suitable mate. Mating would lead to local and global postconditions such as an increase in the species population count, an expansion in the territory claimed by the creature’s herd, and a decrease in the likelihood of species extinction, as well as the immediate consequence of the appearance of new instances of baby creatures. These causal relationships may be clear at the coding level, but they may not be clear to the person running the situation without explicit features, such as a set of interface meters that explicitly keeps track of the factors that lead to reproduction. 有时，复杂系统的变化是由于多个前提条件的满足而引发的。例如，虚拟生态系统中的模拟生物可能会继续进食、成长和生存，但在某些前提条件满足之前，它可能不会繁殖。这些前提条件包括在特定时间段内有足够的营养、附近没有捕食者，以及有合适的伴侣。交配将导致局部和全球的后果，比如物种数量的增加、该生物群体领土的扩展，以及物种灭绝可能性的降低，同时也会直接导致新生物的出现。 这些因果关系在编码层面上可能很明确，但对于没有明确特征的人来说，例如一组能够清晰记录导致再生产因素的接口仪表，这些关系可能并不明显。
Virtual models allow us to explore real-world systems in a safe environment that is more controllable than actual ecosystems, global finances, or spaceflight. The model should be procedurally manipulable at three different levels: 虚拟模型让我们能够在一个比真实生态系统、全球金融或航天飞行更可控的安全环境中探索现实世界的系统。该模型应能够在三个不同层面上进行程序化操作：
First, the design team should be able to test and change the underlying model of the world, and to add new objects and methods without having to completely rewrite the code. 首先，设计团队应能够测试和修改基础模型，并在不必完全重写代码的情况下添加新对象和方法。
Figure 5.5 第 5.5 图
The Lemonade Stand simulation game is a popular casual game that is also used educationally. Depending on the game variation played, the player can be asked to allocate money for quantity of ingredients, sweetness of recipe, paper goods, advertising, staffing, rent, and to make decisions about location. The game usually works in one-day time steps with weather forecasts and perhaps some other random events that drive traffic up or down. There are many variants for different businesses, and the “tycoon” variation involves the opportunity to build multiple locations. Screenshots on the left from the Yahoo Games version of Lemonade Tycoon; upper right: iPhone app Lemonade Stand; lower right: http://lemonadestandgame.com web-based game. 柠檬水摊模拟游戏是一款受欢迎的休闲游戏，同时也用于教育目的。根据不同的游戏变体，玩家可能需要为原料的数量、配方的甜度、纸制品、广告、员工、租金等分配资金，并做出关于地点的决策。游戏通常以一天为单位进行，伴随天气预报和一些随机事件，这些事件会影响客流量的增减。针对不同的商业模式有许多变体，而“大亨”变体则允许玩家建立多个地点。左侧是 Yahoo Games 版本的柠檬水大亨的截图；右上角是 iPhone 应用柠檬水摊；右下角是 http://lemonadestandgame.com 的网页游戏。
Second, the model should include a way of creating multiple scenarios, based on different assumptions and focusing different aspects of the underlying simulation. 第二，模型应包含一种方法，以根据不同的假设创建多个场景，并关注基础模拟的不同方面。
Third, the interactor should be able to change parameters within a scenario, and to replay a scenario with a clear indication of what factors are held constant across runs. 第三，交互者应能够在场景中更改参数，并能够重放场景，同时清晰地指明在不同运行中保持不变的因素。
In addition, designers should be aware of the danger of misrepresenting the world and making unreliable predictions based on computational models. Of course, human beings are tragically capable of acting from incomplete and biased assumptions about the world with or without help from computers. But computers give an aura of authority to information, particularly when it is quantitatively presented. At a 此外，设计师应当意识到误导世界和基于计算模型做出不可靠预测的风险。当然，人类往往会基于对世界的不完整和偏见的假设进行行动，无论是否有计算机的帮助。但计算机在信息呈现上，尤其是以定量方式呈现时，往往会赋予其一种权威感。
Figure 5.6 第 5.6 图
A sequence of images in the emerging pattern called a “glider gun” produced by a computer implementation of Conway’s mathematical Game of Life. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Gospers_glider_gun.gif>. 一系列图像展示了一种称为“滑翔机发射器”的新兴模式，这是通过康威的生命游戏的计算机实现生成的。。
minimum, we should always make clear the assumptions on which digital simulations rest. For simulations as for simpler forms of information processing, the old programmer’s proverb remains true: GIGO (“garbage in, garbage out”). Passing bad data or bad ideas through a computer does not make them into good ideas, but it can give them a dangerous credibility. 至少，我们应该始终明确数字模拟所基于的假设。对于模拟和更简单的信息处理形式，老程序员的谚语依然适用：垃圾进，垃圾出。将错误的数据或想法输入计算机并不会使它们变成好的想法，但可能会赋予它们一种危险的可信度。
Emergence 产生
One of the most striking truths about the world that has become clearer with computer modeling is that complex large-scale behaviors can emerge from simpler small-scale behaviors. John Conway’s Game of Life (1970), a procedural representation of a mathematical construct known as a “cellular automaton” has provided a dramatic illustration of this principle (Gardner 1970). A cellular automaton can be thought of as an infinite grid made up of identical squares (cells), like a checkerboard, each of which contains a token that can be in a limited number of states. There are rules for how each token changes state at each time step, based on the states of the eight surrounding cells. In the case of Conway’s experiment, the tokens are binary-they can only be in one of two states, black or white, like the tokens in the board game Othello. The sequence can begin with a few tokens in any configuration, some of which yield surprisingly coherent patterns when combined with simple rules. Running Conway’s simulation one can see emergent behaviors, such as the movement of a chevron-like pattern, similar to a flock of geese, across the board. We call these behaviors emergent because they happen without any top-down planning, and would not be immediately predictable from the rule set without running the simulation. A complex global pattern arises as a result of many individual entities acting independently of one another, and according to a very simple set of local rules. If each cell is considered an independent agent, similar to a goose flying in formation, it need not have any idea 关于世界的一个显著真相是，随着计算机建模的进步，复杂的大规模行为可以从简单的小规模行为中涌现。约翰·康威的生命游戏（1970 年），作为一种被称为“元胞自动机”的数学构造的程序化表示，生动地展示了这一原则（加德纳 1970 年）。元胞自动机可以被视为一个由相同方块（单元）组成的无限网格，类似于棋盘，每个方块中都有一个可以处于有限状态的标记。根据周围八个单元的状态，有规则决定每个标记在每个时间步如何改变状态。 在康威的实验中，代币是二进制的——它们只能处于黑色或白色两种状态，就像棋盘游戏“黑白棋”中的代币一样。序列可以以任意配置开始，初始的几个代币在简单规则的组合下会产生出令人惊讶的连贯模式。运行康威的模拟时，可以观察到涌现行为，例如像人群一样的图案在棋盘上移动，类似于一群鹅。我们称这些行为为涌现行为，因为它们是在没有任何自上而下的规划下发生的，并且在不运行模拟的情况下无法从规则集中立即预测。复杂的全局模式是许多个体独立行动的结果，而这些个体遵循一组非常简单的局部规则。如果将每个细胞视为一个独立的个体，就像在编队飞行的鹅一样，它并不需要有任何想法
of the overall pattern in order to play its appropriate role in creating it. The pattern arises from collective but independent action. 整体模式的作用是为了在创造它时发挥适当的角色。这个模式源于集体但独立的行动。
Emergence is a feature of complex systems, and the term most properly refers to bottom-up patterns like Conway’s. We tend to think of emergence as something unpredictable that lies beyond the actions or knowledge of the designer. But as Conway’s Game of Life so elegantly shows, there are algorithms that predictably produce the same “emergent” behaviors on every run. Emergence is also used more loosely to refer to the mere unpredictability of complex systems, or to the unforeseen adaptations that users, particularly large communities of users, make of the affordances of systems. Designers should also be aware that complex systems would indeed produce unpredictable effects, when they become too complicated for us to think through all the possibilities. This kind of emergence is not necessarily a good thing. Although emergent, like interactive, intuitive, and immersive, is sometimes used as an imprecise praise word it is important to remember that mere unpredictability is not a worthy design goal. 涌现是复杂系统的一个特征，这个术语最准确地指代像康威的游戏那样的自下而上的模式。我们通常认为涌现是一种不可预测的现象，超出了设计者的行为或知识。然而，正如康威的生命游戏优雅地展示的那样，有些算法可以在每次运行中可预测地产生相同的“涌现”行为。涌现一词也更广泛地用于指代复杂系统的不可预测性，或用户，尤其是大型用户社区，对系统功能的意外适应。设计者还应意识到，当复杂系统变得过于复杂，以至于我们无法考虑所有可能性时，它们确实会产生不可预测的效果。 这种突现现象不一定是好事。虽然“突现”有时像“互动”、“直观”和“沉浸”一样被用作不够准确的赞美词，但重要的是要记住，单纯的不可预测性并不是一个值得追求的设计目标。
Emergence has always been a feature of human systems and human culture, so it is not surprising that environments that combine complex programming with tens of thousands of people show behaviors that go beyond the expectations of the design team. The first graphical multiplayer online community, Lucasfilm’s Habitat exhibited some disruptive emergent player behavior, such as ways of manipulating the rules to get unlimited supplies of money or to take game weapons away from the producers. It also exhibited constructive emergent behavior such as the growth of virtual towns where player-vs.-player killing was not allowed (Morningstar and Farmer 1991). In fact, social organization-partying, gossiping, flirting, making friends, and establishing leaders, followers, and common interest groups-is a fundamental emergent behavior of human culture, and so we should not be surprised when it reproduces itself in cyberspace. But we should ask what particular features of an environment (such as real-time chat utilities) allow social organization to emerge. 涌现一直是人类系统和文化的一个特征，因此，结合复杂编程和成千上万人的环境表现出超出设计团队预期的行为并不令人意外。第一个图形化的多人在线社区——卢卡斯影业的《栖息地》，展示了一些破坏性的玩家涌现行为，例如操纵规则以获取无限金钱或从制作人那里夺取游戏武器。同时，它也展现了建设性的涌现行为，比如虚拟城镇的兴起，在这些城镇中不允许玩家之间互相杀戮（摩宁斯塔和法默 1991）。 事实上，社交组织——如聚会、闲聊、调情、交朋友，以及建立领导者、追随者和共同兴趣小组——是人类文化的一种基本涌现行为，因此我们不应对它在网络空间中的再现感到惊讶。但我们应该思考，哪些环境特征（例如实时聊天工具）促使社交组织的出现。
Although programmers and system designers often speak of emergence as a positive value, the goal of design is to create intentional effects through conscious choices and to provide affordances for behaviors we want to encourage-not to hope for something useful to “emerge” from a structure that even the designers do not understand. It is a fallacy of naive technological optimism to expect emergence to produce desirable results. But it is always worth being alert for emergent effects, based on an understanding that the more complicated we make our systems, the less we can predict the full range of their behavior. 尽管程序员和系统设计师常常将涌现视为一种积极的价值，但设计的目标是通过有意识的选择来创造预期的效果，并为我们希望鼓励的行为提供便利，而不是寄希望于从连设计者都不理解的结构中“涌现”出有用的东西。期待涌现能够产生理想的结果是一种幼稚的技术乐观主义谬论。然而，我们始终应该警惕涌现效应，因为我们越是让系统变得复杂，就越难以预测其行为的全部范围。
Computational Procedures Reflect Cultural Values 计算过程体现了文化价值观
Just as novels, poems, plays, movies, paintings, TV shows, and comic books reflect the values of the people who create them and the cultures in which they flourish, computer programs are based on the assumptions, prejudices, and judgments of the people 就像小说、诗歌、戏剧、电影、绘画、电视节目和漫画书反映了创作者及其文化的价值观一样，计算机程序也建立在人的假设、偏见和判断之上
who make them. Sometimes these values are conscious, sometimes they are unconscious, just as in other media. Game designer and theorist Ian Bogost has coined the phrase “procedural rhetoric” to refer to the ways in which interactive systems, and especially games and simulations, embody cultural values (Bogost 2007). Game rhetoric can be subtle and implicit, as in SimCity’s uncritical use of standard urban planning algorithms (Starr 1994; Friedman 1999) and its omission, for example, of predatory mortgage brokers or impassioned community activists. The values can be as conventional and explicit as in Grand Theft Auto’s delight in fast cars and violence against women (Jones 1997), or Civilization’s emphasis on military conquest (Meier 1991). Simulation games can also be explicitly persuasive. For example the award-winning student game Darfur Is Dying (Ruiz, York, et al. 2006) arouses sympathy for the plight of African refugees trapped by hostile armed militias by placing the interactor in the role of a young child or unarmed woman trying to avoid being murdered or raped while foraging for water for their family. The values of the project are encoded in the appealing portrayal of the victims, the use of water gathering, which is an immediately understandable human need as the central game mechanic, and the procedural recreation of the difficulty of the task (figure 5.7). 谁创造了这些价值观。有时这些价值观是有意识的，有时则是无意识的，就像在其他媒体中一样。游戏设计师和理论家伊恩·博戈斯特提出了“程序性修辞”这一概念，指的是互动系统，尤其是游戏和模拟，如何体现文化价值观（博戈斯特 2007）。游戏中的修辞可以是微妙而隐含的，例如《模拟城市》中对标准城市规划算法的无批判使用（斯塔尔 1994；弗里德曼 1999），以及对掠夺性抵押贷款经纪人或热情社区活动家的忽略。例如，《侠盗猎车手》中对快车和对女性暴力的乐趣（琼斯 1997），或《文明》中对军事征服的强调（梅耶 1991）则显得非常传统和明确。 模拟游戏也可以具有明确的说服力。例如，获奖的学生游戏《达尔富尔正在死去》（Ruiz, York 等，2006）通过让玩家扮演年轻儿童或无武装女性，激发了对被敌对武装民兵困住的非洲难民困境的同情。在寻找家庭所需水源的过程中，他们努力避免被谋杀或强奸。该项目的价值体现在对受害者的生动描绘、将水的收集作为中心游戏机制（这是一种人类基本需求），以及对任务难度的程序化再现（见图 5.7）。
Figure 5.7 第 5.7 图
Screenshot from the serious game Darfur Is Dying (2007). The situation dramatized in the game is put in context by news articles and activism sites that are linked to the game. <http://www. darfurisdying.com>. 来自严肃游戏《达尔富尔正在死去》（2007）的截图。游戏中所描绘的情境通过与之相关的新闻文章和活动网站得到了更深入的背景说明。。
Game designer and theorist Gonzalo Frasca adopts familiar simulation and game motifs to express in interactive form viewpoints that might otherwise be conveyed in an editorial cartoon. His Kabul Kaboom! (2001) and September 12th (2003) are both responses to the U.S. “War on Terrorism.” In Kabul Kaboom! the interactor is placed in the role of a child, who is visually portrayed as a character from Picasso’s celebrated antiwar painting Guernica about the victims of fascist bombing in Spain. In Frasca’s piece, the child is assaulted by bombs and food rations raining down from U.S. planes, and unlike the spaceships in similar arcade games, there is no way of shooting back and very little ability to evade the onslaught. In September 12th, the interactor has only a gun sight and the ability to pull the trigger. In the player’s crosshairs is the street grid of a city with low-rise buildings and palm trees in which some of the figures walking around are wearing turbans and seem to be carrying weapons. If you shoot at any of them you are likely to miss your target however carefully you aim, and your actions only cause the potential terrorists to multiply. In Frasca’s third “newsgame,” Madrid (2004) the interactor is invited to play a game similar to the classic arcade game Whack-a-Mole, but the object is the opposite of playful violence: instead of whacking moles that reappear elsewhere as fast as you clobber them, the player must light and relight flickering candles held by an international group of people representing the site of political violence (figure 5.8). The task is difficult but possible (or so I 游戏设计师和理论家冈萨洛·弗拉斯卡运用熟悉的模拟和游戏元素，以互动的方式表达那些通常通过社论漫画传达的观点。他的作品《喀布尔轰炸！》(2001) 和《9 月 12 日》(2003) 都是对美国“反恐战争”的回应。在《喀布尔轰炸！》中，玩家扮演一个儿童角色，这个角色在视觉上与毕加索著名的反战画作《格尔尼卡》中的形象相似，描绘了西班牙法西斯轰炸的受害者。在弗拉斯卡的作品中，孩子遭受着从美国飞机上投下的炸弹和食品配给的袭击，与类似街机游戏中的飞船不同，这里没有反击的机会，几乎无法躲避攻击。 在 9 月 12 日，交互者只有一个瞄准器和扣动扳机的能力。在玩家的瞄准镜中，是一个低层建筑和棕榈树交错的城市街道网格，走动的人物中有些人戴着头巾，似乎携带着武器。如果你朝他们开枪，无论你多么仔细地瞄准，几乎都很难击中目标，而你的行为只会让潜在的恐怖分子数量增加。 在弗拉斯卡的第三个“新闻游戏”中，马德里（2004），参与者被邀请玩一个类似于经典街机游戏“打地鼠”的游戏，但其目标与玩乐的暴力截然相反：玩家需要点燃并重新点燃由一群国际人士持有的闪烁蜡烛，这些人代表着政治暴力的现场（图 5.8）。这个任务虽然很困难，但还是有可能完成的
Figure 5.8 第 5.8 图
Gonzalo Frasca’s Madrid (2004) news game. The object of this casual game is to get all the candles lit simultaneously. Gonzalo Frasca 的马德里（2004）新闻游戏。这个休闲游戏的目标是让所有蜡烛同时点燃。
Figure 5.9 第 5.9 图
The message you see if you quit Madrid without getting all the candles lit. 如果你在马德里离开时没有点燃所有蜡烛，你将看到的提示。
am told-I have never succeeded in getting all the candles burning at once). If you give up performing this symbolic action you receive a simple message in Spanish and English: “You have to keep trying” (figure 5.9) (Frasca 2001, 2003, 2004). 我被告知——我从未成功让所有蜡烛同时燃烧。如果你放弃这个象征性的行为，你会收到一条简单的信息，西班牙语和英语都是：“你必须继续尝试”（见图 5.9）（Frasca 2001, 2003, 2004）。
In all of these examples, the designer’s values are encoded in the kinds of behaviors written into the rules of the simulated, abstracted worlds. The game-like interaction is meant to entice the interactor into performing actions that are symbolic as well as mimetic-representing states of mind as well as actions in the world-and result in an insight about the world similar to that gained by a well-told story, a pointed political cartoon, an aptly chosen metaphor. 在这些例子中，设计师的价值观体现在模拟和抽象世界规则中所规定的行为类型上。游戏式的互动旨在吸引参与者进行既具象征意义又具模仿性的行为——反映心态和现实世界中的行动——从而获得对世界的洞察，这种洞察与一个精彩的故事、一幅犀利的政治漫画或一个恰如其分的隐喻所带来的感受相似。
Procedural environments can also lead us into new behaviors, both emotionally and cognitively. I have written elsewhere about how I began to pet the dogs of my friends after playing for a while with an appealing computer pet. The behavior of the digital puppy, which performed cute cartoonish actions, induced new behaviors in me that, to my surprise, carried over into the actual world (Murray 1997). Multiplayer environments offer the opportunity to practice social behaviors with automated characters and real people mediated through avatars. Violent video games, like other forms of violent play, function for some players as rehearsal and training for actual violence, whether socially sanctioned military actions or criminal actions. They also serve, like 程序化环境也能引导我们产生新的情感和认知行为。我曾在其他地方提到，玩了一段时间吸引人的电脑宠物后，我开始抚摸朋友的狗。数字小狗的可爱卡通动作激发了我新的行为，令我惊讶的是，这些行为延续到了现实生活中（穆雷 1997）。多人环境为我们提供了与自动角色和真实人通过化身进行社交行为练习的机会。暴力视频游戏，和其他形式的暴力游戏一样，对于一些玩家来说，充当了实际暴力的排练和训练，无论是社会认可的军事行动还是犯罪行为。
other violent play including football and hockey, to sublimate and provide a safe outlet for violent impulses. 其他暴力活动，如足球和冰球，旨在宣泄并为暴力冲动提供一个安全的出口。
Seymour Papert, educational theorist and inventor of the LOGO educational programming system, advocated the application of the procedural power of the computer to learning through the creation of explorable simulations called microworlds. A microworld is a rule-based environment that models system of relationships, such as gravity and the laws of physics, or electromagnetism. The student learns the domain by playing with the world, and most of all by actively constructing things within the microworld. The learning involved is experiential, because the knowledge is embodied in the rules by which the world behaves. We try something and notice what happens, and this leads us to form hypotheses about how the world works, which we test by trying out some other actions. (Papert 1980) 西摩·帕佩特，教育理论家和 LOGO 编程系统的发明者，提倡将计算机的程序性能力应用于学习，创造可探索的模拟环境，称为微世界。微世界是一个基于规则的环境，模拟诸如重力、物理定律或电磁学等关系系统。学生通过与这个世界互动，尤其是主动在微世界中构建事物来学习相关知识。这种学习是体验性的，因为知识体现在世界运作的规则中。我们尝试某些事情并观察结果，这促使我们形成关于世界运作的假设，并通过尝试其他行动来验证这些假设。（帕佩特 1980）
In the 1980s when he proposed the creation of microworlds, Papert was primarily thinking of mathematical environments, and later he extended those ideas to the building of robots in collaboration with the Lego toy company. But as the expressive power of the computer has grown, designers have been creating moral and cultural microworlds as well, worlds that allow people to explore solutions to intractable problems or to imagine the world as it could or should be. For example, The PeaceMaker game (Brown et al. 2007) models the dispute between the Israelis and Palestinians as a strategy game, like Civilization-but it is concerned with strategies for peacemaking rather than for the victory of one side over another (figure 5.10). Although the player assumes the role of the leader of the Palestinians or the Israelis, they cannot take a narrowly aggressive approach. In order to succeed at the game the player must confront the complexity of the situation and think constructively about satisfying divergent interests. A key challenge for designers of simulations and microworlds is finding ways to make the underlying assumptions of the world clear to players. PeaceMaker uses references to actual news events to bolster its claims to be presenting the world as it is. 在 1980 年代，Papert 提出创建微观世界的想法时，主要是考虑数学环境，后来他将这些理念扩展到与乐高玩具公司合作建造机器人。随着计算机表达能力的提升，设计师们开始创造道德和文化的微观世界，这些世界使人们能够探索难以解决的问题的解决方案，或想象世界应该或可以变成的样子。例如，和平缔造者游戏（Brown et al. 2007）将以色列人和巴勒斯坦人之间的争端模拟为一种策略游戏，类似于文明游戏——但它关注的是和平解决的策略，而不是一方战胜另一方的胜利（图 5.10）。 尽管玩家在游戏中扮演巴勒斯坦人或以色列领导者的角色，但他们不能采取狭隘的攻击性策略。为了在游戏中取得成功，玩家必须面对局势的复杂性，并以建设性的方式思考如何满足不同的利益。模拟和微观世界的设计者面临的一个主要挑战是找到让玩家清楚理解世界基本假设的方法。《和平制造者》通过引用实际新闻事件来增强其对现实世界的呈现。
Other games emphasize the satirical nature of their presentation of the world. For example Ian Bogost’s game Oil God (2006) invites the player to act in the role of a demon oil baron whose goal is to double oil prices in five years by inflicting disasters on an oil-producing region (portrayed in a toy model), including economic chaos, wars, and arbitrary changes of government (figure 5.11). Oil God is a casual game that can be played in a few minutes, while PeaceMaker is a much larger simulation that rewards a substantial time commitment. On the surface they appeal to opposite impulses: altruism versus greed. But both games engage large political realities that affect millions of lives as the object of discrete game moves. Both represent a world similar to the one we see reflected in news reports and our everyday experiences, a world where people die from the same causes as they do in the actual world, as if it were a strategy system in which we can trace the effects of decisions and replay situations to try alternate approaches. 其他游戏强调其对世界呈现的讽刺特性。例如，伊恩·博戈斯特的游戏《石油之神》（2006）邀请玩家扮演一个恶魔石油大亨，目标是在五年内通过对一个石油生产地区（以玩具模型呈现）施加灾难，使石油价格翻倍，这些灾难包括经济混乱、战争和任意的政府更迭（见图 5.11）。《石油之神》是一款可以在几分钟内完成的休闲游戏，而《和平制造者》则是一个更复杂的模拟游戏，需要投入大量时间。从表面上看，它们吸引着相反的冲动：利他主义与贪婪。然而，这两款游戏都涉及影响数百万生命的重要政治现实，成为离散游戏动作的对象。 两者都描绘了一个与我们在新闻报道和日常生活中看到的世界相似的世界，在这个世界里，人们因与现实世界相同的原因而死去，仿佛这是一个策略系统，我们可以追踪决策的影响，并重演情境以尝试不同的解决方案。
Figure 5.10 第 5.10 图
One of many strategic choices offered to the player for achieving the goal of resolving the conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians, in PeaceMaker (ImpactGames 2006) (<http://www. peacemakergame.com>> ). 这是《和平制造者》（ImpactGames 2006）中提供给玩家的众多战略选择之一，旨在解决以色列人和巴勒斯坦人之间的冲突。
The genre of the simulation game is one of the most important areas for design in the coming decade. A few of the conventions have become sufficiently firm that they provide a scaffold for new work. For example, the simulation usually puts the player in either the role of a god or demi-god, someone with more power than a single human being usually has. In SimCity, for example, one plays the mayor, but with dictatorial powers to allocate budget and dictate zoning. Decisions are usually turn-based with the player’s turn amounting to an allocation of resources or a change in some asset, followed by the program recalculating the state of the game and then responding to the player’s actions. Action in the game is divided into time steps, with the game either clocking off changes continuously, or moving forward only in response to the player’s turn. Often the game employs a mixed control, with time progressing in normal mode, but stopping when the player calls up the resource allocation choices. 模拟游戏的类型是未来十年设计中最重要的领域之一。一些惯例已经变得相当稳固，为新作品提供了框架。例如，模拟游戏通常让玩家扮演神或半神的角色，拥有超出普通人类的权力。在《模拟城市》中，玩家扮演市长，拥有独裁权力来分配预算和决定区域规划。决策通常是回合制的，玩家的回合相当于资源的分配或某项资产的变化，随后程序会重新计算游戏状态，并对玩家的行动做出反应。 游戏中的动作分为时间步骤，游戏要么持续记录变化，要么仅在玩家的回合中向前推进。通常情况下，游戏采用混合控制，正常模式下时间持续流逝，但当玩家选择资源分配时，时间会暂停。
On the one hand, because the computer creates reality by executing rules it increases the player’s sense of the reality of the world to have changes occur that are initiated by the computer. On the other hand, because the digital medium is participatory as well as 一方面，计算机通过执行规则创造现实，这增强了玩家对世界真实感的体验，使得计算机发起的变化得以发生。另一方面，数字媒介既具有参与性，也具备
Figure 5.11 第 5.11 图
Oil God (Persuasive Games 2006), a satiric strategy game designed by Ian Bogost, with a model of the oil futures market. The Hand of God credits allow the Oil God to inflict wars and other disasters on the countries in the game. 《石油之神》（Persuasive Games 2006）是一款由伊恩·博戈斯特设计的讽刺策略游戏，模拟了石油期货市场。上帝之手的积分使得石油之神能够对游戏中的国家发动战争和其他灾难。
procedural, players need to feel that their own actions have had a clear effect on the world, and that the automatically unfolding events leave room for the player’s actions. In this way a simulation game is different from an analytical simulation, which may offer participation only at the beginning of a run, allowing the player to set up the initial conditions, set the world in motion, and watch the consequences. Although some battlefield and sports simulations work in that way, the trend in computing in general is toward more continuous action on the part of the user, and simulation design is likely to follow the same trend, becoming more participatory and using more of the conventions of games to capture the cause and effect relationships in complex systems. 在程序性游戏中，玩家需要感受到自己的行动对世界产生了明显的影响，同时自动发生的事件也为玩家的行动留出了空间。这样，模拟游戏与分析模拟有所不同，后者通常只在游戏开始时提供参与机会，让玩家设定初始条件，启动世界并观察后续结果。尽管一些战场和体育模拟是这样运作的，但计算机领域的整体趋势是朝着用户更为持续的参与发展，模拟设计也可能会随之变化，变得更加参与性，并借鉴更多游戏的元素来捕捉复杂系统中的因果关系。
Although a simulation can be presented as a neutral, accurate representation of reality, abstraction always involves interpretation, prioritizing some values over others. For example, the simulation game Civilization abstracts the entire history of the world as a competition between autocratic empires, driven by aggressive settlement, military victory, and technological development. Within the world of the game, imperialism is a practical strategy and technology is the driving force of history. A game based, for 尽管模拟可以被视为对现实的中立和准确的表现，但抽象总是伴随着解释，优先考虑某些价值观而非其他。例如，模拟游戏《文明》将整个世界历史抽象为专制帝国之间的竞争，主要由激进的定居、军事胜利和技术发展驱动。在游戏的世界中，帝国主义是一种实用的策略，而技术则是历史的推动力。
example, on Jared Diamond’s (1999) view of cultural development would run on a very different set of rules, emphasizing geographical factors, such as the spread of technical and cultural inventions across similar climate zones, and the role of contagious diseases in shaping the course of civilizations. 例如，贾雷德·戴蒙德（1999 年）认为，文化发展的规则将截然不同，强调地理因素，比如技术和文化发明在相似气候区的传播，以及传染病在塑造文明进程中的重要作用。
As designers of simulations, we choose what parts of a system we model and the degree of detail with which we instantiate it. The Sims game models a social household and includes tremendous detail in furnishings and a representation of time as twenty-four-hour cycles including sleeping hours. The characters must be taken to the toilet and made to wash their hands afterward, though the graphics do not display their naked bodies or the details of their elimination. They report to work and the model includes whether they are late or not and what mood they are in (which affects their job performance), but not (in the earliest versions of the game) what they do when they get there. The conversations between characters are abstracted into “Simlish,” a gibberish audio with recognizable emotional tones augmented by icons in dialog bubbles that indicate the topic being discussed. The same situation might have been abstracted in many other ways offering more or less detail in personal hygiene, more or less time compression, more or less realism in the conversations, narrower or wider selection of topics, or more or less furniture choices. 作为模拟设计师，我们选择系统中要建模的部分以及实例化的细节程度。《模拟人生》游戏模拟了一个社交家庭，家具和时间的表现非常细致，时间以二十四小时的周期表示，包括睡眠时间。角色需要去厕所，并在之后洗手，尽管图形并不显示他们的裸体或排泄的细节。他们上班时，模型会记录他们是否迟到以及他们的情绪（这会影响他们的工作表现），但在游戏的早期版本中，并没有说明他们到达后会做什么。 角色之间的对话被抽象为“Simlish”，这是一种带有可识别情感色彩的无意义音频，通过对话气泡中的图标来增强，指示讨论的话题。同样的情境可以用多种方式进行抽象，提供不同程度的个人卫生细节、时间压缩、对话的现实感、主题的选择范围，或家具的选择。
The procedural design of the Sims reflects conventional bourgeois American values. Cleanliness, industrious pursuit of learning, and punctuality are reinforced with game rewards and with negative consequences for neglect. The implicit game goals are career success, establishing a marriage and family life, and accumulating possessions. The cause-and-effect logic of the underlying code reinforces these priorities. For example, socializing with friends is valuable because it puts you in a good mood for greater career success, and buying material goods is beneficial because it makes you more popular with other Sims. 《模拟人生》的设计体现了传统的美国中产阶级价值观。游戏通过奖励和对忽视行为的惩罚来强化干净、勤奋学习和守时等行为。游戏的隐含目标包括职业成功、建立婚姻和家庭生活，以及积累财富。底层代码的因果关系进一步强调了这些优先事项。例如，和朋友社交能让你心情愉快，从而提高职业成功的机会，而购买物品则能让你在其他模拟人生中更受欢迎。
Design problems never have a single right solution. Just as a physics simulation game reflects the rules of the physical world, social simulation games reflect cultural assumptions about the rules of the social world and about human motivations and rewards. It is the job of the designer to be aware of these assumptions and to make conscious choices informed by an understanding of how values that shape our embodied behaviors are reflected and reinforced by the behavior of the virtual systems we invent. 设计问题从来没有单一的正确解决方案。就像物理模拟游戏反映物理世界的规则一样，社会模拟游戏也反映了关于社会规则以及人类动机和奖励的文化假设。设计师的职责是意识到这些假设，并根据对塑造我们行为的价值观如何在我们创造的虚拟系统中被反映和强化的理解，做出有意识的选择。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: STRATEGIES FOR PROCEDURAL COMPLEXITY 设计探索：应对程序复杂性的策略
Abstracting the World into Objects and Methods 将世界抽象为对象和方法
Using pseudocode, create a generic class for items sold on Amazon.com or any other site selling multiple kinds of merchandise. 使用伪代码创建一个通用类，用于在亚马逊.com 或其他销售多种商品的网站上销售的商品。
What attributes do all the items have in common (e.g., price)? 所有物品有哪些共同的属性（例如，价格）？
What attributes do some but not all have (e.g., clothing size)? 有哪些属性是一些人拥有而不是所有人都有的（例如，衣服尺码）？
Identify at least five important distinct subclasses, indicating how their attributes and methods would differ from one another. 确定至少五个重要的不同子类，并说明它们的属性和方法之间的差异。
Using pseudocode, create a system to keep track of college registration and grades: 使用伪代码创建一个系统，以便跟踪大学的注册情况和成绩
Describe a student object and the attributes and methods associated with it, from the registrar’s perspective. 从注册处的角度描述一个学生对象及其相关属性和方法。
Describe an instructor object and the attributes and methods associated with it, from the registrar’s perspective. 从注册处的角度描述一个讲师对象及其相关的属性和方法。
Describe a course object, including the attributes and methods associated with, from the registrar’s perspecitive. What other objects would it have to interact with? What data objects and variables would have to be standardized to allow professors and students to share a common representation of a course? 描述一个课程对象，包括其相关的属性和方法，从注册处的角度来看。它需要与哪些其他对象进行交互？为了让教授和学生能够共享课程的统一表示，哪些数据对象和变量需要进行标准化？
Indicate any other abstractions a functioning registration system might need to keep track of. 指出一个正常的注册系统可能需要跟踪的其他抽象内容。
Using pseudocode, make a set of classes to describe all the characters in a single fantasy universe that you know well, chosen from any fictional source (books, movies, television programs): 使用伪代码，创建一组类来描述你熟悉的某个幻想宇宙中的所有角色，这些角色可以来自任何虚构作品（如书籍、电影或电视节目）
What is the highest-level class? 什么是最高级别的类？
What methods are common to all the characters? 所有角色通常使用哪些方法？
How many levels of subclasses do you need? 你需要多少层子类？
What methods and attributes belong at each level of the hierarchy? 每个层级的层次结构中有哪些方法和属性？
Creating Simulation scenarios 制作模拟场景
Play with any online cellular automata program based on Conway’s Game of Life and identify two or three initial configurations that lead to emergent self-organizing sustained behaviors. 使用任何基于康威生命游戏的在线细胞自动机程序，找出两到三个初始配置，这些配置能够产生自组织的持续行为。
Change one cell in the original configuration and note the difference it makes to the display of emergent patterns. 修改原始配置中的一个单元格，并观察它对新出现的模式显示所带来的变化。
Does changing some cells lead to greater effects than changing others? 改变某些单元格的影响是否比改变其他单元格更大？
Advanced exercise: create your own cellular automaton. The Processing programming language is a good place to start; see the chapter on Simulate 1 Biology in Reas and Fry 2007. 高级练习：创建你自己的细胞自动机。Processing 编程语言是一个很好的起点；请查看 Reas 和 Fry 2007 中关于生物模拟 1 的章节。
Breakup simulation: using pseudocode, storyboards, flowcharts, state diagrams, and/ or any other useful representation of your choice, create a design for a story/game system that simulates a marriage (or similarly intense two-person partnership) that could possibly end in a breakup. Assume that the interactor will be able to choose which character to play, and will be encouraged to replay with different choices and/ or from the other point of view. 分手模拟：使用伪代码、故事板、流程图、状态图或其他任何有用的表现形式，设计一个故事/游戏系统，模拟一段可能以分手告终的婚姻（或类似的紧密两人关系）。假设参与者可以选择扮演的角色，并鼓励他们通过不同的选择和/或从另一个视角进行重玩。
Make each member of the couple a separate object, with methods of communicating that reflect their individual motives and values. 让每个伴侣成为一个独立的对象，拥有反映他们个人动机和价值观的沟通方式。
Limit their actions to DISCUSS (specify topics) and MAKE GESTURE (specify gestures). Make up a list of no more than sixteen topics the couple could talk about, as well as no more than eight positive gestures, and no more than eight negative gestures that the two partners could make. 限制他们的行为为讨论（指定话题）和做手势（指定手势）。列出不超过十六个话题供这对情侣交谈，以及不超过八个积极手势和不超过八个消极手势供两位伴侣使用。
Indicate preconditions and postconditions for each topic and gesture. 指明每个主题和手势的前提条件及后置条件。
Decide if you will make gestures and topics repeatable, and if so what will be the effect of repetition? 决定是否让手势和主题可重复，如果是的话，重复会产生什么效果？
What shared variables, objects, or methods would be helpful in making this interaction coherent? 在使这种互动更加连贯的过程中，哪些共享变量、对象或方法会有所帮助？
How will you indicate the effect of different choices? 你将如何表明不同选择的效果？
How will you create contrasting outcomes and parallel moments to make replay more dramatic? 你将如何创造对比的结果和相似的时刻，以使重播更加引人入胜？
Spend four hours playing a simulation game such as Civilization, Sim City, Spore, or another similar game of your choosing. 花四个小时玩一些模拟游戏，比如《文明》、《模拟城市》、《生命之源》或你选择的其他类似游戏。
What are the assumptions behind the game about history, society, science, or human behavior? 关于历史、社会、科学或人类行为的游戏有哪些基本假设？
How clear are these assumptions to the novice player? 这些假设对新手玩家来说有多明确？
What would a game based on different assumptions about the world look like? 一款基于不同世界假设的游戏会是什么样子？
Research and identify a group of insects that displays emergent social organization from independent simple behaviors. How would you design a computer program that imitated the insects’ behavior? 研究并识别一类昆虫，这些昆虫通过独立的简单行为展现出紧急的社会组织。你会如何设计一个计算机程序来模拟这些昆虫的行为？
Expressing Cultural Values in Procedural Abstractions 在程序抽象中体现文化价值
Play a “serious game” or a “persuasive game” meant to educate or affect attitudes about a real-world problem. 进行一场“严肃游戏”或“劝说游戏”，旨在教育人们或改变他们对现实问题的看法。
Note your attitudes about and knowledge of the domain before and after playing. 在游戏前后注意你对该领域的态度和知识变化。
Did the rules of the game, rather than just the explanatory content, reinforce learning or attitude change? If so, how? 游戏规则是否比单纯的解释内容更能促进学习或改变态度？如果是，具体是如何实现的？
How would you improve on the rules to make them more effective? How would you apply the game’s most effective design strategies to the design of other games with similar goals? 你会如何改进这些规则，使它们更加有效？你会如何将游戏中最有效的设计策略应用到其他目标相似的游戏设计中？
Analyze the implicit values in a game with which you are very familiar. 分析你熟悉的游戏中的潜在价值。
What kinds of actions does it reward? 它会奖励哪些类型的行为？
What ideas of fairness does it reflect? 这反映了哪些关于公平的观点？
What motivation does it assume in the players? 这对玩家的动机假设是什么？
If there are characters portrayed as “enemies,” do they look like any actual people or categories of people? Do they resemble characters in movies or TV? What visual and behavioral characteristics mark them as evil? 如果有被描绘为“敌人”的角色，他们看起来像真实的人或某类人吗？他们是否与电影或电视中的角色相似？哪些视觉和行为特征使他们被视为邪恶？
Are there choices that pose moral dilemmas? How are they resolved? Which moral choices lead to a winning condition? Which lead to a happy ending? 是否存在道德困境的选择？这些选择是如何解决的？哪些道德选择会带来胜利的结果？哪些选择会导致幸福的结局？
Analyze the implicit values behind a software tool that you are very familiar with, like a media player or editor. 分析你熟悉的软件工具（如媒体播放器或编辑器）所蕴含的隐性价值。
What activities does the software tool assume are important? 这个软件工具认为哪些活动是重要的？
What related activities does it ignore? 它忽视了哪些相关的活动？
How does it define the attributes of the media objects or information it processes? What is emphasized and what is left out? 它是如何定义所处理的媒体对象或信息的属性的？哪些内容被强调，哪些内容被忽略？
How important is sharing of information, maintaining privacy, protecting copyright, generating an income stream, etc., to the design of the tool? 信息共享、隐私保护、版权维护和收入来源的生成等对工具设计有多重要？
III SPATIAL DESIGN STRATEGIES 空间设计的三种策略
Every digital project involves spatializing in some form, including maps, information spaces, locations in the real world, virtual places. In all of these environments, designers should focus on providing agency in navigation by clearly indicating the current location of the interactor, the relationship among the elements that are within the digital site, and the extent and location of boundaries. 每个数字项目都以某种形式涉及空间化，包括地图、信息空间、现实世界中的位置和虚拟场所。在这些环境中，设计师应专注于通过清晰地指示交互者的当前位置、数字网站内元素之间的关系，以及边界的范围和位置，来增强用户的导航自主性。
Designers should consider a broad range of spatial conventions including those relating to containers such as lists, tables, and virtual file folders, and landscapes composed of continuously navigable space and discreet, recognizable places. Designers should draw on the existing possibilities of geographical and abstract maps, including the spatial mapping of temporal phenomena through interactive timelines and animations, while also looking for new ways to express relationships through space, including emerging conventions for location-specific information and 3D displays. 设计师应考虑多种空间惯例，包括与容器（如列表、表格和虚拟文件夹）相关的惯例，以及由可持续导航的空间和离散、可识别的地点构成的景观。设计师应利用现有的地理和抽象地图的可能性，包括通过互动时间线和动画对时间现象进行空间映射，同时探索通过空间表达关系的新方法，包括针对特定位置的信息和 3D 展示的新兴惯例。
Libraries are an enduring model of spatial organization that combines elements of the container (catalog, shelf, book) and the landscape (stacks arranged to reflect a taxonomy of knowledge). Libraries exemplify the crucial information-organization principle of collocation that puts like things near one another, providing intellectual access to items in the collection according to what they are about. For digital collections, designers can maximize collocation because the same object can appear in multiple places, unlike a single copy of a physical book. 图书馆是一种持久的空间组织模型，结合了容器（如目录、书架和书籍）与景观（如按照知识分类排列的书架）元素。图书馆体现了重要的信息组织原则——聚集原则，将相似的事物放在一起，根据内容提供对馆藏项目的智力访问。对于数字藏品，设计者可以最大化聚集，因为同一对象可以出现在多个地方，这与实体书的单一副本不同。
Standardized conventions of labeling are the foundation of coherent collocation and navigation of information spaces. 标准化的标签规范是信息空间中一致性搭配和导航的基础。
Designers should participate in the collective task of designing global digital archives that unite the functions of the catalog and the library and that are maximized for sharing resources through common conventions of labeling and classification. Designers should impose order on complex aggregations of information by chunking it into 设计师应参与全球数字档案的设计工作，这些档案将目录和图书馆的功能结合在一起，并通过统一的标签和分类方式最大化资源共享。设计师应通过将复杂的信息进行分块来为其带来秩序。
meaningful units, creating hierarchies when possible, and limiting the number of elements that human beings are expected to focus on by remembering the “magical number seven” (Miller 1956). Humanist designers should be aware that systems of classification reflect cultural biases and values and will always be in need of revision and expansion. 有意义的单位，尽可能建立层次结构，并限制人类需要关注的元素数量，牢记“神奇的七”这个概念（米勒 1956）。人文设计师应意识到，分类系统反映了文化偏见和价值观，并且始终需要进行修订和扩展。
6 Defining and Navigating Spaces and Places 6 定义与导航空间和地点
Space lies open; it suggests the future and invites action. On the negative side, space and freedom are a threat. . . . Open space has no trodden paths and signposts. It has no fixed pattern of established human meaning; it is like a blank sheet on which meaning may be imposed. Enclosed and humanized space is place. Compared to space, place is a calm center of established values. Human beings require both space and place. 空间是开放的，它暗示着未来并激励人们采取行动。然而，从负面来看，空间和自由也可能构成威胁……开放的空间没有被踩踏的路径和指示牌，也没有固定的人类意义模式；它就像一张可以赋予意义的空白纸。封闭且人性化的空间则是“地方”。与空间相比，地方是一个稳定的价值中心。人类既需要空间，也需要地方。
—Yi-Fu Tuan ([1976] 2001) —段义夫 ([1976] 2001)
Media of representation focus our attention with fixed formats and genres, made up of culturally established conventions that allow us to take in new information by expressing it in familiar patterns. New media use old conventions in new ways and they also create new conventions, allowing them to support new cognitive patterns. This chapter provides an introduction to the spatial conventions that are of particular relevance to the design of digital artifacts. 媒体的表现形式吸引我们的注意力，采用固定的格式和类型，这些格式和类型由文化上确立的惯例构成，使我们能够通过熟悉的模式来理解新信息。新媒体以新的方式运用旧的惯例，同时也创造出新的惯例，从而支持新的认知模式。本章将介绍与数字工件设计特别相关的空间惯例。
Lists, Tables, and other Containers 列表、表格及其他容器
Spatial organization has been exploited from time immemorial for the creation of media genres that focus our attention and extend our memory. Tally sticks, which represent events or resources by notches carved in wood, are among the oldest and most enduring recording media, dating from prehistory and used as an official accounting method in England up through the beginning of the nineteenth century. The list and the table are among the oldest artifacts of written culture, and remain everyday staples of information organization. The written list exploits the vertical arrangement and grouping of items and the table exploits the two-dimensional organization of items and attributes. The list remains valuable in the menus that dominate interface design, and the bullets that dominate presentation environments. The table provides the basis of the records that make up relational databases, the cells of electronic spreadsheets, and the graphic design grids that shape most web pages. 空间组织自古以来就被用于创造媒体类型，以集中我们的注意力并扩展我们的记忆。记账木棍通过在木头上刻痕来表示事件或资源，是最古老且最持久的记录媒介之一，追溯到史前时代，并在十九世纪初作为英国的官方记账方法使用。清单和表格是书面文化中最古老的文物之一，至今仍是信息组织的日常必需品。书面清单利用了项目的垂直排列和分组，而表格则利用了项目和属性的二维组织。 列表在主导界面设计的菜单中依然具有重要价值，同时在主导演示环境的项目符号中也同样如此。表格为构成关系数据库的记录提供了基础，电子表格的单元格，以及塑造大多数网页的图形设计网格。
Figure 6.1 第 6.1 图
Accordion directory listings (left) and column displays (right) provide access to nested containers at different levels of the hierarchy. The accordion display allows simultaneous expansion of multiple non-nested branches. 手风琴目录列表（左侧）和列显示（右侧）可以访问不同层级的嵌套容器。手风琴显示允许同时展开多个非嵌套的分支。
All of these ancient genres are examples of spatial containers for aggregating information. The container is an enduring strategy for organizing physical objects in space and has long been used as means of ordering information. Containers turn separate pieces of information into a single unit. For example, the ancient forerunner of the written document was the clay envelop that contained pebble-size clay tokens meant to symbolize a transaction, like a sale of cattle. Similarly, we create a single unit when we put multiple articles into a single online encyclopedia or multiple music tracks onto a single CD or multiple files on a terabyte backup disk. Virtual containers such as files, folders, and windows are the basis of the desktop graphical user interface (GUI). As we work with larger numbers of information sources and aggregate them from more diverse sources we develop new container conventions, building complexity by nesting them inside one another (figures 6.1-6.3). 所有这些古老的类型都是信息聚合的空间容器。容器是一种持久的策略，用于在空间中组织物理对象，并且长期以来一直被用作信息排序的手段。容器将独立的信息片段整合为一个单一的单位。例如，书面文档的古代前身是包含象征交易（如出售牲畜）的卵石大小的粘土代币的粘土信封。同样，当我们将多篇文章放入一个在线百科全书，或将多首音乐曲目放入一张 CD，或将多个文件存储在一个 TB 备份磁盘时，我们也创造了一个单一的单位。文件、文件夹和窗口等虚拟容器构成了桌面图形用户界面（GUI）的基础。 随着我们处理越来越多的信息来源，并从更为多样的渠道汇总这些信息，我们逐渐形成了新的容器规范，通过相互嵌套来增加复杂性（见图 6.1-6.3）。
Containers can be used just to hold items in no particular order, like many photograph boxes, jump drives, and real and virtual desktops. But they also let us sort information into categories, and to label them as a unit. We still speak of “pigeonholing” something as placing it in a tight category, after the pigeonhole filing structure built for scrolled documents in Victorian desks. And the virtue of twentiethcentury file cabinets (still very much in evidence today, despite efforts to create the “paperless” office) is their affordance of sorting paper records into labeled paper folders that can then be aggregated into labeled hanging folders and further sorted into labeled drawers. 容器可以用来存放物品，而不需要特定的顺序，比如许多照片盒、U 盘以及真实和虚拟桌面。但它们也使我们能够将信息进行分类，并将其作为一个整体进行标记。我们仍然会说“归类”某物是将其放入一个狭窄的类别，这个说法源于维多利亚时代书桌中为卷轴文件设计的鸽子洞文件结构。二十世纪的文件柜（尽管如今仍然很常见，尽管有创建“无纸化”办公室的努力）最大的优点在于它们能够将纸质记录分类到标记的纸质文件夹中，然后再聚合到标记的悬挂文件夹中，并进一步分类到标记的抽屉中。
Containers are valued for their capacity and portability, and for how well they lend themselves to retrieval of their contents. The digital medium has expanded our repertoire of 容器因其容量和便携性而受到重视，同时它们在提取内容方面表现出色。数字媒介拓宽了我们的能力。
Figure 6.2 第 6.2 图
Rollover submenus (as in the RISD, NSF, and Washington Post examples) work best at only one level of hierarchy. Without the rollover display (as in the New York Times example) the browsing interactor can only see the contents of the current container (the World) and cannot preview other categories (such as Business). 悬停子菜单（如 RISD、NSF 和华盛顿邮报的例子）在单一层级的层次结构中效果最佳。如果没有悬停显示（如纽约时报的例子），浏览者只能查看当前容器（世界）的内容，无法预览其他类别（如商业）。
virtual containers, from the earliest internal computer registers that held a few bytes of information, to the kilobytes of early floppy disks of removable memory, to today’s multigigabyte thumb drives and the invisible, weightless data “cloud” that contains our information on the ubiquitous networked servers of cyberspace. Media applications adopt container conventions from older formats, such as the photo “album” and the record “album cover.” As the digital medium grows we will need more conventions to help us form the correct mental model for where an item is, what it is stored with, and what larger entity we go to in order to retrieve it. 虚拟容器的发展历程，从最早的内部计算机寄存器中存储的几个字节信息，到早期可移动内存的千字节软盘，再到如今的多千兆字节闪存驱动器，以及存储我们信息的无形、无重的数据“云”，这些信息存在于网络空间无处不在的服务器上。媒体应用程序借鉴了旧格式的容器约定，例如照片“相册”和唱片“专辑封面”。随着数字媒介的不断发展，我们需要更多的约定来帮助我们形成正确的心理模型，以便了解一个项目的位置、它与什么存储在一起，以及我们需要去哪个更大的实体来检索它。
The invention of the World Wide Web can be seen as replacing the container model of file folders with the landscape model of the browser. We no longer go to a file folder to retrieve a file by downloading a copy of it and hoping it will be readable by the software on our machine (as in the earlier File Transfer Protocol or FTP system); instead, we view the file immediately through the window of our web browser, just by going to the “site” where it is located. Changing our mental model of a global information resource, from huge stacks of folders stored in hierarchical drawers all over the world (which would be another accurate way of describing the information 万维网的发明可以看作是用浏览器的景观模型取代了文件夹的容器模型。我们不再需要通过下载文件副本来从文件夹中检索文件，并希望它能被我们机器上的软件读取（就像早期的文件传输协议 FTP 系统那样）；相反，我们只需访问文件所在的“网站”，就能立即通过浏览器窗口查看文件。我们对全球信息资源的认知模型也发生了变化，从存储在世界各地层次化抽屉中的大量文件夹堆（这也是描述信息的另一种准确方式）。
Figure 6.3 第 6.3 图
The iPad is a container for applications, like Flipboard, which is a container for online content drawn from diverse, personally selected sites, reformatted as conventional magazine pages. The Flipboard Contents screen is a grid that provides a glimpse of what is inside each of the contained pieces. iPad 是一个应用程序的容器，类似于 Flipboard，它从多种个人选择的网站提取在线内容，并将其重新格式化为传统的杂志页面。Flipboard 的内容屏幕呈网格状，展示了每个包含内容的内部情况。
on the web) to an interlinked web of places within a common landscape, makes it easier to remember where things are and how we get to them. But the landscape model alone is inadequate for keeping track of our simultaneous interest in multiple sites. When we visit a space in the physical world we leave the place we are in; similarly, browsers at first replaced one page with another when interactors clicked on a link. But web surfers were not only in a landscape but also in the container world of the GUI desktop where they expected to have multiple windows open. So browsers were extended to include multiple windows, and when switching among multiple windows became too cumbersome, designers abstracted a key element of the file folder container by creating the new convention of browser tabs (figure 6.4). It is possible that we will eventually need containers for the tabs as well (figure 6.5) or we may see access to networked information broken up with specialized forms of browsers, like the applets on a mobile device, handling subsets of what we now see as the general category of “website.” 在网络上) 到一个相互关联的地方网络，在一个共同的景观中，使得记住事物的位置和到达它们的方式变得更容易。然而，仅靠景观模型无法有效跟踪我们对多个地点的同时兴趣。当我们在物理世界中访问一个空间时，我们会离开当前所在的地方；同样，当用户点击链接时，浏览器最初是用另一页替换当前页面。但网络冲浪者不仅在一个景观中，还在图形用户界面桌面的容器世界中，他们期望能够同时打开多个窗口。 因此，浏览器被扩展为支持多个窗口，当在多个窗口之间切换变得过于繁琐时，设计师通过创建浏览器标签的新惯例，抽象出了文件夹容器的一个关键元素（见图 6.4）。我们可能最终需要为这些标签提供容器（见图 6.5），或者我们可能会看到对网络信息的访问被分解为专门的浏览器形式，比如移动设备上的小程序，处理我们现在视为“网站”这一广泛类别的子集。”
Figure 6.4 第 6.4 图
Tabs in a browser are an abstract representation of a print-era media convention (the tabs on paper file folders), located within an abstract container we call a “window,” which can itself be one of several windows within the abstract container known as a “desktop.” These container conventions help us to get control of multiple processes and pieces of information, and to switch the focus of our attention without confusion. 浏览器中的标签是对印刷时代媒体习惯（如纸质文件夹上的标签）的抽象表现，位于我们称之为“窗口”的抽象容器中，而这个窗口本身可以是多个窗口之一，这些窗口又位于被称为“桌面”的抽象容器内。这些容器的设计帮助我们管理多个过程和信息片段，并在不混淆的情况下切换注意力的焦点。
Figure 6.5 第 6.5 图
Shiftbrowse is an experimental browser developed by Abhishek Gupta at Georgia Tech that expands the tab structure by adding a metacontainer into which one can place multiple tabs related to the same task, topic, work session, or other “context.” Shiftbrowse 是由乔治亚理工学院的 Abhishek Gupta 开发的一款实验性浏览器，它通过添加一个元容器来扩展标签结构，用户可以在其中放置多个与同一任务、主题、工作会话或其他“上下文”相关的标签。
Landscapes 自然风光
Landscapes are a fundamental organizing framework for human beings. The ability to distinguish the visual features of landscapes, like rolling hills and branching trees, seems to be innate to human beings, favored by evolution for its survival value. In fact, recent research has connected the shapes of every human alphabet to the contours of the natural world, explaining why reading occupies a particular area of the brain. We repurposed our landscape instinct for the recognition of letters (Dehaene 2009). We also use our sense of navigating a landscape to help us cope with large information spaces, like cyberspace, or the the World Wide Web. We talk about mastering a “domain” or an “expanse” of knowledge, getting “the lay of the land” in a new situation,“surveying the field” of alternates, “crossing a boundary,” becoming unnerved by “edgy” artworks, and recognizing “landmark” achievements. It is not surprising that we bring the same spatial metaphors to our experience of digital artifacts, which offer such a large capacity of storage space and support many forms of spatial navigation. 风景是人类基本的组织框架。人类似乎天生就具备区分风景视觉特征的能力，比如起伏的山丘和分枝的树木，这种能力在进化中因其生存价值而受到青睐。实际上，最近的研究将每种人类字母的形状与自然界的轮廓相联系，解释了阅读为何占据大脑的特定区域。我们重新利用了对风景的本能来识别字母（Dehaene 2009）。同时，我们也利用对风景的导航感来帮助我们应对大型信息空间，比如网络空间或万维网。 我们讨论掌握一个“领域”或“知识的广阔”，在新环境中了解“地形”，“调查替代方案的领域”，“跨越边界”，被“前卫”的艺术作品所困扰，以及识别“里程碑”成就。我们将相同的空间隐喻应用于对数字工件的体验，因为这些工件提供了巨大的存储空间，并支持多种形式的空间导航。
As we noted earlier, the creation of the illusion of space within the machine is not dependent upon visual elements since it can be achieved in purely text-based environments, such as interactive fiction games where the user types in " N " for north and then sees a paragraph of text describing what is at this new more northerly location. The illusion of navigable space is created by the consistency of the rules by which the space is programmed, and the consistency of the interface for navigation. Although the space may not exist apart from these rules, it takes form in the user’s mind as a mental map, a set of expectations and relationships. Concepts drawn from architecture and urban studies such as landmarking, pathfinding, nodes, zones, edges, and boundaries (Lynch 1960) are relevant to the design of digital spaces, and we recognize this connection to the built environment by calling the profession concerned with organizing digital resources “information architecture” (figure 6.6). 正如我们之前提到的，机器内部空间的幻觉并不依赖于视觉元素，因为它可以在纯文本环境中实现，例如互动小说游戏，用户输入“N”表示北方，然后看到一段描述新北方位置的文本。可导航空间的幻觉是通过空间编程规则的一致性和导航界面的统一性来创造的。尽管这个空间可能不独立于这些规则而存在，但它在用户的脑海中形成了一张心理地图，包含一系列期望和关系。 从建筑和城市研究中提炼出的概念，如地标、路径寻找、节点、区域、边界和边缘（Lynch 1960），与数字空间的设计密切相关。我们通过将负责组织数字资源的职业称为“信息架构”，来体现与建成环境的联系（图 6.6）。
We are still learning how best to navigate virtual spaces, and that includes learning from necessary mistakes. One common pitfall of spatial design is the creation of too- 我们仍在学习如何更好地在虚拟空间中导航，这也包括从必要的错误中吸取教训。空间设计的一个常见陷阱是创建过多的-
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Figure 6.6 图 6.6
Path-marking breadcrumbs, like those dropped by Hansel and Gretel in the fairy tale, allow you to retrace your steps, but as digital markers they also let you skip to any point in the chain. Breadcrumbs are useful for environments that lack top-down persistent navigation menus, like a wiki that evolves dynamically based on a changing project and multiple contributors. 路径标记面包屑，类似于汉塞尔和格蕾特在童话中留下的痕迹，不仅可以帮助你追溯自己的足迹，还能作为数字标记让你跳转到链中的任何位置。面包屑在缺乏自上而下的持久导航菜单的环境中非常实用，例如一个根据不断变化的项目和多个贡献者动态演变的维基。
literal spaces that require tedious traversal by the user. The infamous Microsoft Bob interface (figure 12.9), briefly introduced in 1995, annoyed users by situating them in a cartoonish house, and requiring them to move from room to room to perform standard tasks. Many multiplayer games and online virtual environments are similarly frustrating because the distances between interesting areas take too much time to traverse and the relationship of one area to another is difficult to understand. Successful open world games combine freedom to explore a large and detailed space with density of incidents. For example, the single-player open-world game Red Dead Redemption (2010) does not attempt to literally reproduce the geography of the American West and Mexico where it is set. Instead, it creates distinct adventure zones and climate zones, and it reinforces the sense of place by building in incidents even in the necessary interludes of solitary travel through desolate terrain (figure 6.7). 用户需要费力穿越的空间。臭名昭著的微软 Bob 界面（图 12.9）在 1995 年首次推出，因将用户置于一个卡通房屋中而让人感到烦恼，用户必须在房间之间移动以完成标准任务。许多多人游戏和在线虚拟环境同样令人沮丧，因为有趣区域之间的距离过长，导致穿越所需时间过多，且一个区域与另一个区域之间的关系难以理解。成功的开放世界游戏将探索一个大而详细空间的自由与事件的密度结合在一起。例如，单人开放世界游戏《荒野大镖客：救赎》（2010）并不试图字面上再现其设定的美国西部和墨西哥的地理。 相反，它创造了独特的冒险区和气候区，并通过在孤独穿越荒凉地带的必要间隙中加入事件，增强了地方感（图 6.7）。
In any virtual environment the interactor must be reminded where they are in relationship to the whole. Since we know that people orient themselves by zones and landmarks it is important to group like elements into visually distinct larger areas, using landmarks to make them more memorable and visible from a distance. In threedimensional worlds the landmarks can be tall buildings or mountains (figure 6.8). 在任何虚拟环境中，互动者必须被提醒他们在整体中的位置。由于人们通常通过区域和地标来进行定位，因此将相似的元素分组到视觉上明显的更大区域中非常重要，使用地标可以使这些区域更容易记住，并且从远处也能清晰可见。在三维世界中，地标可以是高楼大厦或山脉（图 6.8）。
Figure 6.7 图 6.7（第 6.7 图）
Designers of Red Dead Redemption (Rockstar Games 2010) populated the spaces between population centers with predatory animals and people who appear and challenge the player or one another in procedurally generated, unpredictable configurations, with the goal of making the empty space into a more differentiated landscape of memorable places (Onyett 2009). 《荒野大镖客：救赎》的设计师（Rockstar Games 2010）在城镇之间的空地上布置了掠食性动物和会出现并挑战玩家或彼此的角色，这些角色以程序生成的不可预测方式出现，旨在将空旷的空间转变为一个更具差异化和令人难忘的景观（Onyett 2009）。
Figure 6.8 第 6.8 图
A gallery of places in Second Life, including (counterclockwise from upper left) a museum based on an actual Frank Lloyd Wright building, an art gallery for virtual objects, an evocative landscape with a name (Runestone) from fantasy fiction, and a sandbox-that is, a place for playing with technology to learn how it works-located on a virtual sandy beach. They all have highly noticeable visual features that set them apart and reinforce the sense of place. 一个关于第二人生的地方画廊，包括（从左上角开始逆时针）一个基于真实弗兰克·劳埃德·赖特建筑的博物馆，一个虚拟物品的艺术画廊，一个名字来自幻想小说的引人入胜的风景（符文石），以及一个沙盒——即一个用于探索技术、学习其工作原理的地方——位于一个虚拟的沙滩上。它们都有非常显著的视觉特征，使它们独树一帜，并增强了地方感。
In information spaces they can be labels that are visible on a persistent menu bar (figure 6.9). 在信息空间中，它们可以是持久菜单栏上可见的标签（见图 6.9）。
Another emerging design challenge in three-dimensional environments is establishing clear conventions for point of view. The navigating interactor may be limited to a first-person point of view in which their own presence is not visible in the landscape except as a hand or gunsight, or to a third-person viewpoint in which the playercontrolled avatar or game character is visible but the camera is placed slightly behind him. Designers can also allow the interactor to separate camera placement from character control in order to alternate between a narrower point of view and a god-like overview of the larger action. Some games take control of the camera away from the 在三维环境中，另一个新兴的设计挑战是建立明确的视角规范。导航者可能被限制在第一人称视角下，在这种视角中，他们自己的身影在景观中不可见，仅以手或瞄准器的形式出现；或者在第三人称视角下，玩家控制的角色是可见的，但相机的位置稍微在角色身后。设计师还可以允许交互者将相机位置与角色控制分开，以便在更狭窄的视角和类似上帝的全局视角之间切换。一些游戏会将相机的控制权交给玩家。
Figure 6.9 第 6.9 图
Landmark places within the BBC Archive, which contains many thousands of hours of television and radio programs as well as memos, scripts, and other text documents and still images. Navigation is through multiple portals, some visual and some alphabetical text listings. The yellow ARCHIVE navigation bar (with divisions for Home, Collections, Subjects, Programmes, People, and Meet the Experts) serves as a landmark and brand for the entire section, separating it from the BBC site nav bar above it, in black and white. BBC 档案中的地标性地点，包含数千小时的电视和广播节目，以及备忘录、剧本、其他文本文件和静态图像。导航通过多个入口进行，有些是视觉形式，有些是按字母顺序排列的文本列表。黄色的档案导航栏（分为首页、收藏、主题、节目、人物和专家见面）作为整个部分的标志和品牌，将其与上方的黑白 BBC 网站导航栏区分开来。
player, switching camera angles automatically in order to capture emerging action. Each of these strategies poses its own design challenges, but the success of any of them depends on communicating a coherent model of the world to the interactor through consistent, redundant cues to proximities and landmarks. 玩家自动切换摄像机角度，以捕捉新出现的动作。这些策略各自面临设计挑战，但它们的成功依赖于通过一致且冗余的提示，向互动者传达一个连贯的世界模型，包括距离和地标。
Filmmaking has mature conventions for establishing point of view and ensuring spatial continuity. For example, two people conversing with one another are usually shot over the shoulder of one of them, in pairs of shot/reverse shot, always keeping to the 180-degree rule so that right and left are not reversed. Locations are usually presented in establishing shots that give the outside of a building, for example, followed by cuts to an interior office. Filmmakers understand that they do not have to build a complete model of a dramatic space; the exterior shot is often thousands of miles away from the set used for the interiors. The space is built up in the mind of the viewer. Virtual spaces, which are cheaper to build than movie sets, must be continuous if they are to be navigated by the interactor, but this may result in too-literal and undramatic spaces. Digital media designers can draw on film conventions, but 电影制作有成熟的规则来建立视角并确保空间的连续性。例如，当两个人交谈时，通常会从其中一人的肩膀拍摄，采用镜头/反镜头的方式，并始终遵循 180 度规则，以避免左右颠倒。场景通常通过建立镜头呈现，比如展示建筑的外观，然后切换到内部办公室。电影制作人明白，他们不需要构建一个完整的戏剧空间模型；外部镜头可能距离内部拍摄的布景数千英里。空间是在观众的脑海中构建的。 虚拟空间的建造成本低于电影布景，必须保持连续性，以便交互者能够顺利导航，但这可能导致空间显得过于直白和缺乏戏剧性。数字媒体设计师可以参考电影的传统，但
they must adapt them for interactivity. For example, the view of a location from the distance can serve the same dramatic purpose as an establishing shot, and the approach to the place can be speeded up with animation to preserve the sense of continuity while providing dramatic compression to the player’s experience. As more people are drawn to 3D navigable worlds for games, social networking, and other purposes, we will need to expand and refine existing conventions of representation to make navigable virtual spaces in interactive environments as memorable and coherent as filmic spaces and to allow for fluid and coherent points of view (Nitsche 2008). 他们必须使其适应互动性。例如，从远处观察一个地点的视角可以起到与建立镜头相同的戏剧效果，而接近该地点的过程可以通过动画加速，以保持连续感，同时为玩家的体验提供戏剧性的压缩。随着越来越多的人被 3D 可导航世界吸引用于游戏、社交网络和其他目的，我们需要扩展和完善现有的表现惯例，以使互动环境中的可导航虚拟空间与电影空间一样令人难忘和连贯，并允许流畅且一致的视角（Nitsche 2008）。
Maps 地图资料
Maps are an ancient strategy for organizing knowledge about spaces in the world. Maps identify the separate elements of a space, establishing boundaries and proximities and associating names with places. They mimic the shape of the geographical features they describe, abstracting rivers and countries and continents into iconic images. We do not think of our view from an airplane or a satellite photo when we think of “America” or “Chile” or “France”: we think of the shape of the country on a standard map. Mapping something focuses shared attention on it, validating its existence in social and cultural terms. When a town is very small we speak of it as “not even on the map” meaning not in the awareness of people thinking about a region. When a fictional world becomes very detailed it is often the subject of obsessive mapping, as is the case with Faulkner’s Yoknapatawpha County, Tolkien’s Middle Earth, and the mysterious island that is the location of J. J. Abrams’s television series Lost. Mapping makes a place real and allows us to hold a shared concept of it. The original players of Zork (Blank, Lebling, and Anderson 1977), the textbased adventure game built on an architecture of connected rooms navigated by geographical commands, created a mental image of the game world that combined the spatial relationships and the sense of adventure inherent in the fantasy world (figure 6.10). 地图是古老的知识组织策略，用于描述世界空间。地图识别空间中的各个元素，建立边界和相对位置，并将名称与地点关联。它们模仿所描述地理特征的形状，将河流、国家和大陆抽象为标志性图像。当我们想到“美国”、“智利”或“法国”时，并不会考虑从飞机或卫星照片看到的视角，而是想到标准地图上国家的轮廓。绘制某物使人们的注意力集中于此，从社会和文化的角度确认其存在。当一个小镇非常小的时候，我们会说它“甚至不在地图上”，意思是人们在思考某个地区时并不意识到它的存在。 当一个虚构世界变得非常详细时，它往往成为人们热衷于绘制地图的对象，比如福克纳的约克纳帕塔法县、托尔金的中土世界，以及 J.J.艾布拉姆斯的电视剧《迷失》中神秘的岛屿。绘制地图让一个地方变得真实，并使我们能够形成共同的概念。最初的《佐克》玩家（布兰克、莱布林和安德森 1977）在这款基于地理命令、由连接房间构成的文本冒险游戏中，创造了一个游戏世界的心理图像，结合了空间关系和幻想世界中固有的冒险感（图 6.10）。
Computer-based maps can accommodate enormous detail, which can be displayed in multiple configurations and granularity. A street map can be combined with a tourist site map or a highway map, with aerial or satellite photographs, and with street-level still photographs or live webcams. Maps can include information on earthquake faults, elevation above sea level, population density, neighborhood stores, crime statistics, driving instructions, or the location of friends. As maps become more and more digital, they are changing from a static, abstract representation of boundaries, proximities, and labels to become dynamic models and detailed surveillance systems of the areas they represent (figures 6.11-6.14). 计算机生成的地图能够容纳大量细节，并可以以多种配置和粒度进行展示。街道地图可以与旅游景点地图或高速公路地图结合，配合航空或卫星照片，以及街道级的静态照片或实时网络摄像头。地图可以包含有关地震断层、海拔高度、人口密度、邻里商店、犯罪统计、驾驶指示或朋友位置的信息。随着地图越来越数字化，它们正从静态、抽象的边界、接近度和标签的表示，转变为动态模型和所代表区域的详细监控系统（图 6.11-6.14）。
We can also express other kinds of relationships as abstract maps. For example, it is useful to map participatory structures as social networks, identifying individual 我们还可以将其他类型的关系表示为抽象的映射。例如，将参与性结构视为社会网络，以识别个体是非常有用的。
Figure 6.11 第 6.11 图
Akamai’s map of real-time network use information. The upper map gives an overview with navigation to areas of focus, which are displayed in detail in the lower window. Akamai 的实时网络使用信息地图。上面的地图提供了概览，并可导航到重点区域，这些区域在下方窗口中详细展示。
actors as nodes and looking for ties between them. Drawing maps of social networks can help to identify points of connection between individuals, and to locate key individuals who are at the center of multiple connection paths (figure 6.15). 将演员视为节点，寻找它们之间的联系。绘制社交网络图有助于识别个体之间的连接点，并找到处于多个连接路径中心的关键人物（图 6.15）。
Places versus Spaces 地点与空间
A virtual space becomes more real as the interactor has experiences within it. The geographer Yi-Fu Tuan distinguishes between space and place. We understand space experientially, through our real or imagined movement from one place to another. Tuan sees places as the pausing points that capture our attention within a space. Places are discrete abstractions in the larger continuous expanse of space. We endow public 虚拟空间随着互动者在其中的体验而变得更加真实。地理学家段义夫区分了“空间”和“地方”。我们通过真实或想象中的移动，从一个地方到另一个地方来体验空间。段认为，地方是捕捉我们注意力的暂停点，是在更大连续空间中的离散抽象。我们赋予公共
Figure 6.12 图 6.12（第 6.12 图）
Google Maps mash-up that links panoramic images to places on the map, from <http://maps. panedia.com>>. 谷歌地图的混合应用，将全景图像与地图上的地点链接，来源于 < http://maps. panedia.com >> .
Figure 6.13 第 6.13 图
Google Maps mash-up that links surveillance videos to the location of bank robberies. From http://bandittracker.com/map. For more Google map mash-ups see <http://mashable.com/ 2009/01/08/google-maps-mashups-tools>. 这是一个将监控视频与银行抢劫地点相连接的谷歌地图应用。更多谷歌地图混合应用请访问 http://mashable.com/ 2009/01/08/google-maps-mashups-tools。
Published: April 2, 2010 发布于 2010 年 4 月 2 日
Tracking Taxi Flow Across the City 监测城市中的出租车流动情况
Information from millions of taxi trips provides a telling record of the city’s vital signs. The map shows the average number of pickups for different times of the day and days of week, Jan. - March, 2009. PC Comments (43) | Related Article & 数百万次出租车行程的数据为城市的生命体征提供了重要记录。地图展示了 2009 年 1 月至 3 月不同时间段和星期几的平均接客次数。
Figure 6.14 图 6.14（Figure 6.14）
New York Times website infographic “Tracking Taxi Flow Across the City,” a zoomable map that can play automatically or be manually navigated to show the changes in taxi availability over the course of a week. (The map excludes blocks that average “fewer than one cab ride every two hours,” and seems also to exclude the private car services that serve the outer boroughs, which limits the display to Manhattan and a few flickers of Queens airport traffic.) 纽约时报网站上的信息图“追踪城市出租车流动”，这是一个可缩放的地图，可以自动播放或手动浏览，展示一周内出租车可用性的变化。（该地图排除了平均“每两个小时少于一次出租车”的街区，并且似乎也不包括服务外区的私人汽车服务，因此显示范围仅限于曼哈顿和一些皇后区的机场交通。）
spaces with value by naming them and using them collectively. Individually, we find places memorable because of our direct experiences of them. In Tuan’s words, “What begins as undifferentiated space becomes place as we get to know it better and endow it with value” (Tuan [1976] 2001). The same thing that is true of real-world spaces is true of virtual spaces. Each time we retrieve a particular word-processing command from its pull-down menu we reinforce our sense of its location. When we have a conversation in a virtual plaza or kill a particularly nasty monster in a virtual dungeon, the place becomes anchored in memory by the emotions and memories associated with it. Navigating to a place can itself be a rich experience if it is framed as an exploration and rewarded with surprising discoveries. 通过命名和集体使用来赋予空间价值。我们因直接体验而对某些地方印象深刻。正如图安所说：“最初的无差别空间在我们更深入了解并赋予其价值时，便转变为地方”（图安 [1976] 2001）。现实世界的空间与虚拟空间的道理相同。每当我们从下拉菜单中选择特定的文字处理命令时，都会增强我们对其位置的感知。当我们在虚拟广场中交谈或在虚拟地下城中击败一个特别讨厌的怪物时，这个地方就会因相关的情感和记忆而在我们的记忆中扎根。 前往一个地方本身可以是一种丰富的体验，只要将其视为探索，并以意外的发现作为奖励。
Figure 6.15 图 6.15（第 6.15 图）
A social network diagram, with the most densely connected nodes at the center. A node may be a person, group, or institution. 一幅社交网络图，中心是连接最紧密的节点。节点可以是个人、团体或机构。
Game designers have made good use of the pleasures of exploratory navigation and discovery. Text-based games like Adventure (Crowther and Woods 1976) and Zork (Blank, Lebling, and Anderson 1977) initiated the genre of the quest through a challenging landscape full of hidden dangers and treasures. The framework was reinvented for consol video games (e.g., the original 1980s Nintendo Zelda series), and then expanded through the 1990s and 2000s as graphics capacity improved, with works such as the puzzle-driven 2D fantasy world Myst (1993), the groundbreaking 3D Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (1998), and the open-world 3D urban adventure Grand Theft Auto III (2001). Each of these innovative games was successful in large part because of its linking of gameplay to the exploration of a detailed and extensive landscape (figures 6.16-19). 游戏设计师充分利用了探索导航和发现的乐趣。像《冒险》（Crowther 和 Woods 1976）和《佐克》（Blank, Lebling 和 Anderson 1977）这样的文本游戏开启了一个充满隐藏危险和宝藏的挑战性探险类型。这个框架在家用游戏机上被重新定义（例如，1980 年代的任天堂《塞尔达传说》系列），并在 1990 年代和 2000 年代随着图形技术的进步而不断扩展，出现了如以解谜为核心的 2D 幻想世界《神秘岛》（1993）、开创性的 3D 游戏《塞尔达传说：时之笛》（1998）以及开放世界 3D 城市冒险游戏《侠盗猎车手 III》（2001）等作品。 这些创新游戏之所以成功，很大程度上是因为它们将游戏玩法与对广阔细致的景观的探索紧密结合在一起（见图 6.16-19）。
Figure 6.16 图 6.16（第六章，图示 16）
Myst (1993), designed by Robyn and Rand Miller, makes good use of visible landmarks seen from a distance that lure the player down a path toward a mysterious destination. The game was built on top of HyperCard and offered only 2D images and limited navigation, but the rich visuals and meticulous, cinematic sound design reinforced the experience of immersion in the fantasy world, helping to make this a best-selling game. 《神秘岛》（1993 年），由罗宾和兰德·米勒设计，巧妙地利用了远处可见的地标，引导玩家走向一个神秘的目的地。该游戏基于 HyperCard 平台，仅提供 2D 图像和有限的导航功能，但其丰富的视觉效果和精致的音效设计增强了玩家在幻想世界中的沉浸感，使其成为一款畅销游戏。
Websites also create a sense of place, using consistency of style sheets to unite the page displays, and including the home page as a landmark to which other pages are all related. When the space is well designed the organization is reinforced through the experience of navigation. Each time I go to a page I get a concrete experience of the relationship of one topic to another. Designers can reinforce the experience of an information space, and make it more memorable, by using clear labels and a navigation pattern that follows a logical information hierarchy. Creating a separate “site map” (figure 6.20) is a poor substitute for creating a navigation menu that provides a clear, logical, and memorable map of the site organization. 网站还营造了一种地方感，通过样式表的一致性来统一页面展示，并将主页作为一个地标，与其他页面相互关联。当空间设计得当时，组织结构通过导航体验得到了增强。每次我访问一个页面时，都会具体感受到一个主题与另一个主题之间的关系。设计师可以通过使用清晰的标签和遵循逻辑信息层次的导航模式来增强信息空间的体验，使其更加令人难忘。创建一个单独的“网站地图”（图 6.20）并不能有效替代一个提供清晰、逻辑且易记的网站组织地图的导航菜单。
As computational environments move beyond the two-dimensional screen, designers are experimenting with placing virtual objects in real space. Augmented reality applications superimpose images and text on places in the actual world using GPS and special viewing devices, like a cell phone camera or head-mounted display, in order to recreate historical events, for example, or provide tourist information in multiple languages. As we move into a world of “ubiquitous computing,” we are increasingly 随着计算环境超越二维屏幕，设计师们开始尝试将虚拟物体置于真实空间中。增强现实应用利用 GPS 和特殊的观看设备（如手机摄像头或头戴显示器）在现实世界中叠加图像和文本，以重现历史事件或提供多语言的旅游信息。随着我们迈入“无处不在的计算”时代，我们越来越
Figure 6.17 图 6.17（第 6.17 图）
The Legend of Zelda (1986) was created by Shigeru Miyamoto, who also designed the Mario games. Where Mario jumped through a scrolling linear world, Link, the hero of the Zelda series, could move at will through a large graphical world. Gameplay involved figuring out where to go next to fulfill the quests. 《塞尔达传说》（1986）是由宫本茂创作的，他同样设计了马里奥系列游戏。在马里奥跳跃穿越一个滚动的线性世界时，塞尔达系列的英雄林克可以在一个广阔的图形世界中自由移动。游戏的玩法是要弄清楚接下来该去哪里以完成任务。
Figure 6.18 第 6.18 图
Nintendo’s Zelda: The Ocarina of Time (1998) provided one of the first experiences of free movement through a detailed, three-dimensionally portrayed world. The player controls the protagonist, Link, who is seen in third-person point of view. The map (lower-right overlay) orients the player to their place in the larger landscape. 任天堂的《塞尔达传说：时之笛》（1998）为玩家提供了在一个细致的三维世界中自由移动的首次体验之一。玩家控制主角林克，以第三人称视角进行游戏。右下角的地图帮助玩家在更广阔的环境中找到自己的位置。
Figure 6.19 第 6.19 图
Grand Theft Auto III (Rockstar Games, 2001) presents an open-world urban landscape based on New York City, in which the player can choose to explore or to perform missions that lead up the ladder of success as an urban criminal. 《侠盗猎车手 III》（Rockstar Games，2001）展示了一个以纽约市为基础的开放世界城市环境，玩家可以选择探索或完成任务，逐步提升自己作为城市罪犯的地位。
surrounded by wireless, location-based, and sensor technologies and devices that actively sense our presence, calculate our location, and communicate with one another with and without our conscious intervention. We spy on distant cities with webcams, track our cars and one another by their GPS location, monitor the baby and the nanny from our mobile phones, receive step-by-step or turn-by-turn directions on demand, and make ourselves available for bombardment by location-based advertisements as we walk around a city. Every electronic object is a potential contributor to a global mapping operation capable of photographing or annotating every corner of the globe. The result is that we are asked to pay attention simultaneously to multiple spaces, real and virtual, and to multiple layers of information within each of them. Designers have yet to sort out how we should move through this multilayered space that is converging with our actual landscape, and what kind of compasses and communicatorscombining the function of map mash-ups, text messages, cameras, head-mounted virtual reality displays, writing tablets, media players, and travel assistants—we will need to navigate it. 我们被无线、基于位置的传感器技术和设备所包围，这些设备能够主动感知我们的存在，计算我们的位置信息，并在我们有意识或无意识的情况下相互通信。我们通过网络摄像头监视遥远的城市，通过 GPS 追踪我们的汽车和彼此，从手机监控婴儿和保姆，按需获取逐步或转弯的导航指引，并在城市中行走时随时接受基于位置的广告轰炸。每一个电子设备都有可能成为全球地图操作的贡献者，能够拍摄或标注地球的每一个角落。 结果是我们需要同时关注多个真实和虚拟空间，以及每个空间内的多个信息层。设计师们仍在探索我们该如何在这个与现实景观交汇的多层空间中移动，以及我们需要什么样的导航工具和通讯设备——这些设备结合了地图混合、短信、相机、头戴式虚拟现实显示器、写字板、媒体播放器和旅行助手的功能。
Figure 6.20 图 6.20（第 6.20 图）
Site maps such as this are a poor substitute for a logical hierarchy presented as a persistent navigation menu. This example is dated 2000 and is no longer in use by the organization. Site maps are a good example of an interim convention that was widely adopted at one time but faded as sites became better organized and hierarchical navigation menus more standardized. 像这样的站点地图并不能很好地替代以持久导航菜单呈现的逻辑层次结构。这个例子来自 2000 年，组织现在已不再使用。站点地图曾是一个广泛采用的临时方案，但随着网站的组织性提高和层次导航菜单的标准化，它逐渐被淘汰。
Virtual reality researchers are also growing more skillful at creating environments that immerse the interactor in simulated experiences that look and sound, and sometimes even feel and smell, close to the experience of being in an actual physical place. Such virtual reality installations are currently used for phobia treatments and military training, and they are potentially useful for museum and entertainment installations (figures 6.21, 6.22). The challenge for the designer is finding the right degree of realism and abstraction that allows users to suspend disbelief, as they do when watching a play or a film, without confusion of the real and the illusory. Like any representational structure, virtual reality environments select some of the elements of an actual or imagined place or event, while creating the impression of a complete environment. The interactor must be able to move around or look around enough to reinforce their belief in the 虚拟现实研究人员在创造沉浸式环境方面越来越娴熟，这些环境让参与者体验到看起来、听起来，甚至在某些情况下感觉和闻起来都接近于身处真实物理场所的模拟体验。这些虚拟现实装置目前被用于恐惧症治疗和军事训练，并且在博物馆和娱乐设施中也具有潜在的应用（见图 6.21，6.22）。设计师面临的挑战是找到合适的现实主义与抽象程度，使用户能够像观看戏剧或电影时那样悬置怀疑，而不混淆真实与虚幻。 像任何表现性结构一样，虚拟现实环境会选择实际或想象的地方或事件中的某些元素，同时营造出一个完整环境的感觉。交互者必须能够自由移动或环顾四周，以增强他们的信念
Figure 6.21 图 6.21（图示）
Virtual Iraq is a virtual reality environment originally developed at the University of Southern California and used to treat American soldiers with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by recreating a sense of being back in the place where they experienced the trauma and encouraging them to talk about their experiences. 虚拟伊拉克是一个虚拟现实环境，最初由南加州大学开发，旨在治疗因战斗相关的创伤后应激障碍（PTSD）的美国士兵。它通过重现士兵们经历创伤时的环境，鼓励他们分享自己的经历。
virtual world, but must have a limited scope of action in order to make the experience coherent. 虚拟世界，但必须限制行动范围，以确保体验的连贯性。
Even before the advent of the World Wide Web, people were using the Internet for shared meeting spaces, first as text-based chat rooms and then as graphic spaces for social purposes, education, and collaborative work. Virtual meetings of any kind require ways of making up for the affordances of actual presence. The most successful versions are the high-end dedicated facilities, with closely symmetrical meeting spaces and spatialized sound that literally reproduce the experience of sharing a table, while also providing additional displays for shared documents. The advantage of this model is that the rich social cues such as eye contact, fidgeting, and nodding are as visible as if the participants were sharing a real space (figure 6.23). But dedicated rooms are an expensive way of providing virtual contact. More common methods include an audio feed and either avatars or video images of participants, with the emphasis on sharing the same virtual desktop. The shared desktop is a serviceable substitute for global travel, especially for delivering and attending presentations, but less successful for group discussions, which work better in multiwindow video chats. Text chat windows, on the other hand, remain useful for informal, shorter conversations, and provide some of the same sense of real-time connection at much lower bandwidth, 即使在万维网出现之前，人们就已经在互联网上使用共享会议空间，最初是文本聊天室，后来发展为用于社交、教育和协作工作的图形空间。任何形式的虚拟会议都需要弥补实际存在的优势。最成功的模式是高端专用设施，拥有高度对称的会议空间和空间化的声音，能够真实再现共享桌子的体验，同时提供额外的显示屏用于共享文档。这种模式的优势在于，眼神接触、坐立不安和点头等丰富的社交线索与参与者在真实空间中一样清晰可见（图 6.23）。 但是，专用房间是一种昂贵的虚拟联系方式。更常见的方法包括音频传输以及参与者的头像或视频图像，重点在于共享同一个虚拟桌面。共享桌面可以作为全球旅行的一个可行替代方案，特别适合进行和参加演示，但在小组讨论中效果较差，因为小组讨论在多窗口视频聊天中更为有效。文本聊天窗口在非正式和较短的对话中仍然很有用，并且在带宽较低的情况下也能提供一定的实时连接感
Figure 6.22 图 6.22
Virtusphere is a ten-foot sphere that rotates around a player whose movements are tracked and coordinated with the images and sounds in his head-mounted display. Devices like this are attempts to solve the problem of creating virtual space that can be traversed while containing the movements of the player in the real world (promotional image from <http://www. virtusphere.com> )>). Virtusphere 是一个直径十英尺的球体，围绕着玩家旋转，玩家的动作被追踪并与他头戴显示器中的图像和声音相协调。这类设备旨在解决创建可供穿越的虚拟空间的问题，同时能够反映玩家在现实世界中的动作（来源：< http://www. virtusphere.com > )>) .
and with less intrusiveness than telephoning. This changing array of social spaces requires the elaboration of appropriate social rituals to maintain politeness and to manage participation. 与打电话相比，这种多变的社交空间需要制定合适的社交礼仪，以保持礼貌并有效管理参与。
From a cultural perspective our concept of a place is made up of more than just its geography and signage. We associate places with things that have happened there, personally, to others, and historically. We respond emotionally and socially to the landscape and architecture. Places in the real world can be cozy, welcoming, majestic, 从文化角度来看，我们对一个地方的理解不仅仅依赖于其地理位置和标识。我们将地方与个人经历、他人故事以及历史事件联系在一起。我们对景观和建筑产生情感和社会反应。现实世界中的地方可以是温馨的、友好的、壮丽的，
Figure 6.23 图 6.23
Cisco TelePresence room uses spatialized sound and matched furniture to create the illusion of a single conference room with multiple site participants. Such rooms are now created as public facilities, rented by the meeting, similar to a twentieth-century public phone booth or to thirdparty telephone conference hosting. 思科 TelePresence 会议室利用空间化音效和相配的家具，营造出一个单一会议室的错觉，容纳多个地点的参与者。这类会议室如今被设为公共设施，供会议租用，类似于 20 世纪的公共电话亭或第三方电话会议服务。
menacing, intriguing; they can reinforce feelings of poverty, wealth, gender, and age, making some people feel more at home than others. Virtual spaces can be equally distinctive, memorable, evocative, and equally welcoming or forbidding depending on how well they are organized and what kinds of interaction they support. 威胁性和引人入胜；它们能够强化人们对贫穷、财富、性别和年龄的感受，使某些人比其他人更有归属感。虚拟空间同样可以独特、令人难忘、引发情感，并且根据组织的方式和支持的互动类型，可以同样热情或令人畏惧。
Abstract Space 抽象的空间
It is always appropriate to ask of any project whether it is maximizing the use of space. For three-dimensional landscapes and for large navigable information resources, the spatial aspects are quite clear. But space can also be exploited in other contexts, such as the creation of abstract spatialized information graphics. Just as the written list and multicolumn table allowed us to keep track of more information and more complex relationships, interactive graphics can similarly advance our ability to retrieve and analyze structured data. 在任何项目中，询问是否充分利用空间总是合适的。对于三维景观和大型可导航的信息资源，空间的使用非常明确。但空间也可以在其他场景中被利用，例如创建抽象的空间化信息图形。就像书面列表和多列表格帮助我们跟踪更多信息和更复杂的关系一样，交互式图形同样可以提升我们检索和分析结构化数据的能力。
Figure 6.24 图 6.24
The Baby Name Voyager (2005) designed by Martin Wattenberg is a classic of web-based information design, showing trends in male and female names since the 1880s. 《婴儿名字探险者》（2005）由马丁·瓦滕伯格设计，是网络信息设计的经典作品，自 1880 年代以来展示了男女性名字的趋势。
Spatial design is particularly powerful when it is the service of strong information organization. The computationally intense field of information visualization exploits the processing power of the computer to present dynamic views of complex information resources that make it easier to gain an overview, to navigate, and to focus on meaningful relationships among multiple items. Information visualization provides carefully constructed displays in which size, color, proximity, and containers all have meaning in characterizing attributes of the information. 空间设计在强大的信息组织服务中尤为有效。信息可视化作为一个计算密集型领域，利用计算机的处理能力，展示复杂信息资源的动态视图，使人们更容易获取整体概览、进行导航，并关注多个项目之间的有意义关系。信息可视化提供精心设计的展示，其中的大小、颜色、距离和容器在表征信息属性时都具有重要意义。
Such displays can allow users to zoom in and out and to filter the information in multiple ways. For example: 这种显示方式允许用户进行放大缩小，并以多种方式筛选信息。例如：
Timelines can focus attention on dynamic changes in multiple elements over time, displaying specific events within the context of longer-term trends (figures 6.24, 6.25). - Treemaps visualize items within a hierarchy so that they can be understood in overview, with size, color, and proximity conveying readily scanned information, and with additional information available interactively by zooming in on details or observing changes in the patterns while clicking through time steps or changing parameters in a filter (figures 6.26, 6.27, figure 8.5). 时间轴可以帮助我们关注多个元素随时间的动态变化，展示特定事件在长期趋势中的背景（图 6.24，6.25）。树图则通过层级结构可视化项目，使其在整体上易于理解，大小、颜色和相对位置传达的信息便于快速扫描，同时通过放大细节或在时间步骤中点击、调整过滤器参数来观察模式变化，可以交互式地获取更多信息（图 6.26，6.27，图 8.5）。
Figure 6.25 图 6.25
A timeline created with the SIMILE web widget, created at MIT, shows detail on the events of a segment of time (shaded area) within the context of the larger-grained sequence. 由 MIT 开发的 SIMILE 网络小部件创建的时间线，展示了在更大时间序列背景下某一时间段（阴影区域）内事件的详细信息。
Hyperbolic maps arrange a hierarchy or network as a sphere, with items that are farther away seeming smaller, but easily dragged into the center, causing all the items to recenter around the new focus of interest (Lamping et al. 1995). Hyperbolic maps can also often be zoomed in and out for closer detail or wider perspective (figure 6.28, 6.29). 超曲面图将层次或网络呈现为一个球体，远离中心的项目看起来更小，但可以轻松拖动到中心，从而使所有项目围绕新的兴趣焦点重新排列（Lamping et al. 1995）。超曲面图通常也可以进行放大和缩小，以便获得更详细的视图或更广阔的视角（图 6.28，6.29）。
Circular visualizations allow designers to create a zoomable, filterable overview of a dense linked network of information (Krzywinski 2004), such as a relational database or an archive of political debates (figures 6.30, 6.31). 圆形可视化使设计师能够创建一个可缩放和可过滤的密集链接信息网络概览（Krzywinski 2004），例如关系数据库或政治辩论档案（图 6.30，6.31）。
New technologies of inscription and transmission expand our ability to exploit spatial organization. With the growth of wireless networks and the proliferation of mobile devices, location-specific information and services are becoming increasingly common in new consumer categories. Gestural interfaces for videogames are allowing us to think of the space between the interactor and the device as a site for inscribing commands that can be detected and interpreted by a camera. 3D screens have added another dimension of navigation, an improvement that is primarily aimed at immersive game and entertainment experiences, but which may also prove to be helpful for exploring information spaces. 新的书写和传输技术扩展了我们利用空间组织的能力。随着无线网络的增长和移动设备的普及，基于位置的信息和服务在新的消费类别中变得越来越普遍。视频游戏的手势界面使我们能够将互动者与设备之间的空间视为一个可以被相机检测和解读的命令输入场所。3D 屏幕增加了导航的另一个维度，这一改进主要针对沉浸式游戏和娱乐体验，但也可能对探索信息空间有所帮助。
Spatial design can help us to sort out information and to get control of large quantities of data; it can offer us navigable landscapes composed of memorable places and information resources whose navigation patterns reinforce our understanding of the knowledge structure. As with all interactive design, the key to success is giving the interactor agency over the environment by setting up expectations that can be acted on and appropriately rewarded. 空间设计可以帮助我们整理信息，掌控大量数据；它为我们提供了可导航的景观，这些景观由令人难忘的地点和信息资源构成，其导航模式加深了我们对知识结构的理解。与所有互动设计一样，成功的关键在于通过设定可操作且能获得适当奖励的期望，赋予用户对环境的掌控权。
Figure 6.26 图 6.26
“One Million Items Treemap” summarizing one million files in a directory, created by Jean-Daniel Fekete and Catherine Plaisant, University of Maryland. Each rectangle corresponds to a file or directory. The size of each rectangle is determined by the file’s or the directory’s size, color represents file type (blue for text, green for images, and red for executables, etc.). Deeply nested directories appear darker. Careful examination of the high-resolution display reveals patterns such as duplicate directories and unused space, and the display can be explored with specialized filtering and overview tools. See http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/millionvis (Fekete and Plaisant, 2002). “一百万项物品树图”总结了一个目录中的一百万个文件，由马里兰大学的 Jean-Daniel Fekete 和 Catherine Plaisant 创建。每个矩形代表一个文件或目录，矩形的大小由文件或目录的大小决定，颜色则表示文件类型（文本为蓝色，图像为绿色，执行文件为红色等）。深度嵌套的目录显示得更暗。仔细观察高分辨率的显示，可以发现重复的目录和未使用的空间等模式，并且可以使用专业的过滤和概览工具进行探索。详情请见 http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/millionvis（Fekete 和 Plaisant，2002）。
Figure 6.27 图 6.27
Newsmap is a treemap display of stories appearing on Google News, with color indicating topic and size indicating quantity of coverage. The map can be filtered by country, topic, and time, and details are displayed by clicking on a box. Created by Marcos Westcamp in 2004. Newsmap 是一个树状图，展示了出现在 Google 新闻上的故事，颜色代表主题，大小代表报道数量。用户可以按国家、主题和时间过滤地图，点击框可以查看详细信息。该工具由 Marcos Westcamp 于 2004 年创建。
Figure 6.28 图 6.28
A hyperbolic map that can be used for navigating a large document archive or website. From http://www.zylab.com/Technology/data_visualization.html. 一种可用于浏览大型文档库或网站的双曲线地图。来源于 http://www.zylab.com/Technology/data_visualization.html。
Figure 6.29 图 6.29
A demonstration hyperbolic map drawn with the JavaScript InfoVis Toolkit (http://thejit.org). 使用 JavaScript InfoVis 工具包绘制的超曲面示例图（http://thejit.org）。
LIMS APR 2004 2004 年 4 月的 LIMS
LIMS OCT 2009 2009 年 10 月的 LIMS
Figure 6.30 图表 6.30
A visualization of the relationship between tables (shared keys) in a relational database, created with the Schemaball software system by Martin Krzwinski. 这是一个通过马丁·克日温斯基的 Schemaball 软件系统创建的关系数据库中表（共享键）之间关系的可视化图。
Naming Names 命名的名称
Names used by major presidential candidates in the series of Democratic and Republican debates leading up to the Iowa caucuses. 在爱荷华州党团会议前，主要总统候选人在一系列民主党和共和党辩论中所使用的名字。
Figure 6.31 图 6.31
“Naming Names,” New York Times. A radial visualization of the references of U.S. presidential candidates to one another during the 2007 Democratic and Republican debates. The interactor can focus the graph on particular candidates (names in outermost right, Democrats in blue, Republicans in red). Segments of the circle represent individual debate appearances, and are sized according to the word length of the candidate’s answers. “命名名字”，纽约时报。一个关于 2007 年民主党和共和党辩论中美国总统候选人相互提及的径向可视化图。用户可以将图表聚焦于特定候选人（最外侧右侧的名字，民主党用蓝色表示，共和党用红色表示）。圆圈的各个部分代表单独的辩论出现，大小根据候选人回答的字数来决定。
The classic text adventure game genre (e.g., Adventure, Zork) is built on a roombased architecture in which players progress from room to room by solving puzzles. Play one of these games (they are reproduced on the web) and make a diagram of the space based on your play. 经典的文本冒险游戏（如《冒险》和《佐克》）采用基于房间的架构，玩家通过解谜从一个房间移动到另一个房间。玩其中一款游戏（它们可以在网上找到），并根据你的游戏体验绘制一个空间图。
How does the purely textual representation create the experience of being in a particular space? 纯文本的表达方式是如何让人感受到身处特定空间的体验的？
How important is the navigation? 导航的重要性有多大？
How important is the content of the space? 这个空间的内容重要吗？
How does the quest story suit the spatial organization? 这个任务故事与空间组织的关系如何？
Could the same structure serve a mystery story or a romantic story? If so, how? If not, why not? 相同的结构能否适用于悬疑故事或浪漫故事？如果可以，应该如何实现？如果不可以，原因是什么？
After playing Adventure or Zork: create a consistent navigable space using only text and programming code. 在玩完《冒险》或《佐克》后，使用文本和编程代码创建一个一致且可导航的空间。
Design a “room” architecture, creating at least five indoor and five outdoor areas as if they were separate rooms connected to one another by North, South, East, West, Up, Down commands. 设计一个“房间”架构，创建至少五个室内和五个室外区域，仿佛它们是通过北、南、东、西、上、下的指令相互连接的独立房间。
Draw a complete map of the space before you implement it. Think about some rooms as “nodes” leading in multiple directions, and about groups (or pairs) of rooms forming clusters (like bedrooms/living area or the west wing/east wing of a house). Differentiate the spaces with clear labels. 在实施之前，先绘制一个完整的空间地图。将一些房间视为“节点”，可以向多个方向延伸，同时将房间组合（或成对）形成集群（例如卧室/客厅或房子的西翼/东翼）。用清晰的标签来区分这些空间。
The directional commands can be either typed in or chosen from a menu or directional buttons, etc. (You may use any programming language, HTML, or one of the authoring environments for interactive fiction, such as Inform or TADS.) 方向指令可以通过键入或从菜单、方向按钮等中选择。
Note that the space should be consistent for the purposes of navigation. A minimal implementation of your space should produce results like this: 请注意，为了便于导航，空间应保持一致。您空间的最简实现应产生如下结果：
You are in the Living Room 你在起居室
Interactor: go north 互动者：往北走
You are in the Dining Room 你在饭厅里
Interactor: go south 互动者：往南走
You are in the Living Room 你在起居室
Etc. 等等。
Creating Memorable Places 打造难以忘怀的场所
Make your navigable, logically programmed space into a more particularized place by adding at least one object in each of the rooms. The objects should be things that afford actions by the interactor. For example, a chair should afford sitting down, like this: 通过在每个房间添加至少一个物品，将您的可导航、逻辑编程空间转变为一个更具特色的地方。这些物品应能让互动者进行某种操作。例如，椅子应能让人坐下，像这样：
You are in the Living Room. There is a chair here. 你在客厅，那里有一把椅子。
Interactor: sit down 互动者：请坐
You are in the Living Room, sitting in the chair. 你坐在客厅的椅子上。
Add to your navigable, furnished place a narrative or game to lure the interactor from one room to the next. You may want to make some of the rooms hidden, or lock the doors between them and hide the keys. The goal is to create memorable experiences located in particular places, and to turn some rooms into more memorable landmarks so that other rooms will be remembered by their proximity to the more important ones. (Use a storyboard or flow chart for the most important elements of your plan if there is not enough time to specify or program the whole thing.) 在您的可导航、家具齐全的空间中添加一个叙述或游戏，以吸引互动者从一个房间走到另一个房间。您可以选择将某些房间隐藏，或者锁上它们之间的门并藏起钥匙。目标是创造一些位于特定地点的难忘体验，并将某些房间打造成更具纪念意义的地标，以便其他房间能够因靠近这些重要房间而被记住。（如果时间不够，无法详细说明或编程整个计划，请使用故事板或流程图来展示您计划中最重要的元素。）
Analyzing Real Spaces and Places 分析真实的空间与地点
Think of the last time you were lost. What confused you about the space you were in? How did you figure out where you were? Did you use landmarks to orient yourself? 回想一下你最后一次迷路的经历。你对当时所处的环境感到困惑的地方是什么？你是如何找到自己位置的？你是否利用地标来帮助自己定位？
Did you refer to a map? Are there elements in the spatial layout of this place that do not make sense to you? If so, how would you change them? 你看过地图吗？这个地方的空间布局中有没有让你感到不合理的地方？如果有，你会怎么改进它们？
Analyze the elements of a familiar real-world place, making clear what natural, built, or cultural elements in the environment cause you to feel negatively or positively. Do the other people in the space seem to feel the same way? 分析一个熟悉的现实世界场所的元素，明确哪些自然、建筑或文化因素让你感到消极或积极。这个空间里的其他人是否也有相同的感受？
After doing the previous exercise analyze a familiar virtual environment. 完成之前的练习后，分析一个熟悉的虚拟环境。
How easy or hard is it to find one’s way in this world? 在这个世界上找到自己的方向有多简单或困难？
What design choices on the part of the creators make the virtual world easy or hard to navigate? 创作者在设计时做出的哪些选择使得虚拟世界的导航变得简单或困难？
What design choices make it welcoming or not welcoming? 哪些设计选择让环境显得友好或不友好？
What elements of the space lure you to explore it? 太空中有哪些元素吸引你去探索？
Is this virtual world an improvement over reality, an extension of reality, or perhaps just a neutral alternative to the everyday physical world? 这个虚拟世界是对现实的提升、现实的延伸，还是仅仅是日常物理世界的一个中立替代？
How do the designers signal that you are entering or leaving the virtual world? 设计师是如何指示你进入或离开虚拟世界的？
How do they mark off distinct areas within the larger virtual world? 他们是如何在更广阔的虚拟世界中划分出不同区域的？
Using Abstract Spaces to Visualize Information Resources 利用抽象空间来可视化信息资源
Design or create a visualization that summarizes the state of any complex system based on available streaming digital information, and information visualization techniques (suggestion: consult IBM’s Many Eyes website <http://manyeyes.alphaworks. ibm.com> or similar information visualization resources, or search for recent videos of research projects in information visualization). 设计或创建一个可视化，概述任何复杂系统的状态，基于可用的流媒体数字信息和信息可视化技术（建议查阅 IBM 的 Many Eyes 网站或类似的信息可视化资源，或搜索最近的信息可视化研究项目的视频）。
7 The Library Model for Collocating Information 7 图书馆模型用于信息整合
Walking through library stacks . . . and browsing, a user may suddenly come across just the right book and credit this luck to serendipity. But such a finding would be serendipitous only if the books were shelved in random order, whereas in fact they are ordered according to a rigorous system of semantic relationships, which like an invisible hand guides the seeker to his “lucky” find. 在图书馆的书架间走动和浏览时，用户可能会突然发现一本正合适的书，并将这种运气归功于偶然的机遇。然而，只有在书籍随机排列的情况下，这种发现才算是偶然的。实际上，书籍是根据严格的语义关系系统排列的，就像一只看不见的手引导着寻求者找到他的“幸运”发现。
—Elaine Svenonius (2001) —艾琳·斯维诺纽斯（2001）
Many of our knowledge organization structures are rooted in the creation of the library as a physical repository for written documents. The organizing principle of the library is collocation-placing like things together-in ever-finer categories of resemblance. This chapter examines the labeling and classifying conventions that have supported the physical collocation of handwritten manuscripts and printed books, and the ways in which these conventions and practices are changing as we redefine collocation of information for the digital age. 我们的许多知识组织结构源于图书馆作为书面文件的物理存储库的建立。图书馆的组织原则是将相似的事物放在一起，按照越来越细致的相似性进行分类。本章探讨了支持手写手稿和印刷书籍物理归类的标签和分类惯例，以及随着我们重新定义数字时代信息归类方式，这些惯例和实践所发生的变化。
Human culture has been preserving and collecting information records for at least five thousand years. An Egyptian tomb of the third millennia B.C. identifies the deceased as a scribe in the “House of Books,” which probably refers to repositories of papyrus rolls. Sumerians of the same period were keeping detailed city records on clay tablets written in cuneiform, binding together multitablet records with leather straps and storing them on shelves in baskets and boxes with labels identifying subject and contents. By the eighth century B.C. a body of written work had developed in several language groups in the Mideast, and the Assyrians had established a “House of Tablets” where scholars copied, sorted, and preserved 25,000 tablets worth of written culture, including financial and diplomatic records and texts of poetry, history, and astrology (Casson 2001). The formats of writing were also becoming standardized around this time, with the Greeks extending the efficient phonetic alphabet of the Semites to include vowel sounds, leading to wider dissemination of full and partial literacy, and more written documents. 人类文化至少保存和收集信息记录已有五千年。公元前三千年的一座埃及墓葬将死者标识为“书籍之家”的抄写员，这可能指的是纸草卷的存储库。同一时期的苏美尔人则在泥板上用楔形文字详细记录城市信息，将多块泥板用皮带绑在一起，并将其存放在带标签的篮子和盒子中，以标识主题和内容。到公元前八世纪时。 在中东的多个语言群体中，形成了一部书面作品，亚述人建立了一个“文书馆”，学者们在这里复制、整理和保存了 25,000 块泥板，这些泥板记录了书面文化，包括财务和外交记录，以及诗歌、历史和占星术的文本（Casson 2001）。在这个时期，书写格式也开始标准化，希腊人将闪米特人的高效音素字母扩展到包括元音，从而促进了更广泛的完全和部分识字，以及更多的书面文件。
By the late fourth century B.C., substantial written texts had become important as a means of disseminating learning. Plato had a library associated with his school, as did his successor Aristotle, who is believed to have created a system of organization for his unusually large and comprehensive collection. Aristotle’s pupil, the emperor Alexander, included a royal library in the plans he drew up for Alexandria, and under the Ptolemy dynasty it became the greatest library in the Hellenic world, drawing on texts from across the region, starting in the third century B.C. In addition to the aggregation of the texts themselves, the massive copying, translating, collating, and cataloging efforts supported by the Alexandria library helped to preserve and promulgate knowledge. 到公元前四世纪末，书面文本已成为传播知识的重要手段。柏拉图的学校设有图书馆，他的继任者亚里士多德也有一个图书馆，据信他为自己庞大而全面的藏书创建了一个组织系统。亚里士多德的学生亚历山大大帝在为亚历山大城制定的计划中包括了一个皇家图书馆，而在托勒密王朝时期，它成为希腊世界最大的图书馆，汇集了来自该地区的文本，始于公元前三世纪。除了文本的汇集，亚历山大图书馆的大规模复制、翻译、整理和编目工作也有助于知识的保存和传播。
In the second century B.C. another great library was founded in the Greek city of Pergamon (now in Turkey), which is credited with refining the production of animal hide (i.e., parchment, or pergamenon in Greek) as an inscription material for books. Libraries were built in private homes in the times of the Roman republic, and the Roman emperors planned and built monumental libraries, imitating the models of Alexandria and Pergamon. Roman libraries preserved knowledge from the past, developed systems of numbering shelves and stacking and retrieving volumes of scrolls and codices, fostered publication by providing copies of texts for duplication and sale by scribes, and at least some of the libraries allowed citizens to borrow books and remove them from the premises. The Romans are also credited with the invention of the codex format of bound pages similar to modern books, which was based on wooden frames for wax tablets, and which made writing more portable and efficient by using both sides of the writing surface. The codex was also the first random access technology, since the segmentation into stacked pages made it much easier to access information in the middle of a text than it was in a long rolled document. At the same time, the Chinese were also producing books and are credited with creating the first systematic library catalog during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), written on silk scrolls, as well as with the invention of paper (Casson 2001). 在公元前二世纪，希腊城市佩加蒙（今土耳其）成立了另一个伟大的图书馆，它被认为是改进动物皮革（即羊皮纸，希腊语称为 pergamenon）作为书籍书写材料的地方。在罗马共和国时期，私人住宅中建造了图书馆，罗马皇帝们则计划并建造了宏伟的图书馆，模仿亚历山大和佩加蒙的模式。罗马图书馆保存了过去的知识，发展了书架编号、卷轴和手稿的堆叠与检索系统，促进了出版，通过提供文本副本供抄写员复制和销售，至少一些图书馆允许公民借书并将其带出馆外。 罗马人被认为发明了类似现代书籍的书册格式，这种格式基于用于蜡板的木框架，使得书写更加便携和高效，因为可以利用书写表面的两面。书册也是第一种随机访问技术，因为分层页面的设计使得在文本中间获取信息比在长卷文档中容易得多。同时，中国人在制作书籍方面也取得了进展，并被认为在汉朝（公元前 206 年-公元 220 年）期间创建了第一个系统的图书馆目录，书写在丝绸卷轴上，并且发明了纸（卡森 2001）。
In short, library making-the collection and preservation of media artifacts-has been part of human culture from the time of the earliest known inscription technologies, making possible more complex systems of education and more comprehensive forms of government record keeping by expanding the circle of people sharing attention with one another, and the number of organized objects on which they could focus. 简而言之，图书馆的建立——对媒体文物的收集和保存——自最早的铭文技术出现以来就一直是人类文化的一部分。这使得更复杂的教育系统和更全面的政府记录保存形式成为可能，扩大了共享注意力的人群以及他们可以关注的有组织物品的数量。
Before the invention of the printing press, the preservation and dissemination of knowledge required painstaking hand production of texts, and so it was hard for individuals to own them. The growth of universities led to the wide-scale copying of manuscripts, but they were often borrowed, one section at a time, from the booksellers of the Middle Ages. Because the transmission space between the writer and the reader was occupied by a line of human intermediaries, some of whom may not have 在印刷机发明之前，知识的保存和传播需要耗费大量精力手工制作文本，因此个人很难拥有这些文本。大学的兴起促使手稿的大规模复制，但这些手稿通常是从中世纪的书商那里借来的，往往是一次借一部分。由于作家与读者之间的传递过程被一系列人类中介所占据，其中一些可能并不具备
understood what they were copying, the texts were far from uniform and open to many opportunities for distortion and error (Eisenstein 1979). 他们明白自己在复制什么，文本并不统一，容易出现扭曲和错误的情况（艾森斯坦 1979）。
The invention of printing in 1455 made book production more uniform as well as more efficient. It became increasingly possible for multiple people, even those who were geographically distant from one another, to focus attention on the same text, and to be aware that others were sharing in the common activity of reading and thinking. Research libraries were founded at the major European universities, and wealthy private individuals also began to collect books. As literacy grew in Europe and the New World, libraries changed from the treasured collections of the privileged few in the seventeenth century, to subscription establishments for a growing urban middle class in the eighteenth century, to free public institutions located in local communities by the end of the nineteenth century. 1455 年印刷术的发明使书籍生产变得更加统一和高效。越来越多的人，即使身处不同地区，也能集中注意力于同一文本，并意识到其他人也在共同阅读和思考。主要的欧洲大学建立了研究图书馆，富裕的私人也开始收藏书籍。随着欧洲和新世界的识字率提高，图书馆经历了从 17 世纪特权少数人的珍藏，转变为 18 世纪为日益壮大的城市中产阶级服务的订阅机构，最终在 19 世纪末成为当地社区的免费公共机构。
For the past two hundred years, libraries have been emblematic of participatory democracy, particularly in the United States. Benjamin Franklin established the first American subscription library, which later became the basis for the first Library of Congress, and he later founded the first free public library with a gift of books to the town of Franklin, Massachusetts. Thomas Jefferson signed the legislation establishing and funding the Library of Congress; and after the British burned it in 1814, it was replenished with the purchase of Jefferson’s treasured personal library, a collection that he had arranged according to his own subject-based cataloging system. 在过去的两百年中，图书馆一直是参与式民主的象征，尤其是在美国。本杰明·富兰克林创办了第一家美国订阅图书馆，这为国会图书馆奠定了基础。他还向马萨诸塞州的富兰克林镇捐赠书籍，创办了第一家免费公共图书馆。托马斯·杰斐逊签署了建立和资助国会图书馆的法律；1814 年，英国人焚烧了国会图书馆后，通过购买杰斐逊珍藏的个人图书馆来进行补充，这个收藏是他根据自己的主题分类系统整理的。
Though media formats have changed over the long sweep of human history from scratches on clay tablets to electronic bits traveling over radio waves, many of the core design goals for knowledge collections are the same now as they were in the ancient world, such as: 尽管媒体格式在漫长的人类历史中从泥板上的划痕演变为通过无线电波传输的电子信号，但知识集合的许多核心设计目标如今与古代世界相同，例如：
To find, acquire, and shelter the artifacts (collection, preservation) 寻找、获取并保护文物（收集与保存）
To keep track of what is in the collection (create a catalog, label with names) 记录收藏品的内容（创建目录并标注名称）
To sort items within the collection to keep like things together (classification) 对集合中的项目进行分类，以便将相似的物品放在一起
To keep track of where things are so they can be retrieved (unique addresses) 为了跟踪物品的位置，以便能够进行检索（唯一地址）
The aggregation of any media format carries its own difficulties in preservation. Clay tablets are heavy and easily shattered; stacks of papyrus scrolls can tumble easily and are hard to browse without opening; early celluloid film stock is highly flammable; vinyl records are easily warped or scratched; analog recording tape becomes brittle with use. Digital technologies eliminate many of these physical hazards and sometimes provide support for preservation. Creating a digital facsimile of a Shakespeare folio, for example, can help to preserve the original while still making the information on the page available to scholars worldwide. 任何媒体格式的聚合都面临着各自的保存挑战。粘土板重且易碎；纸草卷堆叠容易倾倒，且不打开时难以浏览；早期的赛璐璐胶卷极易燃烧；黑胶唱片容易变形或划伤；模拟录音带在使用后会变得脆弱。数字技术消除了许多物理风险，有时还提供了保存的支持。例如，制作莎士比亚书籍的数字复制品可以帮助保护原件，同时使全球学者能够获取页面上的信息。
But digital copies are also subject to destruction and they can become completely unreadable when the hardware and software platforms-the technologies of inscription and transmission-become obsolete. Preserving material in digital environments 但数字副本也可能会被销毁，当硬件和软件平台——即记录和传输的技术——过时时，它们可能会完全无法读取。在数字环境中保存资料。
usually means creating multiple copies in physically as well as electronically distinct locations and migrating the copies from an older to a newer system to yet another as platforms change. Preserving a fifteenth-century book involves keeping it in a temperature- and moisture-controlled room and opening it as little as possible. But to preserve an artifact made of bits rather than atoms it is important to move it quite regularly and to update the conventions with which it is formatted and annotated. 通常意味着在物理和电子上不同的地点创建多个副本，并随着平台的变化将这些副本从旧系统迁移到新系统。保护一本十五世纪的书籍需要将其放在温度和湿度控制的房间中，并尽量少打开它。然而，为了保护一个由比特而非原子构成的文物，定期移动它并更新其格式和注释的规范是非常重要的。
In changing a digital artifact from one format to another it is important not to lose information. For example, we might have a video file that has annotations associated with it indexed by time code. We will want to keep the annotations and make sure that they are appropriately linked to the new version, which may have a shorter or longer credit sequence and may measure duration in frame numbers. Or if there is close captioning on a video file, we should preserve it in a separate file if it cannot be accommodated in the new format. Any structure that has been added to a digital file is a resource to be preserved because it can serve as a way of accessing meaningful segments of the file. Visual files should be stored at the highest possible resolution so that we do not lose information by diminishing the number of bits we have describing an image. 在将数字文物从一种格式转换为另一种格式时，确保不丢失信息是非常重要的。例如，我们可能有一个视频文件，里面有按时间码索引的注释。我们希望保留这些注释，并确保它们与新版本正确链接，而新版本可能有更短或更长的片头序列，并且可能以帧数来测量时长。或者，如果视频文件中有字幕，而新格式无法容纳这些字幕，我们应该将其保存在一个单独的文件中。任何添加到数字文件中的结构都是需要保留的资源，因为它们可以帮助我们访问文件中有意义的片段。 视觉文件应以尽可能高的分辨率存储，以避免因减少描述图像的位数而丢失信息。
The Catalog and the Shelf 目录与书架
Any collection of information has to keep track of the items it contains. Early library catalogs were linear lists, making it hard to add individual items between other items without recopying the whole. In the nineteenth century, libraries started keeping track of their collections on index cards, a way of segmenting information so it could be added to and reordered. 任何信息集合都必须记录其包含的项目。早期的图书馆目录是线性列表，这使得在其他项目之间添加单个项目变得困难，因为需要重新复制整个目录。在十九世纪，图书馆开始使用索引卡来记录他们的藏书，这是一种将信息分段的方法，便于添加和重新排序。
When libraries moved from card catalogs to digital record keeping in the twentieth century, they established standardized formats that transferred the index card information into data fields. The MAchine-Readable Cataloging-or MARC—format allows all U.S. libraries to list their books in the same way (see <http:// www.loc.gov/marc>) and to create union catalogs that unite the holdings of physically separate libraries into a common database, facilitating interlibrary loans. MARC brought the advantages of uniformity, but its awkward abbreviations-created for an era of much lower-capacity computer tape—make for records that are not easily human-readable (figures 7.1, 7.2). 当图书馆在 20 世纪从卡片目录转向数字记录时，他们建立了标准化格式，将索引卡的信息转化为数据字段。机器可读目录（MARC）格式使得所有美国图书馆能够以相同的方式列出他们的书籍（见 ），并创建联合目录，将物理上分开的图书馆的馆藏整合到一个公共数据库中，从而方便馆际借阅。虽然 MARC 带来了统一性的好处，但其笨拙的缩写——是为当时容量较小的计算机磁带设计的——使得记录不易被人类阅读（见图 7.1，7.2）。
In the 1970s MARC was an innovative approach. By the 1990s, projects such as the American Memory Project, and its successor, the National Digital Library Program, were moving the Library of Congress from the model of a unified catalog to a vision of unified access to the documents themselves: 在 1970 年代，MARC 是一种创新的方法。到 1990 年代，像美国记忆项目及其继任者国家数字图书馆计划这样的项目，正在将国会图书馆从统一目录的模式转变为对文档本身的统一访问的愿景。
A digital library is more than a database, and the future National Digital Library will be much more than a universal union catalog. We envision the National Digital Library as a set of 数字图书馆不仅仅是一个数据库，未来的国家数字图书馆将远远超出一个通用联合目录。我们设想国家数字图书馆将是一系列
010 tag 010 标签
marks the Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) 标识国会图书馆控制编号 (LCCN)
020 tag 020 标签（标记）
marks the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) 表示国际标准书号（ISBN）
100 tag 100 个标签
marks a personal name main entry (author) 标记个人名称作为主要条目（作者）
245 tag 245 个标签
标识标题信息（包括标题、其他相关标题信息以及责任说明）
marks the title information (which includes the title, other title information,
and the statement of responsibility)
marks the title information (which includes the title, other title information,
and the statement of responsibility)| marks the title information (which includes the title, other title information, |
| :--- |
| and the statement of responsibility) |
250 tag 250 个标签
marks the edition 标记该版本
260 tag 260 个标签
marks the publication information 标识出版信息
300 tag 300 个标签
标记物理描述（在描述书籍时通常称为“编排”）
marks the physical description (often referred to as the "collation" when
describing books)
marks the physical description (often referred to as the "collation" when
describing books)| marks the physical description (often referred to as the "collation" when |
| :--- |
| describing books) |
490 tag 490 个标签
marks the series statement 标识系列说明
520 tag 520 标签（标记）
marks the annotation or summary note 标记注释或总结说明
650 tag 650 个标签
marks a topical subject heading 标记一个主题词标题
700 tag 700 个标签
marks a personal name added entry (joint author, editor, or illustrator) 标记一个添加的个人名称（如共同作者、编辑或插图画家）
010 tag marks the Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN)
020 tag marks the International Standard Book Number (ISBN)
100 tag marks a personal name main entry (author)
245 tag "marks the title information (which includes the title, other title information,
and the statement of responsibility)"
250 tag marks the edition
260 tag marks the publication information
300 tag "marks the physical description (often referred to as the "collation" when
describing books)"
490 tag marks the series statement
520 tag marks the annotation or summary note
650 tag marks a topical subject heading
700 tag marks a personal name added entry (joint author, editor, or illustrator)| 010 tag | marks the Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) |
| :---: | :---: |
| 020 tag | marks the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) |
| 100 tag | marks a personal name main entry (author) |
| 245 tag | marks the title information (which includes the title, other title information, <br> and the statement of responsibility) |
| 250 tag | marks the edition |
| 260 tag | marks the publication information |
| 300 tag | marks the physical description (often referred to as the "collation" when <br> describing books) |
| 490 tag | marks the series statement |
| 520 tag | marks the annotation or summary note |
| 650 tag | marks a topical subject heading |
| 700 tag | marks a personal name added entry (joint author, editor, or illustrator) |
Figure 7.1 第 7.1 图
A partial listing of MARC (MAchine Readable Cataloging) fields from Understanding MARC Bibiographic: Machine Readable Cataloging, Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb. When books are scanned for digital archives, they should be linked to the authoritative metadata in the catalog description to avoid a “trainwreck” of misinformation (Nunberg 2009). 这是从《理解 MARC 书目：机器可读编目》（美国国会图书馆）中提取的 MARC（机器可读编目）字段的部分列表，网址：http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb。当书籍被扫描以用于数字档案时，应将其与目录描述中的权威元数据链接，以避免信息的“混乱”（Nunberg 2009）。
MARC Tags MARC 标记
Sample Content 示例文本
100
1#1 \#
$a
Arnosky, Jim. 吉姆·阿诺斯基。
245
10
$a
Raccoons and ripe corn / 浣熊与成熟的玉米
$c
Jim Arnosky. 吉姆·阿诺斯基
250
##\# \#
$a
1st ed. 第一版书籍
260
##\# \#
$a
New York : 纽约市：
$b
Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books 洛思罗普出版社，李与谢泼德图书
$c
c1987. 1987 年。
300
##\# \#
$a
25 p. : 第 25 页：
$c
26 cm. 26 厘米长。
520
##\# \#
$a
Hungry raccoons feast at night in a 饥饿的浣熊在夜晚大快朵颐
field of ripe corn 成熟的玉米田
650
#1\# 1
$a
Raccoons. 浣熊。
900
##\# \#
$a
599.74 ARN
901
##\# \#
$a\$ \mathrm{a}
8009
903
##\# \#
$a
$15.00
MARC Tags Sample Content
100 1# $a Arnosky, Jim.
245 10 $a Raccoons and ripe corn /
$c Jim Arnosky.
250 ## $a 1st ed.
260 ## $a New York :
$b Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books
$c c1987.
300 ## $a 25 p. :
$c 26 cm.
520 ## $a Hungry raccoons feast at night in a
field of ripe corn
650 #1 $a Raccoons.
900 ## $a 599.74 ARN
901 ## $a 8009
903 ## $a $15.00 | MARC Tags | | | Sample Content | |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :---: |
| 100 | $1 \#$ | $a | Arnosky, Jim. | |
| 245 | 10 | $a | Raccoons and ripe corn / | |
| | | $c | Jim Arnosky. | |
| 250 | $\# \#$ | $a | 1st ed. | |
| 260 | $\# \#$ | $a | New York : | |
| | | $b | Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books | |
| | | $c | c1987. | |
| 300 | $\# \#$ | $a | 25 p. : | |
| | | $c | 26 cm. | |
| 520 | $\# \#$ | $a | Hungry raccoons feast at night in a | |
| | | | field of ripe corn | |
| 650 | $\# 1$ | $a | Raccoons. | |
| 900 | $\# \#$ | $a | 599.74 ARN | |
| 901 | $\# \#$ | $\$ \mathrm{a}$ | 8009 | |
| 903 | $\# \#$ | $a | $15.00 | |
Figure 7.2 第 7.2 图
MARC record fields example from Understanding MARC Bibiographic: Machine Readable Cataloging, Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb. 来自《理解 MARC 书目：机器可读编目》的 MARC 记录字段示例，出版单位为美国国会图书馆，网址：http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb。
MODS Top Level Elements: MODS 顶级元素
titleInfo
name
typeOfResource
genre
originlnfo
language
physicalDescription
abstract
tableOfContents
targetAudience
note
subject
classification
relatedltem
identifier
location
accessCondition
part
extension
recordlnfo
Figure 7.3 第 7.3 图
Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS) top-level elements. MODS is a more flexible cataloging system than MARC, based on XML and a structured document model. MODS can describe software, archive websites, and digitize books as well as legacy media artifacts. 元数据对象描述模式（MODS）的顶级元素。MODS 是一种比 MARC 更灵活的编目系统，基于 XML 和结构化文档模型。MODS 能够描述软件、存档网站、数字化书籍以及传统媒体遗物。
distributed repositories of managed content and a set of interfaces (some of which will resemble traditional catalogs) to that content. Some interfaces may offer comprehensive access to the entire resource, while others will be specialized by content, by intended audience, or by primary purpose. Some interfaces will be closely tied to a particular repository, while others will provide access to a selection of content from distributed repositories. (Library of Congress 1997) 分布式管理内容的存储库及一组接口（部分接口类似于传统目录）用于访问这些内容。一些接口可能提供对整个资源的全面访问，而其他接口则可能根据内容、目标受众或主要目的进行专业化。一些接口将与特定存储库紧密关联，而其他接口则提供对分布式存储库中选定内容的访问。（美国国会图书馆 1997）
Creation of a digital library has led to new cataloging format, MODS (Metadata Object Description Standard), which replaces the numeric codes of the MARC format with human-readable element labels and is meant to provide a common description for many kinds of media objects, not just books (figures 7.3, 7.4). 数字图书馆的建立促成了新的编目格式 MODS（元数据对象描述标准），该格式用人类可读的元素标签取代了 MARC 格式中的数字代码，旨在为多种媒体对象提供统一的描述，而不仅限于书籍（见图 7.3，7.4）。
In the atom-based information systems of the predigital era, libraries and archives were separate and had different cataloging procedures. Libraries dealt with standardized, published print materials (as well as some published records and tapes); archives dealt with documents that were more individual, usually unpublished, and often arranged in collections associated with individual individuals or institutions, such as Abraham Lincoln’s letters or the records of a government agency. Documents in a digital library include artifacts of both kinds; they may be video or audio or photographic artifacts, or even objects needing to be documented in three dimensions. They might be rare or fragile artifacts that would otherwise be available to very few researchers for fear of physical deterioration. For example, the Duke Papyrus Archive 在数字前时代的原子信息系统中，图书馆和档案馆是分开的，且有着不同的编目程序。图书馆处理标准化的已出版印刷材料（以及一些已出版的记录和磁带）；而档案馆则处理更具个性化的文件，通常是未出版的，且通常按与个人或机构相关的收藏进行整理，例如亚伯拉罕·林肯的信件或某个政府机构的记录。数字图书馆中的文件包括这两种类型的文物；它们可能是视频、音频或照片文物，甚至是需要以三维方式记录的物体。这些文物可能是稀有或脆弱的，通常很少有研究人员能够接触到，以免遭受物理损坏。比如，公爵纸草文献档案
typeOfResource
Enumerated values:
text
cartographic
notated music
sound recording-musical
sound recording-nonmusical
sound recording
still image
moving image
three dimensional object
software, multimedia
mixed material
Attributes:
collection (yes)
manuscript (yes)
displayLabel
usage (primary)
altRepGroup
Subelements:
[none]
Figure 7.4 第 7.4 图
Details of the MODS top-level element “3. typeOfResource.” MODS 顶级元素“3. 资源类型”的详细信息。
(available at http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus) displays over a thousand high-resolution images of ancient papyri; the ESPRIT archive aggregates over a thousand examples of prehistoric slate engravings from the Iberian peninsula (http://research2.its.uiowa.edu/iberian). When we move multiple collections of such artifacts into digital form and offer them in a single networked resource, with standardized cataloging, we dramatically augment the power of all the contributing archives for knowledge distribution. A single person can compare artifacts from different collections based on common intellectual criteria, without regard to where they might be physically located. The attention of the individual is maximized, facilitating observations that might not be possible by physically visiting each archive or requesting facsimile images by mail. At the same time, the circle of shared attention is widened. More people can see the same sets of objects, expanding the possibilities for developing and sharing expertise, and for elaborating and refining expert analysis (figure 7.5). （可在 http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus 上获取）展示了超过一千张高分辨率的古代纸莎草图像；ESPRIT 档案汇集了来自伊比利亚半岛的超过一千个史前石板雕刻的例子（http://research2.its.uiowa.edu/iberian）。当我们将多个此类文物的收藏转化为数字形式，并以单一网络资源的形式提供，进行标准化编目时，我们显著增强了所有贡献档案在知识传播方面的能力。一个人可以根据共同的知识标准比较来自不同收藏的文物，而不必考虑它们的实际位置。 个人的注意力得到了最大化，这使得一些观察变得可能，而这些观察在亲自访问每个档案或通过邮件请求传真图像时可能无法实现。同时，分享注意力的范围也得到了扩大。更多的人可以看到相同的物品集合，这为发展和分享专业知识、以及深入阐述和完善专家分析提供了更多可能性（图 7.5）。
The library model is the most developed model we have of a vast, nonquantitative information resource, but it does not take us far enough in thinking about aggregations of digital information. It is limited by its appropriateness to the physical form of the book, and by the traditional separation between information about the object (the paper or computer-based catalog) and the objects themselves. In a digital archive, however, we can scan in a book and throw away the postage meters. We can make a 图书馆模型是我们所拥有的最成熟的模型，它代表了一个庞大的非定量信息资源，但在思考数字信息的聚合时，它并没有带我们走得更远。它受到书籍物理形式的限制，以及关于对象（纸质或计算机目录）与对象本身之间的传统分隔。然而，在数字档案中，我们可以扫描一本书并去掉邮资计量器。我们可以制作一个
Catalogue Record 目录条目
Figure 7.5 第 7.5 图
Magical Handbook fragment and its catalog entry in MARC archival and mManuscript control format, from the online Duke Papyrus Archive (http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus). 魔法手册的片段及其在 MARC 档案和手稿控制格式中的目录条目，来源于在线杜克纸草档案（http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus）。
catalog that is also a library shelf: a list of books that is directly linked to the books themselves. A single book can then be positioned on multiple virtual shelves and can be accessed by many readers at the same time. Because it is made of bits rather than atoms it is not limited to being in one place at a time. 目录就像一个图书架：它是一本书的列表，直接链接到书本本身。一本书可以放在多个虚拟书架上，并且可以被许多读者同时访问。由于它是由比特而非原子构成，因此不受限于一次只能在一个地方。
The arrangement that is closest to uniting the catalog and the library shelf is the electronic bookstore linked to a proprietary hardware or software book reader. For any book in such a collection, the reader can instantaneously access the text of the book from its online (sales) catalog description. The marketing for ebooks features this novelty of immediate access as a primary attraction (figure 7.6). But the books that are delivered are odd hybrids of print and electronic affordances. Although one might expect that reproducing books in electronic form would make them better organized, so far the main advantage has been in portability. Devices that deliver electronic books can contain much more information than a comparable size and weight in printed books, but they may introduce new difficulties in legibility, page formatting, and annotation. 最接近将目录与图书馆书架结合的方式是与专有硬件或软件书籍阅读器相连的电子书店。在这样的书籍收藏中，读者可以即时访问在线（销售）目录中书籍的文本。电子书的营销将这种即时访问的新颖性作为主要卖点（见图 7.6）。然而，交付的书籍却是印刷与电子功能的奇特混合体。尽管人们可能会认为以电子形式复制书籍会使其更有条理，但迄今为止，最大的优势在于便携性。 电子书阅读设备能够存储比同等大小和重量的印刷书籍更多的信息，但可能会在可读性、页面格式和注释方面带来新的挑战。
The process of moving any highly valued, proprietary media form from one format to another is often fraught with economic, political, and social considerations that complicate the design task. But once a legacy artifact is remediated into digital form it raises the full range of procedural, participatory, encyclopedic, and spatial expectations in its users. For example, if a hyperlink appears in a book or newspaper read on a networked electronic reader, users expect it to be clickable and they are frustrated if they cannot access the referenced website. 将任何高度重视的专有媒体形式从一种格式转换为另一种格式的过程，常常涉及经济、政治和社会等多方面的考量，这使得设计任务变得复杂。然而，一旦遗留文物被转化为数字形式，它就会在用户中引发一系列程序性、参与性、百科全书式和空间上的期望。例如，如果在网络电子阅读器上阅读的书籍或报纸中出现超链接，用户会期望它是可点击的，如果无法访问所引用的网站，他们会感到沮丧。
Figure 7.6 第 7.6 图 Amazon.com entices customers to buy its electronic reader and ebooks with the promise of instant gratification: “Start reading . . . in under a minute.” 亚马逊.com 通过承诺“不到一分钟就能开始阅读”来吸引客户购买其电子阅读器和电子书，带来即时的满足感。
The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the organization that supports research in computer science and related fields including human-computer interaction, has taken a radical and comprehensive approach to electronic publication, offering all its journals in digital form and linking articles not only to their parent journals, other articles by the same author, and cited articles, but also to online articles that cite the current one, and to other articles read by the scholars who read the current one. Since authors have unique identifiers, the system also generates a list of collaborators-people who have published with the current author on other articles. By making visible these intellectual connections and professional 计算机协会（ACM）是一个支持计算机科学及相关领域（如人机交互）研究的组织，采取了激进而全面的电子出版方式，提供所有期刊的数字版，并将文章链接到其母期刊、同一作者的其他文章、被引用的文章，以及引用当前文章的在线文章和阅读当前文章的学者所阅读的其他文章。由于作者有唯一标识符，系统还会生成合作者列表——与当前作者在其他文章上共同发表的人员。通过使这些知识联系和专业关系可见，
PgMeCed by THE ACM GUIDE TO COMPUTtNG LITERATURE 由 ACM 计算文献指南撰写的 PgMeCed
Figure 7.7 第 7.7 幅图像
ACM Digital Library entry leads not just to the article but also to the network of investigation it belongs to, including articles it references and articles that cite it. ACM 数字图书馆的条目不仅链接到文章本身，还连接到相关的研究网络，包括引用该文章的文献和被该文章引用的文献。
networks, the ACM digital library is providing a new expressive format for collocation. The citation trails point both backward and forward from any point in the chain, and the collaboration trails point off in parallel directions, and up and down chains of mentorship. A novice is therefore able to get a rich overview of a field using a single relevant article as a point of entry. The ACM digital library is providing the same core function that the library shelf used to provide for a knowledge domain that is growing at a pace much faster than library acquisition cycles can match (figure 7.7). 网络上，ACM 数字图书馆提供了一种新的表达格式来展示搭配。引用链条可以从链中的任何一点向前和向后追溯，而合作链条则平行延伸，向上和向下延伸于指导关系中。因此，初学者可以通过一篇相关的文章作为切入点，获得对某一领域的全面了解。ACM 数字图书馆提供了与图书馆书架曾经为知识领域提供的相同核心功能，而这个知识领域的增长速度远远超过了图书馆获取周期所能跟上的速度（见图 7.7）。
The trend toward digital publication and retrieval is likely to increase in coming years, shifting the tasks of the librarian to the digital sphere. The participatory nature of the medium, which the ACM has been exploiting so well, will allow the distribution of some of the annotation and cataloging tasks to the community of expert readers, with the librarian shaping the environment and providing editorial control over automated and contributed content. The pace of change may have more to do with changing the social rituals that create authority than with demonstrating the efficiency of knowledge dissemination. Since articles in electronic journals will be 数字出版和检索的趋势在未来几年可能会加速发展，这将把图书馆员的工作转向数字领域。ACM 一直很好地利用这种媒介的参与性，将部分注释和编目任务分配给专家读者社区，而图书馆员则负责塑造环境并对自动生成和用户贡献的内容进行编辑控制。变化的速度可能更多地与改变创造权威的社会习俗有关，而不是单纯展示知识传播的效率。由于电子期刊中的文章将是
more accessible they may come to be cited more often, building traditions of prestige that over time may eclipse the time-honored rituals of print. 更加易于获取的内容可能会被引用得更频繁，从而形成一种声望传统，随着时间的推移，可能会超越传统印刷的仪式。
Labels as Identifiers, Descriptors, and Pointers 标签作为标识、描述和指向工具
The Sumerians stored their clay tablets in larger information containers-on shelves and in baskets. The same format of a clay tablet with cuneiform writing might hold a myth cycle or the record of a commercial transaction. To keep the tablets organized, the Sumerian librarians attached a smaller tablet or tag to the main tablet as a label. The clay tags of the Sumerians are the earliest surviving ancestors of the paper labels on record albums or DVDs, and the file names and web addresses that we attach to our electronic containers, telling us whether we are dealing with baby pictures or stock market quotes. Large information structures in any medium are organized around containers and tags. The tags identify and differentiate the chunks of information within a common container. 苏美尔人将泥板存放在更大的信息容器中，比如架子和篮子。相同格式的泥板上用楔形文字书写的内容可能包含神话周期或商业交易记录。为了保持泥板的有序，苏美尔的图书管理员会在主泥板上附加一个较小的泥板或标签作为标识。苏美尔人的泥土标签是纸质标签在唱片或 DVD 上的最早形式，也是我们在电子容器上附加的文件名和网址，帮助我们区分是婴儿照片还是股市报价。任何媒介中的大型信息结构都是围绕容器和标签进行组织的，标签用于识别和区分共同容器内的信息块。
Like clay tablets, manuscripts, and books, and like their paper antecedents, electronic files and folders have names to differentiate them from one another. Names are an important form of tag, and they can serve as both identifiers and descriptors. For example, instead of saying something like “Tolstoy’s lengthy narrative about the Napoleonic period in Russia,” I can point to it more efficiently by its title, War and Peace. A book title can be a device for encapsulation, like the name of a programming procedure, allowing us to refer to the argument or story as a whole in a shorthand way without having to enumerate everything between the covers. Names can have cultural and historical connotations like Primrose Cottage or Philadelphia (City of Brotherly Love) or New York, whose relevance may no longer be apparent (no primroses, no noticeable brotherly love, no memory of an older York). 像泥板、手稿和书籍一样，电子文件和文件夹也有名称，以便彼此区分。名称是一种重要的标签形式，既可以作为标识符，也可以作为描述符。例如，我可以通过书名《战争与和平》更有效地指代“托尔斯泰关于俄罗斯拿破仑时期的冗长叙述”，而不必说得那么复杂。书名就像编程过程的名称一样，可以作为封装的工具，让我们以简洁的方式引用整个论点或故事，而无需逐一列举书中的所有内容。 名字可以承载文化和历史的含义，例如初花小屋、费城（兄弟之爱的城市）或纽约，但它们的相关性可能已不再明显（没有初花，没有明显的兄弟之爱，也没有对旧约克的记忆）。
As identifiers, book titles like geographical names are meant to be unique to the object described, but they often are not-a problem that gets more and more difficult as the world gets smaller and more crowded with named objects. When we decide collectively to make a set of names standardized and unambiguous we establish a nomenclature. Examples of nomenclatures include botanical names, street names, and website domain names. But standard names are not necessary unique names. If human beings labeled places in the physical world around us with the precision required by computers there would not be seventy-one streets with the word “Peachtree” in their name in Atlanta, or more than thirty cities called Springfield in the United States to vie for the honor of being designated Homer Simpson’s home town. Since nomenclatures often have to be built on existing labels they frequently include numbering systems such as ZIP codes to disambiguate them. 作为标识符，书名与地名一样，旨在对所描述的对象保持唯一性，但实际上它们往往并非如此——随着世界变得越来越小，命名对象越来越多，这个问题变得愈发复杂。当我们集体决定将一组名称标准化并明确时，我们就建立了一种命名法。命名法的例子包括植物名称、街道名称和网站域名。然而，标准名称并不一定是唯一的名称。 如果人类能够像计算机那样精确地给我们周围的物理世界命名，那么亚特兰大就不会有七十一条街道的名字中带有“桃树”这个词，也不会有超过三十个名为斯普林菲尔德的城市争夺霍默·辛普森的故乡的称号。由于命名往往需要基于现有的标签，因此它们常常包含邮政编码等编号系统以消除歧义。
But numbered identifiers can also be confusing. Numbering systems are easiest to remember when they conform to observable patterns, such as a north-south/east-west 但是，编号标识符有时也会让人感到困惑。当编号系统符合可观察的模式，比如南北和东西的方向时，记忆起来会更容易。
Figure 7.8 第 7.8 幅图像
Map of Queens, New York, shows a numbering system that confusingly includes a 45th Ave, 45th Rd, and 45 th Dr. 纽约皇后区的地图展示了一个令人困惑的编号系统，其中包含 45 大道、45 路和 45 号驱动。
Figure 7.9 第 7.9 图
MIT campus map shows a numbering system that begins logically with the buildings surrounding the main quad, but breaks down as the campus grows. The visitor to campus generally arrives at “Building 7” (numbered 7 on the map). 麻省理工学院的校园地图展示了一种编号系统，最初是围绕主广场的建筑进行合理编号，但随着校园的扩展，这种系统变得不再清晰。来访者通常会到达“7 号楼”（在地图上标记为 7）。
grid as in Manhattan. When numbers are arranged in more complicated patterns as in the borough of Queens, New York (figure 7.8) or the campus of MIT (figure 7.9) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, they may be logically unambiguous but still quite confusing to ordinary human attention. Numbering systems are ideal for computer labels, however, and can sometimes acquire the semantic charge of words. For example, ZIP codes of American neighborhoods are sometimes used as a shorthand for a real estate market, and by association acquire the connotations associated with the values and 像曼哈顿那样的网格布局。当数字以更复杂的模式排列时，例如纽约的皇后区（图 7.8）或马萨诸塞州剑桥的麻省理工学院校园（图 7.9），虽然在逻辑上是明确的，但对普通人来说仍然可能相当混乱。然而，编号系统非常适合用作计算机标签，有时也会带有单词的语义含义。例如，美国社区的邮政编码有时被用作房地产市场的简写，并因此获得与价值相关的内涵。
behaviors of the people who live there, as in the TV show Beverly Hills 90210, usually referred to by the number alone. 那里居民的行为就像电视剧《比佛利山庄 90210》一样，通常只用数字来称呼。
Nomenclatures can be organized into one or more namespaces, sets of words that are used consistently to create unique identifiers and to apply like names for like objects. For example, we can agree that the namespace for a room full of computers will be green vegetables, and then assign them names arbitrarily but sticking to the limited set of choices such as Pea, Green Bean, Spinach, Broccoli, and so on. The problem with creating organizational namespaces from arbitrary categories in the real world is that, unlike numbers, you can run out of them. If you have more machines than there are green vegetables you have to start to use yellow ones, creating a question in users’ minds about whether the difference in names denotes a meaningful distinction (do the green machines use less energy?). Namespaces for computers, such as Tolkien characters, ski resorts, or movie stars, are sometimes fancifully unrelated to the technical objects they denote, but they may have complex cultural connotations, making them part of the shared social identity of the organization. Designers should be aware that such choices are never neutral and may have undesirable associations for some members of the community if they are drawn from the larger culture rather than from a local frame of reference (such as the industry, service function, or educational field the computers support). Computational namespaces like domain names are logically constructed based on rules for assembling discrete alphanumeric semantic elements. Like postal codes or street names or the names in library catalogs, domain names and other shared computational nomenclatures require authorizing institutions to establish rules and regulate usage. 命名法可以被组织成一个或多个命名空间，这些命名空间是一组一致使用的词，用于创建唯一的标识符，并为类似的对象赋予相同的名称。例如，我们可以约定一个装满计算机的房间的命名空间是“绿色蔬菜”，然后可以随意给它们命名，但要遵循有限的选择，比如豌豆、青豆、菠菜、西兰花等等。创建组织命名空间时，任意类别的问题在于，与数字不同，你可能会用完这些类别。如果你的机器数量超过了绿色蔬菜的数量，你就必须开始使用黄色蔬菜，这会让用户产生疑问：名称之间的差异是否意味着有实质性的区别（绿色机器是否消耗更少的能量？）。 计算机的命名空间，例如托尔金的角色、滑雪胜地或电影明星，有时与它们所指代的技术对象毫无关联，但它们可能蕴含复杂的文化内涵，成为组织共享社会身份的一部分。设计师应意识到，这种选择从来不是中立的，如果这些命名来自更广泛的文化，而非本地的参考框架（如计算机所支持的行业、服务功能或教育领域），可能会对社区的某些成员产生不良联想。像域名这样的计算命名空间是基于组装离散字母数字语义元素的规则而逻辑构建的。 像邮政编码、街道名称或图书馆目录中的名称一样，域名及其他共享计算命名法需要授权机构制定规则并进行使用管理。
Identifying and descriptive labels are forms of metadata, which is important for searching and retrieving items in an archive. The fields in the MARC record include metadata that describe the physical book (such as number of pages) and the content of the book (such as subject terms like “Raccoons” in figure 7.2). Descriptive labels are also important, as we will see in chapter 9, in defining meaningful segments within structured documents. 识别和描述性标签是元数据的一种形式，对于在档案中搜索和检索项目至关重要。MARC 记录中的字段包含描述书籍物理特征（如页数）和内容（如图 7.2 中的主题词“浣熊”）的元数据。描述性标签同样重要，正如我们在第 9 章中将看到的，它们在定义结构化文档中的有意义段落时起着关键作用。
Classification Schemes 分类体系
Whether they are identifiers or descriptors or both, labels are most useful when they are human-readable, open-ended, and part of a meaningful classification schema. A classification schema is a nomenclature that sorts information into knowledge-based categories. Classification lies at the root of much cultural activity, but the more we know or observe, the harder it can be to sort things into fixed categories. The Argentine fabulist Jorge Luis Borges made this point with characteristic playfulness in this fanciful classification scheme, which he attributes to an imaginary emperor: 无论是标识符、描述符还是两者兼具，标签在可读性强、开放性好且属于有意义的分类体系时最为有效。分类体系是一种将信息分为知识性类别的命名法。分类是许多文化活动的基础，但我们了解或观察得越多，将事物归入固定类别就越困难。阿根廷寓言作家豪尔赫·路易斯·博尔赫斯以其特有的幽默感提出了这一观点，在这个他归于一个虚构皇帝的奇幻分类方案中：
Borges’s Emperor’s Classification of Animals 博尔赫斯的皇帝对动物的分类
a. those that belong to the emperor 属于皇帝的那些人
b. embalmed ones 防腐处理的尸体
c. those that are trained 经过训练的人士
d. suckling pigs 嬉戏的小猪
e. mermaids e. 人鱼
f. fabulous ones 非凡的人们
g. stray dogs stray dogs
h. those that are included in this classification 此分类中包含的项目
i. those that tremble as if they were mad 那些颤抖得仿佛失去理智的人
j. innumerable ones j. 无数个
k. those drawn with a very fine camel’s hair brush 用非常细的骆驼毛刷绘制的作品
others 其他人
m . those that have just broken a flower vase 刚打破花瓶的人们
n. those that resemble flies from a distance (Borges 1975) n. 从远处看起来像苍蝇的东西 (博尔赫斯 1975)
Borges’s categories are dramatically compelling and seem to be based on very specific observation and engagement with particular animals. The qualities he identifies are significant distinctions. They are placed in a sequence with orderly alphabetical identifiers. His categories are certainly comprehensive since they include both “those that are included in this list” and “others.” But this is an absurd classification system not merely because the classes are idiosyncratic, overlapping, and nonsensical (“innumerable ones”?), but also because they are brilliantly incommensurable: describing wildly different attributes that do not compare with one another. As Bowker and Star point out in Sorting Things Out, Borges’s whimsical characterizations of animals is a good illustration of the difference between assigning things to categories and sorting them according to a logical classification scheme (Bowker and Star 1999). 博尔赫斯的分类极具吸引力，似乎是基于对特定动物的细致观察和参与。他所识别的特征是重要的区别，按字母顺序排列，具有明确的标识符。他的分类无疑是全面的，因为它包括“在此列表中的那些”和“其他”。然而，这种分类系统是荒谬的，不仅因为这些类别是独特、重叠且毫无意义的（“无数的？”），还因为它们之间的属性完全不可比：描述了截然不同的特征，无法进行比较。 正如博克和斯塔尔在《整理事物》中所指出的，博尔赫斯对动物的奇特描绘很好地展示了将事物归入类别与根据逻辑分类方案对其进行排序之间的区别（博克和斯塔尔 1999）。
A classification system of any kind-from the top-level links of a website to the Library of Congress Subject List-is an organized way of slicing up the world. To be successful the categories should be consistent, recognizable and distinct from one another; the system as a whole should be complete with everything within the domain finding a place within it; the categories should be reasonably symmetrical: that is, they should display a consistent level of subcategorization; and the system should be openended to accommodate new categories reflecting new knowledge or perspectives on the same domain. Of course these qualities are not fully achievable by any known system: they are not specifications but goals, and systems aim for them but always fall short (Bowker and Star 1999). 任何类型的分类系统——无论是网站的顶级链接还是国会图书馆的主题列表——都是一种组织世界的方式。要想成功，分类应当保持一致、易于识别，并且彼此之间要有明显的区别；整个系统应当是完整的，领域内的所有内容都能找到合适的位置；分类应当具有合理的对称性，即应展现出一致的子分类水平；系统还应当是开放的，以便能够容纳反映新知识或新视角的新分类。当然，这些特性并不是任何已知系统能够完全实现的：它们不是规范，而是目标，系统努力追求这些目标，但总是难以完全达到（Bowker 和 Star 1999）。
The effectiveness of classification systems should be tested both by those who enter information into the system and those retrieve the information. Classifiers should be able to assign new items to the right category or categories without 分类系统的有效性应由输入信息和提取信息的用户进行测试。分类器应能够将新项目准确地分配到相应的类别中。
ambiguity and without having to read through a list of every identifier in alphabetical (nonsemantic) order to find the right one. Ideally, a classification schema should be a hierarchy that can be traversed as a decision tree: Is this item animal, vegetable or mineral? If animal, is it fish or foul or mammal? Each decision should lead deeper down the hierarchy. However, life is analog and items in a taxonomy often overlap categories or fall outside of established classes. Some things are neither fish nor foul, not quite chemistry and not quite physics, not quite tragedy and not quite comedy. It is always challenging to try to fit the messy objects of the lifeworld, where the objects, qualities, and events we share are experienced directly, into consistent logical categories. 模糊性使得我们不必按字母顺序（非语义）逐一查找每个标识符来找到正确的分类。理想情况下，分类方案应当是一个可以像决策树一样遍历的层次结构：这个项目是动物、植物还是矿物？如果是动物，是鱼、鸟还是哺乳动物？每个决策都应深入层次结构。然而，生活是复杂的，分类中的项目往往重叠或超出既定类别。有些事物既不是鱼也不是鸟，不完全属于化学或物理，也不完全是悲剧或喜剧。将我们直接体验的生活世界中的混乱对象、特性和事件，归入一致的逻辑类别，总是充满挑战。
Any classification scheme must be tested with multiple real-world practitioners and should be put to the test of extending it with potential additions to the collection. One common way to formulate and test classification schemes is with card sorting, writing down all the items, or a subset of representative items on separate index cards and asking multiple stakeholders to sort them into categories. The categories may be given to them or they may be asked to invent their own. It is particularly useful to test organizational schemes for the navigation of complex websites with diverse users performing a representative range of tasks. Even after they are deployed, classification schemes should allow for refinement and revision as collections grow and perspectives change. 任何分类方案都必须经过多个实际从业者的测试，并应接受扩展潜在补充的考验。制定和测试分类方案的一种常见方法是卡片分类法，即将所有项目或一部分代表性项目写在单独的索引卡上，要求多个利益相关者将它们进行分类。类别可以由他们提供，也可以要求他们自己创造。测试复杂网站的组织方案尤其重要，因为这些网站有多样化的用户执行各种代表性任务。即使在实施后，分类方案也应允许随着收藏的增长和观点的变化进行细化和修订。
Classification schemes are effective if they provide a basis for the reliable retrieval of information. Seekers of information should be able to use the classification terms as search terms, and to find all that is relevant and only what is relevant. Failures in retrieval can usually be traced to the messiness of human language, which employs the same word to mean different things and many words to mean same thing. Library science addresses this problem by creating controlled vocabularies, lists of words that are administered by a central authority and designed to cover an entire field of reference. Controlled vocabularies that serve as a basis for classification schemas have a thesaurus associated with them that lists all the approved terms and provides guidance for cases where ordinary language has multiple synonyms such as substituting “agriculture” for “farming” or “physician” for “medical doctor.” 分类方案如果能够为信息的可靠检索提供基础，就会变得有效。信息寻求者应能将分类术语作为搜索词，找到所有相关内容，仅限于相关内容。检索失败通常源于人类语言的复杂性，因为同一个词可能有不同的含义，而许多词可能表达相同的意思。图书馆学通过创建受控词汇来解决这一问题，这些词汇由中央权威管理，旨在涵盖整个参考领域。 作为分类方案基础的受控词汇表有一个相关的词库，列出了所有批准的术语，并为普通语言中存在多个同义词的情况提供指导，例如用“农业”替代“耕作”或用“医生”替代“医学博士”。”
To make it possible to retrieve information, information structures need address spaces. An address space is a kind of controlled vocabulary in which places are assigned unique labels, whether in numbers or letters or words or some combination of all three. Ideally, addresses should be classification labels-where something is located should reflect what it is, so knowing one will tell you something about the other. Shelves of libraries are a controlled address space, with individual books receiving unique codes within this space based on subject, date, and author (figure 7.10). For example, for the book 为了能够检索信息，信息结构需要有地址空间。地址空间是一种受控词汇，其中地点被分配唯一的标签，可以是数字、字母、单词或三者的组合。理想情况下，地址应该是分类标签——某物的位置应能反映其特性，因此了解一个就能对另一个有所了解。图书馆的书架就是一个受控地址空间，个别书籍根据主题、日期和作者在这个空间内获得唯一的代码（图 7.10）。例如，对于这本书
Wallace Martin, Recent Theories of Narrative 华莱士·马丁，《现代叙事理论》
LC Control No.: … 85022401 LC 控制编号：… 85022401
LCCN Permalink: http://lcen.loc.gov/85022401 LCCN 永久链接： http://lcen.loc.gov/85022401
Type of Material: Book (Print, Microform, Electronic, etc.) 材料类型：书籍（纸质、微缩、电子等）
Personal Name: Martin, Wallace. 个人姓名：华莱士·马丁。
MainTitle: Recent theories of narrative / Wallace Martin. 最近的叙事理论 / 华莱士·马丁著
Published/Created: Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986. 出版/创作：伊萨卡，康奈尔大学出版社，1986 年。
Description: 242 p. : ill. ; 23 cm . 描述：242 页，含插图，尺寸为 23 厘米。
ISBN: 0801417716 (hard: alk. paper) ISBN: 0801417716（精装：碱性纸）
0801493552 (pbk. : alk. paper) 0801493552（平装本：碱性纸）
CALL NUMBER PN212.M37 1986 书籍编号 PN212.M37 1986
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CALL NUMBER: PN212 .M37 1986 FT MEADE 书籍编号：PN212 .M37 1986 FT MEADE
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Figure 7.10 图示 7.10
Library of Congress catalog information including call number, physical location, ISBN, and the 国会图书馆的目录信息，包括索书号、实际位置、ISBN 等
LC Control No., which refers to the original cataloging system established in 1898. See Library LC 控制号是指 1898 年建立的原始编目系统。请查看图书馆相关信息。
of Congress online catalog, http://catalog.loc.gov. 国会的在线目录，网址为 http://catalog.loc.gov。
the Library of Congress assigns the call number 国会图书馆为书籍分配索书号
PN212 M37 1986
The value in the date field “1986,” the year of publication, is the only part of this 日期字段中的“1986”这个出版年份是唯一的部分
code that is immediately human-readable. The rest of the signifiers can be decoded in 代码是人类可以立即理解的。其余的符号可以被解读为
this way: 这样做
P is the class of Language and Literature P 是语言与文学的分类
PN is the subclass of Literature (General) PN 是文学（通用）的一个子类
M is the first initial of the author’s last name M 是作者姓氏的首字母
212 is a subclass of PN, within the range (172-239) assigned to “Literature/Authorship/ 212 是 PN 的一个子类，位于分配给“文学/作者”的范围（172-239）内
Technique, Literary Composition, etc.” 技术、文学创作等。
It is significant that at the finest level indicated on the Library of Congress Classifica- 在国会图书馆分类法中所指示的最细致级别上，这一点非常重要
tion Outline (<www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco_p.pdf>) for PN 212, the designers of PN 212 的设计师内容大纲（< www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco_p.pdf>）
the classification system are forced to throw up their hands by resorting to “etc.” In 分类系统无奈地只能 resorting to “等”。
fact theories of narrative are not currently understood as a subclass of “authorship,” 目前，叙事的事实理论并不被视为“作者身份”的一个子类
but would probably fit more appropriately into PN 45-57: Literature/ Theory. Philosophy. Esthetics. Classification schema aim for consistency but knowledge expands and categories often become ambiguous or obsolete with time. 但这可能更适合归入 PN 45-57：文学/理论、哲学和美学。分类方案旨在保持一致性，但随着知识的扩展，类别往往会变得模糊或过时。
Systems of identification are starting to converge as they all move into digital representation. Alongside traditional library systems of labeling is a newer, commercially driven identification system of unique International Standard Book Numbers (ISBNs). The thirteen-digit ISBN number contains four three-digit fields that label the object as a book, identify country, publisher, and specific title, as well as one more check digit that validates the number. Publishers purchase blocks of ISBNs and assign them to unique volumes without regard to the contents of the book. The system was initiated in 1966 in Britain and certified by the International Standards Organization in 1970 as a ten-digit system, but by 2007 it became necessary to add three additional digits in order not to run out of numbers. Libraries now add the ISBN codes to their records of their holdings. But unlike the Library of Congress system, ISBN codes are not helpful for browsing groups of books because the numbers are not based on the informational content. Instead, ISBN codes are optimized to provide a unique identifier in a uniform format (same number of digits in the same bar code representation) that makes it easier to retrieve a box of books from a warehouse shelf and to ship the right book to the right buyer. But the ubiquity and consistency of the ISBN have made it the basis of some networked bibliography systems, such as Zotero. 识别系统正在逐渐趋同，纷纷转向数字化表示。除了传统的图书馆标签系统外，还有一个较新的、以商业驱动的国际标准书号（ISBN）识别系统。这个十三位的 ISBN 号码由四个三位数字的字段组成，分别标识书籍、国家、出版社和特定标题，并且还有一个校验位用于验证该号码。出版商购买 ISBN 的批次，并将其分配给独特的书籍，而不考虑书籍的具体内容。 该系统于 1966 年在英国启动，并于 1970 年获得国际标准化组织的认证，成为一个十位数字的系统。然而，到 2007 年，必须添加三个额外的数字，以避免号码用尽。现在，图书馆会将 ISBN 代码添加到其馆藏记录中。但与国会图书馆系统不同，ISBN 代码并不适合用于浏览书籍，因为这些数字并不基于书籍的内容。相反，ISBN 代码经过优化，提供统一格式下的唯一标识符（相同数量的数字在相同的条形码中），这使得从仓库货架上检索一箱书籍以及将正确的书籍送到正确的买家变得更加容易。 但是，ISBN 的广泛使用和一致性使其成为一些网络书目系统（如 Zotero）的基础。
The codes of the Library of Congress point to a logical place on a shelf that remains the same in relation to the rest of the library holdings, even if the physical shelves are moved. In this regard they are unlike ISBNs, but very like Universal Resource Locators (URLs) that point to web pages. Similarly, the URL http://www.gatech.edu will point to Georgia Tech’s website regardless of whether the site moves to a different server or the server moves to a different building. But unlike the ISBN or the call number, both of which can be stamped on the physical book, the URL is not permanently associated with the information it locates. 国会图书馆的代码指向书架上的一个逻辑位置，这个位置相对于图书馆的其他藏书始终保持不变，即使物理书架被移动。在这方面，它们与 ISBN 不同，但与指向网页的通用资源定位符（URL）非常相似。例如，URL http://www.gatech.edu 将始终指向乔治亚理工学院的网站，无论该网站是否迁移到不同的服务器，或服务器是否迁移到不同的建筑。然而，与可以印在实体书上的 ISBN 或索书号不同，URL 并不与其所指向的信息永久关联。
Media objects within a digital library object need persistent identifiers that can be used to locate them, even when they change URLs, and that can identify the same object when it is duplicated at multiple URLs (just as ISBN and LOC codes identify multiple copies of the same book). The Digital Object Identifier (DOI) system serves this purpose by functioning like the lifelong email address provided to some college students on graduation, which can be updated to point to changing current accounts (see http://www.doi.org). As long as the rightsholder updates the appropriate records, the DOI will always lead to the correct media object. DOIs can be assigned to any digital object, such as a web page, music file, or video sequence. They can also be assigned to any abstract entity that can be claimed as intellectual property. For example, one could assign a single DOI to an article that has been reprinted in multiple 数字图书馆中的媒体对象需要持久的标识符，以便在其 URL 发生变化时仍能被定位，并且能够在多个 URL 中识别相同的对象（就像 ISBN 和 LOC 代码识别同一本书的多个副本一样）。数字对象标识符（DOI）系统的作用类似于一些大学生毕业时获得的终身电子邮件地址，可以更新以指向不断变化的当前账户（见 http://www.doi.org）。只要权利持有人更新相关记录，DOI 将始终指向正确的媒体对象。DOI 可以分配给任何数字对象，例如网页、音乐文件或视频序列。 它们也可以被分配给任何可以被视为知识产权的抽象实体。例如，可以为在多个地方重新出版的文章分配一个唯一的 DOI
places or a song that has been recorded by many artists or a book that exists in text and audio versions. Attaching a unique identifier to an abstract entity, independent of its material representation, could significantly expand our understanding of what it is that we are collecting in digital archives. It reflects the reality that naming something creates it as a focus of shared attention, creating meaning where it was not visible before. 许多艺术家录制过的地方或歌曲，或同时存在文本和音频版本的书籍。将唯一标识符附加到一个抽象实体上，而不考虑其物质表现，可能会显著拓展我们对数字档案中所收集内容的理解。这反映了一个现实：命名某物使其成为共享关注的焦点，从而在之前不可见的地方创造出意义。
At the most basic level everything in a digital archive is a collection of bits, and the name of any collection of bits always resolves in a pointer to a virtual address, a place in computer memory where those switches are located. The information structures we build on top of those pointers are basically other pointers. The job of the designer is to create pointers to information that are unambiguous for the machine and meaningful for the human who is storing and retrieving the information. Doing this usually means creating tables of some kind in which the human-meaningful name is translated into the machine-logical address. When the systems work well they function like memorable web addresses or well-sorted library shelves. When they work badly it is because a human being is being asked to remember a computer-friendly code or a computer is being asked to understand ambiguous human-friendly codes (figure 7.11). 在最基本的层面上，数字档案中的所有内容都是比特的集合，任何比特集合的名称总是指向一个虚拟地址的指针，这个地址是计算机内存中存放这些开关的地方。我们在这些指针上构建的信息结构基本上也是其他指针。设计师的任务是创建对机器明确且对存储和检索信息的人有意义的信息指针。通常，这意味着需要创建某种表格，将人类可理解的名称转换为机器逻辑地址。当系统运行良好时，它们的功能就像令人难忘的网页地址或分类清晰的图书馆书架。 当它们工作不正常时，往往是因为人类被要求记住计算机友好的代码，或者计算机被要求理解模糊的人类友好代码（图 7.11）。
Figure 7.11 第 7.11 图
Georgia Aquarium provides location-specific educational information, taking advantage of the cell phones that its visitors already carry. In order to receive the information, the visitor enters two separate transmission codes, a nine-digit telephone number and then a location number (here: 510, in black circle at upper left). Mobile devices with scanners make such location-specific information retrieval more transparent, by allowing designers to hide the lookup codes. The designers should be able to use the same underlying information structure of location-indexed media files as transmission technologies change, perhaps upgrading from audio to video as available bandwidth increases. 乔治亚水族馆提供针对特定地点的教育信息，充分利用访客随身携带的手机。为了获取这些信息，访客需要输入两个不同的传输代码：一个是九位数的电话号码，另一个是位置编号（此处为 510，位于左上角的黑色圆圈中）。配备扫描仪的移动设备使得特定地点的信息检索更加直观，因为设计者可以隐藏查找代码。设计者应能够在传输技术变化时，继续使用相同的基础信息结构，即位置索引的媒体文件，随着可用带宽的增加，可能会从音频升级到视频。
Information Organization as a Taxonomy of Knowledge 信息组织作为知识的分类体系
The library cataloging system is a taxonomy of every subject of human knowledge that can be described in print, a byproduct of its intended function, which is to sort vast holdings into searchable smaller units and to assign a unique place on the shelf for everything that comes into the collection. 图书馆编目系统是对人类知识各个主题的分类，可以用印刷品来描述。这是其预期功能的副产品，旨在将大量藏书整理成可搜索的小单位，并为每一件进入收藏的物品分配一个独特的架子位置。
With the growth of print culture in the nineteenth century and the spreading of literacy, libraries became public institutions and schemas were devised to organize knowledge in standard ways. The most successful early schema was the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system, devised by Melvil Dewey in 1876, currently in its twentysecond revision, and still the most widely used system in the world, which divides all of human knowledge into ten top-level classes, and allows for expansion by the addition of decimal places (see figure 7.12). Because numbers have intrinsic sequence, the DDC provides librarians with a reliable way to shelve and retrieve books from unique locations. 随着十九世纪印刷文化的发展和识字率的提高，图书馆逐渐成为公共机构，并制定了标准化的知识组织方案。最成功的早期方案是由梅尔维尔·杜威于 1876 年设计的杜威十进制分类法（DDC），目前已进入第二十二次修订，仍然是全球使用最广泛的系统。该系统将人类知识分为十个顶级类别，并通过添加小数位数进行扩展（见图 7.12）。由于数字具有内在的顺序，DDC 为图书管理员提供了一种可靠的方法，以便从特定位置上架和检索书籍。
The small number of classes and top-down assignment have made it difficult to add the many areas of knowledge. Technology and Science are particularly crowded categories, leaving “Nuclear Engineering,” for example, to be elbowed in under “Mechanical Engineering,” and “Computer Science” stranded in the 000 category which was originally assigned to “Generalities.” The coding system finds new places on the shelves for these new knowledge containers but it does not reflect our changing epistemological structures. The numbering system has lost its descriptive power as a map of human knowledge, and now functions as an arbitrary transmission code, like telephone numbers, a way of assigning unique shelf addresses, but confusing collocations. Like giving a home a name such as “Primrose Cottage” instead of a street 课程数量少，加之自上而下的分配，使得增加众多知识领域变得困难。技术和科学尤其拥挤，导致“核工程”被挤入“机械工程”之下，而“计算机科学”则被困在最初分配给“一般性”的 000 类别中。编码系统为这些新的知识容器在书架上找到新的位置，但并未反映我们不断变化的认识论结构。编号系统失去了作为人类知识地图的描述性功能，现在仅作为一种任意的传输代码运作，类似于电话号码，成为分配独特书架地址的方式，却造成了混淆的搭配。就像给一个家起个名字，比如“报春花小屋”，而不是用街道名
Dewey Decimal System Top-Level Categories
000 - Computer science, information, and general works
100 - Philosophy and psychology
200 - Religion
300 - Social sciences
400 - Language
500 - Science
600 - Technology
700 - Arts and recreation
800 - Literature
900 - History and geography
Figure 7.12 图示 7.12
The Dewey Decimal System places all of human knowledge in the form of books to be shelved, in ten top-level categories. It is successful in placing every book in a particular place on the shelf and in assuring that books shelved near one another are related in content. 杜威十进制分类法将人类所有知识以书籍的形式进行分类，共分为十个主要类别。它有效地将每本书放在书架的特定位置，并确保相邻的书籍在内容上是相关的。
Figure 7.13 图表 7.13
The Library of Congress Classification System has twenty-one top-level categories, including two assigned to American history, reflecting its primary mission of accounting for everything in its own collection. 国会图书馆分类系统共有二十一类顶级类别，其中两个类别专门用于美国历史，这反映了其主要使命，即对其馆藏中的所有内容进行分类。
address, we are creating confusing identifiers that resemble descriptors but are not reliable as descriptors. 地址，我们正在创建一些看似描述但实际上不可靠的混淆标识符。
The main rival to the Dewey system in the United States is the Library of Congress (LOC) Classification system (figure 7.13). It was invented in the early twentieth century in response to the limitations of the Dewey system, which could not account for all the volumes in the LOC’s existing collection. The LOC Classification is divided into twenty-one top-level categories, which are assigned alphabetical labels. All of the categories are administered by domain specialists, who attempt to adapt and expand the classification system to reflect changing knowledge; however, as we have seen, the system is more successful at assigning unique identifiers than it is at assigning reliable intellectual descriptors. 美国杜威系统的主要竞争对手是国会图书馆（LOC）分类系统（见图 7.13）。该系统是在 20 世纪初为了解决杜威系统的局限性而发明的，因为杜威系统无法涵盖国会图书馆现有藏书的所有卷册。LOC 分类系统分为 21 个顶级类别，并为每个类别分配了字母标签。所有类别由领域专家管理，他们努力调整和扩展分类系统，以反映不断变化的知识；然而，正如我们所见，该系统在分配唯一标识符方面更为成功，而在提供可靠的知识描述符方面则相对不足。
The growth of networked digital resources presents many classification problems similar to the problem of the Dewey Decimal and LOC systems, where users would like to use classification schemes as a guide to unfamiliar content, but the domains are so large and ill formed that they resist assignment. For example, what classification scheme would best describe all the books on Amazon.com or all the films and TV shows on Netflix.com or all the videos on YouTube? How would we sort all the museums of the world so that they can be browsed in a way that furthers our understanding of the range and shared qualities of institutions? How would we sort all the artifacts within those museums so that we could see all the works of a single artist or compare separately held versions of the same document or artifact? 网络数字资源的增长带来了许多分类问题，这些问题与杜威十进制和 LOC 系统面临的挑战相似。用户希望通过分类方案来指导他们了解不熟悉的内容，但由于领域庞大且结构不清晰，分类变得困难。例如，什么样的分类方案最能描述 Amazon.com 上的所有书籍，Netflix.com 上的所有电影和电视节目，或 YouTube 上的所有视频？我们该如何对全球的博物馆进行分类，以便以一种有助于我们理解这些机构的范围和共同特征的方式进行浏览？ 我们该如何对这些博物馆中的所有文物进行整理，以便能够查看某位艺术家的所有作品，或比较不同馆藏中同一文件或文物的不同版本？
Since taxonomies are so difficult to create and so hard to sustain, new and growing areas of services and information—which includes almost everything in digital media- 由于分类法的创建和维护都非常困难，新兴和不断发展的服务及信息领域几乎涵盖了数字媒体中的所有内容
Figure 7.14 第 7.14 图
AOL Portal Services, excerpt from the alphabetical listing. AOL 门户服务，按字母顺序的列表摘录。
often require multiple iterations of an organizational structure, as items that have to be covered and the relationships among them keep changing and expanding. Most information-rich websites outgrow their original structure. When outlier pages grow too numerous, it is best to rethink the whole site rather than to keep adding on inconsistent sections or “quick links” to hidden material. For larger sites in transitional phases the minimal rule should be to use scrupulously consistent nomenclature, and to aim for standardization with similar websites for the most frequently used categories of information. Lack of a clear taxonomy of the kinds of services, tasks, and information offered by a digital environment of any kind can lead to a proliferation of labels, buttons, and menus, and to web pages with inconsistent and confusing names. One sign of an area that has outstripped its designers’ ability to provide order is a reliance on alphabetical listings, like the portal sites in figures 7.14 and 7.15. Attempting to create a taxonomy for such lists can reveal weaknesses and strengths in the organization itself and help to clarify its mission. 通常需要多次迭代组织结构，因为需要覆盖的内容及其相互关系不断变化和扩展。大多数信息丰富的网站会超出其原有结构。当异常页面数量过多时，最好重新审视整个网站，而不是继续添加不一致的部分或“快速链接”到隐藏内容。对于处于过渡阶段的大型网站，基本原则是使用严格一致的命名，并在最常用的信息类别中，力求与类似网站实现标准化。 缺乏对数字环境中服务、任务和信息种类的清晰分类，可能导致标签、按钮和菜单的泛滥，以及网页名称的不一致和混乱。一个表明某个领域超出了设计者提供秩序能力的迹象是依赖字母顺序的列表，例如图 7.14 和 7.15 中的门户网站。尝试为这些列表创建分类法可以揭示组织的优缺点，并有助于明确其使命。
Figure 7.15 第 7.15 图
Yahoo Web Everything, excerpt from the alphabetical listing. 雅虎网络所有内容，按字母顺序排列的摘录。
Designing for Navigation with Appropriate Labels 设计导航时应使用合适的标签
One of the chief aims of any classification system is collocation, which as noted earlier means grouping intellectually similar items near one another. A library shelf is a highly organized grouping of similar items, giving us an overview of a domain of knowledge merely from browsing the appropriate shelves in a well-stocked collection. Similarly, the navigational menu of a well-labeled website should provide an overview of the knowledge it contains. Actually navigating the site should reinforce the interactor’s understanding, supporting the creation of a spatialized mental representation that integrates the web design with the abstract information structure. For example, if we find the works of Carl Jung in the psychology section of a library or web encyclopedia, we reinforce our knowledge that Jung’s work was in psychology. 任何分类系统的主要目标之一是聚类，正如前面提到的，这意味着将智力上相似的项目放在一起。图书馆的书架是相似项目的高度组织化分组，仅通过浏览一个库存丰富的收藏中的适当书架，我们就能对某个知识领域有一个整体的了解。同样，一个标记清晰的网站导航菜单应该提供其所包含知识的概览。实际上，浏览网站应该增强用户的理解，帮助形成一个空间化的心理表征，将网页设计与抽象信息结构有机结合。 例如，如果我们在图书馆或网络百科全书的心理学部分找到卡尔·荣格的作品，这就进一步巩固了我们对荣格作品属于心理学领域的认识。
The proliferation of information in digital form has made it hard to create welllabeled, well-segmented information resources. Instead we often find endless lists and nested lists that force the interactor to navigate through many things they are not interested in to find the things that do interest them. News sites are particularly challenged in their presentation of content (figure 7.16) since human events do not fall 数字信息的激增使得创建标记清晰、分类明确的信息资源变得困难。相反，我们常常会看到无尽的列表和嵌套列表，这迫使用户在许多他们不感兴趣的内容中寻找自己感兴趣的信息。新闻网站在内容呈现方面尤其面临挑战（见图 7.16），因为人类事件并不总是符合预期。
Figure 7.16 图示 7.16
News sites often rely on scrolling lists and nested lists that place information in multiple broad categories. 新闻网站通常使用滚动列表和嵌套列表，将信息归类到多个广泛的类别中。
into neat categories. The starting points for online organization of news are the broad categories inherited from daily newspaper sections (National, International, Style, Business, etc.). These have been supplemented online with summary pages devoted to persistent topics like individual countries, but the topics covered by newspapers are so numerous they have to be arranged in alphabetical listings (figure 7.17). Newspapers have also drawn on the participatory behavior of readers to do some of the organizing for them, by providing lists of “Most Emailed” articles or “Most Popular” topics. 将新闻在线组织成整齐的类别。在线新闻的起点是从日报的各个版块（如国家、国际、风格、商业等）继承的广泛类别。这些类别在网上得到了补充，增加了针对持久主题（如各个国家）的摘要页面，但报纸所涵盖的主题数量众多，因此必须按字母顺序排列（见图 7.17）。报纸还利用读者的参与行为进行部分组织，提供“最常被发送”的文章或“最受欢迎”的主题列表。
Other large information resources provide specialized overviews for different categories of browsers. For example the Library of Congress provides separate points of entry for Kids/Families, Librarians, Researchers, Teachers, and others (figure 7.18). 其他大型信息资源为不同类型的浏览器提供了专业概述。例如，国会图书馆为儿童/家庭、图书管理员、研究人员、教师等提供了独立的入口（见图 7.18）。
Expandable menu trees can allow users to jump up, down, and across branches of a large information space, going from one page to any other page with fewer intermediate page loads (figure 7.19). Organization of long lists of items into discreet categories can be accomplished by a top-down method, imposing a relevant existing taxonomy, such as the organizational chart of an institution, upon the information; or organization can be discovered from the bottom up by starting with the individual items and sorting them to see what categories emerge. Users and stakeholders can be 可扩展的菜单树允许用户在大型信息空间中上下跳转，跨越多个分支，从一个页面直接到达任何其他页面，减少中间页面的加载（见图 7.19）。将长列表的项目组织成明确的类别可以通过自上而下的方法实现，利用现有的相关分类法，例如机构的组织结构图；或者也可以通过自下而上的方式，从单个项目开始进行排序，以发现出现的类别。用户和利益相关者可以是
A
Browse the list below to find topic pages about people, places, organizations, and subjects. Each topic page collects all the news, reference and archival information, photos, graphics, audio and video files published about the person on NYTimes.com.
Names of New York Times reporters are shown in italics. Visit a reporter's page to search an archive of the reporter's work or to send an e-mail. 请浏览下面的列表，查找有关人物、地点、组织和主题的页面。每个页面汇集了在 NYTimes.com 上发布的关于该人的所有新闻、参考资料和档案信息，以及照片、图形、音频和视频文件。纽约时报记者的名字以斜体显示。您可以访问记者的页面，搜索其工作档案或发送电子邮件。
A Good Appetite, by Melissa 《美好的食欲》，作者梅丽莎
Allen, Paul 保罗·艾伦
Appiah, Kwame Anthony 夸梅·安东尼·阿皮亚
Clark 克拉克
Allen, Ray 雷·艾伦
Appier, Kevin 凯文·阿皮尔
A M Castle & Company A M 城堡公司
Allen, Robert E. 罗伯特·E·艾伦
Apple Inc. 苹果公司
A Power Energy Generation 电力能源的生成
Allen. Thad W. 泰德·W·艾伦
Apple Valley Bank & Trust 苹果谷银行信托公司
Systems Ltd. 系统有限公司
Allen, Tim 提姆·艾伦
Company 企业
A. Schulman Inc. A. Schulman 公司
Allen, Will 威尔·艾伦
Apple, Fiona 菲奥娜·苹果
A.C. Milan AC 米兰
Allen, William J 威廉·J·艾伦
Apple, R. W. Jr. 苹果，R. W. 小姐
A.C. Moore Arts & Crafts Inc. A.C. Moore 艺术与手工艺有限公司
Allen, William T. 威廉·T·艾伦
Applebee's International, Inc. 苹果蜜国际有限公司
A.O. Smith Corp. A.O. 史密斯企业
Allen, Woody 伍迪·艾伦
Applebome, Peter 彼得·苹果博姆
A.T. Cross Company A.T. Cross 公司
Allenby, Robert 罗伯特·艾伦比
Appleby, Stuart 斯图尔特·苹果比
A123 SYSTEMS INC. A123 系统有限公司
Allende Gossens, Salvador 萨尔瓦多·阿连德·戈森斯
Applegate, Christina 克里斯蒂娜·阿普尔盖特
AAA Energy Inc. AAA 能源有限公司
Allende, Isabel 伊莎贝尔·阿连德
Apples 苹果水果
AAG Holding Company Inc. AAG 控股有限公司
Allende, Salvador 萨尔瓦多·阿连德
Applewhite, Marshall Herff 马歇尔·赫夫·苹果怀特
Aaliyah 艾莉亚
Allergan Inc. 艾尔健有限公司
Appliance Recycling Centers of 家电回收中心
Aamaxan Transport Group Inc. Aamaxan 运输集团股份有限公司
Allergy Research Group Inc. 过敏研究集团有限公司
America Inc. 美国有限公司
Aaon Inc.
Allete Inc. 阿莱特股份有限公司
Applied Biosystems Group 应用生物系统公司
AAR Corp. AAR 公司
Alley, Kirstie 基尔斯蒂·阿利
Applied Digital Solutions Inc. 应用数字解决方案有限公司
Aaron Rents Inc. 亚伦租赁有限公司
Alliance Bancorp Inc. 联盟银行控股公司
Applied DNA Sciences Inc. 应用 DNA 科学股份有限公司
Aaron, Hank 亚伦和汉克
Alliance Bancshares California 加利福尼亚联盟银行
Applied Energetics Inc. 应用能量技术公司
AARP
Alliance Bankshares Corp. 联盟银行股份有限公司
Applied Industrial Technologies 应用工业技术公司
Aastrom Biosciences Inc. 阿斯特罗姆生物科学有限公司
Alliance Data Systems Corp. 联盟数据系统股份有限公司
Inc. 有限公司
ABA B andT Financial Corporation ABA B 和 T 财务公司
Alliance Fiber Optic Products Inc. 联盟光纤产品有限公司
Applied Materials Inc. 应用材料公司（Applied Materials Inc.）
Abacha, Sani 萨尼·阿巴查
Alliance Financial Corp. 联盟金融集团
Applied Micro Circuits Corp. 应用微电路公司
Abas, Nasir 纳西尔·阿巴斯
Alliance for Downtown New York 纽约市中心协会
Applied NeuroSolutions Inc. 应用神经解决方案有限公司
Abashidze, Aslan 阿巴希泽·阿斯兰
Alliance Healthcard Inc. 联盟健康卡股份有限公司
Applied Signal Technology Inc. 应用信号技术有限公司
Abate, Catherine M. 凯瑟琳·M·阿贝
Alliance Holdings GP LP 联盟控股合伙企业
Appointments and Executive 预约与执行管理
Abaxis Inc.
Alliance Imaging Inc. 联盟影像有限公司
Changes 变更
Abazias Inc. 阿巴齐亚斯有限公司
Alliance One International Inc. 联盟国际有限公司
Appraisals and Valuation 评估与价值评定
ABB Lid. ABB 公司
Alliance Pharmaceutical Corp. 联盟制药集团
Approach Resources Inc. 方法资源有限公司
Abba 爸爸
Alliance Recovery Corp. 联盟复苏公司
Aprecia Inc. Aprecia Inc.公司
Abbado, Claudio 克劳迪奥·阿巴多
Alliance Resource Partners LP 联盟资源合作伙伴有限公司
Apria Healthcare Group Inc. 阿普里亚医疗集团
Abbas, Abu 阿巴斯·阿布
AllianceBemstein Holding LP 贝恩斯坦联合控股公司
April Fool's Day 愚人节庆祝日
Abbas, Mahmoud 马哈茂德·阿巴斯
Alliant Energy Corporation 阿利安特能源集团
APT Satellite Holdings Ltd. APT 卫星控股有限公司
Abbey, Edward 爱德华·阿比
Alliant Techsystems Inc. 全联科技系统有限公司
AptarGroup Inc. AptarGroup 有限公司
Abbott Laboratories 雅培公司
Allianz SE 安联保险公司
Apted, Michael 迈克尔·阿普特
Abbott, Jim 吉姆·阿博特
Allied Capital Corp. 联合资本集团
Aqua America Inc. 水务美国公司
Abd-el-Kader 阿卜杜勒·卡德尔
Allied Defense Group Inc. The 联合防务集团有限公司
Aquamer Medical Corporation 水源医疗集团
A Good Appetite, by Melissa Allen, Paul Appiah, Kwame Anthony
Clark Allen, Ray Appier, Kevin
A M Castle & Company Allen, Robert E. Apple Inc.
A Power Energy Generation Allen. Thad W. Apple Valley Bank & Trust
Systems Ltd. Allen, Tim Company
A. Schulman Inc. Allen, Will Apple, Fiona
A.C. Milan Allen, William J Apple, R. W. Jr.
A.C. Moore Arts & Crafts Inc. Allen, William T. Applebee's International, Inc.
A.O. Smith Corp. Allen, Woody Applebome, Peter
A.T. Cross Company Allenby, Robert Appleby, Stuart
A123 SYSTEMS INC. Allende Gossens, Salvador Applegate, Christina
AAA Energy Inc. Allende, Isabel Apples
AAG Holding Company Inc. Allende, Salvador Applewhite, Marshall Herff
Aaliyah Allergan Inc. Appliance Recycling Centers of
Aamaxan Transport Group Inc. Allergy Research Group Inc. America Inc.
Aaon Inc. Allete Inc. Applied Biosystems Group
AAR Corp. Alley, Kirstie Applied Digital Solutions Inc.
Aaron Rents Inc. Alliance Bancorp Inc. Applied DNA Sciences Inc.
Aaron, Hank Alliance Bancshares California Applied Energetics Inc.
AARP Alliance Bankshares Corp. Applied Industrial Technologies
Aastrom Biosciences Inc. Alliance Data Systems Corp. Inc.
AB andT Financial Corporation Alliance Fiber Optic Products Inc. Applied Materials Inc.
Abacha, Sani Alliance Financial Corp. Applied Micro Circuits Corp.
Abas, Nasir Alliance for Downtown New York Applied NeuroSolutions Inc.
Abashidze, Aslan Alliance Healthcard Inc. Applied Signal Technology Inc.
Abate, Catherine M. Alliance Holdings GP LP Appointments and Executive
Abaxis Inc. Alliance Imaging Inc. Changes
Abazias Inc. Alliance One International Inc. Appraisals and Valuation
ABB Lid. Alliance Pharmaceutical Corp. Approach Resources Inc.
Abba Alliance Recovery Corp. Aprecia Inc.
Abbado, Claudio Alliance Resource Partners LP Apria Healthcare Group Inc.
Abbas, Abu AllianceBemstein Holding LP April Fool's Day
Abbas, Mahmoud Alliant Energy Corporation APT Satellite Holdings Ltd.
Abbey, Edward Alliant Techsystems Inc. AptarGroup Inc.
Abbott Laboratories Allianz SE Apted, Michael
Abbott, Jim Allied Capital Corp. Aqua America Inc.
Abd-el-Kader Allied Defense Group Inc. The Aquamer Medical Corporation| A Good Appetite, by Melissa | Allen, Paul | Appiah, Kwame Anthony |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Clark | Allen, Ray | Appier, Kevin |
| A M Castle & Company | Allen, Robert E. | Apple Inc. |
| A Power Energy Generation | Allen. Thad W. | Apple Valley Bank & Trust |
| Systems Ltd. | Allen, Tim | Company |
| A. Schulman Inc. | Allen, Will | Apple, Fiona |
| A.C. Milan | Allen, William J | Apple, R. W. Jr. |
| A.C. Moore Arts & Crafts Inc. | Allen, William T. | Applebee's International, Inc. |
| A.O. Smith Corp. | Allen, Woody | Applebome, Peter |
| A.T. Cross Company | Allenby, Robert | Appleby, Stuart |
| A123 SYSTEMS INC. | Allende Gossens, Salvador | Applegate, Christina |
| AAA Energy Inc. | Allende, Isabel | Apples |
| AAG Holding Company Inc. | Allende, Salvador | Applewhite, Marshall Herff |
| Aaliyah | Allergan Inc. | Appliance Recycling Centers of |
| Aamaxan Transport Group Inc. | Allergy Research Group Inc. | America Inc. |
| Aaon Inc. | Allete Inc. | Applied Biosystems Group |
| AAR Corp. | Alley, Kirstie | Applied Digital Solutions Inc. |
| Aaron Rents Inc. | Alliance Bancorp Inc. | Applied DNA Sciences Inc. |
| Aaron, Hank | Alliance Bancshares California | Applied Energetics Inc. |
| AARP | Alliance Bankshares Corp. | Applied Industrial Technologies |
| Aastrom Biosciences Inc. | Alliance Data Systems Corp. | Inc. |
| $A B$ andT Financial Corporation | Alliance Fiber Optic Products Inc. | Applied Materials Inc. |
| Abacha, Sani | Alliance Financial Corp. | Applied Micro Circuits Corp. |
| Abas, Nasir | Alliance for Downtown New York | Applied NeuroSolutions Inc. |
| Abashidze, Aslan | Alliance Healthcard Inc. | Applied Signal Technology Inc. |
| Abate, Catherine M. | Alliance Holdings GP LP | Appointments and Executive |
| Abaxis Inc. | Alliance Imaging Inc. | Changes |
| Abazias Inc. | Alliance One International Inc. | Appraisals and Valuation |
| ABB Lid. | Alliance Pharmaceutical Corp. | Approach Resources Inc. |
| Abba | Alliance Recovery Corp. | Aprecia Inc. |
| Abbado, Claudio | Alliance Resource Partners LP | Apria Healthcare Group Inc. |
| Abbas, Abu | AllianceBemstein Holding LP | April Fool's Day |
| Abbas, Mahmoud | Alliant Energy Corporation | APT Satellite Holdings Ltd. |
| Abbey, Edward | Alliant Techsystems Inc. | AptarGroup Inc. |
| Abbott Laboratories | Allianz SE | Apted, Michael |
| Abbott, Jim | Allied Capital Corp. | Aqua America Inc. |
| Abd-el-Kader | Allied Defense Group Inc. The | Aquamer Medical Corporation |
Figure 7.17 第 7.17 图
New York Times Topics list serves as an index to a very varied range of entities, and is only organized alphabetically (http://topics.nytimes.com). 纽约时报的主题列表是一个涵盖多种实体的索引，仅按字母顺序排列（http://topics.nytimes.com）。
helpful in the process of arriving at an appropriate taxonomy through focused interviews and card-sorting exercises, in which representative labels are placed on separate index cards or sticky notes and multiple subjects are separately asked to categorize them. However the arrangement is achieved, it must be tested against the existing items, the expectations of representative users, and against the designer’s best predictions of how the archive or website is likely to grow. 通过集中访谈和卡片分类练习，有助于形成合适的分类法。在这些练习中，代表性标签被放在单独的索引卡或便利贴上，多个受访者会被单独要求对这些标签进行分类。无论如何进行排列，都必须与现有项目、代表性用户的期望以及设计师对档案或网站未来发展的最佳预测进行验证。
In creating a hierarchical menu structure it is useful to remember the principle of the “Magical Number 7,” or more precisely the range of between five and nine items identified by cognitive scientist George Miller in 1956 as the limit of short-term 在创建层次菜单结构时，记住“神奇数字 7”的原则非常重要。更准确地说，认知科学家乔治·米勒在 1956 年指出，短期记忆的极限是五到九个项目
Figure 7.18 第 7.18 图
The Library of Congress offers top-level access to six distinct entry points offering “Resources for” Kids, Families, Librarians, Publishers, Researchers (this page), Teachers, Visitors. 国会图书馆为儿童、家庭、图书管理员、出版商、研究人员（此页面）、教师和访客提供六个不同入口的优质资源。
Figure 7.19 第 7.19 图
The expandable navigation bar of http://washtingtonpost.com allows a reader to browse and move directly to subtopics within the information tree from anywhere on the site. http://washtingtonpost.com 的可扩展导航栏使读者能够在网站的任何位置浏览并直接跳转到信息树中的子主题。
working memory (Miller 1956). Miller thought of memory as an information channel, and five-to-nine bits of information as the bandwidth of the channel. He noticed a range of experiments that supported a limit in this range for accurate memory or for perception. For example, human beings can easily recognize one to six dots on a single die face, but we need two dice with separate patterns to reliably distinguish numbers higher than six. Miller identified subgrouping, or chunking, as one of the key strategies for increasing human cognitive capacity. Telephone numbers reflect this constraint; in the United States they have nine digits, chunked into units of three and four digits for better memorizing. Miller also identified the recoding of information into fewer chunks with more information per chunk as one of the fundamental cognitive strategies by which we engage with the world; he identified language, narrative, and images as pervasive forms of recoding. Just as we build up complexity in a computer system by combining encapsulated processes and identifying abstract classes, we build up our conceptual complexity by chunking information into nested containers. 工作记忆（米勒 1956）。米勒将记忆视为信息通道，认为通道的带宽为五到九个信息位。他注意到一系列实验支持这一范围内的准确记忆或感知的限制。例如，人类可以轻松识别单个骰子面上的一到六个点，但要可靠地区分超过六的数字，我们需要两个有不同图案的骰子。米勒将子分组或块状化视为提高人类认知能力的关键策略之一。电话号码反映了这一限制；在美国，电话号码由九位数字组成，分为三位和四位的单元，以便更好地记忆。 米勒还指出，将信息重新编码为更少的块，每个块包含更多信息，是我们与世界互动的基本认知策略之一；他认为语言、叙事和图像是普遍存在的重新编码形式。就像我们通过组合封装的过程和识别抽象类来构建计算机系统的复杂性一样，我们通过将信息分块成嵌套容器来构建我们的概念复杂性。
Miller also pointed out that we can increase our cognitive and organizing capacity by adding another dimension to information, such as rhythm, rhyme, or color. By creating well-chunked lists and nested menus we make meaningful, logical divisions more memorable by wedding conceptual divisions to spatial features. Since navigation of a space adds the dimension of enactment to spatial organization, interactive environments can further reinforce our understanding of a domain, when chunking and navigation reflect well-formed categories arranged in coherent hierarchies. 米勒还指出，我们可以通过为信息添加另一个维度，比如节奏、韵律或颜色，来提升我们的认知和组织能力。通过创建结构清晰的列表和嵌套菜单，我们能够将概念划分与空间特征结合，从而使有意义的逻辑划分更容易记忆。由于空间导航为空间组织增添了实施的维度，当分块和导航反映出合理的类别并以连贯的层次结构排列时，互动环境可以进一步加深我们对某一领域的理解。
The “rule of 7” and the conventions for visually clustering and semantically chunking information provide powerful organizing strategies that can change an unwieldy list into a memorable, coherent set of choices. For example, if an application program menu or tool palette has more than nine choices, they should be sorted into meaningful subgroups and separated visually. Such chunking of menu choices is the equivalent of creating landmarks for spatial navigation, and adds to the learnability and transparency of the interface. But limiting items by number and dividing them into groups only works if the labels are meaningful, and the categories are distinct and memorable. “7 法则”以及视觉聚类和语义分块的信息惯例提供了强大的组织策略，可以将一个繁杂的列表转变为一个令人难忘且连贯的选择集。例如，如果一个应用程序的菜单或工具调色板中有超过九个选项，它们应该被分成有意义的子组，并进行视觉上的分隔。这种菜单选项的分块就像为空间导航创建地标一样，增强了界面的可学习性和透明度。然而，只有在标签有意义且类别清晰且易于记忆的情况下，通过数量限制项目并将其分组才有效。
Good information design hides information as well as revealing it. It does not list everything in alphabetical order at the same level. It nests information in meaningful hierarchies. The designer should attempt to create the most efficient abstraction of the domain, building up complexity by resting broader informational topics on a hierarchy of well-organized smaller ones, while remembering that in digital spaces, unlike physical library shelves, the same information can belong to multiple hierarchies. Wikipedia, for example, includes summary sections for more complex topics with hyperlinks that trace topics up and down the relevant hierarchies and also across the network to associated nodes (figure 7.20). Although some articles do a better job than others at presenting a topic or surveying a field, the structure as a whole encour- 优秀的信息设计既能隐藏信息，又能揭示信息。它不会将所有内容按字母顺序列出在同一层级，而是将信息嵌套在有意义的层次结构中。设计师应努力创建领域的最有效抽象，通过在良好组织的小主题的层次结构上构建更广泛的信息主题，从而增加复杂性。同时要记住，在数字空间中，与物理图书馆的书架不同，同一信息可以属于多个层次。例如，维基百科为更复杂的主题提供摘要部分，并通过超链接追踪相关层次上下的主题，同时也可以跨网络连接到相关节点（图 7.20）。尽管有些文章在呈现主题或调查领域方面表现得更好，但整体结构仍然鼓励-
Analytic philosophy 解析哲学
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 来自维基百科，自由的百科全书
(Rodirected from Analytical philosophy) （从分析哲学重定向而来）
Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, the overwhelming majority of university philosophy departments identify themselves as “analytic” departments. ^([1]2||3∣3]){ }^{[1] 2|| 3 \mid 3]} Analytic philosophy is sometimes understood in contrast to other philosophical movements, such as continental philosophy. Thomism, or Marxism. ^([2][4]){ }^{[2][4]} 分析哲学（有时称为分析性哲学）是一个广泛的术语，指的是在 20 世纪主导英语国家的一种哲学风格。在美国、英国、加拿大、斯堪的纳维亚、澳大利亚和新西兰，绝大多数大学的哲学系都自称为“分析性”系。分析哲学有时被理解为与其他哲学流派（如大陆哲学、汤姆主义或马克思主义）相对立。
The term “analytic philosophy” can refer to “分析哲学”这个术语可以指代
(a) a broad philosophical tradition ^([5][6]){ }^{[5][6]} characterized by an emphasis on clarity and argument (often achieved via modern formal logic and analysis of language) and a respect for the natural sciences, ^([7][8]){ }^{[7][8]} （a）一种广泛的哲学传统 ^([5][6]){ }^{[5][6]} ，其特点是强调清晰性和论证（通常通过现代形式逻辑和语言分析来实现），并对自然科学持尊重态度 ^([7][8]){ }^{[7][8]}
(b) the narrower set of developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the broad sense: e.g., the work of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G.E. Moore, Gottlob Frege, and the logical positivists. In this narrow sense, analytic philosophy is identified with specific philosophical commitments (many of which are rejected by contemporary analytic philosophers), such as: ^([9]){ }^{[9]} （b）20 世纪初哲学中较为狭义的发展，这些发展是广义的历史前提：例如，伯特兰·罗素、路德维希·维特根斯坦、G.E.摩尔、戈特洛布·弗雷格以及逻辑实证主义者的研究。在这个狭义的定义中，分析哲学与特定的哲学信念相联系（其中许多信念被当代分析哲学家所拒绝），例如： ^([9]){ }^{[9]}
the positivist view that there are no specifically philosophical truths and that the object of philosophy is 实证主义认为不存在特定的哲学真理，哲学的目的在于
the logical clarification of thoughts. This may be contrasted with the traditional foundationalism which views philosophy as a special sort of science-the highest one-which investigates the fundamental reasons and principles of everything. ^([10]){ }^{[10]} As a result, many analytic philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to, those of the natural sciences. ^([11]){ }^{[11]} 思维的逻辑澄清。这与传统的基础主义形成对比，后者将哲学视为一种特殊的科学——最高的科学——研究一切事物的基本原因和原则。 ^([10]){ }^{[10]} 因此，许多分析哲学家认为他们的研究与自然科学的研究是相互关联的，或者说是从属于自然科学的。 ^([11]){ }^{[11]}
the view that the logical clarification of thoughts can only be achieved by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions. ^([12]){ }^{[12]} The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it (often using the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical system) to display its similarity with all other propositions of the same type. However, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language. ^([13]){ }^{[13]} 逻辑澄清思想的观点认为，只有通过分析哲学命题的逻辑形式才能实现。 ^([12]){ }^{[12]} 命题的逻辑形式是一种表示方式（通常使用逻辑系统的形式语法和符号），用以展示其与同类其他命题的相似性。然而，分析哲学家们对普通语言的正确逻辑形式存在广泛的分歧。 ^([13]){ }^{[13]}
the rejection of sweeping philosophical systems in favour of close attention to detail, ^([14]){ }^{[14]} common sense, or ordinary language. ^([15]){ }^{[15]} 拒绝笼统的哲学体系，转而关注细节、常识和日常语言。
Contents [hide] 目录 [隐藏]
1 History 第一部分：历史
1.1 Origins: Frege, Russell and Whitehead 1.1 起源：弗雷格、拉塞尔与怀特海
1.2 Ideal language analysis 1.2 理想的语言分析
1.3 Logical positivism 1.3 逻辑实证主义理论
1.4 Ordinary language analysis 1.4 日常语言分析
1.5 1960 and beyond 1.5 1960 年及之后
2 Contemporary analytic philosophy 2 现代分析哲学
2.1 Philosophy of mind and cognitive science 心智哲学与认知科学
2.2 Ethics in analytic philosophy 2.2 分析哲学的伦理学
2.3 Analytic philosophy of religion 2.3 宗教的分析哲学理论
2.4 Political philosophy 2.4 政治哲学理论
2.4.1 Liberalism 2.4.1 自由主义理论
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Origins: Frege, Russell and Whitehead
1.2 Ideal language analysis
1.3 Logical positivism
1.4 Ordinary language analysis
1.5 1960 and beyond
2 Contemporary analytic philosophy
2.1 Philosophy of mind and cognitive science
2.2 Ethics in analytic philosophy
2.3 Analytic philosophy of religion
2.4 Political philosophy
2.4.1 Liberalism| Contents [hide] |
| :--- |
| 1 History |
| 1.1 Origins: Frege, Russell and Whitehead |
| 1.2 Ideal language analysis |
| 1.3 Logical positivism |
| 1.4 Ordinary language analysis |
| 1.5 1960 and beyond |
| 2 Contemporary analytic philosophy |
| 2.1 Philosophy of mind and cognitive science |
| 2.2 Ethics in analytic philosophy |
| 2.3 Analytic philosophy of religion |
| 2.4 Political philosophy |
| 2.4.1 Liberalism |
Figure 7.20 第 7.20 图
Wikipedia page on analytic philosophy provides a definition, and table of contents (partially seen here) as well as an introductory overview of the topic. Hyperlinks within the summary lead to related topics like Aristotle and subtopics like positivism. 维基百科关于分析哲学的页面提供了定义、部分可见的目录以及该主题的介绍概述。摘要中的超链接指向相关主题，如亚里士多德，以及实证主义等子主题。
ages good information organization by providing templates that chunk information into focused modules. 通过提供将信息分成专注模块的模板，良好的信息组织能够有效管理年龄相关的信息。
Information in digital form can be chunked, retrieved, and labeled with much more flexibility than information printed on pages and bound into books. Though the library model provides foundational principles and traditions for labeling, sorting, and collocating information, the methods of information architecture must be drawn from established and emerging digital models, as we will see in chapters 8 and 9. 数字信息可以比印刷在纸张上并装订成书的信息更灵活地进行分块、检索和标记。虽然图书馆模型为信息的标记、排序和聚合提供了基础原则和传统，但信息架构的方法必须借鉴已建立和新兴的数字模型，正如我们将在第 8 章和第 9 章中看到的那样。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: COLLOCATION IN THE EMERGING DIGITAL LIBRARY 设计探索：新兴数字图书馆中的词汇搭配
Using Knowledge Networks 利用知识网络
Create a collection of text files, video clips, audio clips, or all of these by your favorite author or performer. Identify each entry by a unique name and date. Where would you look to find reliable lists of their works? Where would you look to find reliable copies of their works? Who created the information resources you are consulting? What authority do they have for making the list? How would you check its accuracy? 创建一个您最喜欢的作者或表演者的文本文件、视频剪辑、音频剪辑或这些内容的集合。为每个条目指定一个独特的名称和日期。您会在哪里找到他们作品的可靠列表？您会在哪里找到他们作品的可靠副本？您咨询的信息资源是由谁创建的？他们在制作这个列表方面有什么权威？您将如何验证其准确性？
Choose a single information source such as an online catalog of a research library, the ACM Digital Library, Google Scholar, Google Books, or Wikipedia to answer this question: What do we mean by “boundary object” and what are the most important works in which it is discussed? Be sure to identify the first such work and the most recent. If you can, collect physical or electronic copies of the sources. Compare your results with those of other students. What sources are most reliable for this task? How many of them are necessary to collect copies of the original sources? 选择一个信息来源，例如研究图书馆的在线目录、ACM 数字图书馆、谷歌学术、谷歌图书或维基百科，来回答这个问题：“边界物体”是什么意思，以及讨论它的最重要的作品有哪些？请确保找出第一部和最新的相关作品。如果可能，收集这些来源的实体或电子副本。将你的结果与其他同学的结果进行比较。哪些来源对于这个任务最可靠？需要收集多少个原始来源的副本？
Becoming Aware of the Cultural Associations of Familiar Nomenclatures 了解熟悉名称背后的文化联想
Examine any list of names that has been applied to a new or rapidly expanding domain, such the earliest-founded colonies and cities of the United States, objects discovered in space, recently discovered species of plants or insects, rock bands, sports teams. What strategies have been used to come up with names for them? Could you write a computer program (or a procedure in pseudocode) that would generate names similar to existing ones? What do the choices of names suggest or reveal about the cultural context of the groups that chose them? 检查任何适用于新兴或快速扩展领域的名称列表，例如美国最早建立的殖民地和城市、在太空中发现的物体、最近发现的植物或昆虫物种、摇滚乐队和体育团队。为这些名称想出的策略是什么？你能否编写一个计算机程序（或伪代码）来生成与现有名称相似的名称？这些名称的选择对选择它们的群体的文化背景有什么启示或揭示？
In a cultural domain with which you are familiar, find examples of numbering schemes that have acquired cultural meaning beyond the arbitrary assignment of a unique identifier (for example: telephone exchanges, postal codes, sports Jersey numbers). 在你熟悉的文化领域中，找一些编号方案的例子，这些方案在文化上超越了单纯的唯一标识符（例如：电话区号、邮政编码、运动球衣号码）。
Compare three websites from similar information-oriented organizations such as three universities, three museums, or three government agencies. 比较三个类似的信息导向组织的网站，比如三所大学、三家博物馆或三家政府机构。
What are the top-level categories on each site? How do they reflect the priorities of each institution? Do they seem to reflect the interests or concerns of those who visit the sites? 每个网站的主要类别是什么？这些类别如何体现各个机构的优先事项？它们是否反映了访问者的兴趣或关注点？
Compare the organization of the three sites in performing a specific task. For example: how many levels do you have to click through on each of the university sites in order to find the current tuition rate? How easy is it to discover when spring break is going to fall this year? Where would you look to discover the level of support for women’s sports or which instructors will be teaching freshman English next year? 比较这三个网站在执行特定任务时的组织结构。例如：在每个大学网站上，您需要点击多少次才能找到当前的学费？您多容易能发现今年春假的时间？您会在哪里查找对女性体育的支持程度，或者明年教授新生英语的老师是谁？
Identify the elements on each site that convey the personality of the individual institution. Mock up the content of one of the institutions using the design elements and information organization of another institution. What connotations change when the presentation changes in this way? 确定每个网站上传达各个机构个性的元素。使用另一个机构的设计元素和信息组织来模拟其中一个机构的内容。当展示方式发生变化时，所传达的含义会有哪些变化？
Design a generic website for a university, museum, government agency, or other institution based on your analysis of existing sites. Make the top-level categories as specific and inclusive as possible. Can you sort all the second-level items from three existing sites into your categories? Are there items that fit in more than one category? 根据您对现有网站的分析，为大学、博物馆、政府机构或其他机构设计一个通用网站。请尽量将顶级类别设定得具体且全面。您能将三个现有网站的所有二级项目归类到您的类别中吗？是否有项目可以归入多个类别？
Create a classification system for a list of recorded music, using descriptive, distinct category labels and a consistent structure of subcategorization. 为一份录制音乐的列表建立分类系统，采用描述性和独特的类别标签，并保持一致的子分类结构。
Write down the ten most recently played songs on your music player (or choose them from a popular music site. Combine your list with the list of four other students for a total of forty diverse selections. 请列出你音乐播放器上最近播放的十首歌曲（或从一个流行的音乐网站选择）。然后将你的列表与其他四位同学的列表合并，总共形成四十个多样的选择。
Create a catalog format with fields that include the important information about each song. Put the information about each song on a separate index card (or electronic equivalent, such as a database record or spreadsheet file), so that you have forty consistently formatted cards. 创建一个目录格式，包含每首歌曲的重要信息。将每首歌曲的信息放在单独的索引卡（或电子等效物，如数据库记录或电子表格文件）上，以便您拥有四十张格式一致的卡片。
Using the information on the cards, or other categories that you invent for the task, sort the cards so that every song is in at least one category. Photograph or otherwise record your sort. 根据卡片上的信息或你为任务创造的其他类别，将卡片进行分类，确保每首歌至少属于一个类别。请拍照或以其他方式记录你的分类结果。
Compare your sort with those of others. How well does each sorting scheme do at collocating like items? 比较您的排序与他人的排序。每种排序方案在将相似项目归类时表现得如何？
Next, agree on a single list of categories. If necessary, allow a song to be listed in multiple categories. 接下来，确定一个统一的类别列表。如果需要，可以允许一首歌出现在多个类别中。
Add forty songs from another group of students or another online source (such as a “recently played” or “favorites” list). How does your schema have to change to accommodate these new entries? Do you have to add new top-level categories or just make existing ones deeper? Do you have to change the names of some of the categories to make clearer distinctions? 从另一组学生或其他在线来源（如“最近播放”或“最爱”列表）添加四十首歌曲。您的架构需要如何调整以适应这些新条目？您需要添加新的顶级类别，还是只需深化现有类别？您是否需要更改某些类别的名称以使区分更加清晰？
Ask people who did not participate in the sort but who are familiar with some of the songs to look them up in your categories. Did they find them where they expected them to be? 请让那些没有参与排序但对某些歌曲熟悉的人在你的分类中查找这些歌曲。他们是否在预期的地方找到了它们？
Do your categories work as a classification schema? Justify your answer, remembering that the categories should be recognizable and distinct, and applied consistently; they should create a fairly symmetrical hierarchy and provide complete coverage of the domain. What practices made it harder or easier to create a suitably descriptive classification scheme? 你的分类是否能作为有效的分类方案？请说明理由，记住这些分类应该是可识别且独特的，并且要一致地应用；它们应形成一个相对对称的层次结构，并全面覆盖该领域。哪些实践使得创建一个合适的描述性分类方案变得更容易或更困难？
Creating Labels for Knowledge Navigation 为知识导航创建标签
Navigation of a well-labeled information resource should give a reasonable overview of the information domain. There were originally only three Internet top-level domains: .net, .com, and .org. Without looking up the actual current categories and without using the web, write down all of the current top-level domains that you are aware of. 一个标记清晰的信息资源的导航应该能合理概述该信息领域。最初只有三个互联网顶级域名：.net、.com 和 .org。在不查找实际的当前类别和不使用网络的情况下，请写下你所知道的所有当前顶级域名。
What other domains can you think of that should exist? 你能想到哪些其他应该存在的领域吗？
Can you group these domains into groups or into a logical hierarchy? 你能将这些领域分组或整理成一个逻辑层次吗？
If you were to redesign the domain nomenclature from scratch, what labels would you use? 如果你要从头开始重新设计领域的命名，你会使用哪些标签？
Create a top-level classification scheme for five to nine topics pertaining to poorly sorted information. Take at least thirty items chosen from a larger list of descriptive labels, such as the web portal topics shown (in part) for AOL or Yahoo (figures 7.14,7.15)7.14,7.15). 为五到九个与信息分类不当相关的主题创建一个顶级分类方案。从更大的描述性标签列表中选择至少三十个项目，例如 AOL 或 Yahoo（部分）展示的网页门户主题（图 7.14,7.15)7.14,7.15) ）。
Sort your list to find resemblances among items. 对列表进行排序，以便发现项目之间的相似性。
Create a set of top-level categories that is at least three and no more than nine items long. Place all thirty items in one of these top-level categories. 创建一个包含至少三个、最多九个项目的顶级类别集合，并将所有三十个项目归入这些顶级类别中的一个。
Determine if your items are symmetrically sorted. If not, would the categories be more symmetrical if you added more items from the original list? Adjust your categories so that you have confidence that each one will be filled and nothing in the master list will be left out. 确定您的项目是否对称排序。如果没有，添加更多原始列表中的项目后，类别是否会更加对称？调整您的类别，以确保每个类别都能被填满，主列表中的内容不会被遗漏。
Start with the category with the most items and create subcategories, placing no more than nine subcategories under each of the top-level categories. 从项目数量最多的类别开始，创建子类别，每个顶级类别下不超过九个子类别。
Repeat until there are no more than ten items in any subcategory at the bottom of the tree, and no subcategory is empty. 重复操作，直到每个子类别的项目不超过十个，并且没有子类别为空。
Examine all your labels. Are they all the same part of speech (noun, verb, adjective)? Are the labels at the same level similar to one another? Is each label name used only once in the organizational structure? 检查所有标签。它们都是同一种词性（名词、动词、形容词）吗？这些标签在同一层级上是否相似？每个标签名称在组织结构中是否只出现一次？
Choose another thirty items and attempt to sort them into your categories. Change your categories as necessary to accommodate them. Are there some items that should be listed under multiple headings? 选择另外三十个项目，并尝试将它们归入您的分类中。根据需要调整分类以适应这些项目。有些项目是否应该在多个类别下列出？
Test your schema by making a collapsible menu and inviting other students to find items located at the lowest level. Do they go down the correct tree the first time? If not, how would you change your navigational labels to make the right path more apparent? 通过创建一个可折叠的菜单来测试你的架构，并邀请其他学生寻找位于最底层的项目。他们第一次能否正确找到路径？如果不能，你会如何调整导航标签，使正确的路径更加明显？
IV DESIGNING ENCYCLOPEDIC RESOURCES IV 设计百科全书资源指南
The main goal of information design is to increase the scope and organization of our shared focus on information: to give more people greater control over a wider range and a finer level of detail within any area of human knowledge. 信息设计的主要目标是扩大我们对信息的共同关注范围和组织结构：让更多的人能够在更广泛的领域和更细致的层面上掌控人类知识。
Good information design should emulate a well-designed database in segmenting information into semantic units so that meaningful chunks can be accessed at multiple levels of granularity and aggregated in multiple templates. Sorting and segmenting information into the tables of a database requires making the similarities and differences among items more apparent, producing new knowledge and fresh insights into familiar domains. Well-segmented information is multisequential, providing multiple coherent paths through the information space. 优秀的信息设计应当像一个精心设计的数据库一样，将信息划分为语义单元，以便在多个层次上访问有意义的内容，并在不同的模板中进行整合。将信息排序和划分到数据库表中，需要使项目之间的相似性和差异性更加明显，从而产生新的知识和对熟悉领域的新见解。良好划分的信息是多序列的，提供了多条连贯的路径，帮助我们在信息空间中导航。
Large databases pose an important problem for information designers, who must give the interactor agency by providing an overview, zoom, filter, and details on demands (Shneiderman 1992a). 大型数据库给信息设计师带来了一个重要挑战，他们需要通过提供概览、缩放、过滤和详细信息来赋予用户更多的控制权（Shneiderman 1992a）。
Humanist designers should be aware that no information organization can eliminate the ambiguity of the actual world of human experience, and they should look for opportunities to create boundary objects that can unite disparate user groups in common schemas of representation. 人文设计师应意识到，任何信息组织都无法消除人类经验实际世界中的模糊性，他们应寻找机会创造边界对象，以将不同的用户群体团结在共同的表达模式中。
Good information design should take advantage of the standards and conventions of networked structured documents, including tagging content with meaningful metadata so that it can be shared with a coordinated group of distributed knowledge workers and be made available for automated processes. In particular, designers should familiarize themselves with the emerging standards associated with the long-term efforts to create a Semantic Web and should look for appropriate opportunities to make use of XML, document schemas, and ontologies to create robust information resources that can be shared across applications and read by machines as well as humans. 良好的信息设计应充分利用网络结构化文档的标准和惯例，包括使用有意义的元数据对内容进行标记，以便与协调的分布式知识工作者共享，并为自动化流程提供支持。特别是，设计师应熟悉与创建语义网相关的新兴标准，并寻找合适的机会使用 XML、文档模式和本体，创建可以在不同应用程序之间共享并被机器和人类读取的强大信息资源。
Humanist designers should also recognize the trade-offs in imposing standardized vocabularies and models, and the importance of creating systems that are open to multiple viewpoints and changing configurations of knowledge. 人文设计师还应意识到在强制使用标准化词汇和模型时所面临的权衡，以及创建能够容纳多种观点和知识动态变化的系统的重要性。
8 The Database Model: Strategies for Segmentation and Juxtaposition of Information 8 数据库模型：信息分段与并置的策略
Abstract 概要
From the single image that represents the “cultural unit” of a previous period, we move to a database of images. 从代表前一个时期“文化单位”的单一图像开始，我们转向一个图像数据库。
—Lev Manovich (2001) —列夫·曼诺维奇（2001 年）
Semantic Segmentation 语义分割技术
Finding information is not just a matter of appropriate and unambiguous labeling: it is also important to attach labels at the appropriate level of granularity. It is not helpful if a 1,000-page history of World War II is labeled as containing information about Franklin D. Roosevelt unless there is an index to indicate on what pages he is mentioned. In a conventional library, the cataloger is only concerned with book-sized items, and leaves the creation of the index, if any, to the publisher of each individual book. In an open networked resource like the World Wide Web, the indexing and cataloging tasks are greatly magnified, with information associated with individual pages and parts of pages rather than with a site as a whole. Similarly, the growth of time-based digital media such as audio and video files has increased the desire for access at finer granularity than the complete program or the whole album or even an entire song. We want to point to a particular frame or musical phrase, and we want to find it quickly. The key task for the designer is to provide access to semantically segmented information, to information that is chunked into meaningful units. 查找信息不仅仅是适当和明确标记的问题，附加标签的粒度水平同样重要。如果一本关于第二次世界大战的 1000 页历史书被标记为包含富兰克林·D·罗斯福的信息，但没有索引指明他在哪些页面被提及，那就没有意义。在传统图书馆中，编目者只关注书本大小的项目，而将索引的创建（如果有的话）留给每本书的出版商。在像万维网这样的开放网络资源中，索引和编目任务变得更加复杂，信息与单独的页面及其部分相关联，而不是与整个网站相关联。 同样，基于时间的数字媒体（如音频和视频文件）的增长使人们渴望以比完整节目、整张专辑或整首歌曲更细致的方式进行访问。我们希望能够快速定位到特定的画面或音乐片段。设计师的关键任务是提供对语义上分段信息的访问，将信息划分为有意义的单元。
A semantic unit of information can be a word, a sentence, a paragraph, a chapter; it can be an image or part of an image; or it can be a combination of words and images, like an illustration with a caption attached. Semantic segmentation can take the form of hierarchies of nested units from the smallest to largest granularity (word, sentence, paragraph, chapter) or it can include overlapping chunks (like dialog and shot divisions in a film). In the digital medium we do not have to choose a single method of segmentation. We can employ multiple methods and use them separately or together. Legacy media provide a wide range of segmentation conventions, most of 信息的语义单元可以是一个词、一个句子、一个段落或一个章节；也可以是一个图像或图像的一部分；或者是词与图像的组合，例如带有说明的插图。语义分割可以表现为从最小到最大粒度的嵌套单元层次结构（如词、句子、段落、章节），也可以包括重叠的部分（例如电影中的对话和镜头划分）。在数字媒介中，我们不必选择单一的分割方法，而是可以采用多种方法，单独或结合使用。传统媒体提供了多种分割惯例，大多数
which reflect the constraints and affordances of predigital inscription materials and transmission technologies. When we decide which segmentation conventions to employ for digital archives, we should be guided by the principle of retaining information. Legacy segmentation conventions based on physical format that also have semantic value include: 反映了数字前铭刻材料和传输技术的限制与优势。当我们决定为数字档案采用哪些分段规范时，应遵循保留信息的原则。基于物理格式且具有语义价值的传统分段规范包括：
A single shot in a film 电影中的一个镜头
A paragraph in an essay or narrative 论文或叙述中的一段文字
A single slide in a PowerPoint presentation PowerPoint 演示文稿中的一张幻灯片
A scene in a play 一幕戏剧场景
A headline in a news story 新闻报道的标题
Physical segmentation conventions that do not have intrinsic semantic value include: 不具备内在语义价值的物理分割规范包括：
Page numbers in a book or magazine 书籍或杂志的页码
Time code in an audio or video clip 音频或视频剪辑中的时间码
Floor numbers in an open stack library collection 开放式书库的楼层编号
Physical segmentation can be useful for referencing the original legacy artifact, however, and sometimes physical placement carries important cultural meaning. For example, it makes a difference if a newspaper story is on page one, and even where on page one it is placed (above the fold and to the right makes it more important than lower and to the left). The page numbers for a magazine or journal article, however, are usually without semantic value. Physical segmentation information can serve as an indication of duration or extent. In a unisequential (linear) medium it is useful to know that we are on page 255 of a 450-page book or thirty minutes into a ninety-minute film. But multisequential artifacts may need other kinds of duration conventions, such as lists of all the linked pages in a hypertext space, color-coded to indicate which ones have been previously visited. In translating materials from legacy formats, it is important not to lose any vital information associated with segmentation, such as page numbers of a rare book, but not to be limited to the original segmentation scheme in presenting the digital version. 物理分段在引用原始遗留文物时可能很有用，但有时物理位置承载着重要的文化意义。例如，报纸上的故事如果在第一页，甚至在第一页的具体位置（如在折叠上方的右侧比在下方的左侧更显重要）就会有所不同。然而，杂志或期刊文章的页码通常没有太大的语义价值。物理分段信息可以指示持续时间或范围。在单序列（线性）媒介中，知道我们在一本 450 页的书的第 255 页，或在一部 90 分钟的电影中已经观看了 30 分钟是非常有用的。 但是，多序列文物可能需要其他类型的持续时间约定，例如在超文本空间中列出所有链接页面，并使用颜色编码来指示哪些页面已被访问。在翻译遗留格式的材料时，重要的是不要丢失与分段相关的任何关键信息，例如稀有书籍的页码，但在呈现数字版本时不应局限于原有的分段方案。
Chunking of information is not just a matter of dividing up pies, it also involves recoding, by nesting information in larger and larger containers, like Russian dolls that nest inside one another. We routinely use encapsulation as a cognitive strategy, grouping things into larger categories without enumerating the contents, as a way of building up larger knowledge units. For example, it is easier to remember the group [Victorian novelists] and then the individual members of that group and then the individual names of each of their novels than it is to try to remember an unordered list of individual Victorian novels. Similarly, when we design information archives we should look for ways to segment complex information and encapsulate it in 信息的分块不仅仅是将信息简单地分开，它还涉及到重新编码，通过将信息嵌套在越来越大的容器中，就像俄罗斯套娃一样相互嵌套。我们通常使用封装作为一种认知策略，将事物归类为更大的类别，而不逐一列举内容，以此来构建更大的知识单元。例如，记住“维多利亚小说家”这个群体，然后是该群体的个体成员，再到他们每本小说的名称，比试图记住一份无序的维多利亚小说列表要容易得多。同样，当我们设计信息档案时，我们应该寻找方法来分割复杂信息并将其进行封装。
hierarchies in order to be able to process and retrieve it more easily and at different levels of granularity. 为了更方便地处理和检索层次结构，并在不同的细节层次上进行操作。
Granularity of segments is an important design decision, and in general we should provide access to information at multiple granularities. The smaller the granularity, the more precise the control we can exercise over the information. Expert users generally need very fine granularity of access. In watching a film, the home viewer may be content with divisions into perhaps twenty DVD “chapters,” but a cinephile may want access to one of the 200 scenes or the 1,000 shots that make up the movie. Even among expert users, different purposes dictate different segmentation schemas. For a Shakespeare play, for example, scholars may need to annotate and retrieve chunks by line number, by phrase, by word, but actors may see the play as divided by character entrances and exits or by dramatic beat. It is part of the designer’s analysis to understand how users currently access information and also how they would prefer to access it if offered greater flexibility. Providing access at multiple levels of granularity allows the user to choose how best to retrieve and display the material. 段落的粒度是一个重要的设计决策，通常我们应该提供多种粒度的信息访问。粒度越小，我们对信息的控制就越精确。专家用户通常需要非常细致的访问粒度。在观看电影时，家庭观众可能对大约二十个 DVD“章节”的划分感到满意，但电影爱好者可能希望访问构成电影的 200 个场景或 1000 个镜头中的某一个。即使在专家用户中，不同的目的也会导致不同的分段方案。例如，对于莎士比亚的戏剧，学者们可能需要按行号、短语或单词来注释和检索片段，而演员则可能根据角色的出入或戏剧节拍来划分戏剧。 设计师分析的一部分是了解用户当前如何获取信息，以及如果提供更多灵活性，他们希望如何获取信息。提供多层次的访问方式让用户能够选择最适合他们的方式来检索和展示材料。
In a multimedia digital archive, segmentation issues often arise in connecting related objects in different media formats. If semantic metadata has been attached to the information at the appropriate granularity the interactor will be able to collocate the relevant chunks without scrolling through irrelevant text or swiping through irrelevant video. If a science program or news show deals with multiple subjects, we want to be able to find only the segment we need without browsing through an entire show. If there are portraits of famous people in a collection of images we want to be able to search on a single person’s name and find only that person’s portraits rather than the whole set. When we are labeling a segment for browsing we should remember that the goal is to provide intellectual access-retrieval by subject labels. It is much more useful to know that a particular artifact refers to the Szechuan region of China, than to know whether it is a video segment, a jpg map, or a text file. 在多媒体数字档案中，连接不同媒体格式的相关对象时，常常会出现分割问题。如果在适当的粒度上附加了语义元数据，用户就能在不需要滚动无关文本或滑动无关视频的情况下，快速找到相关片段。如果一个科学节目或新闻节目涉及多个主题，我们希望能够仅找到所需的片段，而无需浏览整个节目。如果在一组图像中有名人的肖像，我们希望能够通过输入某个人的名字进行搜索，只找到该人的肖像，而不是整个集合。 当我们为浏览标记一个段落时，应该记住我们的目标是通过主题标签提供知识的访问和检索。知道某个特定文物与中国四川地区相关，比知道它是视频片段、jpg 地图还是文本文件要有用得多。
Just as segmentation and precision of retrieval is important, it is equally important that each segment preserve the context of the whole. We may not want to be distracted by multiple segments of a science show or multiple news stories when we are looking up a particular topic, but we want to be able to take advantage of the collocations in the original presentation environment, of the context in which the segment of information was conveyed. We should therefore be able to trace our way back to the larger information unit from any segmented piece of it. This is as true of a song within an album, a paragraph within an essay, an article within a newspaper, as it is of a shot within a scene, or a single scene within a film. 正如分段和检索的准确性很重要，每个段落保持整体上下文同样重要。当我们查找特定主题时，不希望被科学节目或多个新闻故事的片段分散注意力，但我们希望能够利用原始展示环境中的搭配，以及信息传达的上下文。因此，我们应该能够从任何分段的信息追溯到更大的信息单元。这同样适用于专辑中的一首歌、论文中的一段、报纸中的一篇文章，以及场景中的一个镜头或电影中的一个场景。
The model for the arrangement of segmented information in multiple views within the digital medium is the database. Data is information that has been structured in a standardized way that allows for machine processing. A database is an information structure that is made up of individual records, all segmented, labeled, and formatted 在数字媒介中，分段信息在多个视图中的排列模型是数据库。数据是以标准化方式组织的信息，便于机器处理。数据库是一种信息结构，由单个记录组成，所有记录都经过分段、标记和格式化。
in the same way. The separate segments of a database record are called fields. Records and fields are semantic segments-they correspond to meaningful chunks of information. The content of the fields of a record in a database is information that has been structured into separate attributes and values. For example, the attribute of the “Street Name” field in a database of Contacts might have the value of “Main Street” in one record and “Peachtree Street” in another. When we make a database we describe a group of like items in terms of shared attributes with varying values: shirts of different sizes and colors, students with different courses and grades. 以相同的方式，数据库记录的各个部分称为字段。记录和字段是语义上的分段，它们对应于有意义的信息块。数据库中记录字段的内容是经过结构化的单独属性和值的信息。例如，联系人数据库中“街道名称”字段的属性在一条记录中可能是“主街”，而在另一条记录中则是“桃树街”。当我们创建数据库时，我们根据共享属性和不同的值来描述一组相似的项目，比如不同尺寸和颜色的衬衫，或不同课程和成绩的学生。
The conceptual basis of the database is the table of information in which columns represent fields and rows represent records. There are three kinds of databases: 数据库的概念基础是信息表，列表示字段，行表示记录。数据库主要有三种类型：
A flat file database is structured as a single table in vertical columns of categories and horizontal rows of instances. It is called a “flat file” because the entire structure can be represented by these two dimensions. We could represent the whole of any flat file database on a single linear sheet of paper, though it might be very wide and very long. Each horizontal row is a separate “record” and each record contains “fields.” When the records lie one underneath the other the fields line up in columns. 扁平文件数据库的结构是一个由类别的垂直列和实例的水平行组成的单一表格。之所以称为“扁平文件”，是因为整个结构可以用这两个维度来表示。我们可以在一张线性的纸上展示任何扁平文件数据库，尽管它可能非常宽且很长。每一行水平行代表一个独立的“记录”，而每个记录包含多个“字段”。当记录一行在另一行下面时，字段会在列中对齐。
For example, here is a flat file representation for the Three Bears household: 例如，这里是三只熊家庭的扁平文件表示：
Table 8.1 表格 8.1
The Three Bears and Their Possessions 三只熊及其拥有的物品
Character 人物
Porridge 稀饭
Chair 椅子
Bed 床铺
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
Hot 热情
Big 巨大
Hard 难
Mama Bear 熊妈妈
Cold 寒冷
Medium 中等水平
Soft 柔软
Baby Bear 小熊宝宝
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Character Porridge Chair Bed
Papa Bear Hot Big Hard
Mama Bear Cold Medium Soft
Baby Bear Medium Small Medium| Character | Porridge | Chair | Bed |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Papa Bear | Hot | Big | Hard |
| Mama Bear | Cold | Medium | Soft |
| Baby Bear | Medium | Small | Medium |
Each bear’s preferences in porridge, chairs, and beds, as detailed in the familiar fairy tale, are laid out for comparison. We can take in the salient information very quickly in this format, allowing us to focus our attention and share the information much more efficiently than we could do in spoken or written sentences. In fact, if we add one more character, we can plainly see the pattern of similarity that forms a repeated motif in the story: 每只熊在粥、椅子和床上的偏好，如同熟悉的童话中所详细描述的，已被列出以供比较。通过这种格式，我们能够迅速获取关键信息，从而更有效地集中注意力并分享信息，而不是用口头或书面句子表达。实际上，如果我们再添加一个字符，就能清晰地看到故事中形成的相似模式，这是一种重复的主题：
Table 8.2 表格 8.2
The Four Characters in Relationship to the Bears’ Possessions 与熊的财产相关的四个角色分析
Character 人物
Porridge 稀饭
Chairs 椅子们
Beds 床铺
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
Hot 热情
Big 巨大
Hard 难
Mama Bear 熊妈妈
Cold 寒冷
Medium 中等水平
Soft 柔软
Baby Bear 小熊宝宝
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Goldilocks 金发姑娘
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Character Porridge Chairs Beds
Papa Bear Hot Big Hard
Mama Bear Cold Medium Soft
Baby Bear Medium Small Medium
Goldilocks Medium Small Medium| Character | Porridge | Chairs | Beds |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Papa Bear | Hot | Big | Hard |
| Mama Bear | Cold | Medium | Soft |
| Baby Bear | Medium | Small | Medium |
| Goldilocks | Medium | Small | Medium |
But we can see that the underlying conceptual abstraction has lost clarity now. The distinction between bears and humans is crucial to the plot, so it should be another attribute/value-another column-in our representation of the world of the story, and our labels have to change accordingly: 但我们可以看到，潜在的概念抽象现在已经不再清晰。熊和人类之间的区别对情节至关重要，因此这应该是我们故事世界表现中的另一个属性/值——另一个列，而我们的标签也必须相应地进行调整：
Table 8.3 表格 8.3
The Four Characters Differentiated by Species 按物种区分的四种角色
Character 人物
Species 生物种类
Porridge 稀饭
Chair 椅子
Bed 床铺
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
Bear 熊类
Hot 热情
Big 巨大
Hard 难
Mama Bear 熊妈妈
Bear 熊类
Cold 寒冷
Medium 中等水平
Soft 柔软
Baby Bear 小熊宝宝
Bear 熊类
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Goldilocks 金发姑娘
Human 人类的
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Character Species Porridge Chair Bed
Papa Bear Bear Hot Big Hard
Mama Bear Bear Cold Medium Soft
Baby Bear Bear Medium Small Medium
Goldilocks Human Medium Small Medium| Character | Species | Porridge | Chair | Bed |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Papa Bear | Bear | Hot | Big | Hard |
| Mama Bear | Bear | Cold | Medium | Soft |
| Baby Bear | Bear | Medium | Small | Medium |
| Goldilocks | Human | Medium | Small | Medium |
There is another important distinction that we have not yet captured in our abstract representation of the story world. The porridge, chair, and bed attributes in the bears’ records represent actual porridge, chairs, and beds that belong to them. For Goldilocks, it represents only what she would prefer. Therefore, we could split the Porridge, Chair, and Bed columns into two columns, for ownership and preference: 我们在故事世界的抽象表现中尚未捕捉到的另一个重要区别是：熊的记录中的粥、椅子和床属性代表他们实际拥有的粥、椅子和床，而对于金发姑娘来说，这仅仅代表她的偏好。因此，我们可以将“粥”、“椅子”和“床”这几列分成两列，分别表示所有权和偏好：
Table 8.4 表格 8.4
Ownership Differentiated from Preference 所有权与偏好之间的区别
Character 人物
Species 生物种类
拥有的粥
Owns
Porridge
Owns
Porridge| Owns |
| :--- |
| Porridge |
更喜欢吃粥
Prefers
Porridge
Prefers
Porridge| Prefers |
| :--- |
| Porridge |
拥有一把椅子
Owns
Chair
Owns
Chair| Owns |
| :--- |
| Chair |
更喜欢椅子
Prefers
Chair
Prefers
Chair| Prefers |
| :--- |
| Chair |
拥有一张床
Owns
Bed
Owns
Bed| Owns |
| :--- |
| Bed |
更喜欢床
Prefers
Bed
Prefers
Bed| Prefers |
| :--- |
| Bed |
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
Bear 熊类
Hot 热情
Big 巨大
Hard 难
Mama Bear 熊妈妈
Bear 熊类
Cold 寒冷
Medium 中等水平
Soft 柔软
Baby Bear 小熊宝宝
Bear 熊类
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Goldilocks 金发姑娘
Human 人类的
Medium 中等水平
Small 小型
Medium 中等水平
Character Species "Owns
Porridge" "Prefers
Porridge" "Owns
Chair" "Prefers
Chair" "Owns
Bed" "Prefers
Bed"
Papa Bear Bear Hot Big Hard
Mama Bear Bear Cold Medium Soft
Baby Bear Bear Medium Small Medium
Goldilocks Human Medium Small Medium| Character | Species | Owns <br> Porridge | Prefers <br> Porridge | Owns <br> Chair | Prefers <br> Chair | Owns <br> Bed | Prefers <br> Bed |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Papa Bear | Bear | Hot | | Big | | Hard | |
| Mama Bear | Bear | Cold | | Medium | | Soft | |
| Baby Bear | Bear | Medium | | Small | | Medium | |
| Goldilocks | Human | | Medium | | Small | | Medium |
Displaying the information this way makes clear that the characters are not described symmetrically. We could infer that the Mama Bear likes her chair medium, but does she really like her porridge cold? Maybe it is cold because she was busy serving others and did not get to eat hers when it was hot. Maybe her bed is soft because it is an older one than Papa Bear’s. Also, what is Goldilocks’s home life like? Does it feature hot porridge and soft beds? And where do we record what Goldilocks was up to in that house? Putting information into tabular form makes symmetrical comparisons immediately graspable (such as whose chair, porridge, and bed Goldilocks will want), makes clear some gaps in our knowledge (like what Goldilocks’ own bed is like), and obscures other information completely (like what Goldilocks was doing in the cottage). Although I have chosen a whimsical example, the issues that it raises are common to the tabular abstraction of any domain. 以这种方式展示信息清楚地表明角色的描述并不对称。我们可以推测妈妈熊喜欢她的椅子是中等的，但她真的喜欢冷粥吗？也许粥是冷的，因为她忙着照顾别人，没能在热的时候吃到自己的。也许她的床很软，因为它比爸爸熊的床要旧。此外，金发姑娘的家庭生活是怎样的？那里有热粥和软床吗？我们又该如何记录金发姑娘在那所房子里的所作所为呢？ 将信息以表格形式呈现，使对称比较变得易于理解（例如，金发姑娘会选择哪个椅子、粥和床），清晰地显示出我们知识中的一些空白（比如金发姑娘自己的床是什么样的），同时完全模糊其他信息（例如金发姑娘在小屋里做了什么）。虽然我选择了一个异想天开的例子，但它所引发的问题在任何领域的表格抽象中都是普遍存在的。
Ordinarily the kinds of information we think of as populating a database are already symmetrical and abstracted into easily identifiable categories. For example, an address book is one of the most widespread forms of databases. It inherits several longstanding systems of organization, such as assigning first and last names to individuals, assigning names to streets and numbers to buildings within streets, assigning names to cities, states, and countries, and assigning unique numerical identifiers in the form of ZIP codes, area codes, telephone numbers. Without these labels, nomenclatures, and taxonomies we could not point to one another with any degree of reliability. Because these labeling systems had already been conventionalized into the standard print genres of address and phone books, they were easily translated into digital form (figure 8.1). 通常，我们认为填充数据库的信息种类是对称的，并且被抽象为易于识别的类别。例如，地址簿是最常见的数据库形式之一。它继承了几种长期存在的组织系统，比如将名字和姓氏分配给个人，为街道命名并为街道上的建筑分配号码，为城市、州和国家命名，以及以邮政编码、区号和电话号码的形式分配唯一的数字标识符。没有这些标签、命名法和分类法，我们无法以任何可靠的方式相互指认。 由于这些标签系统已经被规范化为地址和电话簿的标准印刷格式，因此它们可以轻松地转换为数字形式（图 8.1）。
Figure 8.1 图 8.1
Flat file database: An entry from the Palm system Address book with separate fields for First Name, Last Name, Prefix, Nickname, and Title. 平面文件数据库：来自 Palm 系统地址簿的条目，包含单独的字段用于名、姓、前缀、昵称和职称。
Flat file databases include some information that has to be entered separately for each record (such as a person’s name) and some that is drawn from a limited set of possibilities (such as U.S. states). Both of these kinds of fields are attribute/value fields, but for states we can create a value list that makes it harder for the person entering the data to mistype or to create an entry the machine will find ambiguous, like NewY instead of the standardized NY for New York. Fields can constrain the format of entered data; a name field can accept letters and not numbers; a ZIP code field will only accept five or nine numbers. These constraints make the data less ambiguous for the machine by limiting the expressiveness of the individual. I might prefer writing NYC for friends who live in New York, leaving out the state and emphasizing the city where I grew up, but the computer can’t rely on contextual knowledge (like knowing what state NYC is in). Making a database often involves making contextual knowledge explicit, since context is based on human embodied experience and cannot be inferred by machines. 平面文件数据库包含一些需要为每条记录单独输入的信息（例如一个人的名字），以及一些从有限选项中选择的信息（例如美国各州）。这两种字段都是属性/值字段，但对于州，我们可以创建一个值列表，这样输入数据的人就更难输入错误，或者创建机器会认为模糊的条目，比如用 NewY 代替标准化的 NY 代表纽约。字段可以限制输入数据的格式；名字字段可以接受字母而不接受数字；邮政编码字段只接受五位或九位数字。这些约束通过限制个体的表达能力，使得数据对机器来说更加明确。 我可能更喜欢为住在纽约的朋友写“纽约”，省略州名，以强调我成长的城市，但计算机无法依赖上下文知识（例如，知道纽约州的位置）。建立数据库通常需要将上下文知识明确化，因为上下文是基于人类的具体经验，机器无法推断。
Semantic segmentation is crucial to the usefulness of a database schema. Designers must separate composite information like a phone number, address, or date into separate, explicitly labeled parts (area code and local number, city and state, month, date, year). The finer grained an information structure, the more powerful it will be for accessing information. In a well-segmented contact list we can find the person whose name we don’t remember whom we met at a conference three months ago, and who works for CNN. Or we can aggregate the information, collocating the records of all the people we know in Seattle, or all the ones who are employed by Microsoft, no matter where they work. The more standardized the information fields, the easier it is to automate fine-grained information collection, as with a business card reader that recognizes name, title, address, and email fields. 语义分割对数据库模式的实用性至关重要。设计师需要将复合信息（如电话号码、地址或日期）拆分为单独的、明确标记的部分（例如区号和本地号码、城市和州、月份、日期、年份）。信息结构越细致，获取信息的能力就越强。在一个良好分割的联系人列表中，我们可以找到那个我们不记得名字的人，他是三个月前在会议上见到的，并且在 CNN 工作。或者我们可以将信息聚合，将我们在西雅图认识的所有人的记录，或者所有在微软工作的人，无论他们的工作地点如何，集中在一起。 信息字段越标准化，自动化收集细致信息就越简单，就像一个能够识别姓名、职位、地址和电子邮件字段的名片阅读器一样。
Unlike paper index cards or handwritten tables of information, electronic databases allow us to search and process the data. Databases can distinguish between letters and numbers, alphabetizing a column of names or adding up a column of figures. A spreadsheet, such as is produced in a software package like Excel, is a specialized kind of database that can store formulas in its fields as well as numbers and letters. When we look at the specialized flat file known as a spreadsheet we think not of records and fields but of cells arranged in rows and columns that can contain mathematical formulae, allowing them to perform operations such as totaling the figures above or to the left or figuring percentages of figures elsewhere. Each cell of the spreadsheet has a unique label created by combining its row number and column letter. By writing the formulas with abstract cell labels we make them into variables. Changing the number in one cell changes the calculated value in other cells. A spreadsheet can therefore offer a parameterized environment, allowing the user to explore different strategies and possibilities. 与纸质索引卡或手写信息表不同，电子数据库使我们能够搜索和处理数据。数据库能够区分字母和数字，可以对姓名列进行字母排序，或对数字列进行求和。电子表格，例如在 Excel 等软件中生成的，是一种特殊类型的数据库，能够在其字段中存储公式、数字和字母。当我们查看这种被称为电子表格的特殊平面文件时，我们想到的不是记录和字段，而是排列在行和列中的单元格，这些单元格可以包含数学公式，从而允许它们执行如对上方或左侧数字求和，或计算其他地方数字的百分比等操作。 每个电子表格的单元格都有一个独特的标签，这个标签是通过将行号和列字母组合而成的。通过使用抽象的单元格标签编写公式，我们将这些标签变成了变量。更改一个单元格中的数字会影响其他单元格的计算结果。因此，电子表格可以提供一个参数化的环境，让用户探索不同的策略和可能性。
Flat files can also contain specialized fields that act as containers that store or point to external documents or temporal media files or segments. Video and film logs are 平面文件还可以包含一些专门的字段，这些字段作为容器，用于存储或指向外部文档、临时媒体文件或片段。视频和电影日志是
used by the producers of television news shows and feature-length movies to keep track of all the footage they shoot, which may amount to thirty to a hundred times as much material as will actually reach the screen. TV news shows are frequently called upon to find archival footage to give context to a breaking news story. In the predigital framework, the film or video footage is offline on a reel or a tape kept on an indexed shelf, and the database refers to it with a pointer to the reel or tape number and time code for the segment. In filmmaking, a placard is inserted into the recording stream to identify every shot by scene, shot, date, and take number. Digital workstations are now the norm for postproduction of television and movies, and are increasingly used for production and delivery, which means that semantic segmentation and labeling can be integrated into the production process. Since the moving-image segments produced for commercial television and film are often repurposed, for promos, games, and ancillary products, segmentation and indexing schema are growing areas of interest. Semantic segmentation and indexing are also increasingly desirable for personal video, as the amount of recorded moving images grows, and digital cameras include tagging as part of the recording process. 电视新闻节目和长篇电影的制作人使用一种方法来跟踪他们拍摄的所有镜头，这些镜头的数量可能是实际放映材料的三十到一百倍。电视新闻节目常常需要寻找档案镜头，以便为突发新闻故事提供背景。在数字化之前，胶卷或视频镜头保存在一个索引架上的卷轴或磁带中，数据库通过指向卷轴或磁带编号和时间码来引用这些镜头。在电影制作中，会在录制流中插入一个标牌，以通过场景、镜头、日期和拍摄编号来识别每个镜头。 现在，数字工作站已成为电视和电影后期制作的标准，越来越多地用于制作和交付，这意味着语义分割和标记可以融入制作流程。由于商业电视和电影制作的动态影像片段常常被重新利用于宣传、游戏和附属产品，因此分割和索引方案正日益受到关注。随着录制的动态影像数量不断增加，个人视频的语义分割和索引也变得越来越重要，因为数字相机在录制过程中会自动添加标签。
Among the most intensively used database applications for video are the systems created for competitive team sports. Football coaches at the college and pro level use systems that capture multiple views of games and practice sessions, segment the video by play, and allow for hundreds of annotations from controlled vocabularies. Coaches can call up information about their own team and about games played by other teams with precision and in real time, immediately after a practice session or years after a particular game. These complex systems require not just flat files, but also relational databases that have separate tables for information on individual players, teams, plays, and games (figure 8.2). 在视频数据库应用中，竞争性团队运动的系统是使用最广泛的。大学和职业级别的足球教练使用的系统能够捕捉比赛和训练的多个视角，将视频按比赛进行分段，并允许从受控词汇中进行数百个注释。教练可以实时精确地调取自己球队的信息以及其他球队比赛的信息，立即在训练后或在特定比赛多年后获取。这些复杂的系统不仅需要平面文件，还需要关系数据库，这些数据库为个人球员、球队、比赛和游戏的信息提供了独立的表格（图 8.2）。
Database structure can also be used for artistic expression. Glorianna Davenport and Lev Manovich (figure 8.3), among others, have created experimental pieces that emphasize the recombinatory power of semantically segmented sequences of moving images (Davenport, Smith, and Pincever 1991; Manovich 2003). 数据库结构同样可以作为艺术表达的方式。Glorianna Davenport 和 Lev Manovich（见图 8.3）等人创作了实验性作品，强调了语义分段动态图像序列的重组能力（Davenport, Smith 和 Pincever 1991; Manovich 2003）。
Relational Databases 关系型数据库
Relational databases allow us to capture data about complex systems using multiple tables that point to one another. Segmenting information into separate tables lets us keep information in different categories, and eliminates the awkwardness of incommensurable categories. For example, we could put our friend Goldilocks into her own People table and capture information about her preferences without worrying about making it symmetrical with the information about the possessions of the Bears (tables 8.5 and 8.6)). 关系数据库使我们能够通过多个相互关联的表格来捕捉复杂系统的数据。将信息分成不同的表格可以让我们将数据分类，从而避免不相称类别带来的尴尬。例如，我们可以把金发姑娘放在她自己的“人物”表中，记录她的偏好，而不必担心与熊的财物信息（表 8.5 和 8.6 )) ）保持一致。
Table 8.5 表格 8.5
People and Their Preferences 人们及其喜好
Character 人物
Chair 椅子
Porridge 稀饭
Bed 床铺
Goldilocks 金发姑娘
Medium 中等水平
Medium 中等水平
Medium 中等水平
Character Chair Porridge Bed
Goldilocks Medium Medium Medium| Character | Chair | Porridge | Bed |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Goldilocks | Medium | Medium | Medium |
Table 8.6 表格 8.6
Bears and Their Possessions 熊及其拥有的物品
Character 人物
Chair 椅子
Porridge 稀饭
Bed 床铺
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
High 高级
Hot 热情
Hard 难
Mama Bear 熊妈妈
Low 低水平
Cold 寒冷
Soft 柔软
Baby Bear 小熊宝宝
Medium 中等水平
Medium 中等水平
Medium 中等水平
Character Chair Porridge Bed
Papa Bear High Hot Hard
Mama Bear Low Cold Soft
Baby Bear Medium Medium Medium| Character | Chair | Porridge | Bed |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Papa Bear | High | Hot | Hard |
| Mama Bear | Low | Cold | Soft |
| Baby Bear | Medium | Medium | Medium |
Figure 8.2 第 8.2 图
Database system for annotating video of football games. As information technology has become more widely available, high-end systems created for professional and leading college sports teams have been adapted for high school teams. Source: http://www.hudl.com. 用于注释足球比赛视频的数据库系统。随着信息技术的普及，专为职业和顶尖大学体育团队设计的高端系统已被调整为适用于高中团队。来源：http://www.hudl.com。
Figure 8.3 图 8.3
Screenshot from Lev Manovich’s experimental Soft Cinema: Navigating the Database (2005), a collection of films that are generated procedurally from a database of segments. 来自 Lev Manovich 的实验性作品《软电影：导航数据库》（2005）的截图，这是一个根据片段数据库程序生成的电影合集。
Classification with multiple tables can make us aware of other abstract categories that help us organize complex information about the world. For example, we might make another table of Households and Intruders, drawing from a wider range of fairy tales set in forests (tables 8.7 and 8.8). 使用多表分类可以帮助我们识别其他抽象类别，从而更好地组织关于世界的复杂信息。例如，我们可以制作一个关于家庭和入侵者的表，参考更多设定在森林中的童话故事（表 8.7 和 8.8）。
Table 8.7 表格 8.7
Householders 家庭住户
Householder 房屋所有者
Vulnerable? 这很脆弱吗？
Why? 你为什么？
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
Yes 是的
Absent 不在场
Grandma 外婆
Yes 是的
Old 古老
Little Pig 1 小猪故事 1
Yes 是的
Straw house 草屋
Little Pig 2 小猪 2 号
Yes 是的
Wood house 木制房屋
Little Pig 3 小猪三
No 不是
Brick house 砖砌房屋
Householder Vulnerable? Why?
Papa Bear Yes Absent
Grandma Yes Old
Little Pig 1 Yes Straw house
Little Pig 2 Yes Wood house
Little Pig 3 No Brick house| Householder | Vulnerable? | Why? |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Papa Bear | Yes | Absent |
| Grandma | Yes | Old |
| Little Pig 1 | Yes | Straw house |
| Little Pig 2 | Yes | Wood house |
| Little Pig 3 | No | Brick house |
Table 8.8 表格 8.8
Intruders 侵入者
Intruder 侵入者
Consumed 已消耗
Not consumed 尚未消费
Regurgitated 反胃的
Goldilocks 金发姑娘
Porridge 稀饭
Wicked Wolf 邪恶的狼
Grandma 外婆
Little Red Riding Hood 小红 Riding Hood
Grandma 外婆
Big Bad Wolf 大坏狼
Little Pig 1, Little Pig 2 小猪一号，小猪二号
Little Pig 3 小猪三
Intruder Consumed Not consumed Regurgitated
Goldilocks Porridge
Wicked Wolf Grandma Little Red Riding Hood Grandma
Big Bad Wolf Little Pig 1, Little Pig 2 Little Pig 3 | Intruder | Consumed | Not consumed | Regurgitated |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Goldilocks | Porridge | | |
| Wicked Wolf | Grandma | Little Red Riding Hood | Grandma |
| Big Bad Wolf | Little Pig 1, Little Pig 2 | Little Pig 3 | |
Separating the information into tables lets us keep track of elements and attributes within different contexts: Papa Bear’s absence is separate from his preferences, for example. 将信息分成表格可以帮助我们在不同的上下文中跟踪元素和属性：例如，爸爸熊的缺席与他的偏好是分开的。
In order to relate information from one table to another, we establish standardized shared elements, such as unique numerical keys associated with each of the stories (table 8.9) and each of the characters (table 8.10), and we could relate the two by using the first two digits of each character number to indicate which story it belongs to. 为了将一个表中的信息与另一个表中的信息关联，我们建立了标准化的共享元素，例如与每个故事（表 8.9）和每个角色（表 8.10）相关的唯一数字键。我们可以通过使用每个角色编号的前两位数字来指示它属于哪个故事。
Table 8.9 表格 8.9
Assigning Unique Keys to Stories 为故事分配独特的标识符
Key 关键字
Story 故事内容
01
Goldilocks and 3 Bears 金发姑娘和三只熊
02
Little Red Riding Hood 小红 Riding Hood
03
Three Little Pigs 三只小猪的故事
Key Story
01 Goldilocks and 3 Bears
02 Little Red Riding Hood
03 Three Little Pigs| Key | Story |
| :--- | :--- |
| 01 | Goldilocks and 3 Bears |
| 02 | Little Red Riding Hood |
| 03 | Three Little Pigs |
Table 8.10 表格 8.10
Assigning Unique Keys to Characters 为角色分配独特的标识符
Key 关键字
Character 人物
0101
Goldilocks 金发姑娘
0102
Papa Bear 熊爸爸
0103
Mama Bear 熊妈妈
0104
Baby Bear 小熊宝宝
0201
Little Red Riding Hood 小红 Riding Hood
0202
Wicked Wolf 邪恶的狼
0203
Grandma 外婆
0204
Hunter 狩猎者
0205
Mother 妈妈
0301
Big Bad Wolf 大坏狼
0302
Little Pig 1 小猪故事 1
0303
Little Pig 2 小猪 2 号
0304
Little Pig 3 小猪三
Key Character
0101 Goldilocks
0102 Papa Bear
0103 Mama Bear
0104 Baby Bear
0201 Little Red Riding Hood
0202 Wicked Wolf
0203 Grandma
0204 Hunter
0205 Mother
0301 Big Bad Wolf
0302 Little Pig 1
0303 Little Pig 2
0304 Little Pig 3| Key | Character |
| :--- | :--- |
| 0101 | Goldilocks |
| 0102 | Papa Bear |
| 0103 | Mama Bear |
| 0104 | Baby Bear |
| 0201 | Little Red Riding Hood |
| 0202 | Wicked Wolf |
| 0203 | Grandma |
| 0204 | Hunter |
| 0205 | Mother |
| 0301 | Big Bad Wolf |
| 0302 | Little Pig 1 |
| 0303 | Little Pig 2 |
| 0304 | Little Pig 3 |
We would then use the uniform numerical keys instead of the much messier though more meaningful character names inside our database, since this will speed up processing and ensure accuracy: “Little” Red Riding Hood and “Little” Pig 1, 2, or 3 might all come up on a simple text match of the first six letters, but using our numerical keys it would only take two numbers to differentiate them (table 8.11 and table 8.12). 我们将使用统一的数字键，而不是数据库中更复杂但更具意义的字符名称，因为这将加快处理速度并确保准确性：“小红帽”和“小猪”1、2 或 3 在简单的文本匹配中可能会出现前六个字母，但使用我们的数字键只需两个数字就能区分它们（表 8.11 和表 8.12）。
Table 8.11 表格 8.11
Householders Indexed by Key 按键索引的家庭户主
Householder 房屋所有者
Vulnerable? 这很脆弱吗？
Why? 你为什么？
0102
Yes 是的
Absent 不在场
0203
Yes 是的
Old 古老
0302
Yes 是的
Straw house 草屋
0303
Yes 是的
Wood house 木制房屋
0304
No 不是
Brick house 砖砌房屋
Householder Vulnerable? Why?
0102 Yes Absent
0203 Yes Old
0302 Yes Straw house
0303 Yes Wood house
0304 No Brick house| Householder | Vulnerable? | Why? |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 0102 | Yes | Absent |
| 0203 | Yes | Old |
| 0302 | Yes | Straw house |
| 0303 | Yes | Wood house |
| 0304 | No | Brick house |
Table 8.12 表格 8.12
Intruders Indexed by Key 按键索引的入侵者
Structuring relational databases is a specialized skill, involving technical knowledge of specific systems. Not every designer will be an expert in this area, but all designers should understand the ways in which information is segmented, sorted, and combined through databases since there are always trade-offs and cultural inflection points in any system of representation. 结构化关系数据库是一项专业技能，需要对特定系统有技术知识。虽然并非每位设计师都是这一领域的专家，但所有设计师都应理解信息在数据库中是如何被分段、排序和组合的，因为在任何表示系统中总会存在权衡和文化转折点。
Information is entered and retrieved from a relational database through database management systems or more directly through a specialized code, the Structured Query Language (SQL, pronounced “sequel”). In general, the interfaces to databases are cumbersome and frustrating, created at too great a distance from the users of the information, and requiring expert intermediaries to create, change, or even access. Queries to databases often require knowledge of the structure of the tables, including explicit commands (known as joins) to relate the contents of one table to the contents of another. To compensate for the difficulty of accessing data, programmers often create custom queries to cover the most likely needs of end-users. But end-users may not be good informants for the programmers since they may limit their expectations to what is possible in their current system. There is a need for designers to be more active in shaping these custom interfaces so that the end-user is appropriately supported in performing the core task and not limited to reproducing the constraints of legacy processes. Designers can use techniques such as task analysis, think-aloud protocols, and paper prototyping with the end-users, and can actively propose novel kinds of searches to discover the core questions that the end-users bring to the information archive. These core questions may be different from the set of current queries. Identifying these core questions may lead designers to interview and observe a wider set of potential end-users than those currently engaged in querying the archive, since those who might most benefit from a more accessible information resource may have been discouraged by the difficulty of accessing the current archive. Sometimes the least technical people in an organization are the ones with the best understanding of what sort of questions need answering. Designers should therefore take care to identify an appropriately representative user group. 信息通过数据库管理系统或专用代码（结构化查询语言，SQL，发音为“sequel”）进行输入和检索。一般来说，数据库接口繁琐且令人沮丧，用户与信息之间的距离过大，通常需要专家中介来创建、修改或访问数据。对数据库的查询通常需要了解表的结构，包括显式命令（称为连接）来关联一个表的内容与另一个表的内容。为了方便用户访问数据，程序员通常会创建自定义查询，以满足最终用户的常见需求。 但最终用户可能并不是程序员的最佳信息来源，因为他们的期望可能仅限于当前系统所能实现的范围。设计师需要更加积极地参与定制这些界面，以确保最终用户在执行核心任务时得到适当的支持，而不是仅仅局限于遗留流程的限制。设计师可以采用任务分析、思维大声表达和纸上原型等方法，与最终用户合作，并积极提出新颖的搜索方式，以发现最终用户在信息档案中提出的核心问题。这些核心问题可能与当前的查询集有所不同。 确定这些核心问题可能会促使设计师采访和观察比目前参与档案查询的潜在最终用户更广泛的群体，因为那些可能从更易获取的信息资源中受益的人，往往因为访问当前档案的困难而感到沮丧。有时，组织中技术能力较弱的人恰恰对需要回答的问题有更深刻的理解。因此，设计师应谨慎识别一个适当的代表性用户群体。
Once development of a database access system is under way, designers should conduct multiple formative evaluations with this representative group, since 一旦数据库访问系统的开发开始，设计师应与这一代表性群体进行多次形成性评估，因为
Select CRN 选择课程编号
Please enter the CRN you wish to access, or select a different term from the menu. 请输入您要访问的 CRN，或从菜单中选择其他学期。
[ Enter Section Identifier (CRN) Directly ] 直接输入课程编号（CRN）
Figure 8.4 图 8.4
A flawed database query template makes this online system for entering final grades unnecessarily confusing and time consuming. Courses must be retrieved by “CRN” numbers, a unique identifier used by the database but meaningless to instructors. This transmission code should be hidden and the familiar course number should be displayed in its place. In addition, search results include courses for which no students are currently registered, creating multiple extra steps that could have been avoided by adding another table lookup to the query. 一个有缺陷的数据库查询模板使得这个在线系统在输入最终成绩时变得不必要地复杂和耗时。课程必须通过“CRN”号码来检索，这个唯一标识符对教师来说毫无意义。这个传输代码应该被隐藏，取而代之的是显示熟悉的课程编号。此外，搜索结果中还包括当前没有学生注册的课程，这增加了多个不必要的步骤，而这些步骤本可以通过在查询中添加另一个表的查找来避免。
end-users often articulate their needs most clearly when actively engaged in using an interactive prototype, especially if they are performing a task they are genuinely invested in. The risk of ignoring the design process is that the system will duplicate or introduce new difficulties into legacy processes. The wrong querying structure can mean that common tasks will take multiple frustrating steps to accomplish when they could be done in one well-designed query. This is too often the case in existing systems. For example, consider a system for entering grades at a university that does not allow the instructor to enter semester and course number or to specify final versus midterm grades in a single query on a single screen. The system also does not filter out courses that have no registered students. This means that the end-ofsemester work of every instructor includes frustrating, unnecessary, repeated actions that distract from the task at hand (figure 8.4). The waste of time is considerably worse for the thousands of people who are forced to use such poorly designed database-query systems every working day. 最终用户在积极使用交互式原型时，通常能够最清晰地表达他们的需求，尤其是在他们真正投入的任务中。忽视设计过程的风险在于，系统可能会复制或引入新的困难到现有流程中。错误的查询结构可能导致常见任务需要经过多个令人沮丧的步骤才能完成，而这些任务本可以通过一个设计良好的查询在一个步骤内完成。这在现有系统中非常常见。例如，考虑一个大学的成绩录入系统，它不允许教师在同一个查询和同一屏幕上输入学期和课程编号，或指定期末与期中成绩。 该系统同样不会过滤没有注册学生的课程。这意味着每位教师在学期末的工作都包含令人沮丧且不必要的重复操作，这些操作分散了他们的注意力（见图 8.4）。对于每天被迫使用如此设计不佳的数据库查询系统的成千上万的人来说，浪费时间的情况更加严重。
In addition to providing templates for searches, another common solution to the opacity of query languages is to offer static views of search results for common queries. Such views are important building blocks of information design, but they often limit understanding. For example, a standard database system for earthquake damage analysis by government planners allows users to explore the consequences of possible earthquakes. Users can specify a location and magnitude and receive as a report a 除了提供搜索模板外，解决查询语言不透明问题的另一种常见方法是为常见查询提供静态搜索结果视图。这些视图是信息设计的重要组成部分，但往往会限制理解。例如，政府规划者使用的标准数据库系统可以分析地震损害，允许用户探索可能地震的后果。用户可以指定位置和震级，并获得相应的报告。
map-based plotting that shows nonfatal casualties or deaths or property damage, but it is not possible to request a single report displaying all three categories of information. Database systems often hold data that would be much more useful if displayed with greater flexibility. 基于地图的绘图可以显示非致命伤亡、死亡或财产损失，但无法请求同时显示这三类信息的单一报告。数据库系统中存储的数据，如果能够以更灵活的方式展示，将会更加有用。
The appropriate display of information within relational databases is an important area for design innovation. Instead of rigid templates and static views, we should be moving to more open and powerful querying systems, free from the transmission codes of SQLs. Designers should look for ways to give end-users increasing access to the procedural power of the computer, allowing them to ask multiple questions based on multiple parameters of their own choosing, and to compare the results through meaningful views and juxtapositions. 在关系数据库中，信息的适当展示是设计创新的重要领域。我们应当从僵化的模板和静态视图转向更开放、更强大的查询系统，摆脱 SQL 的传输代码。设计师应寻找方法，让最终用户能够更方便地使用计算机的程序能力，允许他们根据自己选择的多个参数提出多个问题，并通过有意义的视图和对比来比较结果。
Navigating and Visualizing Large Databases 大型数据库的导航与可视化
Databases have now grown so big that it can seem impossible to offer users an overview of their contents or to allow them to browse through them without becoming overwhelmed. Ben Shneiderman has suggested one useful approach to this challenge: visual displays offering overview, zoom, filters, and details on demand (OZFD) (Shneiderman 1992a). Overviews establish the scope and main categories of a large database and provide the context for all of the semantic segments and filterable attributes; zooming provides access to semantic segments of information at varying levels of granularity, and keeps the user oriented to the relationship between levels; filters allow users to limit the kinds of information they zoom in and out on based on attributes or facets, eliminating the need for multistep queries; providing details on demand allows users to call up the finest levels of granularity when needed without cluttering the interface. 现在，数据库已经变得非常庞大，以至于为用户提供内容概览或让他们在不感到不知所措的情况下浏览这些内容似乎变得不可能。Ben Shneiderman 提出了一个有效的解决方案：通过可视化展示提供概览、缩放、过滤和按需详细信息（OZFD）（Shneiderman 1992a）。 概述确定了大型数据库的范围和主要类别，为所有语义段和可过滤属性提供了背景；缩放功能使用户能够以不同的粒度访问信息的语义段，并帮助他们理解各级之间的关系；过滤器允许用户根据属性或方面限制缩放的信息，避免了多步骤查询的复杂性；按需提供详细信息使用户能够在需要时获取最细粒度的信息，而不会使界面显得杂乱。
Treemaps as shown in the examples in chapter 6 (figures 6.26,6.27) and in figure 8.5 are one example of an OZFD approach to presenting a large amount of mostly quantitative information in a compressed space (Shneiderman1992b, Shneiderman and Plaisant 2009). For example, the state of the stock market has long been reported as a simple list (an instantly updated stock ticker), a table (in daily print-based newspapers), or a line graph of summary values like the Dow Jones Industrial Average over various time periods. The SmartMoney.com’s Map of the Market presents the same information interactively, making overall trends and specific details more immediately readable and retrievable on demand. The display (figure 8.5) offers an overview of about six hundred individual stocks, arranged by market sectors (Energy, Financial, Health Care, etc.), following the practice of professional analysts. It reports the most salient quality-is the market up or down in the past fifteen minutes?-by colorcoding, and it includes a knob for adjusting the color contrast from the conventional green/red to blue/yellow for the color-blind. Size is also semantic, with larger boxes 树图，如第 6 章（图 6.26、6.27）和图 8.5 中的示例所示，是一种 OZFD 方法，用于在有限空间内展示大量主要是定量的信息（Shneiderman1992b，Shneiderman 和 Plaisant 2009）。例如，股市的状态长期以来以简单的列表（即时更新的股票行情）、表格（在每日印刷报纸中）或道琼斯工业平均指数等汇总值的折线图形式进行报告。SmartMoney.com 的市场地图以互动方式呈现相同的信息，使整体趋势和具体细节更易于即时阅读和按需获取。显示（图 8。5) 提供了大约六百只个股的概述，按市场行业（如能源、金融、医疗等）进行分类，遵循专业分析师的做法。它通过颜色编码显示市场在过去十五分钟内的主要变化——是上涨还是下跌？此外，它还配备了一个旋钮，可以将颜色对比度从传统的绿/红调整为蓝/黄，以便色盲人士使用。尺寸本身也具有语义，较大的盒子
Figure 8.5 第 8.5 图
The SmartMoney Map of the Market (1998), a treemap visualization of a complex, dynamic, relational database. The control panel is at the right, and the interactor can also drill down within the sectors to an individual company by navigating the blocks. The map, created by Martin Wattenberg, obeys Ben Shneiderman’s principles of overview, zoom, filter, and details on demand. Available at http://www.smartmoney.com/map-of-the-market. 《智能投资市场地图》（1998），这是一个复杂、动态的关系数据库的树状图可视化。控制面板位于右侧，用户可以通过导航各个区块深入到特定公司的信息。该地图由马丁·瓦滕伯格创作，遵循本·施奈德曼的概述、缩放、过滤和按需显示详细信息的原则。可在 http://www.smartmoney.com/map-of-the-market 查看。
for bigger companies and sectors. (The placement and proximities of each sector on the screen is not semantic but it is consistent from day to day and year to year.) The display can be filtered by time and performance, and zoomed in and out to see subsectors and more details about individual stocks, each of which has an appropriately sized rectangle representation that changes color and size individually. The map therefore shows at a glance the overall performance of the market, automatically highlighting the performance of sectors and individual stocks that are doing significantly better or worse than others. The control panel allows for recontextualization of the information in different time spans, which is an important variable for the domain: a stock, sector, or even the whole market may be up over the past two months but down over the past two years. The treemap presentation reveals changes in value over time and relative performance of one sector against another with very few clicks and page reloads. 针对大型公司和行业。（每个行业在屏幕上的位置和相对位置并没有特定的语义，但每天和每年都是一致的。）显示可以按时间和表现进行过滤，并可以放大或缩小以查看子行业及个别股票的更多细节，每只股票都有一个适当大小的矩形表示，颜色和大小各自变化。因此，地图可以一目了然地展示市场的整体表现，自动突出表现显著优于或劣于其他股票的行业和个别股票。 控制面板可以在不同的时间跨度内重新组织信息，这是该领域的重要变量：一只股票、一个行业，甚至整个市场在过去两个月可能上涨，但在过去两年可能下跌。树状图展示了随时间变化的价值以及一个行业相对于另一个行业的表现，操作简单，点击和页面刷新次数很少。
The translation of market structure to visual structure makes the information much more accessible than ticker tapes or newspaper tables, or than similar multigraph efforts of other news sites. But the arrangement like any information display emphasizes some things and hides other. The display does not cover every stock traded in New York, let alone internationally. The placement of company rectangles within a 将市场结构转化为视觉结构，使信息比股票行情或报纸表格更易于获取，也比其他新闻网站的多图表展示更为直观。然而，这种展示方式和其他信息展示一样，强调了一些内容而掩盖了其他内容。该展示并未涵盖在纽约交易的所有股票，更不用说国际市场了。公司矩形的布局在一个
Figure 8.6 图 8.6
Hans Rosling uses bubble animation visualizations to explain complex economic changes over time. The video is available on YouTube, and software is available for exploration at <http://www. gapminder.org>. 汉斯·罗斯林通过气泡动画可视化来解释复杂的经济变化。相关视频可以在 YouTube 上观看，探索软件则可以在上找到。
sector is not semantic and it can visually call attention to contrasts and similarities in the performance of particular companies or sectors that happen to have been placed next to one another for the purposes of a tidy display, but may not be semantically related. As with any encyclopedic resource, the implicit claim of comprehensive coverage should be examined. Like other stock market summaries it does not track or represent factors important to other constituencies beside traders, such as executive compensation, location of headquarters, or carbon footprint. Along with other materials associated with the Market Map, it encourages a view of the market that connects vigilance over short-term changes with successful investment. 该领域并非语义上的，它在视觉上能够引起对特定公司或行业表现的对比和相似性的关注，这些公司或行业恰好被放在一起以便于整齐展示，但可能并没有语义上的关联。与任何百科全书资源一样，全面覆盖的隐含主张应当被审视。与其他股票市场摘要类似，它并不跟踪或代表对交易者以外的其他利益相关者重要的因素，如高管薪酬、总部位置或碳足迹。与市场地图相关的其他材料一起，它鼓励一种将对短期变化的警惕与成功投资相结合的市场观。
Databases often contain information about changes over time. In print media these changes are presented in graphs with time along the x (or horizontal) axis, plotted against one other factor on the y (or vertical axis). Hans Rosling, the founder of gapminder.org has introduced animated interfaces to large international databases, plotting two changing economic or social factors on the x - and y -axis, while displaying temporal changes in animation. His visualizations of the information in databases maintained by the United Nations and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) produce dramatic graphs of rising and falling health and income, with multiple countries represented as bubbles on the same graph, differentiated by color, displayed in sizes proportional to their economies, and often linked to a geographical map. This approach can clarify complex changes, capturing the elation of rising standards of living and the poignancy of decline. The interactor can navigate the information by country, region, and time period, discovering new connections and creating their own animations (figure 8.6). 数据库通常包含关于时间变化的信息。在印刷媒体中，这些变化通过图表呈现，时间沿着 x（水平）轴，与 y（垂直）轴上的另一个因素进行比较。gapminder.org 的创始人汉斯·罗斯林引入了动画界面，用于大型国际数据库，展示两个变化的经济或社会因素在 x 轴和 y 轴上的关系，同时通过动画展示时间的变化。 他对联合国和经济合作与发展组织（OECD）维护的数据库中信息的可视化，生成了戏剧性的图表，展示了健康和收入的起伏，多个国家在同一图表上以气泡形式呈现，按颜色区分，大小与其经济规模成正比，通常还与地理地图相结合。这种方法能够清晰地展现复杂的变化，捕捉到生活水平上升的喜悦与衰退的惆怅。用户可以按国家、地区和时间段浏览信息，发现新的联系并制作自己的动画（图 8.6）。
The exploration of visual strategies for displaying large databases is a growing area of public participation as well as a focus of design research. The World Wide Web has 探索展示大型数据库的视觉策略正成为一个日益重要的公众参与领域，同时也是设计研究的重点。万维网已经
Figure 8.7 图 8.7 Guardian.co.uk, the website of the Guardian newspaper, makes large government databases available to its readers and invites them to submit visualizations. 《卫报》网站向读者提供大型政府数据库，并邀请他们提交可视化作品。
served as a platform for making large data sets available, and developers are producing sharable tools for visualizing data, which are being used by researchers, citizen groups, and curious individuals (figure 8.7). The availability of these tools provides an opportunity for designers to increase their data skills and to develop model applications of the technology that make complex relationships understandable. Although many visualization applications produce only static displays rather than interactive filtering and zooming interfaces, the availability of these rich information sources will raise expectations and create demand for datasets that are not merely chartable but dynamically explorable. 作为一个平台，使大量数据集得以共享，开发者们正在制作可视化工具，这些工具被研究人员、公民团体和好奇的个人所使用（见图 8.7）。这些工具的可用性为设计师提供了提升数据技能的机会，并开发出能够使复杂关系易于理解的技术模型应用。尽管许多可视化应用程序仅提供静态显示，而非交互式过滤和缩放界面，但这些丰富的信息源的可用性将提高人们的期望，并创造对不仅仅是可图表化而是动态可探索的数据集的需求。
From Tables to Objects 从表格到对象
Object-oriented databases are an emerging organizational structure based on objectoriented programming techniques, but still too poorly and inconsistently implemented to be a true standard. In addition to data, object-oriented databases would allow the user to define procedures: complex rules that relate items within the database to one another and determine not just what attributes they have but also how they behave. We can think of an object-oriented database as having the same relationship to a flat or relational database as an electronic spreadsheet (like those created in Excel) has to a table of figures created in a simple word processor. Along with symbols the 面向对象的数据库是一种基于面向对象编程技术的新兴组织结构，但由于实施不够完善和不一致，尚未成为真正的标准。除了数据，面向对象的数据库还允许用户定义过程：复杂的规则，用于将数据库中的项目相互关联，并确定它们的属性和行为。我们可以将面向对象的数据库比作电子表格（例如在 Excel 中创建的）与简单文字处理器中创建的数字表格之间的关系。
spreadsheet contains logical relationships, allowing us to command a complex abstract structure of variables and formulas rather than just a grid of numbers. Similarly, when we move an ordinary database, with rows of items and columns of attributes and values, into an object-oriented world, we gain the power to describe the items algorithmically, as dynamic procedures. 电子表格包含逻辑关系，使我们能够管理一个复杂的抽象结构，包括变量和公式，而不仅仅是一个数字网格。同样，当我们将一个普通数据库（包含项目的行和属性及其值的列）转移到面向对象的环境中时，我们能够以算法的方式动态描述这些项目。
In an object-oriented database, the basic units of organization are object classes and objects, rather than tables and records. Classes of objects inherit attributes (qualities) from one another. For example, one could have a class of news stories, all of which have the quality of date, time, and place. Objects inherit the attributes of their class but they can also have variant attributes that belong to subclasses or individual objects. A news story might belong to the subclass of text article, which would give it the attribute of a byline; or it might belong to the subclass of video, which would give it the attributes of producer and reporter. Objects also have methods, which are pieces of programming code. A text news story might have a display method that formatted columns on a page, while a video news story might have compression and playback methods suitable for moving images and audio tracks. But both objects would inherit the same news story template for assigning the story to a date, time, and place. Object-oriented databases can be part of object-oriented programming environments, like Java. They may turn out to be particularly well suited to multimedia applications since they allow the designer to associate different behaviors with different media formats while also sharing other attributes and behaviors across media formats. 在面向对象的数据库中，基本的组织单元是对象类和对象，而不是表格和记录。对象类之间可以相互继承属性（特性）。例如，可以有一个新闻故事类，所有故事都有日期、时间和地点的特性。对象继承其类的属性，但也可以拥有属于子类或个别对象的变体属性。一个新闻故事可能属于文本文章的子类，这样它就会有署名的属性；或者它可能属于视频的子类，这样它就会有制作人和记者的属性。对象还具有方法，这些是编程代码的片段。 一篇文本新闻故事可能会有一种显示方式，用于在页面上格式化列，而视频新闻故事则可能具备适合动态图像和音频轨道的压缩和播放方式。但这两种对象都会继承相同的新闻故事模板，以便将故事分配到特定的日期、时间和地点。面向对象的数据库可以作为面向对象编程环境的一部分，例如 Java。它们可能特别适合多媒体应用，因为它们允许设计者将不同的行为与不同的媒体格式关联，同时在不同媒体格式之间共享其他属性和行为。
Relational databases are cumbersome because it is hard to write the queries that relate one table of attributes to another. For example, it takes explicit knowledge of the design of multiple internal tables to ask if Papa Bear is both absent and fond of a hard bed. An object-oriented database might allow us to perform the same tasks more efficiently, while opening up more powerful ways of exploring rich collections of parameterized data. Returning to our fairy-tale world, for example, the three bears might each be an instance of the class of BEAR, and Goldilocks would be an instance of the class PEOPLE. BEARS and PEOPLE might share methods for EATING, SITTING, SLEEPING. Having the story in an object-oriented database opens the possibility for variants in behavior, such as instantiating a Goldilocks who hates porridge, or who respects the property rights of bears. Traditional databases force all data into uniform formats. Object-oriented structures can be more tolerant of one-of-a-kind items, allowing them to share some qualities and methods with the class(es) they instantiate, while possessing other attributes that belong only to themselves. Such a design may be increasingly useful in our shared, networked media-rich environment in which contributions come from and are distributed to many people in many different formats, simultaneously increasing the demands for standardization and customization. 关系数据库使用起来很繁琐，因为编写将一个属性表与另一个属性表关联的查询非常困难。例如，要询问熊爸爸是否同时缺席且喜欢硬床，我们需要对多个内部表的设计有清晰的了解。面向对象的数据库可能让我们更高效地完成相同的任务，同时提供更强大的方式来探索丰富的参数化数据集合。回到我们的童话世界，三只熊可能每只都是“熊”类的一个实例，而金发姑娘则是“人类”类的一个实例。熊和人类可能共享吃、坐、睡的方法。 在面向对象的数据库中存储故事，提供了行为变体的可能性，比如实例化一个讨厌粥的金发姑娘，或者一个尊重熊的财产权的金发姑娘。传统数据库将所有数据强制转换为统一格式，而面向对象的结构则更能容纳独一无二的项目，允许它们与所实例化的类共享某些特性和方法，同时拥有仅属于它们自己的其他属性。这种设计在我们共享的、网络化的媒体丰富环境中可能越来越有用，因为贡献来自许多人，并以多种不同格式分发，同时增加了对标准化和定制化的需求。
The Persistence of Ambiguity 模糊性的持久性
Databases take discrete items of information and format them in consistent ways for automated processing. Because databases require uniformity they are systems that encourage us to look at the world in terms of expected values, often expressed numerically, since numbers are more uniform than words, or constrained to a predetermined attribute/value list, whether for T-shirt colors or ethnic identity. Anything that falls outside of these expected values may simply become invisible. Life is analog and indeterminate but data structures are discrete and standardized, forcing category choices that do not fix the shape of our lived experience. Is my profession “educator” or “researcher” or “writer” or “designer”? Is my grandmother’s last name the one she had in Russia or the one the immigration officials changed it to when she came through Ellis Island? Race, ethnicity, religion, and marital status are increasingly contested cultural categories, evoking personal answers that fit more appropriately into a narrative than a checkbox (figure 8.8). The database wants simplified, unambiguous answers, but human experience is never simple and always contextualized. And our contexts and values are inevitably subject to change. 数据库将离散的信息项以一致的方式进行格式化，以便于自动处理。由于数据库需要统一性，它们促使我们以预期值的方式看待世界，这些预期值通常以数字形式表达，因为数字比文字更为统一，或者被限制在预先设定的属性/值列表中，无论是 T 恤颜色还是民族身份。任何超出这些预期值的事物可能会变得不可见。生活是模拟的和不确定的，而数据结构则是离散的和标准化的，迫使我们做出类别选择，这些选择并不能固定我们生活经验的形状。我的职业是“教育工作者”、“研究者”、“作家”还是“设计师”？ 我祖母的姓是她在俄罗斯的姓，还是她在通过埃利斯岛时被移民官员更改的姓？种族、民族、宗教和婚姻状况越来越成为有争议的文化类别，个人的回答更适合融入叙事而非简单的复选框（见图 8.8）。数据库希望得到简化且明确的答案，但人类的经验从来都不简单，总是有其背景。而我们的背景和价值观不可避免地会发生变化。
Classification schemes are always open to cultural challenges, even those we think of as grounded in physical realities. Classifications, like words themselves, ultimately rest on consensual associations, on shared contexts and practices that form communities of interpretation, rather than on absolute, objective distinctions. Cultures differ tremendously in the classification of experience, even such immediate and physiologically anchored experiences as tastes. For many years western culture assumed that human taste receptors could identify four distinct flavors: sweet, salty, sour, bitter. But Japanese culture includes a fifth flavor known as umami, or savoriness, the quality of monosodium glutamate in Asian foods and of glutamates in meats and cheeses. For westerners, learning the new category can change the tasting experience, even in retrospect. 分类体系总是面临文化挑战，即使是那些我们认为基于物理现实的分类。分类就像词语本身，最终依赖于共识、共享的背景和形成解释社区的实践，而不是绝对的、客观的区分。文化在经验分类上差异巨大，即使是像味道这样直接且生理上固定的体验。多年来，西方文化认为人类的味觉受体可以识别四种不同的味道：甜、咸、酸、苦。然而，日本文化还包括一种被称为“鲜味”的第五种味道，或称为“umami”，这是亚洲食品中味精的特性，以及肉类和奶酪中的谷氨酸盐的特性。 对于西方人来说，学习新的类别可以改变他们的品尝体验，甚至在回忆时也是如此。
Culture influences classification processes, and classification processes can lead to social and cultural changes. As Bowker and Star have pointed out, the decision to validate nursing care by assigning it appropriate hospital billing codes has complex consequences. A billing code for administering medication is straightforward, but what about the nurse’s ingenuity in engaging a patient socially to allay anxiety? If we make joking with patients to relieve anxiety a billable commodity, then some parts of nursing care become more visible, but the human experience of the joke will be changed (Bowker and Star 1999). 文化影响分类过程，而分类过程又可能引发社会和文化的变革。正如博克和斯塔尔所指出的，通过分配适当的医院账单代码来验证护理的决定会产生复杂的后果。给药的账单代码是明确的，但护士通过社交方式与患者互动以缓解焦虑的创造力又该如何处理呢？如果我们将与患者开玩笑以减轻焦虑视为可计费的服务，那么护理的某些方面将变得更加显而易见，但笑话所带来的人类体验将会发生改变（博克和斯塔尔 1999）。
Classification systems often reflect economic and power relationships, and they can be the subject of political, legal, and economic disputes. Areas of a city are subject to classification by zone for the purposes of development, as SimCity players well know, often to the dismay of the people who live there. Insurance companies 分类系统往往反映经济和权力关系，并可能成为政治、法律和经济争议的焦点。城市的区域会根据开发需要进行分类，正如《模拟城市》的玩家所熟知的那样，这常常让当地居民感到失望。保险公司
8. Is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?
No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano
Yes, Puerto Rican
Yes, Cuban
Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin - Print origin, for example, Argentinean, Colombian, Dominican, Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, Spaniard, and so on. Z 8. 人 1 是西班牙裔、拉丁裔或西班牙血统吗？不，不是西班牙裔、拉丁裔或西班牙血统；是，墨西哥人、墨西哥裔美国人、奇卡诺；是，波多黎各人；是，古巴人；是，其他西班牙裔、拉丁裔或西班牙血统 - 请列出具体血统，例如阿根廷人、哥伦比亚人、多米尼加人、尼加拉瓜人、萨尔瓦多人、西班牙人等。Z
What is Person 1’s race? Mark XX one or more boxes. 个人 1 的种族是什么？请勾选 XX 一个或多个选项。
White 白色的
Black, African Am., or Negro 黑人、非洲裔美国人或黑色人种
American Indian or Alaska Native - Print name of enrolled or principal tribe. 7 美国印第安人或阿拉斯加土著 - 请填写注册或主要部落的名称。7
Some other race - Print race. 其他赛事 - 打印赛事。
Figure 8.8 图 8.8
Questions from the 2010 U.S. Census form. Ethnic and racial groups are culturally and politically determined categories, with vague boundaries and shifting definitions, whose members differ in their self-descriptions. 2010 年美国人口普查表中的问题。民族和种族群体是文化和政治上界定的类别，边界模糊且定义不断变化，其成员在自我描述上各有不同。
classify medical procedures and property damages in ways that limit their liability, and sometimes outrage policyholders who expected a needed operation or disaster recovery to be covered. Citizenship is a classification system that is politically defined, carries enormous personal consequences, and is enforced, at times at gunpoint. Information technology has been used in the service of repressive and even murderous classification systems. Census data collected in 1933 with the help of IBM machines helped Hitler to identify the Jewish and gypsy populations of Europe, and punch-card technology kept track of their extermination in the concentration camps (Black 2001). National identity cards were an important part of enforcing apartheid in South Africa and genocide in Rwanda. Although these are extreme examples, they 医疗程序和财产损失的分类常常限制了责任，有时还会让期望必要手术或灾后恢复得到保障的保单持有人感到愤怒。公民身份是一种政治定义的分类系统，带来了巨大的个人后果，并且在某些情况下是通过武力强制执行的。信息技术曾被用于压迫甚至谋杀的分类系统。1933 年，借助 IBM 机器收集的普查数据帮助希特勒识别了欧洲的犹太人和吉普赛人，而打孔卡技术则在集中营中记录了他们的灭绝（Black 2001）。国家身份证在执行南非的种族隔离政策和卢旺达的种族灭绝中扮演了重要角色。虽然这些例子比较极端，但他们
are important reminders of the human consequences of classification schemes. Whoever determines the classification rules or administers the classification process is exercising power and affecting how the classified domain is seen, understood, treated, and experienced by those inside and outside of it. Segmenting and labeling information is therefore often a political task, and even a small change in a data structure or a web navigation system can reveal areas of contested meaning and conflicting interests. 分类方案对人类后果的重要提醒。无论是谁制定分类规则或管理分类过程，都在行使权力，并影响被分类领域的看法、理解、处理和体验，无论是内部还是外部。因此，信息的分段和标记往往是一项政治任务，即使是数据结构或网页导航系统中的一个小变化，也可能揭示有争议的意义和冲突的利益。
Since labeling and classifying are such foundational and politically charged activities, the information designer is often called upon to bridge divergent interest groups or communities of practice. One way to think of this activity is to frame it as a task of recognizing, refining, or creating boundary objects. A boundary object is any cultural artifact or practice that has one structure but different meanings for different groups of people (Bowker and Star 1999). For example, an Ivy League diploma can signify disciplined intelligence to one group, upper-class affiliation to another, and professional credentialing to a third, yet all three will recognize the same social and cultural practices for earning and verifying it. 由于标记和分类是基础且充满政治色彩的活动，信息设计师常常需要在不同的利益群体或实践社区之间架起桥梁。我们可以将这一活动视为识别、完善或创造边界对象的任务。边界对象是指任何具有相同结构但对不同群体有不同意义的文化物品或实践（Bowker 和 Star 1999）。例如，常春藤联盟的文凭对某些人来说象征着严谨的智力，对另一些人则可能代表上层阶级的归属，而对第三类人来说则是专业资格的证明，尽管如此，这三类人都能认同获得和验证文凭的相同社会和文化实践。
A large database or IT system can also be seen as a boundary object. The designer’s job therefore is to identify common categories that will work across diverse groups of stakeholders, from sales people to creative teams to lawyers, so that they can share information and contribute to common records, while seeing the world very differently from one another. To do this the designer must understand how each group constructs the common enterprise and come up with a design for a shared resource that will be meaningful to all while not imposing one group’s framework on the whole organization. For example, when a large movie studio sought to unify its database system it discovered that many in-house groups made use of still images taken from a single frame of a motion picture, but they stored them in multiple incompatible systems and referred to them with different names depending on whether the images were being used by production continuity, postproduction editing, marketing, publicity, or licensing. The hardest part of designing a unified system was not the underlying representation of a film as a set of single frames, but the superstructure by which those frames could be retrieved, tracked, and incorporated in these divergent work processes. Tasks like these have been described as the work of brokers, who must be careful not to ally with any particular faction while advocating for and facilitating the creation of a single representation that fits into each of the divergent mental models (Pawlowski, Robey, and Raveb 2000). 一个大型数据库或 IT 系统也可以被视为一个边界对象。因此，设计师的任务是识别能够跨越不同利益相关者群体（如销售人员、创意团队和律师）有效的共同类别，以便他们能够共享信息并为共同记录做出贡献，尽管他们的世界观可能截然不同。为此，设计师必须理解每个群体如何构建共同的企业，并设计一个对所有人都有意义的共享资源，同时避免将某一群体的框架强加于整个组织。 例如，当一个大型电影制片厂试图统一其数据库系统时，发现许多内部团队使用的是从电影的一帧中提取的静态图像，但他们将这些图像存储在多个不兼容的系统中，并根据图像是由制作连续性、后期编辑、市场营销、宣传还是许可使用而使用不同的名称。设计统一系统最困难的部分并不是将电影表示为一组单帧的基础，而是如何通过这些帧在不同的工作流程中进行检索、跟踪和整合。 这类任务被视为经纪人的工作，他们必须谨慎行事，避免与任何特定派系结盟，同时推动和促进适合每种不同心理模型的统一代表的形成（Pawlowski, Robey, 和 Raveb 2000）。
The tools of information design may be used to critique rather support the status quo. For example, Josh On’s website They Rule (On 2004) uses seemingly neutral data about the membership of corporate boards of directors to generate images of the networks of interlocking directorships that link one company to another, and often to academic institutions, presidential cabinet members, and Washington, D.C., think 信息设计的工具可以用来批评现状，而非支持现状。例如，Josh On 的网站“They Rule”（On 2004）利用看似中立的公司董事会成员数据，生成连接不同公司及其与学术机构、总统内阁成员和华盛顿特区智库之间交错董事会网络的图像。
Figure 8.9 图 8.9
Two ways of visualizing and exploring corporate connections on the They Rule website created by Josh On (2004): (top) by following links from companies to directors and directors to companies to build a network; or (bottom) by asking the application to generate the links between two entities (here, the Ford Motor Company and Coca-Cola, which are connected through only one other company). 在 Josh On（2004）创建的 They Rule 网站上，有两种方式可以可视化和探索公司之间的关系：（上）通过链接从公司到董事，再从董事到公司来构建网络；或者（下）通过请求应用程序生成两个实体之间的链接（例如，福特汽车公司和可口可乐，它们仅通过一家其他公司相连）。
tanks. The site can also be used to generate connection paths, showing that seemingly disparate companies can be connected through their boards of directors in just a few steps. In conjunction with the explicitly anticorporate designer’s notes, the intentionally impersonal iconography reinforces a sense of corporate directors as an illicit oligarchy, hiding in plain sight (figure 8.9). 坦克。这个网站还可以用来生成连接路径，显示看似不相关的公司可以通过其董事会在短短几步内相互联系。结合明确反企业的设计师笔记，故意不带个人色彩的图标强化了企业董事作为一个隐秘寡头的印象，隐藏在显眼之处（图 8.9）。
Although the information sciences (as well as many fundamental cultural structures and cognitive strategies) rely on shared classifications and standardization of terms, all such systems may be flawed because of the arbitrary nature of language itself. Many contemporary humanists would agree with Wittgenstein (1958) that the verbal categories we take as absolutes really point to very divergent things that have only a “family 尽管信息科学（以及许多基本文化结构和认知策略）依赖于共享的分类和术语标准化，但所有这些系统可能存在缺陷，因为语言本身的任意性。许多当代人文学者会同意维特根斯坦（1958）的观点，即我们所认为的绝对语言类别实际上指向的是非常不同的事物，这些事物之间只有一种“家族”关系。
resemblance” to one another. Wittgenstein’s example was the category of “games” that he declared meaninglessly broad since it contains such disparate examples as Ring Round Rosey and chess. How then do we organize items that are only mingling together in vaguely similar clumps, rather than neatly sorted onto hierarchical, sharply differentiated trees? One strategy, proposed by Eleanor Rosch as a model of how the mind works, is prototype theory. Rosch’s research established, for example, that people consider “chair” and “sofa” to be better examples (i.e., prototypes) of the category “furniture” than “mirror” or “wastebasket” (Rosch 1975). Prototype theory suggests that we can elicit this kind of conceptual framework from particular communities of practices, by asking them to identify best examples of confusing categories (like “checkers” or “baseball”). Using prototype theory to organize a domain we would not ask subjects to sort cards into separate stacks, but rather to spread them out across a continuous space according to degrees of resemblance (Does soccer go near checkers or baseball or Ring Round Rosey or off in its own corner? How about Scrabble?). Prototype theory is particularly useful for exploring large collections of similar items (like mobile devices or websites) that may not yet belong to fixed media genres. Focusing on prototypical examples allows us to identify shared attributes without having to commit ourselves to a single taxonomy for a diverse set of items. “彼此的相似性”。维特根斯坦举了“游戏”这个例子，他认为这个类别的定义过于宽泛，因为它包含了像“转圈玫瑰”和国际象棋这样截然不同的例子。那么，我们该如何组织那些仅在模糊相似的团块中混合在一起的项目，而不是整齐地分类到层次分明、清晰区分的树上呢？一种策略是埃莉诺·罗斯提出的原型理论，作为思维运作的模型。罗斯的研究表明，人们认为“椅子”和“沙发”是“家具”这一类别的更好例子（即原型），而不是“镜子”或“垃圾桶”（罗斯 1975）。 原型理论表明，我们可以通过让特定实践社区识别混淆类别的最佳例子（例如“跳棋”或“棒球”）来引导这种概念框架。在使用原型理论组织一个领域时，我们不会要求受试者将卡片分成不同的堆，而是让他们根据相似度的程度将卡片分布在一个连续的空间中（足球应该靠近跳棋、棒球，还是“玫瑰圆圈”或独自放在一边？拼字游戏呢？）。原型理论特别适合用于探索大量相似项目（如移动设备或网站），这些项目可能尚未归属于固定的媒体类型。 关注原型示例可以帮助我们识别共同特征，而无需对多样化的项目采用单一的分类法。
The advent of the computer has increased our ability to collect and manipulate data, but it has yet to increase our awareness of the complex processes by which we choose to measure and name some things but not others. The proliferation of cheap, rapid computational systems has meant that we can create bigger and bigger databases, providing increasingly uniform access to increasingly disparate information. It makes it more and more likely that we will find ourselves assigned a numerical identification so that our personal attributes and values-as students, employees, consumers, taxpayers, international travelers, mortgage holders, and so on-can be represented and cross-referenced in uniquely labeled, lifeless relational database records. Sorting experience into uniform database tables lets us see larger patterns, but it also removes us from the detail of the narrative layer, which is much closer to lived experience. 计算机的出现增强了我们收集和处理数据的能力，但尚未提高我们对选择测量和命名某些事物而非其他事物的复杂过程的理解。廉价且快速的计算系统的普及使我们能够创建越来越大的数据库，从而提供对越来越多样化信息的统一访问。这使得我们更有可能被分配一个数字身份，以便我们的个人属性和价值——作为学生、员工、消费者、纳税人、国际旅行者、抵押贷款持有者等——能够在独特标记的、无生命的关系数据库记录中被表示和交叉引用。 将排序经验整理成统一的数据库表格可以让我们看到更大的模式，但这也使我们失去了与生活经验更为贴近的叙事细节。
As information designers we have to take advantage of existing media conventions and cultural abstractions in order to focus our shared attention on the same information. But we should resist the urge to move prematurely from messy, ambiguous experience of the lifeworld into overly neat cliché. Once more we need to remember the old programmer’s adage of “garbage in, garbage out” (GIGO): we do not get any useful output from a computer, no matter how brilliantly complex the programming, if we feed it incomplete or overly simplistic data. It is the designer’s job to expand the structures of data abstraction to contain new knowledge about the world, not to merely recycle legacy categories. We have to make an extra effort to discover the data that we are not collecting, the questions that we are not asking, 作为信息设计师，我们必须利用现有的媒体惯例和文化抽象，集中我们的注意力于相同的信息上。然而，我们应该抵制过早地从混乱和模糊的生活体验转向过于整齐的陈词滥调。我们需要再次记住老程序员的格言“垃圾进，垃圾出”（GIGO）：如果我们输入不完整或过于简单的数据，无论编程多么复杂精妙，计算机都不会产生任何有用的输出。设计师的职责是扩展数据抽象的结构，以容纳关于世界的新知识，而不仅仅是回收旧的分类。我们需要付出额外的努力来发现那些我们未收集的数据和未提出的问题，
the categories that are messier than our existing models. We can never eliminate bias or distortion from a dataset, or invent a perfect system of categorization, but we can do our best to make our assumptions clear and to be open to revising our classification schemes and data structures as our knowledge and understanding change over time. 我们的现有模型中有些类别比其他类别更为混乱。我们无法完全消除数据集中的偏见或扭曲，也无法创造出完美的分类系统，但我们可以努力使我们的假设更加明确，并保持开放的态度，愿意根据我们不断变化的知识和理解来修订分类方案和数据结构。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: THE DATABASE MODEL 设计探索：数据库模型分析
Creating Semantic Segmentation schemes 制定语义分割方案
For a favorite movie, television show, or recorded sports event that you have watched more than once, make a list of all the key elements that are most memorable to you (e.g., a character, scene, shot, line of dialog, action sequence, romantic tone, sports play, performance by a single player, attitude of a group or individual). 对于你看过不止一次的最喜欢的电影、电视节目或录制的体育赛事，列出所有对你来说最难忘的关键元素（例如：角色、场景、镜头、对话、动作序列、浪漫氛围、体育比赛、单个球员的表现、团队或个人的态度）。
How would you segment the entire temporal unit (the two hours of the movie, the half hour of the TV show, the duration of the sports event) so that it reflected existing media segmentation conventions (such as the divisions between commercial breaks, titles, credits)? 你会如何对整个时间单位（电影的两个小时、电视节目的半小时、体育赛事的时长）进行分段，以符合现有的媒体分段惯例（如商业广告、标题和片尾之间的分隔）？
How would you find the memorable elements that you have listed within the structure of conventional media segments? 你如何在传统媒体的结构中找到那些你列出的令人难忘的元素？
Create a new system of semantic segmentation that would provide intellectual access to the memorable elements you most value (for example, dividing the telecast of a football game by plays). 创建一个新的语义分割系统，以便让您更容易访问那些您最看重的记忆元素（例如，可以通过比赛来划分足球比赛的转播）。
Creating Meaningful Attribute Fields in a Database 在数据库中创建有意义的属性字段
Make a flat file table of all the regular characters in your favorite TV sitcom (or other fictional art or entertainment with nine or fewer regular cast members). 制作一个表格，列出你最喜欢的电视情景喜剧（或其他虚构艺术作品）中所有不超过九个常规角色。
How would you describe them using the same fields but different attributes? 你会如何用相同的字段但不同的属性来形容他们？
What are the most important points of difference and resemblance? 最重要的差异和相似之处是什么？
Are some of the attributes quantifiable by existing measures (e.g., estimated age, income level, I.Q.)? 有些属性是否可以通过现有的指标进行量化（例如，估计年龄、收入水平、智商）？
Are some attributes quantifiable by scales (e.g., attractiveness, foolishness)? 一些属性（如吸引力和愚蠢）可以用量表来量化吗？
Are some of them limited to a known set of values? 有些值是否仅限于特定的已知范围？
Sort the table by the attributes. Does alphabetical or numerical order provide a meaningful organization? Are there other groupings that would be more meaningful, perhaps based on multiple attributes? 按属性对表格进行排序。字母顺序或数字顺序是否能提供有意义的组织？是否有其他更有意义的分组方式，比如基于多个属性？
Compare your table with that of others. Can you design a generic sitcom character record structure that would accommodate all of the attributes identified by members of the group? 请将你的表与其他人的表进行比较。你能设计一个通用的情景喜剧角色记录结构，以包含小组成员所识别的所有属性吗？
Make a flat file of all the recurring characters in a complex TV or live drama, or a film or print fictional series with at least fifteen recurring characters (e.g., The Wire, 制作一个包含至少十五个重复角色的平面文件，这些角色来自复杂的电视或现场剧、电影或印刷虚构系列（例如，《火线》）。
The Sopranos, and Lost TV series; the Star Wars movies; the novel War and Peace; or a Shakespeare play), using the same fields to describe each of them. 《黑道家族》和《迷失》电视剧；《星球大战》电影；小说《战争与和平》；或莎士比亚的剧作），使用相同的字段来描述每一个。
What groups do these characters fit into? 这些角色可以归入哪些群体？
What attributes are most important in describing them? 描述他们时，哪些属性最为重要？
What quantitative attributes describe them? 有哪些定量特征可以描述它们？
What qualitative attributes have a limited value set (e.g., Mafia families, law enforcement agencies, planets of origin)? 哪些定性属性的价值范围有限（例如，黑手党家族、执法机构、起源星球）？
Which attributes change over the course of the story? 故事中哪些特征会随着情节的发展而变化？
Compare your table with those of other group members. Can you design a generic dramatic character record structure that would accommodate all of the attributes identified by members of the group? 请将你的表与其他小组成员的表进行比较。你能设计一个通用的戏剧角色记录结构，以包含小组成员所识别的所有属性吗？
Brainstorm a diverse list of twenty-five foods that might go into a salad. Imagine that each of these is represented by a record in a common flat file database, which would also be open for new items to be added. 头脑风暴出二十五种可能放入沙拉的多样食物清单。可以想象，这些食物每一种都在一个常见的平面文件数据库中有记录，并且可以随时添加新项目。
What would the attribute fields be if you wanted to combine the ingredients to make visually beautiful salads? 如果你想将食材组合在一起，制作出视觉上美丽的沙拉，应该有哪些属性字段？
What would the attribute fields be if you wanted to make healthy salads (be specific in your personal definition of healthy)? 如果你想制作健康的沙拉，应该包含哪些具体的属性字段？
Determine your own set of salad goals and attribute fields based on your own taste, drawing as much or as little as you like on the two previous attribute sets. 根据自己的口味设定一套沙拉目标和属性字段，可以根据之前的两个属性集进行灵活调整。
Using pseudocode or a flow chart write a rule set or decision tree that would access your salad ingredient database in order to assemble multiple pleasing salad combinations. 使用伪代码或流程图编写规则集或决策树，以访问您的沙拉配料数据库，从而组合出多种美味的沙拉。
Using Data Visualization Tools 使用数据可视化工具进行分析
On the ManyEyes website (http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes) or a similar resource for visualization strategies and software, compare two visualizations of the same data set. 在 ManyEyes 网站（http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes）或类似的可视化策略和软件资源中，比较同一数据集的两种可视化方式。
Which provides the best display by Shneiderman’s criteria of overview, zoom, filtering, and details on demand? 哪种显示方式最符合 Shneiderman 提出的概述、缩放、过滤和按需详细信息的标准？
How would you improve them to address any deficiencies? 你会如何改进它们以弥补不足之处？
On the same website, choose a single tool or visualization strategy and apply it two or more data sets. How was it suitable or not suitable for each of them? 在同一个网站上，选择一个工具或可视化策略，并将其应用于两个或多个数据集。这个工具对每个数据集的适用性如何？
Becoming More Aware of the Cultural Values Implicit in Informational Resources 更加意识到信息资源中蕴含的文化价值观
Find three quantitative charts on the same general issue from current news sources (e.g., election results, ecological disaster and recovery efforts, the state of the financial system, pending legislation). 从当前新闻来源中找到三个关于相同主题的定量图表（例如，选举结果、生态灾害及恢复工作、金融系统状况、待决立法）。
What labeled elements of the domain and what attributes and values are the charts based on? 这些图表是基于哪些标记的领域元素及其属性和数值的？
What parts of the domain have not been counted and have been rendered invisible? 领域中哪些部分未被计算且变得不可见？
How would you modify the display of They Rule (http://www.theyrule.net), using the same data, to celebrate rather than call into question the activities of people serving on multiple boards? 你会如何修改“They Rule”（http://www.theyrule.net）的展示，使用相同的数据，以庆祝而非质疑那些在多个董事会任职的人的活动？
Two private exercises follow, not to be shared, on values and labeling: 接下来有两个私人练习，内容不可分享，涉及价值观和标签：
Create a coding system to rate the activities of your friends and family on the attributes, actions, products, and services that are most important to you. Use as your model a hospital billing system, but assign credits and demerits instead of prices. For example, your partner making you breakfast would earn credits whereas crashing your car would earn demerits. Would you ever show this system to any of the people involved? To other people? Is this kind of scoring a useful basis for thinking about relationships? 创建一个评分系统，用于评估你朋友和家人在你认为最重要的属性、行为、产品和服务上的表现。可以以医院账单系统为模型，但用积分和扣分来代替价格。例如，你的伴侣为你做早餐会获得积分，而撞车则会扣分。你会向参与的人展示这个系统吗？向其他人展示吗？这种评分方式是否有助于思考人际关系？
Now make a similar coding system for your own behavior, using multiple tables for the different people or interest groups you interact with. What earns their favor or disfavor? How would you feel if you were being scored in this way? Would you or someone you know find it helpful? 现在为你的行为创建一个类似的编码系统，使用多个表格记录你与不同的人或利益团体的互动。什么能赢得他们的喜爱或反感？如果你被这样评分，你会有什么感受？你或你认识的人会觉得这有帮助吗？
This part can be shared if you choose: Based on the two private exercises, do you think there are some kinds of information that definitely should not be expressed in quantitative form? Why or why not? 如果你愿意，这部分可以分享：根据这两个私人练习，你认为有没有一些信息是绝对不应该以定量形式表达的？为什么？
Working with Boundary Objects 处理边界对象
Social networking sites as boundary objects: sites like MySpace or Facebook or LinkedIn are examples of boundary objects that are used by many diverse communities of practice, from teenagers or seniors looking for social connections to public relations firms bringing attention to entertainment media to professionals connecting with one another. Choose three distinctly different kinds of users from any social networking site and consider: 社交网络网站作为边界对象：像 MySpace、Facebook 或 LinkedIn 这样的社交网络平台是许多不同实践社区使用的边界对象的例子。这些用户包括寻找社交联系的青少年和老年人、关注娱乐媒体的公关公司，以及相互联系的专业人士。请从任何社交网络网站中选择三种截然不同的用户，并进行思考：
How does the category of “friend” or similar linking mechanism function the same and differently in each of the three groups? How are people connected to one another? “朋友”或类似的联系机制在这三组中是如何相同和不同的？人们之间是如何建立联系的？
How are updating conventions like blog posts or a status line used by each of your groups? In what way are the uses similar? How do they diverge? 你们各组是如何使用更新的惯例，比如博客文章或状态更新的？这些用法有什么相似之处？又有哪些不同之处？
Do your groups intersect at any point (e.g., parents monitoring children; corporations posting to personal pages)? What is the effect of these intersections? 你的群体是否在某些方面交集（例如，父母监控孩子，企业在个人页面上发帖）？这些交集会产生什么影响？
Suppose that the three groups were on different sites with divergent conventions. How would the linking mechanisms, blog posts, status lines, or (if you like) some other convention(s) change if customized for only one kind of user? 假设这三个组在不同的网站上，采用了不同的惯例。如果只为某一种用户进行定制，链接机制、博客文章、状态更新或其他一些惯例会有什么变化呢？
Using Prototype Theory to Map a Domain 利用原型理论对一个领域进行映射
Make a list of at least twenty-five objects within an ambiguous category or emerging genre of diverse digital objects such as websites, video games, mobile phone applications, input devices. Make two copies of the list: one that is fixed and linear, and another that is made up of movable objects, one per item, such as index cards or bubbles on a concept mapping program. 列出至少二十五个模糊类别或新兴类型的多样数字对象，例如网站、视频游戏、手机应用程序和输入设备。制作两份清单：一份是固定的线性清单，另一份是由可移动对象组成的，每个项目一个，比如索引卡或概念图软件中的气泡。
Choose three of the objects as representative prototypes-best examples-of diverging aspects of the domain. 选择三个物体作为代表性原型——它们是该领域不同方面的最佳示例。
Draw a diagram, placing these three objects spatially in a way that represents their relationship to one another. For example, they might be in an equilateral triangle or points along a line. Leave room for the other objects on your list to fit on the same diagram. 画一个图，将这三个物体空间地放置，以展示它们之间的关系。例如，它们可以形成一个等边三角形或沿着一条直线排列。请留出空间，以便在同一图中放置你列表上的其他物体。
Look over the remaining items and place them one by one on your diagram, taking care to mark their proximity to each of the landmark prototypes. 检查剩余的项目，并将它们逐一放置在你的图表上，注意标记它们与每个地标原型的距离。
Compare your diagram to those of other individuals or groups. Do their prototypical examples make sense to you and vice versa? What qualities have been important for each group? 比较您的图表与其他个人或团体的图表。他们的典型例子对您来说是否合理？反过来，您认为哪些品质对每个团体来说是重要的？
Can you create a unified representation that includes all the items listed by both groups? Can you use all the prototypical examples or do you have to eliminate or combine some or invent new ones? How does the landscape change when the prototypes change? 你能否创建一个统一的表示，涵盖两个组列出的所有项目？你能使用所有的原型示例，还是需要去掉或合并一些，或者创造新的？当原型发生变化时，情况会有什么不同？
Compare an information organization based on prototypes with one designed as a hierarchy. Collect the titles of 100 songs from everyone in class without identifying who supplied which item. Arrange the collected list in a database with whatever metadata are already attached to the items. Sort them alphabetically by title (or in any way that randomizes the genres of music) and take the first fifty items as your Test Set. 比较基于原型的信息组织与基于层次结构设计的信息组织。从班级中的每位同学那里收集 100 首歌曲的标题，且不标明谁提供了哪些项目。将收集到的列表整理成数据库，并附上已有的元数据。按标题的字母顺序（或以其他方式随机化音乐类型）对它们进行排序，并将前五十个项目作为测试集。
Stage 1: Divide into two groups, H and P. 第一步：将其分为两组，H 组和 P 组。
Group H: Create a hierarchical representation of categories of music that includes everything in the items in the Test Set. 第 H 组：创建一个音乐类别的层次结构，涵盖测试集中的所有项目。
Group P: Create a prototype diagram organizing the Test Set based on exemplary prototypes and outliers, with proximity used to indicate the degree of resemblance (e.g., How far is selection X from Johnny Cash and from Edith Piaf?). Indicate the attributes shared by items that are near one another. 群体 P：创建一个原型图，组织测试集，基于典型原型和异常值，使用接近度来表示相似度（例如，选择 X 与约翰尼·卡什和艾迪特·皮雅芙的距离有多远？）。指出相互接近的项目所共享的属性。
Both groups: You may add items to the list to make the classification clearer or to provide better examples of exemplars and proximities, but you must account for all the original Test Set items. 两组：您可以向列表中添加项目，以使分类更加清晰，或提供更好的示例和相似度，但您必须考虑所有原始测试集中的项目。
Be sure to provide clear descriptors for the hierarchical categories (Group H) and for the shared attributes that create the landscape of prototypes (Group P). 确保为层次类别（组 H）和构成原型景观的共享属性（组 P）提供清晰的描述。
Refine the original database as you make up your chart to accommodate the distinctions you are making with appropriate attribute fields. 在制作图表时，优化原始数据库，以便更好地反映您所做的区分，并使用合适的属性字段。
Your end product is a hierarchy or prototype chart and a revised database. 你的最终产品是一个层级结构图或原型图，以及一个修订过的数据库。
Stage 2: Reconvene and compare Group H’s and Group P’s organizations. 第二阶段：重新召开会议，比较 H 组和 P 组的组织。
How closely do the organizational schemas resemble one another? 这些组织架构之间的相似性有多大？
How closely do the associated databases resemble one another? 这些相关数据库之间的相似性有多大？
What distinctions or resemblances are better captured by one or the other approach? 哪种方法更能有效地体现出区别或相似之处？
Could the songs that were added beyond the Test Set by each of the groups fit into the schema of the other group? 每个小组在测试集之外添加的歌曲能否符合另一个小组的标准？
Stage 3: Work separately to refine your schema, using as many of the remaining fifty items as possible. Compare the refined diagrams and consider together the common difficulties of organizing the domain, and the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. 第三阶段：独立工作以完善你的架构，尽可能利用剩下的五十个项目。比较完善后的图示，并共同探讨组织领域的普遍困难，以及每种方法的优缺点。
9 The Structured Document Model: Using Standardized Metadata to Share Knowledge 9 结构化文档模型：利用标准化元数据共享知识
Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them. 全新的百科全书形式将会出现，内容中将交织着许多关联的路径。
-Vannevar Bush (1945) -范尼瓦·布什（1945 年）
Whatever digital artifact we are designing-whether it is a marketing and retail space for a toy seller or a repository for data about stars at the farthest reaches of the cosmos-we can approach the task as an opportunity to advance the encyclopedic potential of the medium. The aggregation of media archives in digital form offers a historic challenge to the designer to turn an exponential increase in our inscription and transmission capacity into a comparable increase in human knowledge by inventing and refining more powerful conventions of information organization. 无论我们设计的数字产品是什么——无论是玩具销售商的营销和零售空间，还是关于宇宙最遥远星体的数据存储库——我们都可以将这项任务视为提升媒介百科全书潜力的机会。数字形式的媒体档案聚合为设计师带来了历史性的挑战，要求他们将记录和传输能力的指数增长转化为人类知识的相应提升，通过发明和完善更强大的信息组织方式。
Structured Documents Are the Basis of the World Wide Web 结构化文档是互联网的基础
Databases are now a crucial part of web design. A large retail site like Amazon.com is generated dynamically from items stored in relational databases. The basic information for a book description is entered only once, and can then be pulled up in whole or in part on multiple pages that are assembled as they are needed. If anything needs to be altered, it is altered only once, and then every instance of the book description will incorporate those changes. Similarly, college course catalogs, which used to be print items, released every few years and often out of date, are now routinely kept as databases and published on the web. Information about individual courses can be accessed in multiple contexts, and descriptions of programs can be kept up to date by maintaining the database entry. But the web does not display information in the form of database reports; it displays them as structured documents. 数据库如今已成为网页设计中不可或缺的一部分。像亚马逊这样的大型零售网站是通过存储在关系数据库中的商品动态生成的。书籍描述的基本信息只需输入一次，之后可以在多个按需生成的页面中全部或部分提取。如果需要进行更改，只需修改一次，书籍描述的每个实例都会反映这些更改。同样，曾经每隔几年发布一次、常常过时的大学课程目录，现在通常以数据库的形式维护，并在网上发布。关于单个课程的信息可以在多个场合中访问，而课程的描述则可以通过维护数据库条目来保持最新。 但网络并不是以数据库报告的形式展示信息，而是以结构化文档的方式呈现。
A structured document is a text, image, video, or audio file, or combination thereof that has labeled (tagged) sections, similar to database fields whose contents can be referenced by those semantic tags. The World Wide Web is a collection of loosely structured documents that is growing more organized over time through the adoption 结构化文档是指带有标记（标签）部分的文本、图像、视频或音频文件，或其组合，类似于数据库字段，其内容可以通过这些语义标签进行引用。万维网是一个松散结构的文档集合，随着时间的推移，因采用而变得越来越有条理。
of standards for tagging media containers. Just as the much copied proverbs, spells, and sales slips that formed the pasted-together rolls of papyrus eventually grew into the organizational complexity of the modern library and database, so the scraps of information we are currently creating and retrieving over the web may someday be transformed by similar advances in organization and aggregation into a more coherent repository of knowledge. As with earlier advances in knowledge aggregation, greater organization of our burgeoning networked resources will result from the basic activities of labeling, classifying, and establishing intellectual access at multiple levels of semantic segmentation. 媒体容器标记标准的来源。就像那些被广泛模仿的谚语、咒语和销售单据最终拼接成现代图书馆和数据库的复杂组织结构一样，我们现在在网络上创建和检索的信息碎片，未来也可能通过类似的组织和聚合进步，转变为一个更连贯的知识库。与早期知识聚合的进步相似，我们日益增长的网络资源的更高效组织，将源于标记、分类以及在多个语义层面上建立知识访问的基本活动。
The World Wide Web is the result of five centuries of print culture. By the 1940s, and with the heightened emphasis on knowledge systems that came from the development of the university/military/industrial complex, it became apparent to some that the library system could no longer keep pace with an exponential knowledge explosion and the growing demand for faster access to information for commercial and political purposes. In 1945, Vannevar Bush, director of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development during World War II, published a visionary essay called “As We May Think,” in which he imagined a futuristic workspace based on photoimages of books that could be called up at will, annotated, and linked. He called this imaginary machine the memex because of its role as an extension of human memory. Here is Bush’s classic description of how it would operate: 万维网是五个世纪印刷文化的产物。到 1940 年代，随着大学、军事和工业综合体的发展对知识系统的重视，一些人意识到图书馆系统已无法跟上知识的快速增长，以及对商业和政治目的更快获取信息的需求。1945 年，二战期间美国科学研究与发展办公室主任范尼瓦·布什发表了一篇名为《我们可能如何思考》的前瞻性文章，他设想了一个基于书籍图像的未来工作空间，可以随时调取、注释和链接。 他把这个虚构的机器称为 memex，因为它是人类记忆的延伸。这是布什对其运作方式的经典描述：
The owner of the memex, let us say, is interested in the origin and properties of the bow and arrow. He has dozens of pertinent books and articles in his memex. First he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy article. . . . Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent item and he ties the two together. Thus he goes building a trail of many items. Occasionally he inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the main trail, or joining it by a side trail to a particular item. memex 的拥有者，假设他对弓箭的起源和特性感兴趣。他在 memex 中有数十本相关的书籍和文章。首先，他浏览了一本百科全书，找到了一篇有趣但简略的文章……接着，在一本历史书中，他又找到了另一项相关的内容，并将两者联系在一起。于是，他开始建立许多项目的路径。偶尔，他会插入自己的评论，要么将其链接到主路径中，要么通过侧路径与特定项目相连接。
And the trails do not fade. (Bush 1945) 小径不会消逝。(布什 1945)
To explore this new frontier of knowledge, Bush called for “a new profession of trail blazers, those who find delight in the task of establishing useful trails through the enormous mass of the common record.” 为了探索这一知识的新前沿，布什呼吁成立“一个新的开拓者职业，乐于在庞大的公共记录中开辟有用路径的人们。”
Bush’s model combines the American myth of exploring uncharted wilderness with the scientist’s paradigm of collective mapping and individual trailblazing. His model assumes an active, almost restless search for knowledge. Bush’s scientist is not expected to follow or forge a straight line. There are side trails as well as main trails creating a space of intersecting experts, mapping a common landscape of knowledge. Isaac Newton’s famous celebration of the contribution of scientific trailblazers is similarly geographical: “If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants” (letter to Robert Hooke, 1676). But Newton’s metaphor implies a fixed position and a topdown view on a fixed geography of knowledge. Bush imagines knowledge as a forest 布什的模型将美国探索未知荒野的神话与科学家们的集体制图和个人开辟新路的理念结合在一起。他的模型假设知识的追求是一种积极且几乎无止境的探索。布什所描绘的科学家并不被期望遵循或开辟一条直线，而是有主干道和支路，形成一个交叉的专家网络，共同绘制出知识的全景。艾萨克·牛顿对科学开拓者贡献的著名赞美同样具有地理意义：“如果我看得更远，那是因为我站在巨人的肩膀上”（致罗伯特·胡克的信，1676 年）。然而，牛顿的隐喻暗示了一个固定的位置和对知识地理的自上而下的视角。布什则将知识想象成一片森林。
to be traversed, with multiple pioneers at ground level, moving in different directions, to create a dynamic, collaborative network of human understanding. After five centuries of print culture, the landscape is too big to be surveyed whole by any one person. 需要被探索，地面上有多个先锋朝不同方向移动，以建立一个动态的、协作的人类理解网络。经过五个世纪的印刷文化，这个领域太广阔，任何一个人都无法全面了解。
Bush’s model of a web of knowledge was picked up in the 1960s by Ted Nelson as the networked desktop computer terminal was becoming available, and higher-level programming languages were expanding the range of business and technical applications from payrolls to space flight. Ted Nelson coined the term “hypertext,” and proposed using computers as “literary machines,” envisioning vast digital libraries that connected texts to one another. 布什的知识网络模型在 1960 年代被泰德·尼尔森采纳，当时网络桌面计算机终端逐渐普及，高级编程语言也扩展了从工资管理到航天飞行的各种商业和技术应用。泰德·尼尔森创造了“超文本”这一术语，并提出将计算机视为“文学机器”，设想建立一个连接各类文本的庞大数字图书馆。
Nelson was the first person to think and write extensively about how texts could change in digital form by taking advantage of the capacity and processing power of the machine. He envisioned a system with a highly complex structure in which any document could reference and include any part of any other document, and he remained an advocate for this architecture even after the worldwide adoption of HTML, continuing to work on his lifelong project of an ideal system called Xanadu. For Nelson, hypertext should always associate every part of a document with a single originating instance, and automatically link all other instances of and excerpts from that document back to its original, a feature he calls transclusion. In a system with transclusion all instances and excerpts of a single document would change whenever the originating author saves changes to the originating file. His notion is an application of the concept of modularity, similar to the way the same function can be called by different programs; or the same externally stored image can be displayed in multiple HTML (HyperText Markup Language) pages just by naming them within a shared protocol (like a programming language or URL). Nelson and others have argued that such a system is the best way to resolve the problem of authorship, allowing clear attribution of all copied materials and supporting micropayments to authors (Nelson 1974a, 1974b, 1987, 1992, 2007) (figure 9.1). 纳尔逊是第一个深入思考和撰写文本如何利用机器的能力和处理能力在数字形式中发生变化的人。他设想了一个结构极为复杂的系统，任何文档都可以引用并包含其他文档的任何部分。即使在 HTML 被全球广泛采用后，他仍然坚持这一架构，继续致力于他一生的理想系统项目，称为 Xanadu。对纳尔逊而言，超文本应始终将文档的每个部分与一个唯一的原始实例关联，并自动将该文档的所有其他实例和摘录链接回其原始实例，这一特性被称为转引。 在一个具有转引功能的系统中，单个文档的所有实例和摘录会在原作者保存对原文件的更改时自动更新。这一观点体现了模块化的概念，类似于同一函数可以被不同程序调用，或者同一外部存储的图像可以通过在共享协议（如编程语言或 URL）中命名，在多个 HTML（超文本标记语言）页面中显示。尼尔森及其他人认为，这样的系统是解决著作权问题的最佳方式，能够清晰地归属所有复制材料，并支持对作者的微支付（尼尔森 1974a, 1974b, 1987, 1992, 2007）（图 9.1）。
By the end of the 1980s several hypertext systems had been created, which used “hot words” and “buttons” to link pieces of information together, causing the user to jump from one note card-like segment of information to another by clicking on the “hot” word. These systems were widely used in educational environments, but they were incompatible with one another, and were mostly stand-alone rather than networked systems. The most successful such system was Apple Computer’s HyperCard, which employed the format of a stack of index cards, and allowed consumers rather than professionals to create links. The wide use of HyperCard in schools helped prepare the way for the networked hypertext of the 1990s, and inspired the wiki structure of networked, collaborative hypermedia, exemplified by Wikipedia. It is significant that it was based on the familiar convention of the index card, invented at the end of the eighteenth century and used most widely in library cataloging systems. 到 1980 年代末，已经出现了几种超文本系统，这些系统使用“热词”和“按钮”将信息片段连接起来，用户可以通过点击“热”词从一个类似便签的信息段跳转到另一个。这些系统在教育环境中被广泛应用，但彼此之间不兼容，主要是独立的，而非网络系统。其中最成功的系统是苹果公司的 HyperCard，它采用了索引卡堆叠的格式，允许消费者而非专业人士创建链接。 超级卡在学校的广泛应用为 1990 年代的网络超文本奠定了基础，并启发了以维基百科为例的网络协作超媒体的维基结构。值得一提的是，它是基于 18 世纪末发明的索引卡这一熟悉的形式，最广泛应用于图书馆的编目系统。
Figure 9.1 第 9.1 图
Ted Nelson’s Xanadu system displaying multiple versions of the text of the Declaration of Independence. The system is based on a vision of hypertext as a complex conversation among documents with multiple appropriations and recontextualizing of the same texts. See <http://www. xanadu.com.au>. 泰德·尼尔森的 Xanadu 系统展示了《独立宣言》文本的多个版本。该系统基于超文本的理念，将其视为文档之间复杂对话的体现，涉及对相同文本的多重引用和重新语境化。详情请见。
Networked hypertext became a unifying global format for the inscription and transmission of information largely because of the ingenuity and social principles of Tim Berners-Lee, who developed the HyperText Markup Language (HTML) while working as a researcher at the CERN physics laboratory in Switzerland in the 1980s, and created the world’s first HTML website in August 1991. Berners-Lee wanted to make it easier for researchers to share documents loaded on servers, which was then done with the file transfer protocol (FTP). To FTP a file required specialized software and the file itself was not viewable until it was opened in whatever software had created it. There were passwords involved in each transaction and the transferred files might not display properly on the recipient’s machine. Berners-Lee’s standardized markup language and system of net addresses (the URL, or universal resource locator) made it easier to find the right document on the right machine and to display it in 网络超文本成为信息记录和传输的统一全球格式，这主要得益于蒂姆·伯纳斯-李的聪明才智和社会原则。他在 1980 年代作为瑞士 CERN 物理实验室的研究员时开发了超文本标记语言（HTML），并于 1991 年 8 月创建了世界上第一个 HTML 网站。伯纳斯-李希望让研究人员更方便地分享存储在服务器上的文档，而当时的做法是使用文件传输协议（FTP）。通过 FTP 传输文件需要专门的软件，并且文件在打开之前是不可查看的。每次交易都需要密码，转移的文件在接收方的计算机上可能无法正确显示。伯纳斯-李的标准化标记语言和网络地址系统（即 URL，通用资源定位符）使得在正确的机器上找到并显示正确的文档变得更加简单
readable form on any platform. Most importantly, HTML included a tagging convention for turning any part of the document into a link, eliminating the need for securing and typing in a URL for every file you wanted to view, and providing a uniform transmission code for hypertext. 可以在任何平台上以可读的形式使用。最重要的是，HTML 包含了一种标记约定，可以将文档的任何部分转换为链接，这样就不需要为每个想要查看的文件输入 URL，同时也提供了超文本的统一传输代码。
One of the crucial elements in a hypertext system is that it eliminates one or more layers of distracting transmission code. In a library we have to translate our request into a call number and the call number into a location on a shelf. In a book index we have to translate our interest area into possible key words, look up variants of the key words in an index, follow the index pointer to a particular page and search the page for the related material. In a hypertext system the indexed key words are the pointers and the URL is hidden in the source code. The link is a powerful new kind of label, unique to computational environments: it can function as an identifier, descriptor, address, and as a means of directly retrieving the information it identifies, describes, and points to. 超文本系统中的一个关键要素是它消除了一个或多个分散注意力的传输代码。在图书馆中，我们需要将请求转换为调用号码，再将调用号码转换为书架上的位置。在书籍索引中，我们需要将兴趣领域转换为可能的关键词，查找索引中关键词的变体，跟随索引指针到特定页面，并在页面上搜索相关材料。在超文本系统中，索引的关键词就是指针，而 URL 则隐藏在源代码中。链接是一种强大的新型标签，独特于计算环境：它可以作为标识符、描述符、地址，以及直接检索其所标识、描述和指向的信息的手段。
Because of the organizing power of the link, the value of hyperlinked information rests on the quality of the words and images used as pointers, the semantic descriptor that is enclosed within the linking tag and displayed as an underlined or colored link. These labels that we apply to URLs are taking the place of the library catalog and shelving system. But the catalog and shelving system are professionalized classification practices with over a century of information design behind them. By contrast a link in a hypertext system may or may not be under editorial control, and is part of an open, universally available, information structure with only a few decades worth of practice behind it. Among the clearest symptoms of this immaturity is the persistence of “Links” (See figures 9.2,9.39.2,9.3 ) as a section of a website. This was understandable given the novelty of hyperlinks, but “Links” is no more descriptive than “Names” or “Addresses” or “Books.” A link is merely a pointer; the user needs to know what kinds of things are being pointed to under this heading. 由于链接的组织能力，超链接信息的价值依赖于作为指示符的词语和图像的质量，这些词语和图像被封装在链接标签中，并以带下划线或彩色的形式展示。我们为 URL 所应用的这些标签正在取代图书馆的目录和书架系统。然而，目录和书架系统是经过专业化的分类实践，背后有超过一个世纪的信息设计经验。相比之下，超文本系统中的链接可能受到编辑控制，也可能不受控制，它是一个开放的、普遍可用的信息结构，只有几十年的实践经验。 这种不成熟的最明显症状之一就是“链接”这一网站部分的持续存在（见图 9.2,9.39.2,9.3 ）。考虑到超链接的创新性，这种情况是可以理解的，但“链接”这个词并没有比“名称”、“地址”或“书籍”更具描述性。链接仅仅是一个指向；用户需要了解在这个标题下所指向的具体内容。
HTML also included other kinds of tags besides links, directing the browser how to display the information. Some tags indicated elements directly, such as the horizontal rule tag; some gave formatting instructions, such as the tags for italics or bold text or a bulleted or numbered list; and some gave formatting instructions less directly through structural labels, such as heading 1 or heading2. The information was presented as a document structured by the tags. HTML 还包含除了链接以外的其他类型标签，指示浏览器如何显示信息。一些标签直接表示元素，比如水平线标签；一些则提供格式化指令，比如斜体或粗体文本的标签，或项目符号和编号列表；还有一些通过结构标签间接提供格式化指令，比如标题 1 或标题 2。信息以标签结构化的文档形式呈现。
Berners-Lee could have turned his invention into another proprietary hypertext system. Instead he made a profound design choice: he decided that HTML should be free and standard, transforming the practice of information sharing on the Internet from file transfers, email discussion lists, and proprietary bulletin boards into a World Wide Web that has instantiated Vannevar Bush’s vision of linked information trails, and profoundly transformed our ability to experience shared attention with one another. 伯纳斯-李本可以将他的发明变成另一个专有的超文本系统，但他做出了一个深远的设计选择：他决定 HTML 应该是免费的和标准的。这一决定将互联网的信息共享方式从文件传输、电子邮件讨论组和专有公告板转变为一个实现了范尼瓦·布什链接信息路径愿景的万维网，深刻改变了我们彼此共享注意力的能力。
GNU’s Who GNU 是谁
Speakers 音响设备
ThankGNUs 感谢 GNU 项目
GNU Art 自由软件艺术
GNU Fun GNU 自由软件
Music & Songs 音乐和歌曲
Free Software Jobs 自由软件职位
Links 连接
Figure 9.2 第 9.2 图
Many early websites included “Links” as a category in the navigation menu, which made more sense in a time of fewer websites and weaker search engines. “Links” here leads to a page with the more descriptive title “Links to Other Free Software Sites.” 许多早期网站在导航菜单中将“链接”作为一个类别，这在网站数量较少、搜索引擎功能较弱的时代更为合理。“链接”指向一个标题更为详细的页面，名为“其他免费软件网站的链接”。
Figure 9.3 第 9.3 图
Vague umbrella labels like About and Links and the need for a Site Map separate from the navigation menus are signs that the information in the site has not been sorted systematically. 像“关于”和“链接”这样的模糊标签，以及需要一个独立于导航菜单的站点地图，表明网站中的信息尚未系统分类。
Making Meaning with Metadata 利用元数据赋予意义
Structured documents, like HTML pages, gain their structure by using metadata tags to segment and label chunks of media. Metadata (the term is the same for singular and plural) is data about data, keywords attached to a text or visual document. Metadata in the form of sets of descriptors attached to a media objects (such as books, movies, photographs, watercolors, or digital files of any kind) can describe the structure, use, ownership, or content of the object. HTML is primarily a set of metadata tags that describe the logical structure governing the presentation or display of a document. For example, metadata tag “h1” can be attached to a chunk of text to indicate that the enclosed phrase should be displayed as a top-level heading. Associated style 结构化文档，如 HTML 页面，通过使用元数据标签来划分和标记媒体内容，从而获得其结构。元数据（该术语在单数和复数中相同）是关于数据的数据，附加在文本或视觉文档上的关键词。以描述符集形式存在的元数据附加在媒体对象（如书籍、电影、照片、水彩画或任何类型的数字文件）上，可以描述对象的结构、用途、所有权或内容。HTML 主要是一组描述文档呈现或显示逻辑结构的元数据标签。例如，元数据标签“h1”可以附加到一段文本上，以指示该短语应显示为顶级标题。相关样式
sheets can describe the attributes of an h1 tag (such as color, size), allowing the designer to deal with logical structure and presentation in separate abstraction layers, each with their own appropriate metadata tags. 样式表可以描述 h1 标签的属性（如颜色、大小），使设计师能够在不同的抽象层中分别处理逻辑结构和表现，每个层都有相应的元数据标签。
Metadata are often in the form of attributes and values, like the fields in a database or library catalog. Digital metadata are searchable, allowing users to find objects based on multiple descriptors, to filter information by facets, and to group objects together in multiple different arrangements. A single digital photo with metadata attached to it may appear in answer to three separate queries, such as “birthday,” “candles,” or “baby.” A song may be found by its own name or the name of the singer or the writer or the year of its recording. The addition of metadata tags to web documents was an important part of the change in the early 2000s to the more organized and participatory environment popularly referred to as Web 2.0. 元数据通常以属性和值的形式存在，类似于数据库或图书馆目录中的字段。数字元数据是可搜索的，允许用户根据多个描述符查找对象，通过不同的维度过滤信息，并以多种方式将对象分组。附有元数据的单张数字照片可能会在三个不同的查询中出现，例如“生日”、“蜡烛”或“婴儿”。一首歌可以通过其名称、歌手的名字、作曲家的名字或录音年份来查找。向网页文档添加元数据标签是 2000 年代初期向更有组织和参与性的环境（通常称为 Web 2.0）转变的重要组成部分。
Metadata can be assigned or derived. The Library of Congress Classification is an example of assigned metadata. Any work that comes into the library must be assigned a place within this structure. Assigned descriptors are usually part of a hierarchical world, and the assignment of descriptors to items can be thought of as an intellectually top-down operation, starting with a preexisting tree, and settling each item as a unique leaf on its appropriate branch, like a book on a shelf. The social process is also top-down in that the administrators of the archive control the choice of descriptors. The Dublin Core is an example of a more limited set of descriptors for cataloging digital artifacts, with only fifteen “core” elements in the original specification (figure 9.8), but it requires a complex committee structure to administer the specification and coordinate it with other nomenclatures (see http://dublincore.org). Establishing the social structure to decide on and enforce uniform metadata conventions is a crucial aspect of information design. 元数据可以被分配或派生。国会图书馆分类就是一个分配元数据的例子。任何进入图书馆的作品都必须在这个结构中被分配一个位置。分配的描述符通常属于一个层次结构，将描述符分配给项目可以视为一种自上而下的智力操作，从一个预先存在的树开始，将每个项目安置为其适当分支上的独特叶子，就像书架上的一本书。这个社会过程同样是自上而下的，因为档案的管理员控制着描述符的选择。都柏林核心是一个更有限的描述符集，用于对数字文物进行编目，原始规范中仅包含十五个“核心”元素（图 9）。8)，但这需要一个复杂的委员会结构来管理该规范，并与其他命名法进行协调（见 http://dublincore.org）。建立一个社会结构以决定和执行统一的元数据标准是信息设计中的一个关键环节。
Derived descriptors are more open ended. They resemble the words in an index. They are not normalized as assigned terms are, but are used as they appear in the original artifact. Derived descriptions are sometimes drawn from specific fields in a document like article abstracts in a scholarly journal or closed captions in a television program. We can automate the process of creating metadata from an electronic text by creating a concordance (a list of all the words in the work), eliminating common words, and looking for frequently used words or phrases. This is a bottom-up process, and closer to the original text, but subject to inconsistencies and (if automated) misinterpretations of context. 派生描述更加开放，类似于索引中的词汇。它们不像分配的术语那样经过标准化，而是直接使用原始文献中的表述。派生描述有时来源于文档中特定的字段，例如学术期刊的文章摘要或电视节目的字幕。我们可以通过创建一个词汇表（即作品中所有单词的列表）、去除常见词汇，并寻找频繁使用的单词或短语，来自动化从电子文本生成元数据的过程。这是一个自下而上的过程，更接近原始文本，但可能会受到不一致性和（如果自动化）上下文误解的影响。
Until the advent of the Internet, tagging was either informal and private or formal and controlled by official organizations. An individual might have an index of their collection of recorded music on a set of index cards with private notes on the salient characteristics of each record or tape, but no one else would be likely to use the system. Librarians, on the other hand, practiced uniform systems of categorization because they were representing an authority structure and a fixed order. But on the Internet, 在互联网出现之前，标签要么是非正式和私人的，要么是正式的并由官方组织控制。个人可能会在一组索引卡上记录他们的音乐收藏，并附上关于每张唱片或磁带显著特征的私人笔记，但其他人不太可能使用这个系统。另一方面，图书管理员使用统一的分类系统，因为他们代表着一种权威结构和固定的秩序。然而，随着互联网的出现，
everyone can attach their own descriptors to items and then share them with the world. Media aggregation sites encourage users to share their images, music, audio recordings, and videos with one another and they provide an open tagging system in which objects are categorized by a social process. Tagging is now a widely practiced, unregulated and semiregulated activity in many media sharing environments, and even in text messages. The social utility Twitter was the first to introduce metadata tags for instant messages in 2009. The enthusiastic adoption of metadata for messages limited to 140 characters is striking evidence of the importance of shared tagging systems for navigating the expanding information stream (figure 9.4). 每个人都可以将自己的描述附加到物品上，并与世界分享。媒体聚合网站鼓励用户相互分享他们的图片、音乐、音频录音和视频，并提供一个开放的标签系统，通过社会过程对物品进行分类。标签现在在许多媒体分享环境中是一种广泛实践的、无监管或半监管的活动，甚至在短信中也如此。社交平台 Twitter 是第一个在 2009 年为即时消息引入元数据标签的。对限于 140 个字符的消息使用元数据的热情，充分证明了共享标签系统在导航不断扩展的信息流中的重要性（图 9.4）。
The advantage of social tagging is in the distributed labor model that leverages the work of many people, each of whom only tags a small number of items, to organize a vast collection of existing materials or to bring together like things very rapidly, as in coverage of a emerging event, like a natural disaster. Furthermore, the assignment of objects to categories benefits from the collective thinking that takes place when many people have offered labels. If someone has already created tags for “vacation” and “beach” then we can just pick them off a list and know that our tagged photos will be collocated with other people’s beach vacation shots. 社会标签的优势在于其分布式劳动模型，利用许多人各自标记少量项目的方式，来组织大量现有材料或迅速汇集相似事物，例如对新兴事件（如自然灾害）的报道。此外，将对象归类的过程也受益于许多人共同提供标签时的集体思考。如果有人已经为“假期”和“海滩”创建了标签，我们可以直接从列表中选择这些标签，这样我们标记的照片就能与其他人的海滩假期照片一起展示。
Social tagging poses the challenge of how to provide overviews of such uneven and unpredictably tagged inventories. A popular early approach is the tag cloud; a nonsymmetrical (and therefore cloudlike) display of tags assembled though the procedural power of the computer, mapping size to frequency or sometimes recency. Some sites offer multiple tag clouds, selecting by popularity, date, place, or related subjects. Tag clouds leverage the distributed effort of markup to make the information selforganizing, and to create an automatically updating overview and navigation system. The drawback of such democratic participatory tagging is that the tags are not used consistently. Without an editor to enforce standard names, information may not be appropriately classified, and will therefore not be appropriated collocated (figure 9.5). 社交标签面临的挑战是如何提供不均匀且不可预测的标签库存的概述。一种早期流行的方法是标签云；这是一种不对称（因此看起来像云）的标签展示，通过计算机的程序能力进行组装，将标签的大小与频率或有时的最近性相对应。一些网站提供多个标签云，按流行程度、日期、地点或相关主题进行选择。标签云利用标记的分布式努力，使信息能够自我组织，并创建一个自动更新的概述和导航系统。然而，这种民主参与式的标签方式的缺点是标签的使用并不一致。 如果没有编辑来强制使用标准名称，信息可能无法正确分类，因此也不会被恰当地归类（见图 9.5）。
Much of the self-organizing and emergent structures of the web take advantage of this informal, ambiguous tagging, often called folksonomies, because unlike taxonomies, they are created not by professionals but by just plain folks, without regulation or regard to consistency. A taxonomy of information is a clear hierarchy that avoids repetition and ambiguity. For example, an official taxonomy of U.S. cities would take the form of a hierarchy of states, with abbreviations (NYC, N.Y., NY) recognized as synonymous with full names (New York). But in a folksonomy NYC, NY, and Big Apple would be separate labels and Lexington might refer to a New York subway line, a Manhattan street, a town in Massachusetts, or a city in Kentucky. Taxonomies aim for complete representation of a domain and have to be created from a top-down perspective. folksonomies are created bottom up, from example to example without regard 网络的自组织和涌现结构在很大程度上利用了这种非正式且模糊的标签，通常称为民间分类法。与专业的分类法不同，民间分类法是由普通人创建的，没有规范或一致性的要求。信息的分类法是一个清晰的层次结构，避免重复和模糊。例如，美国城市的官方分类法会呈现为一个州的层次结构，其中的缩写（如 NYC、N.Y.、NY）被视为与全名（纽约）同义。然而，在民间分类法中，NYC、NY 和大苹果会被视为不同的标签，而列克星敦可能指的是纽约的地铁线路、曼哈顿的一条街道、马萨诸塞州的一个城镇或肯塔基州的一座城市。 分类法旨在全面代表一个领域，必须从整体出发进行构建。词汇分类是自下而上地从一个例子到另一个例子创建的，不受限制
Figure 9.4 第 9.4 图
Hash tags on twitter.com allow aggregation of user-defined topics. Twitter.com 上的话题标签允许用户聚合自定义主题。
for the overview. Folksonomies work best when they can leverage shared cultural patterns with predictable labels, such as social rituals (like birthday parties or graduations), mass activities (like sports, elections), controlled name spaces (like movies, tourist attractions, famous people), mass media topics (like breaking news, celebrity gossip, or ephemeral political buzzwords. Folksonomies can display a consistency and coverage similar to controlled vocabularies when they are employed with regularity and focus by specialized communities that make use of suggested shared tags. It is significant that many popular categories on delicious.com are technical terms such as “linux” and “javascript” (figure 9.6). 对于概述，folksonomy 在能够利用共享文化模式和可预测标签时效果最佳，例如社交仪式（如生日派对或毕业典礼）、大众活动（如体育、选举）、受控命名空间（如电影、旅游景点、名人）以及大众媒体话题（如突发新闻、名人八卦或短暂的政治流行语）。当 folksonomy 被专业社区定期和专注地使用建议的共享标签时，它可以展现出与受控词汇表相似的一致性和覆盖面。值得注意的是，delicious.com 上许多流行类别是技术术语，如“linux”和“javascript”（图 9.6）。
06 affica amsterdam animals architecture art asia august australia autumn baby 06 非洲 阿姆斯特丹 动物 建筑 艺术 亚洲 八月 澳大利亚 秋季 宝宝
barcelona beach berlin birthday black blackandwhite blue boston bw 巴塞罗那 海滩 柏林 生日 黑色 黑白 蓝色 波士顿 黑白照片
california cameraphone camping canada canon car cat cats chicago 加利福尼亚的手机摄影、露营、加拿大、佳能相机、汽车、猫和芝加哥
china christmas church city clouds color concert d5o day do december dog 中国的圣诞节教堂，城市的云彩和色彩，d5o 音乐会，日子，十二月，狗
england europe fall family festival film florida flower flowers food 英格兰 欧洲 秋季 家庭 节日 电影 佛罗里达 花卉 食品
france friends fun garden geotagged germany girl graffiti green halloween 法国的朋友们在德国的有趣花园里，涂鸦的绿色万圣节女孩
hawaii hiking holiday home honeymoon hongkong house india ireland island italy 夏威夷徒步旅行假期、家庭、蜜月、香港、房屋、印度、爱尔兰、岛屿、意大利
japan july kids sa lake landscape light live london losangeles macro me mexico 日本七月的孩子们在湖边的风景中，光线照耀着生活，伦敦、洛杉矶、微距和我在墨西哥
mountain mountains museum music nature new newyork newyorkcity newzealand night 山脉 博物馆 音乐 自然 新约克 纽约市 新西兰 夜晚
nikon nyc ocean paris park party people portrait red river roadtrip rock rome 尼康 纽约 海洋 巴黎 公园 聚会 人物 肖像 红色 河流 自驾游 岩石 罗马
san sanfrancisco scotland sea seattle show sky snow spain spring street 旧金山 苏格兰 海洋 西雅图 展示 天空 雪 西班牙 春天 街道
summer sun sunset sydney taiwan texas thailand tokyo toronto travel tree 夏日阳光、日落、悉尼、台湾、德克萨斯、泰国、东京、多伦多、旅行、树木
trees trip uk urban usa vacation vancouver washington water Wedding 英国城市的树木旅行，美国温哥华华盛顿的水上婚礼假期
white winter yellow york zoo 白色的冬天，黄色的约克动物园
06 africa amsterdam animals architecture art asia august australia autumn baby barcelona beach berlin birthday black blackandwhite blue boston bw california cameraphone camping canada canon car cat cats chicago china christmas church city clouds color concert a50 day dc december dog england europe fall family festival film florida flower flowers food france friends fun garden geotagged germany girl graffiti green halloween hawaii niking holiday home honeymoon hongkong house india ireland island italy japan july kids ta lake landscape light live london losangeles macro me mexico mountain mountains museum music nature new newyork newyorkcity newzealand night nikon nyc ocean paris park party people portrait red river roadtrip rock rome san sanfrancisco scotland sea seattle show sky snow spain spring street summer sun sunset sydney taiwan texas thailand tokyo toronto travel tree trees trip uk urban usa vacation vancouver washington water Wedding white winter yellow york zoo 06 非洲 阿姆斯特丹 动物 建筑 艺术 亚洲 八月 澳大利亚 秋季 宝宝 巴塞罗那 海滩 柏林 生日 黑色 黑白 蓝色 波士顿 bw 加利福尼亚 手机摄影 露营 加拿大 佳能 汽车 猫 猫咪 芝加哥 中国 圣诞节 教堂 城市 云彩 颜色 音乐会 a50 天 dc 十二月 狗 英格兰 欧洲 秋季 家庭 节日 电影 佛罗里达 花 花朵 食物 法国 朋友 娱乐 花园 地理标记 德国 女孩 涂鸦 绿色 万圣节 夏威夷 niking 假期 家庭 蜜月 香港 房子 印度 爱尔兰 岛屿 意大利 日本 七月 孩子 ta 湖泊 风景 光线 现场 伦敦 洛杉矶 微距 我 墨西哥 山脉 博物馆 音乐 自然 新的 纽约 纽约市 新西兰 夜晚 nikon nyc 海洋 巴黎 公园 派对 人物 肖像 红色 河流 自驾游 岩石 罗马 圣 旧金山 苏格兰 海 洗 Seattle 表演 天空 雪 西班牙春天的街道，夏天的阳光，日落，悉尼，台湾，德克萨斯，泰国，东京，多伦多，旅行，树木，旅行，英国，城市，美国，假期，温哥华，华盛顿，水，婚礼，白色，冬天，黄色，纽约，动物园
Figure 9.5 第 9.5 图
The most popular Flickr.com tags for July 2007 include three variants of New York City: newyork, newyorkcity, and nyc. 2007 年 7 月，Flickr.com 上最受欢迎的标签包括纽约市的三种变体：newyork、newyorkcity 和 nyc。
Tag Cloud: Popular 热门标签云
KEY: green tags are tags you have in common with everyone else. Sort: Alphabetically | By size 关键：绿色标签是你与他人共有的标签。排序方式：按字母顺序 | 按大小排序
.net 2008 3d advertising ajax and animation api apple architecture art article articles artist audio .net 2008 3D 广告、AJAX 和动画 API、苹果、架构、艺术、文章、艺术家、音频
blog blogging blogs book books browser business car cms code collaboration comics community computer converter cooking cool css culture data database design Design desktop development diy documentation download downloads drupal ebooks economics education electronics email entertainment environment fashion fic film finance firefox flash flex flickr food forum free freeware fun funny gallery game games geek google government graphics green guide hardware health history home hosting house howto html humor icons illustration images imported information inspiration interactive interesting internet iphone japan java javascript jobs jquery kids language learning library linux list lists literature mac magazine management maps marketing math media microsoft mobile money movie movies mp3 music network networking news online opensource osx people phone photo photography photos photoshop php plugin podcast politics portfolio privacy productivity programming psychology python radio rails realestate recipe recipes reference religion research resources reviews rss ruby rubyonrails school science search security seo shop shopping social socialnetworking software statistics streaming teaching tech technology tips todo tool tools toread travel tutorial tutorials tv twitter typography ubuntu usability video videos vim visualization web web2.0 webdesign webdev wiki wikipedia windows wishlist wordpress work writing youtube 博客 博客写作 博客书籍 书籍 浏览器 商业 汽车 内容管理系统 代码 协作 漫画 社区 计算机 转换器 烹饪 酷 CSS 文化 数据 数据库 设计 桌面 开发 DIY 文档 下载 下载 Drupal 电子书 经济 教育 电子产品 电子邮件 娱乐 环境 时尚 小说 电影 财务 火狐 Flash Flex Flickr 食物 论坛 免费 免费软件 有趣 有趣的 画廊 游戏 游戏 极客 谷歌 政府 图形 绿色 指南 硬件 健康 历史 家庭 主机 房子 如何 HTML 幽默 图标 插图 图像 导入的信息 灵感 互动 有趣的 互联网 iPhone 日本 Java JavaScript 工作 jQuery 孩子 语言 学习 图书馆 Linux 列表 列表 文学 Mac 杂志 管理 地图 营销 数学 媒体 微软 移动 货币 电影 电影 MP3 音乐 网络工作 网络 新闻 在线 开源 osx 人士 电话 照片 摄影 photoshop php 插件 播客 政治 作品集 隐私 生产力 编程 心理学 python 广播 rails 房地产 食谱 参考 宗教 研究 资源 评审 rss ruby rubyonrails 学校 科学 搜索 安全 seo 商店 购物 社交 社交网络 软件 统计 流媒体 教学 技术 提示 待办 工具 待读 旅行 教程 电视 twitter 排版 ubuntu 可用性 视频 vim 可视化 网络 web2.0 网页设计 网页开发 维基百科 Windows 心愿单 WordPress 工作 写作 YouTube
Figure 9.6 第 9.6 图
Popular tags on delicious.com, which allows users to store and share their bookmarked web pages and encourages uniform tagging by making suggestions based on other users’ tags for the same item. delicious.com 上的热门标签允许用户存储和分享他们的书签网页，并通过根据其他用户对同一内容的标签提供建议，鼓励统一的标签使用。
There are advantages and disadvantages to the top-down and bottom-up approaches to metadata and designers must weigh the trade-offs for particular applications. Wherever there are controlled vocabularies it is important to use them and to scaffold their use by distributed contributors by offering menus with the approved list of values. But it is also important to remain open to newly relevant indexing terms and to a range of interest groups. 顶层和底层方法在元数据方面各有优缺点，设计师需要根据具体应用权衡这些取舍。无论何时存在受控词汇，都应加以使用，并通过提供包含批准值列表的菜单来支持分布式贡献者的使用。同时，也要对新出现的相关索引术语和各种利益团体保持开放态度。
Information designers can maximize intellectual access to information by combining the efficiency and flexibility of controlled vocabulary descriptions with free text fields and socially derived descriptors (see figure 9.7, figure 9.8, figure 9.9). 信息设计师可以通过将受控词汇的高效性和灵活性与自由文本字段及社会派生描述符相结合，最大限度地提升对信息的理解能力（见图 9.7，图 9.8，图 9.9）。
Searching the Web with Metadata and Social Networks 利用元数据和社交网络进行网络搜索
As the World Wide Web has grown, the user has been faced with increasing information overload, and the creator of information has developed an increased risk of invisibility, of posting information that no one finds. Search engines are the means for addressing this problem, for leading information seekers to the appropriate information providers. Search engines are discovery agents, helping people to find things they did not know were out there, creating the equivalent of the library shelf by collocating the relevant results from disparate sources in a single list. 随着万维网的不断发展，用户面临着越来越严重的信息过载，而信息创造者则面临着被忽视的风险，发布的信息可能无人问津。搜索引擎是解决这一问题的工具，它们引导信息寻求者找到合适的信息提供者。搜索引擎充当发现的媒介，帮助人们找到他们未曾意识到的事物，通过将来自不同来源的相关结果汇聚在一个列表中，形成类似于图书馆书架的效果。
Search engines are computer programs that read and index web pages, and then match the indexed terms with words or phrases entered into a text box. Search engines employ some basic strategies for identifying what text on a page is worth indexing. The more structured the document the easier it is to index. Text identified as headers or as menu items are taken as more important than body text. In addition the HTML <meta> tag allows the user to create metadata labels that are explicitly intended to guide searching. 搜索引擎是能够读取和索引网页的计算机程序，它们将索引的术语与用户在文本框中输入的单词或短语进行匹配。搜索引擎使用一些基本策略来识别哪些文本值得被索引。文档结构越清晰，索引的难度就越小。被标识为标题或菜单项的文本通常被认为比正文文本更重要。此外，HTML 标签允许用户创建旨在指导搜索的元数据标签。
There are many problems that make it difficult to create web search engines that produce reliable results, including the quantity of information, its dynamic nature, and the lack of consistently applied metadata labels. No current search engine is completely successful in finding all the relevant information and not listing any irrelevant information. The dominant search engine for the period of dramatic growth in web content, starting in 1998, was (and continues to be) Google. One important reason for Google’s early success was the company’s understanding of the structure of hypertext as a reflection of social structure. The Google search algorithm analyzes links, scoring sites on the number and reliability of the pages that point to it, and associating the text of links with the pages that they point to. The Google inventors used the content of the link tag as derived metadata about the page it linked to because they realized that the word(s) someone uses to describe a page she is linking to can be a significant descriptor for that page. Google also ranked pages based on the reliability and reputation of the pages that linked to it. Although the results of a Google search 有许多问题使得创建能够提供可靠结果的网络搜索引擎变得困难，这些问题包括信息的数量、信息的动态特性以及缺乏一致的元数据标签。目前没有任何搜索引擎能够完全成功地找到所有相关信息，同时又不列出任何无关信息。在 1998 年开始的网络内容快速增长期间，主导的搜索引擎是（并且仍然是）谷歌。谷歌早期成功的一个重要原因是公司对超文本结构的理解，这反映了社会结构。 谷歌搜索算法通过分析链接，对网站进行评分，依据是指向该网站的页面数量和可靠性，并将链接文本与其指向的页面关联。谷歌的发明者将链接标签的内容视为关于所链接页面的派生元数据，因为他们意识到，描述所链接页面的词语可以成为该页面的重要特征。此外，谷歌还根据指向该页面的其他页面的可靠性和声誉来对其进行排名。尽管谷歌搜索的结果显示
00$aM'liss / $cPickford\$ \mathrm{cPickford} Film Corp.; supervised and directed by Marshall A. Neilan;
photoplay by Frances Marion.
00$aM'liss / $cPickford Film Corp.; supervised and directed by Marshall A. Neilan;
photoplay by Frances Marion.| 00$aM'liss / $\$ \mathrm{cPickford}$ Film Corp.; supervised and directed by Marshall A. Neilan; |
| :--- |
| photoplay by Frances Marion. |
##$aA western comedy-melodrama set in the mining town, Red Gulch, Calif. about the
untamed daughter (Mary Pickford) of the town drunk (Theodore Roberts) who falls in love
with the new schoolteacher (Thomas Meighan) who is accused of murdering her father and
the situations that occur during his murder trial.
##$aA western comedy-melodrama set in the mining town, Red Gulch, Calif. about the
untamed daughter (Mary Pickford) of the town drunk (Theodore Roberts) who falls in love
with the new schoolteacher (Thomas Meighan) who is accused of murdering her father and
the situations that occur during his murder trial.| ##$aA western comedy-melodrama set in the mining town, Red Gulch, Calif. about the |
| :--- |
| untamed daughter (Mary Pickford) of the town drunk (Theodore Roberts) who falls in love |
| with the new schoolteacher (Thomas Meighan) who is accused of murdering her father and |
| the situations that occur during his murder trial. |
541
##$3ref print$dReceived: 8-20-80 from LC film lab;$cgift;$aPickford (Mary) Collection. 收到的打印：1980 年 8 月 20 日来自 LC 电影实验室；礼物；玛丽·皮克福德收藏。
541
##$3dupe neg$dReceived: 11-20-79 from LC film lab;$cgift;$aPickford (Mary) Collection. 收到：1979 年 11 月 20 日来自 LC 电影实验室的礼物；玛丽·皮克福德收藏。
##$3arch pos$dReceived: ca. 1958 from USDA film lab;$cgift, copied from 35 mm nitrate
on loan;$aPickford (Mary) Collection.
##$3arch pos$dReceived: ca. 1958 from USDA film lab;$cgift, copied from 35 mm nitrate
on loan;$aPickford (Mary) Collection.| ##$3arch pos$dReceived: ca. 1958 from USDA film lab;$cgift, copied from 35 mm nitrate |
| :--- |
| on loan;$aPickford (Mary) Collection. |
650
#0$a\# 0 \$ a Frontier and pioneer life$zWest (U.S.)$vDrama. 边疆与先锋生活$z 美国西部$v 戏剧。
2#$aPickford (Mary) Collection (Library of Congress)$5DLC 2#$a 玛丽·皮克福德收藏（美国国会图书馆）$5DLC
Leader/00-23 **********cgm##22************#a#4500
001 <control number>
003 < control number identifier>
005 19920513133548.3
007/00-22 mr#bf##dnnartnnac198607
007/00-22 mr#bf##dnnbdtnnac198607
007//00-22 mr#bf##dnnaetnnac198607
008/00-39 870505s1918####xxu055############ml####d
017 ##$aLP12321$bU.S. Copyright Office
040 ##$a[organization code]$c[organization code]$eamim
245 "00$aM'liss / $cPickford Film Corp.; supervised and directed by Marshall A. Neilan;
photoplay by Frances Marion."
257 ## $aU.S.
260 ##$aUnited States:$bArtcraft Pictures Corporation,$c1918.
300 ##$a5 reels of 5 on 2(1988ft. ):$bsi., b&w ;$c16 mm.$3ref. print
300 ##$a5 reels of 5 on 2 (1988 ft.):$bsi., b&w ;$c16 mm. $3 dupe neg.
300 ##$a5 reels of 5 on 2(1988ft.):$bsi.,b&w;$c 16 mm.$3archpos.
500 ##$aCopyright: Famous Players-Lasky Corp.; 18Apr18; LP12321.
500 ##$aOriginally released in 35 mm .
500 ##$aBased on a story by Bret Harte.
508 ##$aPhotographed by Walter Stradling; art director, Wilfred Buckland.
510 4#$aNew York times film reviews,$c5-6-18.
510 4#$aVariety film reviews,$c5-10-18.
510 4#$aMoving picture world,$cv. 36.1, p.894, 897, 1043.
511 "1#$aMary Pickford (M'liss), Theodore Roberts (Bummer Smith), Thomas Meighan (Charles
Gray), Charles Ogle (Yuba Bill), Tully Marshall (Judge Joshua McSnaggley), Monty Blue
(Mexican Joe), Val Paul (Jim Peterson), Winnifred Greenwood (Clara Peterson)."
520 "##$aA western comedy-melodrama set in the mining town, Red Gulch, Calif. about the
untamed daughter (Mary Pickford) of the town drunk (Theodore Roberts) who falls in love
with the new schoolteacher (Thomas Meighan) who is accused of murdering her father and
the situations that occur during his murder trial."
541 ##$3ref print$dReceived: 8-20-80 from LC film lab;$cgift;$aPickford (Mary) Collection.
541 ##$3dupe neg$dReceived: 11-20-79 from LC film lab;$cgift;$aPickford (Mary) Collection.
541 "##$3arch pos$dReceived: ca. 1958 from USDA film lab;$cgift, copied from 35 mm nitrate
on loan;$aPickford (Mary) Collection."
650 #0$a Frontier and pioneer life$zWest (U.S.)$vDrama.
650 #0$aTrials (Murder)$vDrama.
700 1#$aNeilan, Marshall A.,$d1891-1958, Sedirection.
700 1#$aMarion, Frances, $11888-1973, Sewriting.
700 1#$aPickford, Mary, $d1893-Secast.
700 1#$aRoberts, Theodore,$d1861-1928,$ecast.
700 1#$aMarshall, Tully,$d1864-1943,$ecast.
700 1#$aMeighan, Thomas,$d1879-1936,$ecast.
710 2#$aArtcraft Pictures Corporation.
710 2#$aPickford Film Corp.
710 2#$aFamous Players-Lasky Corporation.
710 2#$aPickford (Mary) Collection (Library of Congress)$5DLC| Leader/00-23 | $* * * * * \operatorname{cgm\# \# 22} * * * * * * \# a \# 4500$ |
| :---: | :---: |
| 001 | <control number> |
| 003 | $<$ control number identifier> |
| 005 | 19920513133548.3 |
| 007/00-22 | mr#bf##dnnartnnac198607 |
| 007/00-22 | mr#bf##dnnbdtnnac198607 |
| $007 / 00-22$ | mr#bf##dnnaetnnac198607 |
| 008/00-39 | 870505s1918####xxu055############ml####d |
| 017 | ##$aLP12321$bU.S. Copyright Office |
| 040 | ##$a[organization code]$c[organization code]$eamim |
| 245 | 00$aM'liss / $\$ \mathrm{cPickford}$ Film Corp.; supervised and directed by Marshall A. Neilan; <br> photoplay by Frances Marion. |
| 257 | $\# \#$ $aU.S. |
| 260 | ##$aUnited States:$bArtcraft Pictures Corporation,$c1918. |
| 300 | ##$a5 reels of 5 on $2(1988 \mathrm{ft.}$ ):$bsi., b&w ;$c16 mm.$3ref. print |
| 300 | ##$a5 reels of 5 on 2 (1988 ft.):$bsi., b&w ;$c16 mm. $\$ 3$ dupe neg. |
| 300 | ##$a5 reels of 5 on $2(1988 \mathrm{ft}$.$) :\$bsi., b\&w ;\$c16 mm.\$3arch pos.$ |
| 500 | ##$aCopyright: Famous Players-Lasky Corp.; 18Apr18; LP12321. |
| 500 | ##$aOriginally released in 35 mm . |
| 500 | ##$aBased on a story by Bret Harte. |
| 508 | ##$aPhotographed by Walter Stradling; art director, Wilfred Buckland. |
| 510 | 4#$aNew York times film reviews,$c5-6-18. |
| 510 | 4#$aVariety film reviews,$c5-10-18. |
| 510 | 4#$aMoving picture world,$cv. 36.1, p.894, 897, 1043. |
| 511 | 1#$aMary Pickford (M'liss), Theodore Roberts (Bummer Smith), Thomas Meighan (Charles <br> Gray), Charles Ogle (Yuba Bill), Tully Marshall (Judge Joshua McSnaggley), Monty Blue <br> (Mexican Joe), Val Paul (Jim Peterson), Winnifred Greenwood (Clara Peterson). |
| 520 | ##$aA western comedy-melodrama set in the mining town, Red Gulch, Calif. about the <br> untamed daughter (Mary Pickford) of the town drunk (Theodore Roberts) who falls in love <br> with the new schoolteacher (Thomas Meighan) who is accused of murdering her father and <br> the situations that occur during his murder trial. |
| 541 | ##$3ref print$dReceived: 8-20-80 from LC film lab;$cgift;$aPickford (Mary) Collection. |
| 541 | ##$3dupe neg$dReceived: 11-20-79 from LC film lab;$cgift;$aPickford (Mary) Collection. |
| 541 | ##$3arch pos$dReceived: ca. 1958 from USDA film lab;$cgift, copied from 35 mm nitrate <br> on loan;$aPickford (Mary) Collection. |
| 650 | $\# 0 \$ a$ Frontier and pioneer life$zWest (U.S.)$vDrama. |
| 650 | #0$aTrials (Murder)$vDrama. |
| 700 | 1#$aNeilan, Marshall A.,$d1891-1958, Sedirection. |
| 700 | 1#$aMarion, Frances, $\$ 11888-1973$, Sewriting. |
| 700 | 1#$aPickford, Mary, $d1893-Secast. |
| 700 | 1#$aRoberts, Theodore,$d1861-1928,$ecast. |
| 700 | 1#$aMarshall, Tully,$d1864-1943,$ecast. |
| 700 | 1#$aMeighan, Thomas,$d1879-1936,$ecast. |
| 710 | 2#$aArtcraft Pictures Corporation. |
| 710 | 2#$aPickford Film Corp. |
| 710 | 2#$aFamous Players-Lasky Corporation. |
| 710 | 2#$aPickford (Mary) Collection (Library of Congress)$5DLC |
Figure 9.7 第 9.7 图
The MARC record describing a feature film includes assigned descriptors metadata for genre and free text descriptors for the plot summary. MARC 记录中描述的故事片包含为类型分配的元数据描述符和情节摘要的自由文本描述符。
Title
Creator
Subject
Description
Publisher
Contributor
Date
Type:
"Collection, Dataset, Event, Image, Interactive Resource, MovingImage, Physical
Object, Service, Software, Sound, StillImage, Text"
Format
Identifier
Source
Relation
Coverage
Rights
Language| Title |
| :--- |
| Creator |
| Subject |
| Description |
| Publisher |
| Contributor |
| Date |
| Type: |
| Collection, Dataset, Event, Image, Interactive Resource, MovingImage, Physical <br> Object, Service, Software, Sound, StillImage, Text |
| Format |
| Identifier |
| Source |
| Relation |
| Coverage |
| Rights |
| Language |
Figure 9.8 第 9.8 图
Dublin Core Metadata Element Set 1.1. The 15 top-level elements of the Dublin Core Metadata Set Version 1.1, a simplified abstract representation meant to apply to any networked resource, and the assigned vocabulary list for the Type element. The Description element can be composed of derived descriptors from a table of contents or abstract, or it can be created by free text entry. 都柏林核心元数据元素集 1.1 包含 15 个顶级元素，这是一个简化的抽象表示，适用于任何网络资源，并为类型元素提供了词汇表。描述元素可以由目录或摘要中的派生描述符组成，也可以通过自由文本输入创建。
were still a too lengthy list with too many irrelevant items, Google searches generally were much better than other early approaches, which relied on free text search alone or on the hands-on indexing of human catalogers. Google’s innovation was derived from the inventors’ understanding of the semantic information embedded in the tagging structure. 仍然是一个过于冗长且包含许多无关项目的列表，谷歌搜索通常比其他早期方法更有效，这些方法仅依赖于自由文本搜索或人工编目的索引。谷歌的创新源于发明者对标签结构中嵌入的语义信息的深刻理解。
One of the important impediments to searches is the computer’s ignorance of context, which makes it unable to distinguish among very different uses of the same term (such as a computer virus versus a human virus). In information design we call the clarification of such distinctions disambiguation. Human language and naming conventions are imprecise and require multiple strategies in spoken and written language to avoid ambiguity. Human conversation includes regular requests for clarification and redundant statements to reinforce meaning. Librarians have many procedures for handling ambiguity, such as establishing name authority to make sure we can tell one “John Smith” from another. But computer programs often do not ask for clarification because they do not know that they are confused. One “John Smith” or ASCII string for “virus” looks the same as another to a text-matching program. 搜索中的一个重要障碍是计算机对上下文的理解不足，这使得它无法区分同一术语的不同用法（例如计算机病毒与人类病毒）。在信息设计中，我们称这种区分的过程为消歧义。人类语言和命名习惯往往不够精确，因此在口头和书面交流中需要采用多种策略来避免歧义。人类对话中常常会有请求澄清和重复表述以加强意义的情况。图书管理员有许多处理歧义的程序，例如建立名称权威，以确保我们能够区分不同的“约翰·史密斯”。然而，计算机程序通常不会请求澄清，因为它们并不知道自己感到困惑。 一个“约翰·史密斯”或“病毒”的 ASCII 字符串在文本匹配程序中看起来都是一样的。
Disambiguation has been an active area of technological and design innovation. For example, typing the word “force” into the Wikipedia home page search engine takes one straight to the physics-based Force page, which also contains this note: 消歧义一直是技术和设计创新的重要领域。例如，在维基百科主页的搜索引擎中输入“force”这个词，可以直接跳转到与物理相关的力页面，该页面还包含以下说明：
See also Force (disambiguation). 另请参阅“力”（消歧义）。
Figure 9.9 第 9.9 图 Craigslist.org uses assigned metadata for places and categories of listings, but also allows free text search on the headings and listings text provided by contributors. Craigslist.org 使用分配的元数据来标识地点和分类，但也允许对贡献者提供的标题和列表内容进行自由文本搜索。
The disambiguation page (figure 9.10) lists multiple meanings in several distinct categories including multiple subcategories under science and sports, but also includes the familiar, popular culture context of the Star Wars movies. Since 2008, web search engines have tried to provide the same explicit disambiguation through query refinement (figure 9.11) and contextual grouping of search results (figures 9.12-9.14). 消歧义页面（图 9.10）列出了多个含义，分为几个不同的类别，包括科学和体育下的多个子类别，同时也涵盖了《星球大战》电影这一熟悉的流行文化背景。自 2008 年以来，网络搜索引擎通过查询优化（图 9.11）和搜索结果的上下文分组（图 9.12-9.14）来提供相同的明确消歧义。
Because the digital medium is participatory, automated popularity indexes can provide rough social correctives to the often-misleading results of automated text search. Like commercial sites that create inferred recommendation systems by telling 由于数字媒介具有参与性，自动化的受欢迎程度指数可以为自动文本搜索的结果提供粗略的社会修正，这些结果往往具有误导性。就像商业网站通过用户行为来构建推荐系统一样。
Force (disambiguation) 力量（多义词）
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 来自维基百科，自由的百科全书
Force is what causes mass to accelerate or become deformed. 力是使物体加速或变形的原因。
Force may also refer to: 力量还可以指：
Look up force in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 在维基词典中查找“force”这个词，免费词典。
In science: 在科学领域：
Forcing (mathematics), a proof-technique of set theory 强迫（数学）是一种集合论的证明技巧
Brute force method, proof by exhaustion in mathematics 暴力破解方法，数学中的穷举法证明
Fundamental force, an interaction between particles that cannot be explained by other interactions 基本力是粒子之间的一种相互作用，无法用其他相互作用来解释
In sports: 在体育领域：
Force play, a situation in baseball where the runner is compelled to advance to the next base 强制跑垒，指的是棒球中跑者被迫前进到下一个垒位的情况
Georgia Force, an Arena Football League team 乔治亚力量队，属于竞技橄榄球联盟的球队
San Antonio Force, an Arena Football League team that played the 1992 season only 圣安东尼奥力量队，一支仅在 1992 赛季参赛的竞技足球联盟球队
Western Force, an Australian rugby union team in the Super 14 西方力量，澳大利亚超级联赛中的一支橄榄球队
FORCE (Formula One Race Car Engineering), a division of the Haas Lola Formula One team FORCE（一级方程式赛车工程），隶属于哈斯·洛拉一级方程式车队
In other uses: 在其他用法里：
Force (Star Wars), mystical energy in the Star Wars universe 原力（星球大战），是星球大战宇宙中的一种神秘能量
Force (cereal), a wheat flake cereal 力量（谷物），一种小麦片早餐谷物
Force (comics), a character in the Marvel Comics Iron Man titles 力量（漫画），是漫威漫画《钢铁侠》中的一个角色
Force (law), unlawful violence or lawful compulsion 力量（法律），包括非法暴力或合法的强制行为
Force, Italy, a municipality in Ascoli Piceno, Italy 意大利阿斯科利皮切诺的市镇福尔斯
Force or Europe, a Swedish band 力量或欧洲，一支来自瑞典的乐队
In some contexts, “force” may be used as a synonym for coercion 在某些情况下，“力量”可能被视为强制的同义词
See also 另请参考
[edit] [编辑内容]
Armed forces (disambiguation) 武装力量（含义澄清）
The Force (disambiguation) 力量（多义词解释）
GeForce a PC graphics chipset GeForce 一款用于 PC 的图形处理芯片
nForce, a computer motherboard chipset nForce，计算机主板的芯片组
High Force, a waterfall on the River Tees, England 英国蒂斯河的高瀑布
Major Force a fictional character in the DC Comics universe. 主要力量是 DC 漫画宇宙中的一个虚构人物。
Figure 9.10 第 9.10 图
Wikipedia disambiguation page distinguishes entries on “force” by context categories (accessed November 1, 2010). 维基百科的消歧义页面根据不同的上下文类别区分“力”相关的条目（访问于 2010 年 11 月 1 日）。
Figure 9.11 第 9.11 图
Query refinement has been the focus of active competition and innovation among search engines. These three results (from November 2010) attempt to anticipate the unstated or partially stated focus of queries by providing the user with a choice of common search terms and explictly disambiguated contexts. 查询优化一直是搜索引擎之间激烈竞争和创新的重点。这三条结果（来自 2010 年 11 月）试图通过提供常见搜索词的选择和明确的上下文，来预测用户未明确或部分明确的查询意图。
Search 查找
Instant is on v 瞬间位于 v 上
Search Instant is on v| | | Search | Instant is on v |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
Figure 9.12 第 9.12 图
The Google search results page (accessed November 1, 2010) covers three major uses of the term “Force” (physics, cancer activism, Star Wars) and includes other physics terms under the vague category of “Something Different” in the left-hand column. 谷歌搜索结果页面（访问于 2010 年 11 月 1 日）涵盖了“力”这一术语的三个主要用法（物理学、癌症活动、星球大战），并在左侧栏中将其他物理学术语归类为模糊的“其他不同内容”。
Figure 9.13 第 9.13 图
The Yahoo search results for “Force” (accessed November 1, 2010) offers alternate contexts across the top and physics terms under “Related Searches” to the left. 雅虎搜索结果“力”（访问于 2010 年 11 月 1 日）在顶部提供了不同的上下文，而在左侧的“相关搜索”中列出了与物理相关的术语。
Web 互联网
force 力量感
Web force | Web | force | | |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
Figure 9.14 第 9.14 图
Microsoft’s Bing search engine (accessed November 1, 2010) offers “Related Searches” that range from physics and military terms to a celebrity drag car racer, and it groups customized local results (based on implicit surveillance of my location) into a subcategory. 微软的必应搜索引擎（访问于 2010 年 11 月 1 日）提供“相关搜索”，内容涵盖物理、军事术语以及名人拖车赛车手等，并根据对我位置的隐性监控，将定制的本地结果分组到一个子类别中。
customers what others have bought, search engines refine their page rankings through “click analysis”: by watching which pages users select when presented with a menu of choices and measuring how long they stay with the selection before returning to the same search page, taking selection and sustained viewing as an indication of relevancy. As the amount of available information increases, popularity has become a key index of importance. Some economists claim that large groups of people, from diverse points of view, making independent judgments can achieve the “wisdom of crowds” and networked resources offer a good opportunity to create such aggregations (Surowiecki 2004). But popularity rankings are also useful when the information seeker has a reason to trust or identify with the individual or group whose judgments are available, making for more explicit and reliable criteria of judgment. Information designers can offer both kinds of rankings, as well as conventional editorial judgments. For example, the New York Times, whose front page in print remains a key measure of relevancy and importance, also offers online readers a list of its most popular items (figure 9.15), and allows them to follow the recommendations and ratings of other readers or to find articles through social networks (figure 9.16). 客户购买的商品，搜索引擎通过“点击分析”来优化页面排名：观察用户在选择菜单中选择哪些页面，并测量他们在选择上停留的时间，直到返回同一搜索页面，将选择和持续观看视为相关性的指标。随着可用信息量的增加，受欢迎程度已成为重要性的关键指标。一些经济学家认为，来自不同观点的大量独立判断可以实现“群体智慧”，而网络资源为创造这种聚合提供了良好机会（苏罗维基 2004）。 但当信息寻求者有理由信任或认同某个个人或群体的判断时，受欢迎的排名就显得尤为重要，这使得判断标准更加明确和可靠。信息设计者可以提供这两种类型的排名，以及传统的编辑判断。例如，《纽约时报》的印刷版头条仍然是衡量相关性和重要性的关键标准，同时也为在线读者提供了最受欢迎项目的列表，并允许他们关注其他读者的推荐和评分，或通过社交网络查找文章。
MOST POPULAR 最受欢迎的
E-MAILED BLOGGED SEARCHED VIEWED 发送邮件、写博客、搜索、查看
The Vanishing Mind: Money Woes Can Be Early Clue to 消失的心智：财务问题可能是早期的警示信号
Alzheimer’s 阿尔茨海默症
Essay: Why Sisterly Chats Make People Happier 文章：姐妹间的聊天为何能让人更快乐
Frank Rich: The Grand Old Plot Against the Tea Party 弗兰克·里奇：对茶党的巨大阴谋
Paul Krugman: Mugged by the Moralizers 保罗·克鲁格曼：被道德主义者所伤
Europe’s Plagues Came From China, Study Finds 研究发现，欧洲的瘟疫源自中国
Nicholas D. Kristof: Give Obama a Break 尼古拉斯·D·克里斯托夫：给奥巴马一个机会吧
Maureen Dowd: Can the Dude Abide? 莫琳·道德：这个家伙能否坚持下去？
Thomas L. Friedman: It’s Morning in India 托马斯·L·弗里德曼：印度的清晨
Op-Ed Contributor: The 150-Year War 专栏作者：长达 150 年的战争
Op-Ed Contributor: How the Banks Put the Economy 专栏作者：银行如何影响经济发展
Go to Complete List » 查看完整列表 »
Figure 9.15 第 9.15 图
The New York Times online offers several popularity lists. 《纽约时报》在线提供了多个受欢迎的排行榜。
Searching the World Wide Web is frustrating because of the extent and variety of documents. Designers will be increasingly called upon to work with more uniform collections of networked resources in structured archives. A structured archive is a set of digital artifacts that have been semantically segmented and indexed with controlled metadata. One of the most promising approaches for integrating searching and browsing of structured archives is the strategy of faceted search. Facets are categories of metadata that describe some aspect of the search domain, such as the author, year, country of origin, and so on. Facets are assigned to objects in a collection, and users are given the choice of searching by one or more of them. Once a search is completed, facets can be added or changed, providing a way to filter search results. A facet can be arranged in hierarchical or flat structure, and the searcher can address one or more facets independent of the others. As a result, faceted searches of structured archives indexed by metadata can lead to a faster, more precise match to a search query. 在全球互联网搜索时，由于文档的广泛性和多样性，常常令人感到沮丧。设计师将越来越多地被要求处理更为统一的网络资源集合，这些资源存储在结构化档案中。结构化档案是指一组经过语义分割并用受控元数据索引的数字文物。整合结构化档案的搜索与浏览的最有前景的方法之一是分面搜索策略。分面是描述搜索领域某些方面的元数据类别，例如作者、年份、原产国等。分面被分配给集合中的对象，用户可以选择通过一个或多个分面进行搜索。 一旦搜索完成，可以添加或更改筛选项，从而提供过滤搜索结果的方式。筛选项可以以层次结构或扁平结构排列，搜索者可以独立于其他筛选项处理一个或多个筛选项。因此，基于元数据索引的结构化档案的分面搜索能够更快、更准确地匹配搜索查询。
The Flamenco system (figure 9.17) under development at the University of Berkeley under the direction of Marti Hearst is an example of a faceted search engine (Hearst 2006). It treats each set of descriptors in an archive of Nobel Prize winners as a separate facet. The interactor can filter the results by year, country, or gender, constructing a 在伯克利大学马尔蒂·赫斯特的指导下开发的弗拉门戈系统（图 9.17）是一个多面搜索引擎的例子（赫斯特 2006）。它将诺贝尔奖得主档案中的每组描述符视为一个独立的维度。用户可以通过年份、国家或性别来过滤结果，从而构建一个更精确的搜索体验。
Lost the Remote? Another Reason to Use an App 找不到遥控器？使用应用程序的另一个好理由
BY JOSHUABRUSTEIN 乔舒亚·布鲁斯坦撰写
Published: October 31, 2010 发布于 2010 年 10 月 31 日
The standard TV remote control, lost so many times beneath sofa cushions, may soon be lost to history. 标准电视遥控器常常在沙发垫下丢失，可能很快就会被历史所遗忘。
Figure 9.16 第 9.16 图
The Share Tools feature on nytimes.com provides multiple forms of recommendation systems, including external social networking sites. nytimes.com 上的分享工具功能提供多种推荐系统，包括外部社交网络平台。
Figure 9.17 第 9.17 图
The Flamenco search engine demonstrates faceted search on an archive of Nobel Prize winners. The user has retrieved all the winners of the literature category from the 1920s and is about to eliminate the literature descriptor, allowing her to browse through winners in multiple categories. See http://orange.sims.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/flamenco.cgi/nobel/Flamenco (Hearst 2006). 弗拉门戈搜索引擎展示了如何在诺贝尔奖得主档案中进行分面搜索。用户已经检索到 1920 年代文学类别的所有获奖者，并准备去掉文学描述符，以便浏览多个类别的获奖者。详情请见 http://orange.sims.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/flamenco.cgi/nobel/Flamenco (赫斯特 2006)。
custom query that will create the equivalent of a customized library shelf. Such systems are useful for novices because the explicit facet and value lists provide an overview of the contents of the archive and its intellectual structure. The ability to present the same object in multiple contexts is also a benefit in thinking about complex subjects, by surfacing relationships that would not otherwise have been noticed. 自定义查询可以创建一个类似于定制书架的系统。这种系统对初学者非常有帮助，因为明确的分类和价值列表提供了档案内容及其知识结构的概览。能够在不同的上下文中展示相同的对象也有助于思考复杂主题，因为它能够揭示一些原本不会被注意到的关系。
Structured Wikis and the Social Creation of Knowledge 结构化维基与知识的社会构建
Vannevar Bush’s vision of an information space was one in which experts provided knowledge in a distributed manner. Many people in multiple locations could contribute to making coherent paths for the sake of the larger community. Digital media afford this distributed knowledge creation by networking people together and providing data structures that can associate one chunk of information with another. 瓦尼瓦尔·布什对信息空间的设想是一个专家以分散的方式提供知识的环境。来自不同地点的许多人可以共同努力，为更大的社区创造连贯的知识路径。数字媒体通过将人们连接在一起，并提供能够将一条信息与另一条信息关联的数据结构，从而促进了这种分散的知识创造。
From the 1980s early users of the Internet took advantage of the rapid transmission of text to create active networks of email, bulletin boards, and newsgroups. As their names suggest, each of these systems was built in emulation of earlier paper-based systems. Email is a one-to-one form of persistent messaging. It is a more immediate way of sending memos and personal messages than letter writing, and it has eliminated the need for laborious handwriting, stenography, Dictaphone transcription, and rote typing, with tedious paper-based error correction. The ease of transmission has made for flatter hierarchies and easier distant collaborations, and the persistence of digital files has opened up many treasure troves for criminal investigators. Electronic bulletin boards, often run by administrators who own and operate the hosting machine, allowed many-to-many communications among a cooperating group whose shared focus was analogous to a local community around a single physical bulletin board. Newsgroups combine the functions of both email and bulletin boards, aggregating people with similar professional, civic, or recreational interests, who essentially coedit a newsletter online. Often these groups have a central administrator who serves as editor in chief and decides what gets promulgated to the rest of the participants. Because of their underlying paper-based conceptual format, these forms of communication have limited structural elements. They can be searched by content or header field, and they can be organized by date or sender. The strongest digital convention that has arisen from these practices is the thread, the common subject line that unites a set of responses. But threads are a slender connector for following complicated lines of arguments or prolonged conversations. 从 1980 年代开始，早期的互联网用户利用文本的快速传输，创建了活跃的电子邮件、公告板和新闻组网络。正如它们的名称所示，这些系统都是模仿早期纸质系统而建立的。电子邮件是一种一对一的持久消息传递方式，比起写信，它更直接，是发送备忘录和个人信息的更快捷方式，消除了繁琐的手写、速记、录音机转录和机械打字，以及繁琐的纸质错误更正。传输的便利性使得层级结构更加扁平，远程协作变得更加容易，而数字文件的持久性为刑事调查人员打开了许多宝藏。 电子公告板通常由拥有和管理托管机器的管理员运营，允许一个合作小组之间进行多对多的交流，这个小组的共同关注点类似于围绕一个单一物理公告板的地方社区。新闻组结合了电子邮件和公告板的功能，聚集了具有相似专业、公共或娱乐兴趣的人，他们实际上共同编辑在线通讯。通常，这些小组会有一位中央管理员担任主编，决定哪些内容会传播给其他参与者。由于其基本的纸质概念格式，这些通信形式的结构元素相对有限。 它们可以通过内容或标题字段进行搜索，并可以按日期或发件人进行组织。由这些实践产生的最强大的数字习惯是“线程”，即将一组回复联系在一起的共同主题行。然而，线程在跟踪复杂的论证或长时间的对话时显得有些薄弱。
A related development, which has replaced bulletin boards and expanded community creation on the web is the blog. Blogs (a portmanteau of “web” and “logs”) and blog-like social networking sites (such as Facebook) are based in the tradition of online journal keeping. The basic structure of the blog is the long chronological list, 一个相关的发展是博客，它取代了公告栏并扩展了网络社区的创建。博客（“网络”和“日志”的合成词）以及类似博客的社交网络网站（如 Facebook）都源于在线日记的传统。博客的基本结构是一个按时间顺序排列的长列表，
Figure 9.18 第 9.18 图
Blogs share an ease of posting to the web but vary widely in professionalism and organization. Most reflect the viewpoint of a strong individual writer or editor, or an aggregation of similarly focused individuals. 博客在发布到网络上非常方便，但在专业性和组织性上差异很大。大多数博客反映了某位优秀作家或编辑的观点，或者是一些关注相似主题的人的集合。
since it is optimized for rapid updating rather than for archiving content. Like wikis, blogs offered a refinement on the inscription technology of HTML by allowing noncoders to write directly to the World Wide Web. Blogs provide a reliable framework for sharing text, images, video, and hosting conversations, and are used for the same wide range of functions-research, socializing, journalism, commerce, community building—as the rest of the web. Blogs are too diverse and informally structured to be considered a genre (figure 9.18), but they do display recognizable conventions, such as 因为它们更适合快速更新而非内容存档。与维基百科类似，博客在 HTML 书写技术上进行了改进，允许非程序员直接在万维网上发表内容。博客提供了一个可靠的框架，用于分享文本、图像、视频和进行对话，并且用于与网络其他部分相同的广泛功能——研究、社交、新闻、商业和社区建设。博客的多样性和非正式结构使其难以被视为一种特定体裁（见图 9.18），但它们确实展现了可识别的惯例，例如
brief, essay-like posts that can be as informal as a group email to friends or as formal as a journalist’s column 简短的、类似于论文的帖子，可以是朋友之间的群邮件那样非正式，也可以是记者专栏那样正式
live blogging of events: continuous posting, similar to the radio or television commentary of a live sports event, usually in text 事件的实时博客：持续更新，类似于体育赛事的现场广播或电视评论，通常以文字形式进行
aggregation of announcements, news, and other time-sensitive information 公告、新闻及其他时效性信息的综合汇总
conversational exchanges within or across sites, including conventions of crosslinking and comment posting 网站内部或跨网站的对话交流，包括交叉链接和评论发布的常规做法
polls, popularity lists, tickers, and graphs of live data 投票、热门榜单、行情信息和实时数据图表
personal travel journals 个人旅行日志
fan sites and gossip aggregators 粉丝网站与八卦信息聚合平台
professional identity centers for an individual or group 个人或团体的职业身份中心
Although all blogs and chronological/strongest currently resemble one another in their two- or three-column scrolling structure, their point of similarity is the ease of inscription and transmission, and so blog formats are likely diverge as more specialized variations and refinements arise. 尽管目前所有博客和按时间顺序排列的最强博客在两列或三列的滚动结构上相似，但它们的共同点在于书写和传播的便利性。因此，随着更多专业化的变体和改进的出现，博客格式可能会逐渐分化。
Wikis, like blogs, are a format for facilitating participation, but they emphasize group coordination and the creation of persistent resources. Ward Cunningham invented the Wiki in 1994 as a means of quick, collective website building, similar to the generation of HyperCard stacks. Cunningham instanced “observable” process and “convergent,” commonly edited pages as key design principles (see <http://c2.com/ cgi/wiki?WikiDesignPrinciples>). The new format, by making HTML document creation more transparent and the process of creation more visible, provided the scaffolding for convening collaborative communities of writers/readers/editors. 维基，类似于博客，是一种促进参与的格式，但更强调团队协调和持久资源的创建。沃德·坎宁安在 1994 年发明了维基，旨在快速集体构建网站，类似于超卡堆栈的生成。坎宁安将“可观察”的过程和“趋同”的、常被编辑的页面视为关键设计原则（见 < http://c2.com/ cgi/wiki?WikiDesignPrinciples>）。这种新格式通过使 HTML 文档的创建更加透明、创作过程更加可见，为作家、读者和编辑的协作社区提供了基础。
For wikis to work the participating community must be self-sustaining, self-editing, and self-policing. It is not surprising that this strategy works for web resources created for small groups with common interests. It has been much more surprising that larger groups could create a reasonably reliable information source. This has been the case with the Wikipedia, which was founded in 2001 by Jimmy Wales as a volunteer-driven, online editable encyclopedia. By 2010 it claimed over 85,000 active contributors, 14 million articles in 260 languages and was one of the most visited sites on the World Wide Web. It is therefore considerably larger than the previous category leader, the Encyclopedia Britannica, founded in the eighteenth century, with 120,000 articles in its 2007 online version. It also employs less than half the paid staff of the Britannica, which has 100 paid editorial workers and 3,000 paid experts. Wikipedia identifies over 1,700 administrators for the 3 million articles published in the English edition but only a few dozen paid employees. 为了使维基能够正常运作，参与的社区必须具备自给自足、自我编辑和自我管理的能力。对于那些为有共同兴趣的小团体创建的网络资源，这一策略的有效性并不令人意外。然而，更令人惊讶的是，较大的团体也能创建出相对可靠的信息来源。维基百科就是一个例子，它于 2001 年由吉米·威尔士创立，是一个由志愿者驱动的在线可编辑百科全书。到 2010 年，维基百科声称拥有超过 85,000 名活跃贡献者，260 种语言中有 1400 万篇文章，并且是全球访问量最高的网站之一。因此，它的规模远远超过了之前的领导者——成立于 18 世纪的《大英百科全书》，后者在其 2007 年在线版本中有 120,000 篇文章。 它的付费员工人数不到大英百科全书的一半，大英百科全书有 100 名付费编辑和 3,000 名付费专家。维基百科为英语版发布的 300 万篇文章识别出超过 1,700 名管理员，但只有几十名付费员工。
Wikipedia is uneven in its coverage and its contributors are usually anonymous with uncertain credentials, but on the whole it is a practical and highly useful resource (Giles 2005), directly or indirectly benefitting from many other more conventional 维基百科的覆盖范围不均衡，贡献者通常是匿名的，资历也不确定，但总体来说，它是一个实用且非常有用的资源（Giles 2005），直接或间接地受益于许多其他更传统的资源
information structures such as authored books and articles, libraries, university degree programs, other encyclopedias, and increasingly, other more specialized websites. Wikipedia is energized by the allure of a global community and by the encyclopedic impulse, which somehow motivates millions of hours of unpaid labor contributed by professionals, graduate students, and information junkies, including those serving as editors in their specialty areas. Although vandalism has been a problem, it has not been devastating as many predicted it would be, because page changes trigger alerts to editors, who pay particular attention to known controversial topics (Viégas 2004). In 2010 participation in the site showed significant signs of decline, which may be an indication that the economic model is not viable over the long run. 信息结构包括作者撰写的书籍和文章、图书馆、大学学位课程、其他百科全书，以及越来越多的专业网站。维基百科因全球社区的吸引力和百科全书的冲动而充满活力，这在某种程度上激励了数百万小时的无偿劳动，这些劳动由专业人士、研究生和信息爱好者贡献，包括在各自专业领域担任编辑的人。尽管破坏行为一直是个问题，但并没有像许多人预测的那样造成严重后果，因为页面更改会触发编辑的警报，他们特别关注已知的争议话题（Viégas 2004）。 2010 年，参与该网站的人数显著下降，这可能表明其经济模型在长期内不可持续。
The information design model, however, is an achievement in itself. The contributions of so many unpaid authors are made coherent by the top-down organization of the wiki page as a structured document. Wikipedia is a triumph of information design, expressed in transparent editing tools that support clearly articulated formatting and genre conventions. One key organizational strategy is the separation of discussions about an article’s content from the article itself (figure 9.19). This allows contributors to focus on the collectively written article as separate from the personalities and judgments of the contributors. 信息设计模型本身就是一种成就。许多无偿作者的贡献通过维基页面的自上而下的组织方式变得连贯，形成了结构化的文档。维基百科是信息设计的成功典范，体现在那些支持清晰表达的编辑工具中，这些工具遵循明确的格式和体裁规范。一个重要的组织策略是将关于文章内容的讨论与文章本身分开（见图 9.19），这使得贡献者能够专注于共同撰写的文章，而不受个人个性和判断的影响。
Another important strategy is the documentation of uniform standards, policies, and templates for the creation of entries, the organization of the site, and rituals of participation. The distributed creation of knowledge resources requires agreement on the standards, formats, and genre conventions in which the knowledge is exchanged (figure 9.20). For Wikipedia, these standards are explicitly spelled out and they build on the genre 另一个重要策略是制定统一的标准、政策和模板，以便创建条目、组织网站和参与活动。知识资源的分布式创建需要对知识交换的标准、格式和体裁惯例达成一致（见图 9.20）。对于维基百科，这些标准被明确列出，并且它们基于特定的体裁。
Figure 9.19 第 9.19 图
Wikipedia fosters collaborative, distributed creation of an information resource by separating discussion about changes from the content of the article itself. 维基百科通过将讨论更改与文章内容分开，促进了信息资源的协作和分布式创作。
v*d*ev \cdot d \cdot e
Wikipedia principles 维基百科的基本原则
[show] 展示内容
v*d*ev \cdot d \cdot e
Key Wikipedia policies and guidelines 维基百科的关键政策与指南
[hide] 隐藏内容
Overview 总览
Policies and guidelines - List of policies, List of guidelines 政策与指南 - 政策清单，指南清单
Project-wide principles 项目整体原则
What Wikipedia is not - Edting policy + Consensus - Dispute resolution - Ignore all rules 维基百科并不是 - 编辑政策 + 共识 - 争议解决 - 忽视所有规则
Article standards policies 文章标准与政策
Nautral point of view - Verifiability - No original research - Biographies of Iving persons *\cdot Article titles - Deletion 自然视角 - 可验证性 - 不包含原创研究 - 在世人物的传记 *\cdot 文章标题 - 删除
Behavioral policies 行为规范
Crild protection - Oivilty - Edit warring - No personal attacks - No legal threats - Ounership of anticles - Sock-puppetry 儿童保护 - 公民权利 - 编辑争议 - 不进行人身攻击 - 不发出法律威胁 - 文章的所有权 - 冒名顶替行为
Behavioral guidelines 行为指导原则
Assume good faith. Etiquette. Do not disrupt Wikipeda to illustrate a point, Please do not bite the newcomers . Gaming the system 假设大家都是善意的。遵守礼仪。请不要为了说明观点而干扰维基百科，也请不要对新来者过于苛刻。利用系统的行为。
Conflict of interest - Do not include copies of primary sources - Disambiguation - Do not create hoaxes - Notability - Patent nonsense .
Identitying refable sources
Conflict of interest - Do not include copies of primary sources - Disambiguation - Do not create hoaxes - Notability - Patent nonsense .
Identitying refable sources| Conflict of interest - Do not include copies of primary sources - Disambiguation - Do not create hoaxes - Notability - Patent nonsense . |
| :--- |
| Identitying refable sources |
Manual of Style - Manual of Style (accessibility) - Manual of Style (layout) - Manual of Style (Ists) - Manual of Style (Inking) 风格手册 - 无障碍风格手册 - 布局风格手册 - Ists 风格手册 - 墨水风格手册
v*d*e Wikipedia principles [show]
v*d*e Key Wikipedia policies and guidelines [hide]
Overview Policies and guidelines - List of policies, List of guidelines
Project-wide principles What Wikipedia is not - Edting policy + Consensus - Dispute resolution - Ignore all rules
Article standards policies Nautral point of view - Verifiability - No original research - Biographies of Iving persons * Article titles - Deletion
Behavioral policies Crild protection - Oivilty - Edit warring - No personal attacks - No legal threats - Ounership of anticles - Sock-puppetry
Behavioral guidelines Assume good faith. Etiquette. Do not disrupt Wikipeda to illustrate a point, Please do not bite the newcomers . Gaming the system
Classification guidelines Categories, Ists, and navigation templates - Categorization - Template namespace
Content guidelines "Conflict of interest - Do not include copies of primary sources - Disambiguation - Do not create hoaxes - Notability - Patent nonsense .
Identitying refable sources"
Editing guidelines Article size - Be bold - Hatnotes - Signatures - Talk page guidelines - User pages - Subpages
Style conventions Manual of Style - Manual of Style (accessibility) - Manual of Style (layout) - Manual of Style (Ists) - Manual of Style (Inking) | $v \cdot d \cdot e$ | Wikipedia principles | [show] |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $v \cdot d \cdot e$ | Key Wikipedia policies and guidelines | [hide] |
| Overview | Policies and guidelines - List of policies, List of guidelines | |
| Project-wide principles | What Wikipedia is not - Edting policy + Consensus - Dispute resolution - Ignore all rules | |
| Article standards policies | Nautral point of view - Verifiability - No original research - Biographies of Iving persons $\cdot$ Article titles - Deletion | |
| Behavioral policies | Crild protection - Oivilty - Edit warring - No personal attacks - No legal threats - Ounership of anticles - Sock-puppetry | |
| Behavioral guidelines | Assume good faith. Etiquette. Do not disrupt Wikipeda to illustrate a point, Please do not bite the newcomers . Gaming the system | |
| Classification guidelines | Categories, Ists, and navigation templates - Categorization - Template namespace | |
| Content guidelines | Conflict of interest - Do not include copies of primary sources - Disambiguation - Do not create hoaxes - Notability - Patent nonsense . <br> Identitying refable sources | |
| Editing guidelines | Article size - Be bold - Hatnotes - Signatures - Talk page guidelines - User pages - Subpages | |
| Style conventions | Manual of Style - Manual of Style (accessibility) - Manual of Style (layout) - Manual of Style (Ists) - Manual of Style (Inking) | |
Figure 9.20 第 9.20 图
Wikipedia rests on carefully elaborated policies and guidelines that shape information design, content creation, and collaborative behaviors. 维基百科依赖于精心制定的政策和指南，这些政策和指南影响着信息设计、内容创作和协作行为。
conventions of print culture as a common context. Among the most important principles and practices affirmed by the editors are: 印刷文化的惯例作为共同背景。编辑们确认的几个重要原则和实践包括：
Neutral Point of View 中立的观点
No Original Research 无原创研究
Verifiability 可验证性原则
Conformity to Encyclopedia as a Genre 作为一种体裁的百科全书的符合性
Civility 礼仪
The editors devote a long section to “What Wikipedia is Not,” a list that includes a dictionary, a directory, a soapbox, a guidebook, a battleground, and an indiscriminate collection of information. Wikipedia is also not a paper encyclopedia, and therefore it has not one but multiple tables of contents, and knowledge taxonomies including: 编辑们专门花了很长时间讨论“维基百科不是什麼”，这个列表包括字典、目录、发言台、指南、战场和一个杂乱无章的信息集合。维基百科也不是纸质百科全书，因此它不仅有一个，而是多个目录，以及包括知识分类在内的内容：
Structured documents depend on metadata to build complexity and flexibility in the same way that databases depend on tables and fields. As we saw in chapter 7, libraries have established reliable, shared methods for labeling books by employing 结构化文档依赖元数据来构建复杂性和灵活性，就像数据库依赖表格和字段一样。正如我们在第 7 章中看到的，图书馆已经建立了可靠且共享的标记书籍的方法。
controlled vocabularies, and thesauruses that provide guidance for the labeling of items. The World Wide Web has created a global information structure that is like a library in its comprehensiveness, but a library in which items are jumbled together, with very poor labeling, and a vast expanse of virtual space to search through. Furthermore, there is no centralized library staff to catalog it all. 受控词汇和词库为项目标记提供指导。万维网构建了一个全球信息结构，像一个全面的图书馆，但这个图书馆中的项目混杂在一起，标记非常不清晰，且需要在广阔的虚拟空间中进行搜索。此外，没有集中管理的图书馆工作人员来进行分类。
Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the HTML protocol that is the basis for the World Wide Web, has offered a vision of the future of the web as a much more highly organized network of structured documents. The organization he founded, the World Wide Web Consortium or W3C (http://www.W3C.org) is attempting to build an information infrastructure that will lead to the creation of a Semantic Web, in which meaning is encoded in a way that is friendly to humans and to machines, so that it can be searched, retrieved, and processed with greater reliability. The key to the W3C approach is the annotation of information with standardized metadata in standardized structured documents. Their aim is to move information from the hidden, proprietary, idiosyncratic organization of thousands of databases and millions of irregularly formed web pages into a single comprehensive, shared information format. Although this seems like a radical vision it is similar to the process that has created knowledge resources in previous media technologies. 提姆·伯纳斯-李是 HTML 协议的发明者，该协议构成了万维网的基础。他提出了未来网络的愿景，即一个更加有序的结构化文档网络。他创立的万维网联盟（W3C，http://www.W3C.org）正在致力于建立一个信息基础设施，以创建一个语义网，在这个网络中，信息的意义以对人类和机器友好的方式进行编码，从而能够更可靠地进行搜索、检索和处理。W3C 方法的核心在于使用标准化的元数据对信息进行注释，并在标准化的结构化文档中呈现。 他们的目标是将数千个数据库和数百万个不规则网页中隐藏的、专有的、特有的信息转化为一个综合的、共享的信息格式。尽管这看起来是一个激进的愿景，但它与以往媒体技术中知识资源的形成过程相似。
As the amount of information we generate increases, we must put more effort into formatting and sorting in order to keep track of it. If we have one clay tablet we just have to remember where it is and then point it out to others when they ask for it. If we have twenty tablets we have to place them in a memorable way that will make sense to everyone who is likely to look for any one of them. If we have 20,000 clay tablets we need shelves and baskets and labels. If we have 200,000 books then we need a classification system for shelving them that leads us through the taxonomy of knowledge to the right part of the right shelf. 随着我们生成的信息量不断增加，我们必须更加努力地进行格式化和整理，以便能够有效地跟踪这些信息。如果我们只有一块泥板，我们只需记住它的位置，并在别人询问时指给他们。如果我们有二十块泥板，我们就需要以一种让所有可能寻找其中任何一块的人都能轻松记住的方式来放置它们。如果我们有 20,000 块泥板，我们就需要架子、篮子和标签。如果我们有 200,000 本书，那么我们需要一个分类系统来帮助我们将它们放置在书架上，从而引导我们通过知识的分类找到正确的书架和相应的书籍。
The process is similar for the data we place in larger information containers. If we have a census operation for a small town we can keep our tables on a papyrus roll in a locally invented order. If we have a census for the entire United States in the twentyfirst century, we will want to use a computer and a uniform system of database tables, so we can pull things out city by city, or county by county, or across cities and counties by age or gender or two-person household. 这个过程对于我们放置在更大信息容器中的数据是相似的。如果我们对一个小镇进行人口普查，我们可以将数据保存在当地发明的纸草卷中。如果我们在二十一世纪对整个美国进行人口普查，我们就需要使用计算机和统一的数据库系统，以便能够按城市、县，或按年龄、性别以及两人家庭的方式提取信息。
With the World Wide Web we have created a global information repository with items generated from millions of individual points, in multiple categories of knowledge and human expression. We have reached a new level of complexity, an increase of many orders of magnitude, perhaps equivalent to the explosion in print culture following the invention of the printing press, but happening much faster than the four centuries it took from the invention of the printing press to the invention of the Dewey Decimal system. It is as if we are called upon to simultaneously reinvent the tablet, the book, and the library. 随着互联网的普及，我们建立了一个全球信息库，汇集了来自数百万个个体的内容，涵盖了多个知识领域和人类表达方式。我们达到了前所未有的复杂性，增长幅度极大，或许可以与印刷机发明后印刷文化的迅猛发展相提并论，但这一切的变化发生得比从印刷机发明到杜威十进制系统问世的四个世纪要快得多。我们仿佛被召唤去同时重新定义平板、书籍和图书馆。
How do we get from our current too-diverse docuverse to a coherent semantic web? We do not have to invent a single document format for everything on the web or impose a single order on all web creators, but we do need a way to encourage the use of common document formats and metadata sets. The W3C created XML (Extensible Markup Language) for this purpose. XML is a metalanguage, a language for defining other markup languages. It provides a structure for defining common tags and document formats for sharing information. Unlike HTML, XML does not have any fixed set of tags. Instead, users can define all the elements in their document in whatever words they please. More important, they can define templates for families of like documents by establishing standardized XML schemas. 我们如何将当前过于多样化的文档宇宙转变为一个连贯的语义网？我们不需要为网络上的所有内容发明一种单一的文档格式，也不必对所有网络创作者施加统一的秩序，但我们确实需要一种方式来鼓励使用共同的文档格式和元数据集。为此，W3C 创建了 XML（可扩展标记语言）。XML 是一种元语言，用于定义其他标记语言。它提供了一种结构，用于定义共享信息的共同标签和文档格式。与 HTML 不同，XML 没有固定的标签集。相反，用户可以用他们喜欢的任何词语来定义文档中的所有元素。更重要的是，他们可以通过建立标准化的 XML 模式来定义类似文档的模板。
Perhaps the most familiar XML document is the RSS feed, which stands for Really Simple Syndication, and is the basis of podcasts and news feeds that pipe information directly to users. If networked information on the web is similar to a global array of bulletin boards, RSS turns it into a global broadcasting system in which millions of people have millions of choices of channels. RSS began as a text standard and was extended to include temporal (audio and moving image) media (figure 9.21). Podcasting and blog syndication works because RSS provides an accessible standard for the information, written in XML. Although XML was intended to foster wider sharing of information, it can also be used as the basis for proprietary schemas, such as a music format that only runs on one manufacturer’s devices. 也许最熟悉的 XML 文档就是 RSS 源，RSS 代表“真正简单的聚合”，是播客和新闻源的基础，能够直接向用户传递信息。如果说网络信息在网上就像一个全球公告栏的数组，那么 RSS 就将其转变为一个全球广播系统，数以百万计的人可以选择数百万个频道。RSS 最初是作为一种文本标准出现的，后来扩展到包括时间性（音频和动态图像）媒体（见图 9.21）。播客和博客聚合之所以能够运作，是因为 RSS 提供了一个可访问的标准，信息以 XML 格式编写。 虽然 XML 的目的是促进信息的广泛共享，但它也可以作为专有模式的基础，比如仅能在某个制造商的设备上使用的音乐格式。
In addition to schemas, the W3C has released specifications for a Resource Description Language (RDF) and an Ontology Web Language (OWL). Both are based on our ability to use a label as a pointer to a location that serves as a container for other information. In this case the World Wide Web is the location, and unchanging web 除了模式，W3C 还发布了资源描述语言（RDF）和本体网页语言（OWL）的规范。这两者都基于我们能够使用标签作为指向一个位置的指针，而这个位置则作为其他信息的容器。在这种情况下，万维网就是这个位置，而这个网络是固定不变的。
Sample RSS Elements 示例 RSS 项目Channel 频道Title 文章标题Description 说明URL Link 网址链接Item 物品Title 文章标题Description 说明URL Link 网址链接Author 作者Category 分类Global Unique Identifier (guid) 全球唯一标识符Publication Date 出版时间
Figure 9.21 第 9.21 图
RSS elements standardize podcasts, providing universal access to create and receive them and facilitating aggregation of individually chosen feeds in RSS readers. RSS 元素标准化播客，提供创建和接收播客的普遍途径，并便于在 RSS 阅读器中聚合用户自选的源。
pointers-called Universal Resource Identifiers (URIs) serve as unique names for containers of information. An RDF is a set of three such pointers to two entities and the relationship between them. For example an RDF for a ZIP code document might look like this: 被称为统一资源标识符（URI）的指针作为信息容器的唯一名称。RDF 是一组指向两个实体及其关系的三个指针。例如，一个 ZIP 代码文档的 RDF 可能如下所示：
(feld 5 in database A) [subject]
(is a feld of type) [relationship]
(zip code) [object]
Part of the power of the RDF is its modularity, its abstraction of the three elements into web addresses so that the content of any one of them can change without changing the relationship among them. For example, if ZIP codes change from nine to thirteen digits the RDF does not have to change since it just points to the site on which ZIP code formats are specified and to the site of a particular set of ZIPf codes. RDF is a way of abstracting any relationship so that it can be expressed in terms that a computer can understand and act on appropriately. OWL builds on the architecture by specifying kinds of relationships (such as X IS A FIELD OF TYPE Y, X IS EQUAL TO Y). RDF 的强大之处在于它的模块化，它将三个元素抽象为网络地址，使得其中任何一个的内容可以在不改变它们之间关系的情况下进行更改。例如，如果邮政编码从九位数字变为十三位数字，RDF 不需要更改，因为它只是指向指定邮政编码格式的网站和特定邮政编码集的网站。RDF 是一种抽象任何关系的方法，使其能够用计算机可以理解并适当地执行的术语来表达。OWL 在此架构的基础上，进一步指定了关系的种类（例如 X 是 Y 类型的字段，X 等于 Y）。
In principle, we could use such a Semantic Web architecture to describe any set of complex relationships among entities that are represented by structured web documents. In the vision of Tim Berners-Lee, schemas, RDFs, web ontologies, and shared standardized rule sets will structure XML documents into a a future web environment in which computers will know not only how to display a document (as in HTML), but also what knowledge category each segment of the document belongs to, and how to process it appropriately. The plan for the Semantic Web assumes that this information will be as well formed as data in a database, or objects in a programming language, allowing it to be exchanged across applications and processed according to abstractly specified methods. 原则上，我们可以利用这样的语义网架构来描述任何一组复杂的实体关系，这些关系通过结构化的网络文档来表示。在蒂姆·伯纳斯-李的愿景中，模式、RDF、网络本体和共享的标准化规则集将把 XML 文档结构化为一个未来的网络环境。在这个环境中，计算机不仅能够知道如何显示文档（如 HTML），还能够识别文档中每个部分所属的知识类别，并适当地处理这些内容。语义网的计划假设这些信息将像数据库中的数据或编程语言中的对象一样结构良好，从而使其能够在应用程序之间进行交换，并根据抽象指定的方法进行处理。
Many domains on the public web and in private networks already share information. For example, application programs for making bibliographies know how to retrieve and read entries from research libraries like the Library of Congress and paste the information into documents within another vendor’s word processor. Calendar programs and address books also exchange information through standardized formats. Business to business applications rely on standardized representation of inventory items to coordinate orders, shipping, and billing through complex manufacturing and delivery chains. 许多公共网络和私人网络中的领域已经开始共享信息。例如，制作书目的应用程序能够从研究图书馆（如国会图书馆）检索和读取条目，并将这些信息粘贴到其他供应商的文字处理器文档中。日历程序和地址簿也通过标准化格式进行信息交换。企业间的应用程序依赖于库存项目的标准化表示，以便在复杂的制造和交付链中协调订单、运输和账单。
But the vision of the Semantic Web goes far beyond this level of interchange, imagining automated processes, which function as agents taking data from diverse parts of the web and accomplishing complicated tasks on our behalf, because they can rely on standardized metadata to identify useful bits of information. Here is part of the scenario offered by Berners-Lee and his collaborators in his 2001 Scientific American 但是，语义网的愿景远不止于此，它设想了一种自动化的过程，这些过程像代理一样，从网络的各个部分获取数据，并为我们完成复杂的任务，因为它们可以依靠标准化的元数据来识别有用的信息。这是伯纳斯-李及其合作者在 2001 年《科学美国人》上提出的场景的一部分。
article on the Semantic Web. It involves a brother and sister caring for the medical needs of their elderly mother, with italics from the original article indicating the items that the authors expect to be tagged online with standardized metadata, and therefore available for computational processing: 这篇文章讨论了语义网。内容讲述了一对兄妹如何照顾他们年迈母亲的医疗需求，文中斜体字表示作者希望在线标记的项目，这些项目将使用标准化的元数据，从而便于计算处理：
At the doctor’s office, Lucy instructed her Semantic Web agent through her handheld Web browser. The agent promptly retrieved information about Mom’s prescribed treatment from the doctor’s agent, looked up several lists of providers, and checked for the ones in-plan for Mom’s insurance within a 20-mile radius of her home and with a rating of excellent or very good on trusted rating services. It then began trying to find a match between available appointment times . . . and Pete’s and Lucy’s busy schedules. (Berners-Lee, Hendler, and Lassila 2001) 在医生办公室，露西通过手持网络浏览器指示她的语义网代理。代理迅速从医生的代理那里获取了妈妈的处方治疗信息，查找了多个提供者的列表，并检查了在妈妈的保险计划内、距离她家 20 英里范围内、在可信评级服务上评级为优秀或非常好的提供者。接着，它开始尝试在可用的预约时间与皮特和露西的繁忙日程之间找到匹配。
In this idealized scenario the brother and sister are able to find excellent care for their mother and to avoid disruption to their “busy schedules.” At the cultural level the story conforms to the ideal servant fantasy we will be looking at in chapter 12, and it seems to have been designed to popularize the idea of the web by appealing to the workaholic information technology (IT) community. This makes it somewhat less persuasive as a story set in the lifeworld of illness, overwork, filial guilt, and sibling conflict (all of which have been abstracted away but are still evoked by the connotations of the scenario). But the logic of the computer processing is quite persuasive, since we could well imagine an insurance table of prescribed treatments, a map utility that calculates distances, web retrieval of the home address of everyone in the family, a social network utility that ranks service providers, and a calendar application that sets up appointment times based on intersections in multiple calendars. What is harder to imagine than the computer processing is the human cooperation necessary to establish all the common standards necessary to achieve this transaction. 在这个理想化的场景中，兄弟姐妹能够为母亲找到优质的照顾，并避免打扰他们“繁忙的日程”。在文化层面上，这个故事符合我们将在第 12 章讨论的理想仆人幻想，似乎旨在通过吸引工作狂的信息技术（IT）社区来普及网络的概念。这使得它在作为一个关于疾病、过度工作、子女负罪感和兄弟姐妹冲突的生活世界中的故事时，显得有些不够说服力（这些问题虽然被抽象化了，但仍然通过场景的内涵被唤起）。 但是，计算机处理的逻辑非常有说服力，因为我们可以想象一个包含规定治疗的保险表、一个计算距离的地图工具、一个检索家庭成员住址的网络工具、一个对服务提供者进行排名的社交网络工具，以及一个根据多个日历交集设置约会时间的日历应用程序。相比于计算机处理，更难想象的是为了实现这一交易所需的人类合作，以及建立所有必要的共同标准。
How well the vision of the Semantic Web is realized will depend on how cooperative the diverse information-producing communities will be. In a 2006 follow-up article entitled “The Semantic Web Revisited,” Berners-Lee and two other collaborators survey how much progress has been made toward achieving these goals. They express continued excitement in the potential of the RDF and the OWL system, to provide the basis of structures that could lead to new businesses and new knowledge. But they also express disappointment at the slow adoption of RDFs, which they attribute to the difficulty of imposing standards on existing communities. They complain that scientists are using URIs for information formats (like zip files) that must be downloaded to be read, and they are using naming conventions that are not consistent with URI standards. They locate the problem not in the technology but in the social organization: “A process is needed that routinely gives URIs to such objects and entrusts their management to individuals and communities who care about consistent and explicit reference methods” (Berners-Lee, Shadbolt, and Hall 2006). 语义网愿景的实现程度将取决于各个信息生产社区的合作意愿。在 2006 年，伯纳斯-李和另外两位合作者在一篇名为《语义网再访》的后续文章中调查了在实现这些目标方面取得的进展。他们对 RDF 和 OWL 系统的潜力感到兴奋，认为这可以为新业务和新知识提供基础结构。然而，他们也对 RDF 的缓慢采用感到失望，认为这主要是由于对现有社区施加标准的困难。 他们抱怨科学家使用 URI 来表示信息格式（例如 zip 文件），这些文件必须下载后才能阅读，而且他们使用的命名约定与 URI 标准不一致。他们认为问题不在于技术，而在于社会组织：“需要一个流程，定期为这些对象分配 URI，并将其管理委托给关心一致和明确引用方法的个人和社区”（Berners-Lee, Shadbolt, 和 Hall 2006）。
Even for the master wizards of the web working with the highly organized scientific community, the human context of information proves to be much messier than they had hoped. In 2007, Berners-Lee suggested abandoning the name Semantic Web in favor of Giant Global Graph (GGG), in order to emphasize the potential for achieving a transformative organizational structure comparable to the Internet (in networking computation) and the World Wide Web (in networking documents). The GGG would allow us to share not just documents, but also “the things they are about,” by segmenting and labeling them as shared structured data (Berners-Lee 2007). 即使对于与高度组织化的科学界合作的网络大师们来说，信息的人类背景仍然比他们预期的要复杂得多。2007 年，伯纳斯-李建议放弃“语义网”这一名称，改为“巨型全球图”（GGG），以强调实现一种可与互联网（在网络计算方面）和万维网（在网络文档方面）相媲美的变革性组织结构的潜力。GGG 将使我们不仅能够分享文档，还能分享“它们所涉及的事物”，通过将其分段和标记为共享的结构化数据（伯纳斯-李 2007）。
Although the most ambitious goals of the W3C for a Semantic Web or GGG are still largely in the realm of research, the abstraction, standardization, and segmentation of documents and the formulation of semantic metadata will be important elements in digital design for decades to come. The need for a greater semantic organization and standardization is clear: the U.S. government alone is reported to have 60,000 distinct document types, and even a relatively stable field of knowledge like art history is facing a crisis in which there is concern that the amount of articles written about particular works of art is more than any researcher can reasonably expect to read (Elkins 1999). We have long outgrown the organizational power of the library and the database; we are not yet in control of the existing web, and yet access to digital inscription and transmission is growing every year. 尽管 W3C 对语义网或 GGG 的雄心勃勃目标仍主要停留在研究阶段，但文档的抽象、标准化、分段以及语义元数据的制定将在未来几十年的数字设计中扮演重要角色。对更高语义组织和标准化的需求显而易见：仅美国政府就有 60,000 种不同的文档类型，而即使是像艺术史这样相对稳定的知识领域，也面临着危机，人们担心关于特定艺术作品的文章数量超过了任何研究者合理预期的阅读量（Elkins 1999）。 我们早已超越了图书馆和数据库的组织能力；虽然我们还未能掌控现有的网络，但对数字记录和传输的访问每年都在不断增加。
Designers should welcome every opportunity to create and use standardized document structures to increase the power of our focused attention, and create meaningful organization. Every time we create a document (including media files such as text, images, moving images, and sound) for the web, we should consider how it could be semantically segmented with metadata tags. Every time we create a data structure for a software system, we can consider how it might be made into a sharable XML file. Existing documents can be analyzed to create generic schema for semantic segmentation. Doing this may not lead to Berners-Lee’s ideal Semantic Web or Gigantic Global Graph, but it will lead to a more semantically organized web and bring us closer to turning the exponential increase in documents into a corresponding gain in knowledge and understanding. 设计师应当抓住每一个机会，创建和使用标准化的文档结构，以增强我们的专注力并实现有意义的组织。每当我们为网络创建文档（包括文本、图像、视频和音频等媒体文件）时，都应考虑如何通过元数据标签进行语义分段。每当我们为软件系统设计数据结构时，也应考虑如何将其转化为可共享的 XML 文件。现有文档可以被分析，以便创建通用的语义分段模式。 这样做可能无法实现伯纳斯-李理想中的语义网或庞大的全球图，但它会使网络更加语义化，并使我们更接近于将文档的指数增长转化为相应的知识和理解的提升。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: DOCUMENTS STRUCTURED WITH METADATA 设计探索：结构化的元数据文档
Using Metadata to Structure Documents and Shared Resources 利用元数据来组织文档和共享资源
Using cascading style sheets or similar abstractions of formatting from logical structure, reformat an existing website’s content in the style of a different genre of website. For example, take content from a gossip site or family vacation blog and redisplay it in the format of the New York Times website. What difference does it make to change the display of the information? What meanings are implicit in formatting and font choices? 使用层叠样式表或类似的格式化方式，从逻辑结构中重新格式化现有网站的内容，使其风格与其他类型的网站相符。例如，可以将八卦网站或家庭度假博客的内容提取出来，并以《纽约时报》网站的格式重新展示。这种信息展示的变化有什么不同？格式和字体选择中隐含了哪些意义？
Choose a set of twenty-five related items indexed by metadata on a site for sharing media artifacts or structured information, such as images on Flickr, bibliography entries on Zotero, or pointers to web pages on delicious.com. 选择一组由元数据索引的二十五个相关项目，这些项目可以在分享媒体文物或结构化信息的网站上找到，例如 Flickr 上的图片、Zotero 上的书目条目或 delicious.com 上的网页链接。
List all the labels that have been applied to all the items in your sample. 列出您样本中所有项目所应用的标签。
Where did the metadata come from? 元数据是从哪里来的？
Which tags are assigned top down from an authority source? 从权威来源自上而下分配的标签有哪些？
Which ones belong to a controlled vocabulary? 哪些是受控词汇？
Which are from taxonomies of knowledge? 哪些是知识分类中的内容？
Which terms are applied bottom up? 哪些术语是从下往上应用的？
Are there any tags that are synonyms for the same idea among the items in your sample? 在你的样本中，有哪些标签是表示相同概念的同义词？
Does the application allow for any free text search or derived descriptors? 该应用程序是否支持自由文本搜索或衍生描述？
Does it suggest tags to contributors? 它是否会为贡献者推荐标签？
Does it provide templates for contributors? 它为贡献者提供模板吗？
What new tags or templates would you like to add to the system? 你希望在系统中添加哪些新的标签或模板？
What new features would you like to add to the tagging interface? 你希望在标签界面添加哪些新功能？
Using Metadata to Create More Successful Searches 利用元数据提升搜索的成功率
Play the Google image labeler game for a total of at least five times (each game is two minutes): http://images.google.com/imagelabeler. The site will match you up with a partner, and you can play anonymously as a “guest.” Record your answers and your partner’s answers, using a screen capture program if necessary. 玩谷歌图像标记者游戏，至少进行五局（每局两分钟）：http://images.google.com/imagelabeler。网站会将你与一位伙伴匹配，你可以以“访客”身份匿名参与。如果需要，可以使用屏幕录制程序记录你和伙伴的答案。
What strategies did you use to come up with labels? 你采用了哪些策略来创建标签？
How many of your labels matched your partner’s labels? 你们的标签中有多少与伴侣的标签相符？
Check the original context of the images after you play. How well did the labels either of you chose match the original context of the images? 玩完后检查一下图像的原始上下文。你们选择的标签与图像的原始上下文匹配得如何？
If you were to enter any of the label words into an image search engine, would you be expecting images like the ones you labeled? If not, what would you be expecting instead? 如果你在图像搜索引擎中输入任何标签词，你会期待看到与你标记的图片相似的结果吗？如果不是，你希望看到什么样的图片？
After exploring the original context of the images and considering the labels you and your partner generated, can you come up with a better set of labels for each of the images? 在了解图像的原始背景并考虑你和你的伙伴所生成的标签后，你能为每张图像提出一组更合适的标签吗？
Play Guess-the-google for at least ten minutes and keep track of how many times you guess correctly: http://grant.robinson.name/projects/guess-the-google. What cues in the images determined a correct guess? How important were familiar icons or text elements? 玩“猜谷歌”至少十分钟，并记录你猜对的次数：http://grant.robinson.name/projects/guess-the-google。图像中的哪些线索帮助你做出正确的猜测？熟悉的图标或文字元素有多重要？
Using the Google Book Project, Flickr, YouTube, or any similar repository of a large number of digital artifacts in any media format, create your own mini-archive of twenty-five items on a subject of interest to you. 利用 Google 图书项目、Flickr、YouTube 或其他类似的大型数字文物库，创建一个关于您感兴趣主题的二十五个项目的小档案。
What facets can you identify in this domain? 你能在这个领域识别出哪些特征吗？
What facets would your items already have associated with them that may not be directly relevant to the domain? 您的物品可能已经与哪些方面相关，而这些方面可能与该领域并不直接相关？
What bibliographic records or other research sources already exist for your items and your domain (e.g., Wikipedia pages, online film databases, Library of Congress catalog, etc.)? 针对您的项目和领域（如维基百科页面、在线电影数据库、国会图书馆目录等），目前已有哪些书目记录或其他研究资源？
What would be an appropriate level of granularity for tagging (for example, if it is an archive of books should the tags point to the whole book? particular pages? one or more paragraphs?)? 对于标记，适当的粒度水平应该是什么？（例如，如果这是一本书的档案，标签应该指向整本书、特定页面，还是一个或多个段落？）
How would you (ideally) make use of genre features such as book indexes or subtitles of films to create derived metadata? 你理想中如何利用书籍的索引或电影的字幕等类型特征来生成派生元数据？
What controlled vocabularies are relevant to your domain? 您的领域相关的受控词汇有哪些？
Mock up a faceted search sequence that assumes an ideal tagging and retrieval system for your mini-archive. 模拟一个理想的标签和检索系统，以便为你的迷你档案设计一个多维搜索流程。
Although they are an efficient way to catalog emerging information resources, folksonomies that lack editorial control can lead to redundancy, ambiguity, and inefficient retrieval. Analyze the “most popular” or “most recent” tag cloud of a media repository site with a large user base (or use one of the tag cloud illustrations from this chapter). 尽管民间分类法是有效的编目新兴信息资源的方式，但如果缺乏编辑控制，可能会导致冗余、模糊和检索效率低下。请分析一个拥有大量用户的媒体存储网站的“最受欢迎”或“最新”标签云（或使用本章中的某个标签云示例）。
Identify the obvious ambiguities and redundancies. 识别出明显的模糊之处和冗余内容。
Attempt to make a knowledge taxonomy using the existing tags. What tags would you have to add? What hierarchical categories would you create? What tags are the hardest to fit in? 尝试利用现有标签构建知识分类体系。你需要添加哪些标签？会创建哪些层次分类？哪些标签最难归类？
Compare taxonomies with other members of your class or group. What top-level categories worked best? What was the source of these categories? 与您班级或小组的其他成员比较分类法。哪些顶级类别最有效？这些类别的来源是什么？
After making the taxonomy, take a random sample of twenty-five items from the same site without searching on any of the tags you used, and choosing from at least five distinct contributors. 制作分类法后，从同一网站随机抽取二十五个项目，避免搜索您使用的任何标签，并确保选择至少五位不同的贡献者。
Can you label every one of these randomly chosen items using your taxonomy? 你能用你的分类法为这些随机选择的物品逐一标记吗？
Can you do so by adding new tags in your existing categories? 你能通过在现有类别中添加新标签来实现吗？
How consistent is the system after you have modified it to include these new items? 在您将系统修改以包含这些新项目后，系统的稳定性如何？
Exploring Wikipedia as an Information Structure 将维基百科视为信息结构的探索
Wikipedia can provide a model for the use of information design conventions such as templates, segmentation, controlled vocabularies, social rituals, and explicit style guides for structuring contributions from a vast distributed pool of contributors in order to create a remarkably uniform information resource. 维基百科可以为信息设计规范的使用提供一个模型，比如模板、分段、受控词汇、社交仪式和明确的风格指南，以便从庞大的分布式贡献者池中整合贡献，从而创建一个非常统一的信息资源。
Divide into three teams and take an hour to gather information on the cross bow. Answer the following questions: What made the crossbow successful? How was this weapon used? When was it invented and by whom? 将其分成三个小组，花一个小时收集关于弩的信息。请回答以下问题：是什么让弩如此成功？这个武器是如何使用的？它是什么时候被发明的，发明者是谁？
Team A: use only the print resources of the campus library. A 队：只使用校园图书馆的纸质资源。
Team B: use only the World Wide Web without using Wikipedia. 团队 B：只使用互联网，不使用维基百科。
Team C: use only Wikipedia. C 团队：只使用维基百科。
After presenting the results, decide as a group: What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method of gathering information? What did each lack that was present in one or more of the other resources? 在展示结果后，作为一个小组讨论：每种信息收集方法的优缺点是什么？每种方法缺少了其他资源中所具备的哪些内容？
Choosing whichever strategies were the most useful in the previous exercise, do the same process for the baby carriage, frying pan, and the automobile. 选择在之前练习中最有效的策略，对婴儿车、煎锅和汽车进行相同的处理。
Is there an equal amount of information available for these nonmilitary objects as there was for the crossbow? 这些非军事物体的信息量是否与弩的信息量相同？
Which had the most information? 哪个包含的信息最多？
What cultural attitudes may have determined the amount of information available? 哪些文化态度可能影响了可获取信息的多少？
What is the largest category of information represented in the Wikipedia (or other online resource)? What motivates the creation of this information? How is the information validated? 维基百科（或其他在线资源）中最大的类别信息是什么？是什么驱动了这些信息的创建？这些信息是如何得到验证的？
Find an area of Wikipedia that is part of an existing “Project” (<http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Project>) and has clear guidelines associated with it. Add one article to your chosen Project area. 找到维基百科中属于现有“项目”（）的一个区域，并且有明确的指导方针。向您选择的项目区域添加一篇文章。
What questions did you have while doing this exercise? Were you able to answer them? 你在做这个练习时有什么问题？你能解决这些问题吗？
Where did you find the information you added? How did you know it was not already part of Wikipedia? 你是从哪里找到你添加的信息的？你怎么确定这不是维基百科的一部分？
How did you know it was accurate? 你是怎么知道它是准确的？
How did you know how to format your article? 你是怎么知道如何排版你的文章的？
Was it reviewed by other contributors? 这是否得到了其他贡献者的审核？
Was it edited or changed? 这个内容被编辑或修改过吗？
If you discussed any part of the article with others, where did you hold this discussion? How was it structured? 如果你和他人讨论了文章的任何部分，你们在哪里进行讨论？讨论的结构是怎样的？
Using Standardized Semantic Structures 使用标准化的语义结构
Identify the appropriate XML metadata vocabularies and document formats for the following: a person’s street address in any country, syndication of a radio program across the web, and a customer’s phone number and credit card information. Who designed and established these standards? 确定适合的 XML 元数据词汇和文档格式，用于以下内容：一个人在任何国家的街道地址、网络上广播的电台节目，以及客户的电话号码和信用卡信息。这些标准是由谁设计和建立的？
Write a list of five media artifacts you personally consumed (read, watched, listened to, interacted with) in the past week. Can you identify for each of these artifacts a specific XML-based document format that enabled its transmission and structured its presentation? What was the effect of the standardized markup? Who created and agreed to adopt the standard? 请列出你在过去一周内个人接触的五个媒体作品（阅读、观看、聆听或互动）。你能为每个作品识别出一种特定的基于 XML 的文档格式吗？这种格式是如何帮助传输和结构化展示的？标准化标记带来了什么影响？谁制定并同意采用这个标准？
Using the current W3C standards (http://www.w3c.org) create an abstract schema for an existing print document. 根据当前的 W3C 标准（http://www.w3c.org），为现有的印刷文档创建一个抽象架构。
Working in groups, create an ontology of a popular sport, using RDF, OWL, or a simpler pseudocode of your own invention. 在小组中合作，使用 RDF、OWL 或您自己设计的简单伪代码，创建一个流行运动的本体。
Collective Brainstorming Stage: 集体头脑风暴阶段
Agree on a controlled vocabulary, and identify the level of abstraction at which you will describe elements of your domain. (Do not make it so detailed that it is impossible to finish, but make it detailed enough that you could distinguish your sport from a similar one.) 确定一个受控词汇，并明确您将在哪个抽象层次描述您领域的元素。（不要过于详细以至于无法完成，但要足够详细，以便您能区分您的运动与相似的运动。）
Separate names of things from actions. Identify the most important adjectives that go with the most important objects and actions. 将事物的名称与动作区分开来，找出与最重要的物体和动作相对应的关键形容词。
Identify the most important state variables you would have to keep track of (e.g., innings, outs, runs, positions on the field). 确定您需要跟踪的最重要的状态变量，例如局数、出局数、得分和场上位置。
Modular Design Stage: 模块化设计阶段
After this period of collective brainstorming, divide into subgroups, assigning distinct modules of the ontology to each subgroup. 在这段集体头脑风暴结束后，分成小组，并为每个小组分配不同的本体模块。
Does making the ontology raise questions about competing definitions of the same terms, or competing rule sets for the game? 制定本体是否会引发关于同一术语的不同定义或游戏规则的竞争问题？
Are there canonical sources available for settling these disputes or do they reflect informal practices? 是否有权威的来源可以用来解决这些争议，还是它们只是反映了非正式的做法？
How much does your ontology reflect culturally specific practices? 你的本体在多大程度上体现了特定文化的实践？
How much coordination among subgroups is necessary to make a consistent ontology? 子组之间需要多少协调才能建立一致的本体？
Assessment Stage: 评估阶段
How successful was the collaboration? What strategies worked best for creating a consistent organization? What factors worked against consistency? 这次合作的成功程度如何？哪些策略最有效地帮助建立了一个一致的组织？有哪些因素影响了一致性？
Are there other related domains (e.g., hot dog sales, sports injuries, soccer brawls, free-agent bidding) that would have to be modeled in order to have a more complete representation of the game? 是否还有其他相关领域（如热狗销售、运动伤害、足球冲突、自由球员竞标）需要建模，以便更全面地展示比赛？
How would you decide on the boundaries of your ontology? 你会如何确定你的本体的边界？
How would you coordinate with multiple groups making ontologies for multiple games? 你会如何协调多个团队为不同的游戏创建本体？
V SCRIPTING INTERACTION V 脚本交互功能
Digital media innovation for the past half century has been concerned with establishing rituals and conventions for sharing focus between human beings and computers, implicitly and explicitly relying on a few basic models of interaction: the tool, machine, companion, and game models. Digital media designers must understand the strengths and weaknesses of these models in order to apply them mindfully and to expand our repertoire of strategies for meaningful engagement. 在过去的半个世纪里，数字媒体创新一直致力于建立人类与计算机之间共享焦点的仪式和惯例，既隐含又显式地依赖于几种基本的互动模型：工具、机器、伴侣和游戏模型。数字媒体设计师必须理解这些模型的优缺点，以便有意识地运用它们，并拓展我们在有意义参与方面的策略。
Good interaction design should emulate good tool design in creating transparent systems that can be mastered with a gentle slope learning curve and used not just for rote tasks but also for customized expression and virtuosity. 优秀的交互设计应当借鉴优秀的工具设计，构建出能够通过平缓的学习曲线掌握的透明系统，这些系统不仅适用于机械化的任务，还能用于个性化的表达和精湛的技艺。
Good interaction design should emulate good machine design by making automated processes visible and under human control. 优秀的交互设计应当借鉴优秀的机器设计，使自动化过程变得可见并在人的控制之下。
Good interaction design should recognize the pervasive fantasy of an intelligent companion that computers evoke, and should avoid triggering fantasies of a magical mind-reading servant, aiming instead at creating the experience of a reliable, polite helper, always under the explicit direction of the human interactor. 优秀的交互设计应当意识到计算机所引发的智能伴侣的普遍幻想，并避免激发对魔法心灵读者仆人的幻想，而是应致力于创造一个可靠、礼貌的助手体验，始终在用户的明确指导下。
Humanist designers should recognize games as building blocks of culture and look for opportunities to use the game model of interaction to create interaction mechanics that enlarge the circle of shared attention and the possibilities for symbolic representation in all digital genres. Designers should recognize and reject the use of game patterns as reductive generalizations that trivialize human experience. Designers should use the expressive power of games to expand our cognitive abilities and to encourage more focused and flexible thinking about complex situations. 人文设计师应当认识到游戏是文化的基石，并寻找机会利用游戏互动模型来创造互动机制，以扩大共享注意力的范围和在所有数字类型中符号表现的可能性。设计师应当意识到并拒绝将游戏模式视为简化的概括，因为这会使人类经验变得肤浅。设计师应当利用游戏的表现力来拓展我们的认知能力，并鼓励对复杂情况进行更专注和灵活的思考。
10 The Tool Model: Augmenting the Expressive Power of the Hand 10 工具模型：提升手部表现力的能力
Successful interaction design requires a shift from seeing the machinery to seeing the lives of the people using it. In this human dimension, the relevant factors become hard to quantify, hard to even identify. 成功的交互设计需要从关注机器的运作转向关注使用它的人们的生活。在这个人性化的层面上，相关因素变得难以量化，甚至难以识别。
—Terry Winograd, “From Computing Machinery to Interaction Design” (1997) —特里·温诺格，《从计算机到交互设计》（1997）
Interactivity refers to the maximizing of two affordances of the digital medium, the procedural and the participatory, in the satisfying experience of agency. Previous parts of this book have surveyed ways to script the computer in order to represent processes, spaces, and semantically structured information. Part V focuses on ways to script the interactor, by identifying four key models that shape human expectations of digital artifacts: the tool, the machine, the companion, and the game. For each of these models we will examine established and emerging design conventions that exploit the affordances of digital media to expand our cultural repertoire for capturing and sharing meaning. 互动性是指在满足代理体验的过程中，最大化数字媒介的两种特性：程序性和参与性。本书前面的部分探讨了如何编写计算机程序，以表示过程、空间和语义结构的信息。第五部分则专注于如何为互动者编写脚本，识别出四个关键模型，这些模型塑造了人类对数字产品的期望：工具、机器、伴侣和游戏。我们将研究这些模型所采用的既有和新兴设计规范，利用数字媒体的特性，拓展我们捕捉和分享意义的文化能力。
Pointing, Grabbing, and Expressive Gestures 指向、抓取和表达性手势
We participate in digital environments first of all by bringing to them a sense of what a computer is. Our simplest model for working with digital environments is the model of the tool—something that fits in the hand, whose value lies in its instrumentality, its usefulness in performing an action that the hand could not otherwise do so well. 我们首先通过向数字环境传达计算机的概念来参与其中。我们与数字环境互动的最简单模型是工具模型——一种适合手握的工具，其价值在于它的实用性，能够帮助手完成一些手本无法高效完成的动作。
A tool is not necessarily something that we make. It can be a found object with the right affordances for the job, such as a rolled leaf poked through a hole in the bark of the tree by a hungry chimp in search of termites, or a shard of river rock used by early humans to skin an animal. A tool can be manufactured by skilled craftspeople, such as a quill pen, or by industrial machinery, such as an aluminum knitting needle. Through their own physical affordances and the strategies we invent for employing them, tools allow us to perform beyond the limits of our own strength and dexterity. The industrial age greatly extended our repertoire of tools by taking advantage of a 工具不一定是我们自己制造的物品。它可以是一个具有适当功能的发现物，例如一片被饥饿的黑猩猩戳穿树皮洞口的卷叶，用于寻找白蚁，或者一块早期人类用来剥皮的河石。工具可以由熟练的工匠制造，比如羽毛笔，或者由工业机械制造，比如铝制编织针。通过它们自身的物理特性和我们发明的使用策略，工具使我们能够超越自身力量和灵活性的限制。工业时代极大地扩展了我们的工具库。
wider range of materials. Magnifying lenses and paper clips, cuticle scissors and corkscrews, ballpoint pens and steering wheels are all highly sophisticated in manufacture and optimized for postindustrial uses, but they function in the same way as flint, twigs, and bone in focusing and augmenting the force of our hands in the service of a specific task. 更广泛的材料。放大镜、纸夹、指甲剪、开瓶器、圆珠笔和方向盘的制造工艺都非常复杂，并且经过优化以适应后工业用途，但它们在聚焦和增强我们手部力量以完成特定任务时的功能与燧石、树枝和骨头是一样的。
Although we often see tools as separate external entities, they are best understood as extensions of the hand. In fact, the human hand with its opposable thumb can be thought of as our first and most powerful tool. The hand allows us to grasp, move, manipulate, and reshape objects; to sense heat and cold, texture, contours, and motion; to communicate with visible gestures (pointing, waving, opening and closing fist and fingers, shaking hands) and auditory means (clapping, snapping, thumping); and of course to touch, caress, or strike other sentient creatures. Aside from the face, the hand is the most emotionally expressive part of the human body, providing us with a repertoire of signals from handshakes to obscenities that mediate our social relationships. American Indians used such hand signals to communicate across spoken language groups, and the sign language of the deaf richly exploits hand gestures as a syntactical medium of inscription, a transmission code that carries representational messages as precise and expressive as spoken language. Sign language has lately been adopted for use by parents and infants and it has opened a pathway for understanding a baby’s desires (Food! More!) and for assigning names to compelling items in their environment (Cat! Ball! Car!) before the child is able to articulate words. 尽管我们常常将工具视为独立的外部实体，但它们实际上更应该被理解为手的延伸。事实上，人类的手和可对握的拇指可以被视为我们第一个也是最强大的工具。手使我们能够抓取、移动、操控和重塑物体；感知温度、质地、轮廓和运动；通过可见的手势（如指点、挥手、开合拳头和手指、握手）以及听觉方式（如拍手、打响指、敲打）进行交流；当然还可以触摸、抚摸或攻击其他有知觉的生物。除了面部，手是人体中情感表达最丰富的部分，为我们提供了从握手到粗俗手势的多种信号，调节我们的社交关系。 美洲印第安人使用手势在不同语言群体之间进行交流，聋人的手语则丰富地利用手势作为一种语法表达媒介，这是一种传递代码，能够传达与口语一样精确且富有表现力的信息。最近，手语被父母和婴儿采用，这为理解婴儿的需求（食物！更多！）以及为他们周围引人注目的物品（猫！球！车！）命名开辟了道路，甚至在孩子能够说出单词之前。
Products made with hand tools are appealing to us because they have a direct connection with the physical body of the maker: the potter, sculptor, painter, carpenter, cook, or seamstress. Handwritten letters, manuscripts of books, autographs of famous people gain value beyond the words on the page reproduced by other means. We see the traces of the hand in the effects of the tools, and we take special pleasure in creating and perceiving those traces. In English, we refer to products created through the expert use of tools as “handicraft,” and we use the word “handy” to refer to skillfulness and welcome availability. Other languages make similar connections. We find hand tools appealing because we are hardwired to enjoy using our hands for a mixture of utilitarian and expressive purposes. 用手工具制作的产品吸引我们，因为它们与制造者的身体有直接的联系：无论是陶工、雕塑家、画家、木匠、厨师还是女裁缝。手写的信件、书籍手稿和名人的签名超越了其他方式复制的文字，具有更高的价值。我们在工具的使用效果中能看到手的痕迹，并在创造和感知这些痕迹时感到特别的乐趣。在英语中，我们称通过熟练使用工具创造的产品为“手工艺”，而“方便”一词则用来形容熟练和随时可用。其他语言也有类似的表达。我们之所以对手工具感兴趣，是因为我们天生喜欢用手进行实用与表达的结合。
The computer can be thought of as just one more set of tools, one more way of augmenting the power of our hands. Engagement with digital environments is usually made through our hands: we nudge a mouse or trackball, we move our fingers across a touch pad, we press down on the keys of a virtual or actual keyboard, we poke at a touchscreen, we jiggle a joystick. Much of what we do on the computer is an extension of pointing. Navigating by moving the mouse, entering letters and numbers on a keyboard, clicking on screen-based buttons and icons are all extensions of our ability to isolate an item from the visual field and point at it. The iconized pointer or cursor 计算机可以被看作是另一种工具，另一种增强我们双手能力的方式。我们与数字环境的互动通常是通过手来实现的：我们推动鼠标或轨迹球，手指在触摸板上滑动，按下虚拟或实际键盘的键，触碰触摸屏，摇动操纵杆。我们在计算机上做的许多事情都是指向的延伸。通过移动鼠标进行导航，在键盘上输入字母和数字，点击屏幕上的按钮和图标，都是我们从视觉中识别并指向某个项目的能力的延伸。图标化的指针或光标。
(whether a finger, an arrow, a vertical line “insertion point,” or an image of a pointing hand) is a crucial building block of the digital environment because it acts as our surrogate hand in the virtual world. In fact we can think of pointing as a participatory primitive, a necessary substructure for all of the interactor’s actions. As we discussed in part I, human babies begin to point at around nine months old, displaying their characteristically human ability to focus on what other people are thinking about, and to share the joint attentional scenes that cognitive scientists believe to be the basis of symbolic communication (Tomasello 2001). （无论是手指、箭头、垂直线“插入点”还是指向手的图像）都是数字环境中的一个重要组成部分，因为它在虚拟世界中充当了我们的替代手。实际上，我们可以将指向视为一种参与性原语，是所有交互者行为的必要基础。正如我们在第一部分中讨论的那样，人类婴儿在大约九个月大时开始指向，展现了他们特有的人类能力，能够关注他人所思考的内容，并分享认知科学家认为是象征性交流基础的共同注意场景（Tomasello 2001）。
Similarly, one might say that the era of interaction begins with the invention of transparent pointing technologies (like the mouse) and the conventions (like highlight and clicking/double-clicking) for sharing a common focus of attention with the machine as the basis of issuing commands. When an interactor is confused or frustrated by a set of software tools it is often because the necessary shared focus has not been established. The WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointing device) desktop interface has had many decades to establish and refine its conventions of pointing and commanding. Mobile phones, social networking environments, graphical virtual worlds, interactive maps and GPS devices, and interactive television are much more recent configurations, and still struggling to establish pointing rituals that are as efficient as the manipulation of files and folders with the mouse-driven cursor on the virtual desktop. One important impediment is the poor fit between human fingers and the miniature buttons on remote controls and the miniature real and virtual keyboards on mobile devices. 同样，人们可以说互动时代的开始是透明指向技术（如鼠标）的发明，以及与机器共享注意焦点的约定（如高亮显示和单击/双击），这成为发出命令的基础。当互动者对某些软件工具感到困惑或沮丧时，通常是因为没有建立必要的共享焦点。WIMP（窗口、图标、菜单、指点设备）桌面界面经过几十年的发展，已经建立并完善了其指向和命令的约定。 移动电话、社交网络环境、图形虚拟世界、互动地图、GPS 设备和互动电视等都是较新的技术配置，仍在努力建立与在虚拟桌面上使用鼠标操作文件和文件夹一样高效的指向方式。一个主要障碍是人类手指与遥控器上的微型按钮以及移动设备上的微型真实和虚拟键盘之间的不适配。
As media converge into multifunctional digital devices, pointing devices from television, music players, cameras, slide projectors, game consoles, and desktop computing are also converging. We are making increasing demands on the hand by proliferating devices and expanding the functionality of each individual device. One result is a miniaturization of buttons, often accompanied by poor labeling, which can make it difficult to identify, isolate, and depress the appropriate selection. Designers seem to expect the hand to adapt to the device (figure 10.1) rather than the other way around (figure 10.2). Power users, and especially younger and more dexterous consumers, have been willing to develop specialized manual skills like multitap or thumb typing in exchange for access to the augmented communication networks of the mobile world. But devices that offer simpler direct pointing affordances attract a wider range of potential users (figure 10.3). 随着媒体逐渐融合为多功能数字设备，电视、音乐播放器、相机、幻灯片投影仪、游戏机和桌面计算机的指点设备也在不断整合。我们对手的要求越来越高，设备数量激增，每个设备的功能也在不断扩展。这导致按钮的微型化，通常伴随着不清晰的标识，使得识别、隔离和按下正确的选项变得困难。设计师似乎期望手能够适应设备（图 10.1），而不是设备适应手（图 10.2）。 高级用户，特别是年轻且灵活的消费者，愿意发展多点触控或拇指打字等专业手动技能，以换取进入移动世界增强通信网络的机会。然而，提供更简单直接指向功能的设备则吸引了更广泛的潜在用户（图 10.3）。
The graphical user interface (GUI) has made pointing into an almost magically powerful action, recalling the fantasized omnipotence of infancy when pointing could deliver food or toys through the actions of the parent. Fairytales represent this sense of magical pointing in the figure of a magic wand, and manual technologies-such a joystick game controllers, datagloves, fingertip sensors, or the wand-like Wii remoteespecially when they are new, can evoke this sense of magical access. Applications that 图形用户界面（GUI）让指向变成了一种几乎神奇而强大的行为，唤起了婴儿时期那种幻想中的全能感，那时指向可以通过父母的行为获得食物或玩具。童话故事通过魔法棒的形象展现了这种神奇的指向感，而手动技术——如操纵杆游戏控制器、数据手套、指尖传感器或类似魔法棒的 Wii 遥控器——尤其在它们刚推出时，能够激发这种神奇的访问体验。
Figure 10.1 第 10.1 图
The size of the buttons on remote controls are confusing to most users, and particularly challenging for the elderly whose fingers lack force, steadiness, and accuracy. 遥控器上的按钮大小让大多数用户感到困惑，尤其是对于那些手指力量、稳定性和准确性不足的老年人来说，更是一个挑战。
Figure 10.2 第 10.2 图
This remote is closer to what they would all look like if they had been originally designed for elderly fingers. 这个遥控器的设计更符合老年人使用的需求。
Figure 10.3 第 10.3 图
The Apple iPad, introduced in spring 2010, attracted many first-time computer owners with its touchscreen interface and sub-notepad size, particularly those who wanted access to Internet media files without having to use a computer. 苹果 iPad 于 2010 年春季推出，吸引了许多首次使用电脑的用户，因其触摸屏界面和便携的尺寸，特别适合那些希望在不使用电脑的情况下访问互联网媒体文件的人。
play on the conventions of magic by making things appear and disappear, or grow larger or smaller, with a flick of the fingers, can be particularly satisfying. 通过手指轻轻一动，让事物出现、消失或变大变小，玩弄魔法的技巧，令人感到特别满足。
The video game industry exploits our pleasure in manipulating digitally displayed objects through the action of our hands. The experimental edge of such expressive interaction eliminates the input device altogether. For example, in Camille Utterback and Romy Achituv’s landmark art piece, Text Rain (1999), you (the interactor) stand in front of a screen on which your own image appears as in a mirror, but silhouetted and joined with images of gracefully falling letters. By stretching out your arms, and moving your hands, you can capture and rearrange the letters and words as they fall, breaking apart their original poetic words and phrases and creating fluid new combinations. The falling objects have appealing buoyancy, responding like air balloons to the force and direction in which they are flicked or pushed or bounced (figure 10.4). A similar sense of magical potency over text objects is used for dramatic effect in Steven Spielberg’s futuristic film Minority Report (2002), where the police investigator played by Tom Cruise navigates a vast information array by waving his arms and pointing both hands at a transparent wall screen that reads his gestures without the use of any pointing device (figure 10.5). 视频游戏产业利用我们通过手的动作操控数字显示物体的乐趣。这种富有表现力的互动方式完全消除了输入设备的需求。例如，在卡米尔·乌特巴克和罗米·阿基图夫的标志性艺术作品《文本雨》（1999）中，作为互动者的你站在一个屏幕前，屏幕上显示着你自己的影像，仿佛在镜子中一样，但轮廓分明，并与优雅下落的字母图像相结合。通过伸展双臂和移动手，你可以捕捉并重新排列下落的字母和单词，打破它们原本的诗意词句，创造出流畅的新组合。 下降的物体具有迷人的浮力，像气球一样对被弹、推或反弹的力量和方向作出反应（图 10.4）。在史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格的未来主义电影《少数派报告》（2002）中，汤姆·克鲁斯饰演的警探通过挥动手臂和用双手指向一个透明的墙面屏幕，来导航一个庞大的信息阵列，该屏幕能够在没有任何指向设备的情况下识别他的手势，从而展现出类似的魔力感（图 10.5）。
In mixed reality environments, where digital objects are superimposed on or embedded in real-world objects, the interactor is often given a simple physical tool, 在混合现实环境中，数字对象被叠加或嵌入到现实物体中，交互者通常会获得一个简单的物理工具
Figure 10.4 第 10.4 图
Text Rain (1999), an art installation by Camille Utterback and Romy Achituv that entices interactors to play with responsive bouncing letters. 《文本雨》（1999），这是卡米尔·乌特巴克和罗米·阿奇图夫创作的艺术装置，吸引参与者与会响应的弹跳字母进行互动。
Figure 10.5 第 10.5 图
Steven Spielberg’s futuristic film Minority Report (2002) showed Tom Cruise using a gestural interface to navigate a dense information space. The technology was based in part on gestural work done at the MIT Media Lab by John Underkoffle and interface designs by Dale Herigstad of Schematic. 史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格的未来主义电影《少数派报告》（2002）展示了汤姆·克鲁斯如何使用手势界面在复杂的信息空间中进行导航。这项技术部分源于麻省理工学院媒体实验室的约翰·安德考夫尔的手势研究，以及斯凯马提克的戴尔·赫里格斯塔德的界面设计。
Figure 10.6 第 10.6 图
Augmented Alice, a research project in augmented reality. The interactor, wearing a headmounted display, sees the virtual characters sitting at the same table, and has an actual teacup (empty, but equipped with motion sensing) that matches the cups held by the virtual characters (Moreno, Bolter, and MacIntyre. 2001). “增强爱丽丝”是一个关于增强现实的研究项目。佩戴头戴式显示器的交互者可以看到虚拟角色坐在同一张桌子上，并且手中有一个实际的茶杯（虽然是空的，但配备了运动传感器），与虚拟角色手中的杯子相匹配（Moreno, Bolter, 和 MacIntyre. 2001）。
which can act as an interface to the digital world. For example, in a mixed reality installation of the Mad Hatter’s tea party, created at Georgia Tech, the interactor is placed at a real table with a real though empty tea cup, suggestive of a child playing tea party. Wearing a head-mounted display, the interactor sees the (digital video) characters from the story as if they were sitting at the same table. The teacup is an input device, which can be used to throw tea at another character. By lifting it and aiming the invisible tea the interactor triggers the video segment in which the character is drenched in tea and responds angrily (figure 10.6) (Moreno, Bolter, and MacIntyre 2001). The same strategy would work with procedurally generated characters, which might be able to receive the tea on different parts of the body with dynamically calculated splatter patterns reflecting the force and rotational positioning of the cup. This is a dramatically satisfying action, giving the interactor a strong sense of agency, but there are only so many things one can do with a teacup. Furthermore, the presence of the characters in the same space raises questions about what other actions might be possible: can you point at them accusingly, shake a fist, raise a hand in a “Stop that!” gesture? Can you get out of your seat and grab the Mad Hatter by the throat? The teacup acts as a threshold object to connect the interactor with the imaginary world, and to script specific behaviors that have agency within that world (Murray 1997). But placing the virtual object seemingly within reach raises our level of expectation, which can lead to frustration and loss of immersion when we discover the limits of our agency. The challenge for designers in engaging the hand is to establish the consistent boundaries between what can and cannot be grabbed. 可以作为数字世界的接口。例如，在乔治亚理工学院创建的《爱丽丝梦游仙境》茶会的混合现实装置中，参与者坐在一张真实的桌子旁，桌上放着一个真实但空的茶杯，仿佛是一个孩子在玩茶会。佩戴头戴式显示器的参与者可以看到故事中的（数字视频）角色，仿佛他们也坐在同一张桌子上。茶杯作为输入设备，可以用来向另一个角色扔茶。通过举起茶杯并瞄准看不见的茶，参与者触发了一个视频片段，片中角色被茶淋湿并愤怒地回应（图 10.6）（Moreno, Bolter, 和 MacIntyre 2001）。 相同的策略同样适用于程序生成的角色，这些角色可能会在身体的不同部位接收茶水，动态计算的飞溅图案反映了杯子的力度和旋转位置。这是一个戏剧性且令人满意的动作，给互动者带来了强烈的自主感，但用茶杯能做的事情毕竟有限。此外，角色在同一空间的存在引发了关于其他可能动作的问题：你能指着他们指责，摇拳头，举手做出“停止！”的手势吗？你能从座位上站起来抓住疯帽子的喉咙吗？ 茶杯作为一个阈值对象，将互动者与想象的世界连接起来，并在这个世界中编排具有能动性的特定行为（Murray 1997）。然而，将虚拟对象放在看似触手可及的地方会提高我们的期望水平，当我们意识到自己能动性的局限时，这可能导致挫败感和沉浸感的丧失。设计师在吸引手部参与时的挑战在于明确可抓取与不可抓取之间的一致边界。
The computer magnifies and challenges the pointing power of the hand but it can also eradicate the hand altogether. The life-changing power of the computer as a prosthetic device rests on the ways in which it has abstracted pointing away from the hand and made it possible to point with eye movements, mouth movements, or even 计算机放大并挑战手的指向能力，但它也可以完全取代手。作为假肢的计算机改变生活的力量在于它如何将指向从手中抽象出来，使得通过眼动、口动甚至其他方式进行指向成为可能。
Figure 10.7 第 10.7 图
IRISCOM system (2009) allows people with limited mobility to control a computer by mapping the movement of the cursor to eye movements captured by a digital camera. IRISCOM 系统（2009）使行动不便的人能够通过将光标移动与数字相机捕捉的眼动相结合来控制计算机。
with brainwaves themselves (figures 10.7-10.9). The manipulation of external objects by merely thinking about them or looking at them is a magic beyond the magic of the hand, the realization of the fantasy of controlling the external world merely by the power of our thoughts and desires. Part of the appeal of computational environments is their power to elicit this fantasy. 仅仅通过思考或注视外部物体来操控它们的能力，超越了手的魔法，实现了仅凭我们的思想和欲望控制外部世界的幻想。计算环境的魅力在于它们能够激发这种幻想。
Digital tools act on information rather than on the physical world: they change the state of bits inside the machine, a change that is reflected by the output display. These changes are hard for users to model, and so designers reach for concrete analogies. Early graphical interfaces relied heavily on images of pointing fingers and grasping hands. These have largely been replaced with arrows, showing that the use of the pointing cursor as an extension of the hand has become transparent. We no longer need to be reminded of the convention. 数字工具作用于信息而非物理世界：它们改变机器内部比特的状态，这种变化通过输出显示出来。这些变化对用户来说很难理解，因此设计师常常借用具体的类比。早期的图形界面大量使用指向手指和抓握手的图像，而这些图像现在大多被箭头取代，表明指向光标作为手的延伸已经变得不再明显。我们不再需要被提醒这一约定。
Current applications rely on iconized hand tools such as pencils, pens, brushes, paint buckets, highlighting pens, erasers, scissors, and magnifying glasses. These metaphorical tools work something like the actual object, abstracting a key affordance of the thing they imitate, but they do not behave exactly as we would expect the physical object to behave, because bits do not behave the same way as atoms. 目前的应用程序依赖于图标化的手动工具，如铅笔、钢笔、画笔、油漆桶、荧光笔、橡皮擦、剪刀和放大镜。这些比喻工具的工作方式与实际物体相似，抽象出它们所模仿事物的一个关键特性，但它们的表现并不完全符合我们对物理对象的预期，因为比特的行为与原子的行为是不同的。
Figure 10.8 第 10.8 幅图
Brain Ball (2000), Interactive Institute, Sweden. Two players compete to move a ball toward them by generating brainwaves characteristic of relaxation. 大脑球（2000），互动学院，瑞典。两个玩家通过产生放松状态的脑波来竞争，将球移动到自己这边。
Users often bring expectations from legacy processes into the digital world. We live in the analog world of atoms not bits, and we are more comfortable with analog processes, because they reflect the familiar, immediately understandable messiness of our minds and hands. Erasing a line on a computer screen means switching each byte representing it from on to off, and thereby changing the state of each pixel by which it is displayed. Digital erasure leaves behind no trace of the hand or the tool that performed the act, no messy borders, no half-erased but still visible marks, and no bits of eraser rubber clinging to the surface. Erasing a line on a piece of paper with a rubber eraser leaves a smudge, and graphic designers do not want to sacrifice the expressive possibilities of smudging. The unfamiliar efficiency of the digital medium has led to the creation of virtual tools that precisely simulate the effects produced by the inefficiency of analog tools: the smudge tool in Photoshop, for example, does just that, allowing the user to partially eradicate and blend part of an image. It is iconized by 用户常常将传统流程中的期望带入数字世界。我们生活在原子而非比特的模拟世界中，对模拟流程感到更为舒适，因为它们反映了我们思维和双手的熟悉与易于理解的混乱。在计算机屏幕上擦除一条线意味着将每个代表它的字节从开变为关，从而改变显示它的每个像素的状态。数字擦除不会留下执行这一行为的手或工具的痕迹，没有混乱的边界，没有半擦除但仍可见的痕迹，也没有橡皮擦的碎屑粘附在表面上。而用橡皮擦在纸上擦除一条线则会留下污迹，图形设计师不愿意牺牲模糊效果所带来的表现可能性。 数字媒介的独特效率促使了虚拟工具的诞生，这些工具能够精确模拟模拟工具效率低下所带来的效果。例如，Photoshop 中的模糊工具正是如此，它允许用户部分去除并混合图像的一部分。它被表示为图标
Figure 10.9 图 10.9（第 10.9 图）
In Mindflex Game (2009), a commercial product, the player controls the movements of a ball (through the action of the fans that position it) by generating the appropriate brainwaves. 在《Mindflex 游戏》（2009 年）中，玩家通过产生合适的脑波来控制一个球的移动，这个球是通过风扇的作用来定位的。
a finger, and modified by setting the level of pressure with which the area is smudged. The action simulates finger painting. For those who want the computer display to respond more directly to the pressure of the hand, there are pressure-sensitive input devices, one of which is a stylus with a digital eraser at one end in direct imitation of a pencil. Smudge tools and pressure-sensitive styluses are necessary because human beings crave analog effects produced by analog means. 一根手指可以通过调整施加在涂抹区域的压力来进行修改，这个动作模拟了指画。对于希望计算机显示器能更直接响应手部压力的人来说，有压力敏感的输入设备，其中一种是带有数字橡皮擦的触控笔，直接模仿铅笔。涂抹工具和压力敏感触控笔是必不可少的，因为人类渴望通过模拟手段产生的真实效果。
Unlike analog tools, digital tools can operate in the same way at significantly different scales. We need a different pair of scissors to cut embroidery thread than to trim a hedge, but we can use the same digital scissors to cut out a single letter or 100,000 words. This greater range of effect means that we have to be careful to specify the scope of action that we want in any use of a tool. Because their scope is potentially enormous and because digital actions can be parameterized so easily, digital tools elicit encyclopedic expectations for a large repertoire of variant effects. One of the design challenges of application software is how to provide this expansive range of choices without overwhelming and confusing the user. For example, Photoshop groups its tools into a menu with variant related tools in submenus; it places a control panel with parameters for the selected tool in a separate pane (figure 10.10). 与传统工具不同，数字工具可以在显著不同的规模上以相同的方式运作。我们需要不同的剪刀来剪刺绣线和修剪树篱，但可以用同一把数字剪刀来剪切一个字母或 100,000 个单词。这种更广泛的效果范围意味着我们必须谨慎地指定在使用工具时希望采取的行动范围。由于它们的范围可能非常广泛，且数字操作可以轻松参数化，数字工具引发了对多种变体效果的广泛期望。应用软件设计的一个挑战是如何在不让用户感到困惑的情况下提供如此多的选择。 例如，Photoshop 将工具分组到一个菜单中，相关工具在子菜单里；它在一个单独的面板中放置了所选工具的参数控制面板（图 10.10）。
The complexity of digital tools is somewhat offset by another digital affordancereversibility. The effects of digital tools should always be undoable. Interactors should always be allowed to undo the last action, with a command that is specific: not just “undo” but also “undo typing” or “undo formatting.” Undo commands should 数字工具的复杂性在某种程度上被另一种数字特性——可逆性所平衡。数字工具的效果应该始终可以撤销。用户应该始终能够撤销最后一个操作，使用特定的命令：不仅仅是“撤销”，还包括“撤销输入”或“撤销格式”。撤销命令应该
Figure 10.10 第 10.10 图
Selecting a tool in Photoshop involves selecting from variants in the tool palette (e.g., Brush Tool, Pencil Tool) and then adjusting its settings in the control panel at the top of the window (e.g., Brush size, Mode, Opacity). 在 Photoshop 中选择工具时，需要从工具调色板中选择不同的工具（如画笔工具、铅笔工具），然后在窗口顶部的控制面板中调整相关设置（如画笔大小、模式和不透明度）。
themselves be undoable, with paired “redo” choices. It is desirable to allow the user to undo multiple steps, not just the last one, and to cancel anything that has not yet been completed. Undo interfaces should have a history feature, allowing the interactor to step backward through decisions. Wherever possible, undoing should be independent of the order in which an action was performed, allowing the interactor to change one of a sequence of commands without changing the effect of subsequent commands unless they are directly dependent upon it. For example, Photoshop provides a history of actions performed on an image and allows the user to undo an action taken anywhere in the sequence without undoing the ones that came after it. The more complicated the toolset, the greater the need for fine-grained access to reversibility. 操作应该是可撤销的，并配有“重做”选项。允许用户撤销多个步骤，而不仅仅是最后一步是非常重要的，并且可以取消任何尚未完成的操作。撤销界面应具备历史记录功能，允许用户回顾之前的决策。在可能的情况下，撤销操作应与执行的顺序无关，使用户能够更改一系列命令中的某一个，而不影响后续命令的效果，除非它们直接依赖于该命令。例如，Photoshop 提供了对图像上执行的操作的历史记录，允许用户在序列中的任何位置撤销操作，而不影响后面的操作。 工具集越复杂，对可逆性的精细访问需求就越强。
Because we are so familiar with physical hand tools and because icon toolbars make good use of our ability to select from a range of choices by pointing, application programs tend to turn as many actions as possible into iconized tools. Sometimes the icon is the metaphorical physical tool (such as a scissors for cutting text); sometimes it is a visual abstraction of the desired result (such as icons for the Align Text Left, Align Text Center, Align Text Right, and Justify commands); and sometimes it is a metaphorical representation of an abstract process, (such as the counterclockwise circular arrow that means “undo”). Other icons are less specific. For example, the magnifying glass has been used within the same word processor icon bar for three different metaphorical functions: search, print preview, and document map-and in other common applications, like Adobe Acrobat, for zooming. The proliferation and inconsistent use of icons makes them hard to differentiate and remember. Grouping the tools visually and labeling them by function is helpful. But the congestion of 由于我们对物理手工具非常熟悉，图标工具栏也充分利用了我们通过指向来选择多种选项的能力，因此应用程序通常会将尽可能多的操作转化为图标化工具。有时，图标代表的是隐喻性的物理工具（例如剪刀用于剪切文本）；有时，它是所需结果的视觉抽象（例如左对齐、居中对齐、右对齐和对齐命令的图标）；还有时，它是抽象过程的隐喻表示（例如表示“撤销”的逆时针箭头）。其他图标则相对不那么具体。 例如，放大镜在同一个文字处理器的图标栏中被用于三种不同的隐喻功能：搜索、打印预览和文档地图——在其他常见应用程序中，如 Adobe Acrobat，用于缩放。图标的泛滥和不一致的使用使得它们难以区分和记忆。将工具进行视觉分组并按功能进行标记会更有帮助。但交通拥堵的
Figure 10.11 第 10.11 幅图
Some of the available iconized tools and tool palettes in Microsoft Word 2008. 微软 Word 2008 中可用的一些图标工具和工具面板。
application toolbars makes clear that as programs increase in functionality they are outgrowing the model of the tool (figure 10.11). 应用工具栏清楚地表明，随着程序功能的增强，它们已经超出了工具模型的范畴（见图 10.11）。
The tool model helps us to focus on key design goals that apply to any digital environment, and are particularly relevant for programs or artifacts that are used instrumentally, as a means for accomplishing a task. Good tools display: 该工具模型帮助我们专注于适用于任何数字环境的关键设计目标，尤其是那些作为完成任务手段的程序或工件。优秀的工具具备以下特征：
Efficiency: They allow us to perform tasks in the most immediate and direct manner without unnecessary intermediate steps or delayed results. 效率：它们让我们能够以最直接和迅速的方式完成任务，无需多余的中间步骤或延迟的结果。
Learnability: Their function and manner of use is obvious and easily demonstrated; they can be used for simple tasks in a simple manner, and complex uses can be mastered incrementally with practice. 可学习性：它们的功能和使用方式非常明显且易于演示；可以简单地用于基本任务，而复杂的用法则可以通过不断练习逐步掌握。
Transparency: The user can focus on the task and not on the functioning of the tool. 透明度：用户可以专注于任务，而无需关注工具的运作。
The earliest digital tools in the graphical user interface prototypes developed at Xerox PARC supported these design goals through the affordance that Ben Shneiderman later identified as direct manipulation. According to Shneiderman direct manipulation is characterized by three specific design practices: 在施乐 PARC 开发的图形用户界面原型中，最早的数字工具通过本·施奈德曼后来所识别的“直接操作”特性来支持这些设计目标。施奈德曼认为，直接操作的特点体现在三个具体的设计实践中：
Continuous representation of the objects and actions of interest with meaningful visual metaphors 以有意义的视觉隐喻持续呈现感兴趣的对象和动作
Physical actions (or presses of labeled buttons) instead of complex command syntax 使用物理动作（或按下标记的按钮）来代替复杂的命令语法
Rapid, incremental, reversible operations whose effect on the object of interest is visible immediately. (Shneiderman 1992a, 205) 快速、逐步、可逆的操作，其对关注对象的影响立刻可见。（Shneiderman 1992a, 205）
Direct manipulation systems tie visible results to users’ direct actions, making them easy to learn. The first instances of direct manipulation, such as the file and folder system, were a clear improvement over the command line interface. When they were embodied in the Macintosh interface they led to the wide adoption of the personal computer as a household item for personal use rather than merely a work tool. They also led to the development of graphic design application programs and a new kind of training of design professionals. 直接操作系统将可见的结果与用户的直接行为相结合，使其易于学习。最初的直接操作实例，如文件和文件夹系统，明显优于命令行界面。当这些系统在 Macintosh 界面中实现时，推动了个人电脑作为家庭用品的广泛使用，而不仅仅是工作工具。这也促进了图形设计应用程序的发展以及设计专业人员的新型培训。
But the representation of objects and actions by visual metaphors can sometimes interfere with efficiency and create confusion. Dragging files into the trash requires unnecessarily traversing physical space on the screen. Direct manipulation sometimes requires disconcerting actions. The classic Macintosh operating system required users to place images of floppy disks in the trash in order to eject them, dangerously confusing destruction of data with removing durable media. In later versions of the operating system the trash icon changes to an EJECT icon—an improvement, but still not ideal. Direct manipulation is not served by a too-literal reproduction of the physical world or by needlessly physical representations of virtual actions. For frequently performed actions command keys can be more “direct” than metaphorical actions, as long as the result of the command is immediately observable and reversible. Contextual menus attached to the object that is the target of the action can also provide the experience of direct action without requiring awkward physical manipulations (figures 10.12, 10.13). The important consideration is not whether the interface affords direct manipulation of a physical representation, but whether it communicates a clear model and supports interactor’s experience of agency. 但是，使用视觉隐喻来表示对象和动作有时会影响效率并造成混淆。将文件拖入垃圾桶需要在屏幕上不必要地穿越物理空间。直接操作有时需要进行令人不安的动作。经典的 Macintosh 操作系统要求用户将软盘图标放入垃圾桶中以便弹出，这危险地将数据销毁与移除可移动媒体混淆在一起。在后续版本的操作系统中，垃圾桶图标变成了弹出图标——这是一个改进，但仍然不够理想。直接操作并不需要过于字面地再现物理世界或不必要地用物理方式表示虚拟动作。 对于经常执行的操作，命令键可以比隐喻性操作更“直接”，只要命令的结果能够立即观察到并且可以逆转。附加在目标对象上的上下文菜单也能提供直接操作的体验，而无需进行尴尬的物理操作（见图 10.12，10.13）。重要的是，界面是否能够传达清晰的模型，并支持用户的自主体验，而不是是否允许对物理表示进行直接操作。
Efficiency, learnability, and transparency are interrelated values. For most tools in the physical or virtual world, we must go through a period of trial and error and often a period of training in order to put them to best use. Hand tools, such as a hammer, have clearly perceived affordances based on their shape and how they feel in our hands; it would be hard to hold a hammer by its head instead of its handle, so simply picking it up starts the process of learning how to use it. Computer objects like plugs and floppy disks can be made to fit into receptacles in only one orientation, making it impossible and therefore nonintuitive to try to force them in incorrectly. The shape of the computer mouse invites the hand and the immediate feedback of seeing the cursor move as it is jiggled teaches us how it works. The tools are successful because their affordances are so readable, scripting the interactor with appropriate expectations and behaviors. 效率、可学习性和透明度是相互关联的价值观。对于大多数物理或虚拟世界中的工具，我们通常需要经历试错的过程，并且往往需要培训，以便能够更好地使用它们。手工具，比如锤子，因其形状和在手中的感觉而具有明显的使用特性；用锤子的头部而不是手柄来握住它是很困难的，因此仅仅拿起锤子就开始了学习如何使用它的过程。像插头和软盘这样的计算机设备只能以一种方向插入插座，这使得错误插入变得不可能，因此也不直观。 计算机鼠标的形状吸引着手，看到光标移动时的即时反馈让我们明白它是如何工作的。这些工具之所以成功，是因为它们的可用性非常明显，为用户设定了合理的期望和行为。
Figure 10.12 第 10.12 图
A contextual menu in a web browser understands that you have clicked on an image within the web page and offers appropriate choices. 网页浏览器中的上下文菜单能够识别您点击了网页中的一张图片，并提供相应的选项。
Figure 10.13 第 10.13 图
A contextual menu from The Sims offers choices relevant to the object selected, in this case the door to a neighbor’s house. 《模拟人生》中的上下文菜单提供与所选对象相关的选项，这里指的是邻居家的门。
The complexity of contemporary digital applications makes them hard to learn and easy to misuse. The aim of design should be a gentle slope system in which users can do simple things in simple ways and gradually add to their repertoire of actions. Adjustable tool bars allow choices to be added incrementally, removing the clutter of mysterious icons from the novice’s field of view. The strategy is similar to the practice in video game design of training the player on simpler levels before introducing more challenging ones. But the trend in application design has been to proliferate tools rather than to devote attention to presenting them in a learnable progression. 当代数字应用的复杂性使得它们难以学习且容易被误用。设计的目标应该是一个平缓的系统，让用户能够以简单的方式完成简单的任务，并逐步扩展他们的操作技能。可调工具栏允许逐步添加选项，从而去除新手视野中那些神秘图标的杂乱。这个策略类似于视频游戏设计中的做法，即在引入更具挑战性的关卡之前，先在简单的关卡上训练玩家。然而，应用设计的趋势却是增加工具的数量，而不是专注于以可学习的方式呈现它们。
Mastery of a digital environment need not involve absolute recall but only the ability to be reminded of things in context. As Donald Norman has pointed out (1998), we cannot make everything immediately obvious to users, but we can aim to make things that only need to be explained once (182). Learning can be incorporated into the tool itself because we can associate text, video, animations, diagrams, labels, instructions, warning sounds, frequently asked questions, or any other media object that can provide guidance and instruction. The convention of providing contextsensitive help is a significant improvement over the legacy approach of a linear manual. We can find what we need when we need it, through rollover text or help buttons linked to specific tasks. Labeling is often the best way to make a tool’s function clear, and it is increasingly necessary as interfaces become more cluttered. Labeling fails when the name does not reflect the function for first-time users (e.g., the Marquee Tool in Photoshop, which selects areas of an image), or the nomenclature is not standardized (e.g., the Contacts button in a calendar program overlaps the Address book feature; a program has both Search and Find commands). Tutorials and help screens can explain tools; animations demonstrating their use are particularly valuable. But the best way to learn a tool is to have a safe and structured way of trying it out so that repeated feedback with reversible results can reinforce the kinetic action of applying the tool. Some programs, such as games, provide sandbox areas for this kind of experimentation. 掌握数字环境并不需要绝对的记忆，而只需在特定上下文中能够被提醒。正如唐纳德·诺曼（1998）所指出的，我们无法让用户立即理解所有内容，但可以努力使那些只需解释一次的事项变得清晰（182）。学习可以融入工具本身，因为我们可以将文本、视频、动画、图表、标签、说明、警告声音、常见问题或其他任何能够提供指导和说明的媒体对象进行关联。提供上下文敏感帮助的做法是对传统线性手册方法的重大改进。我们可以通过悬停文本或与特定任务相关的帮助按钮，在需要时找到所需的信息。 标签通常是使工具功能清晰的最佳方式，随着界面变得越来越复杂，这变得愈发重要。当名称未能反映首次使用者的功能时（例如，Photoshop 中的跑马灯工具用于选择图像区域），或者命名不统一时（例如，日历程序中的联系人按钮与地址簿功能重叠；一个程序同时有搜索和查找命令），标签就会失效。教程和帮助界面可以解释工具的使用；演示其使用的动画尤其有价值。但学习工具的最佳方式是提供一个安全且结构化的尝试方式，以便通过可逆的结果进行重复反馈，从而强化使用工具的动态过程。 一些程序，例如游戏，提供了用于这种实验的沙盒区域。
To make a tool learnable, its visual representation and label should reflect a consistent abstraction of the overall process. Much of the confusion of using tools lies in competing models of the task, tool, and product. For example, Photoshop abstracts the process of image making as masking, layering, burning, dodging, painting, lassoing, and even magic. Each of these metaphorical processes assumes a different kind of physicality for the underlying product and a different kind of activity on the part of the creator. Some of these abstractions come from the complexity of visual perception and some of them from the complexity of legacy processes such as photography and painting. Some of them, like lassoing and especially magic are clumsy attempts to find appropriate new labels for actions that are only possible in digital environments. All of these tools may follow Ben Shneiderman’s guidelines for direct 为了使工具能够学习，其视觉表现和标签应当反映出整体过程的一致性抽象。使用工具时的困惑主要源于任务、工具和产品之间的竞争模型。例如，Photoshop 将图像制作过程抽象为遮罩、分层、烧录、减淡、绘画、套索，甚至魔法。这些隐喻过程中的每一个都假设了底层产品的不同物理特性，以及创作者所需的不同活动。这些抽象有些源于视觉感知的复杂性，有些则源于摄影和绘画等传统过程的复杂性。 有些动作，比如套索和魔法，实际上是在数字环境中寻找合适新标签的笨拙尝试。所有这些工具可能遵循本·施奈德曼的指导原则
manipulation, but each of them must be learned individually. The task is made harder from the lack of a common abstraction of the process. 操作虽然各自需要单独学习，但由于缺乏对整个过程的共同理解，这项任务变得更加困难。
In suites of tools, there should be a consistent abstraction of the overall process and especially of the material being manipulated. The abstraction should be as free as possible from legacy conventions that do not correspond to digital affordances (like “dodging” in Photoshop), and should provide for manipulation at multiple levels of granularity. For example, in a word processor it is appropriate that we not turn virtual pages but scroll up and down through a seamless text. Direct manipulation of the scroll bar or text area makes it clear that progress is from top to bottom of the screen and the position of the scroll bubble makes clear where in the text we are in relation to the whole. This is a consistent abstraction that is easily learnable, memorable, and efficient, and creates the kind of transparency that allows us to focus on the task instead of the mechanics of interaction. It would be much less transparent (and farther from the underlying bit structure) to represent the document as a stack of papers. Similarly, the concept of layering in image manipulation programs is a simple and powerful abstraction based on a familiar physical metaphor, and reflecting the efficient, modular organization of the underlying bits. Organizing an image into layers allows us to change some parts while leaving others intact, and to create duplicate versions of elements of an image to compare by turning visibility on and off layer by layer. Presenting text as a continuous top to bottom scroll and images as manipulable layers allows us to point to the part of the text or image we want to manipulate with our tools, while retaining a larger sense of context. Both of these presentations work because they communicate a concrete model of the artifact that is not literally faithful to the legacy versions, but that reinforces the digital structures that make them available for manipulation. 在工具套件中，整体过程，尤其是被操作的材料，应该有一致的抽象。这个抽象应尽量避免与数字特性不符的传统惯例（例如 Photoshop 中的“减淡”），并应支持多层次的操作粒度。例如，在文字处理器中，我们不应翻页，而是应通过上下滚动来浏览无缝文本。直接操作滚动条或文本区域清晰地表明进度是从屏幕顶部到底部，而滚动气泡的位置则明确显示我们在文本中相对于整体的位置。 这是一个一致的抽象，易于学习、记忆和高效，能够提供透明度，让我们专注于任务本身，而不是互动的细节。将文档表示为一堆纸张会大大降低透明度（并且与底层位结构的关系更远）。同样，图像处理程序中的分层概念是一个简单而强大的抽象，基于一个熟悉的物理隐喻，反映了底层位的高效和模块化组织。将图像分成不同的层，使我们能够在保留其他部分的同时更改某些部分，并通过逐层切换可见性来创建图像元素的重复版本，以便进行比较。 将文本以自上而下的连续滚动方式呈现，并将图像作为可操作的层，使我们能够用工具指向想要操作的文本或图像部分，同时保留更大的上下文感。这两种呈现方式之所以有效，是因为它们传达了一种具体的文物模型，虽然并不完全忠实于传统版本，但却强化了使其可操作的数字结构。
Expressivity and Virtuosity 表达力与技巧
In addition to the design goals of efficiency, learnability, and transparency, digital tools can also foster 除了追求效率、易学性和透明度的设计目标，数字工具还可以促进
Expressivity: Good tools allow the user an appropriate degree of choice, inflection, and individual adjustment, supporting the development of expertise, craftsmanship, and technique. 表达性：优秀的工具使用户能够在选择、变化和个体调整上有适当的自由，从而支持专业技能、工艺和技术的发展。
The precision and scope of digital tools are turned into expressive power when the user is able to apply them with craft-specific technique and task-specific discretion. 当用户能够运用特定工艺的技巧和针对特定任务的判断来使用数字工具时，这些工具的精确性和范围便转化为表达的力量。
Digital tools are now the norm in the creation and transmission of words, images and sounds for art and entertainment, because they exploit the malleability and control that results from changing media from analog signals into bits. Words can be copied, pasted, erased, and reentered with ease; images can be changed dot by dot 数字工具如今已成为艺术和娱乐中创建和传递文字、图像和声音的常规手段，因为它们利用了将媒体从模拟信号转化为比特所带来的灵活性和控制力。文字可以轻松复制、粘贴、删除和重新输入；图像也可以逐点进行修改。
instead of area by area; whole orchestras can be synthesized at will. The unprecedented manipulative power of digital tools makes them desirable to users, and increases the demand for more specialized functions: outliners and specialty fonts, filters that imitate brushwork, animations controlled by if/then statements, and tools that merge media types into a single presentation format. The novelty and potency of these new tools makes users tolerant of a high degree of awkwardness and difficulty in learning them. 不再是逐个区域，而是可以随意合成整个乐团。数字工具前所未有的操控能力使其对用户极具吸引力，并增加了对更专业功能的需求，比如大纲和专业字体、模仿笔触的滤镜、由条件语句控制的动画，以及将不同媒体类型合并为单一展示格式的工具。这些新工具的新颖性和强大功能使用户能够容忍较高的笨拙感和学习难度。
In the long run, however, we demand tools that are easy to use as well as powerful. Although writers once put up with ink-blotting quills, leaky fountain pens, and pencils that had to be laboriously sharpened with penknives, they eagerly embraced ballpoints, electric pencil sharpeners, and typewriters once they were invented. Similarly, users would gladly desert the cumbersome interfaces of current image and text-editing applications if they are offered more elegantly designed applications that offer a similar level of control with a more gradual learning curve. 然而，从长远来看，我们需要既易于使用又功能强大的工具。尽管作家曾经忍受墨水弄脏的羽毛笔、漏水的钢笔和需要用小刀费力削尖的铅笔，但一旦圆珠笔、电动铅笔削尖器和打字机问世，他们便热切地接受了这些新工具。同样，如果用户能够获得设计更优雅、提供类似控制水平且学习曲线更平缓的应用程序，他们会乐意放弃当前图像和文本编辑应用程序的繁琐界面。
The precision and repeatability of digital actions make digital tools ideal for activities that require standardized results such as color matching, geographical positioning, or closely synchronized behaviors. But standardization can be also dehumanizing, removing the traces of the human hand and obliterating individual effects. Digital reproduction is the antithesis of the “aura” that Walter Benjamin celebrated as part of the essential value of a work of art: its singularity and connection to its maker creates a sense of presence impossible to achieve through mechanical or electrical reproduction (Benjamin 1968). The remedy for the dehumanization of standardized digital processes is the creation of tools that maximize individual choice and expression. 数字行为的精确性和重复性使得数字工具非常适合需要标准化结果的活动，如颜色匹配、地理定位或紧密同步的行为。然而，标准化也可能导致人性化的缺失，抹去人手的痕迹，消除个体的影响。数字复制与沃尔特·本雅明所赞美的艺术作品本质价值中的“光环”相对立：作品的独特性及其与创作者的联系，创造了一种通过机械或电气复制无法实现的存在感（本雅明 1968）。解决标准化数字过程去人性化的问题在于创造能够最大化个体选择和表达的工具。
To create these new expressive digital tools, we will have to expand our model of the digital tool, thinking of it as not merely efficient but also expressive. Efficient use involves getting a known task done in the simplest way with the least effort and time. Expressive use involves accomplishing an improvised, novel, or personalized task with the widest appropriate range of choices and discretionary options. Expressive use requires both mastery and technique: the ability to inflect the tool in subtle ways to increase its utility. A pocketknife can be used with expertise to carve wayfinding markings in tree trunks. This is an efficient, instrumental use of the tool. A pocketknife can also be used to whittle figures of animals. This is an expressive use of the tool, which allows for individual variation and meaningful differences in form. In mathematical contexts we talk of expressiveness as capturing complex relationships through symbolic means. In artistic contexts we talk of expressiveness as conveying emotion, sharp observation, or complexity of form. A computational tool can offer all of these forms of expression, both by mimicking analog tools and by allowing access to new expressive forms. 为了创造这些新的表现性数字工具，我们需要扩展对数字工具的理解，不仅要关注其高效性，还要考虑其表现性。高效使用意味着以最简单的方式和最少的时间与精力完成已知任务。而表现性使用则是指以最广泛的适当选择和自由选项，完成即兴、创新或个性化的任务。表现性使用需要掌握技巧：能够以微妙的方式调整工具，以提高其效用。例如，一把瑞士军刀可以熟练地在树干上雕刻指引标记，这是一种高效的工具使用方式；同时，它也可以用来雕刻动物的形象。 这是对工具表现性的一种生动运用，允许个体差异和形式上的有意义变化。在数学领域，我们将表现性视为通过符号手段捕捉复杂关系。在艺术领域，我们则将表现性理解为传达情感、敏锐的观察力或形式的复杂性。计算工具可以提供这些表达方式，既能模仿传统工具，又能让人们接触到新的表现形式。
The expressive use of a tool is not merely a matter of efficient mechanical skill and familiarity, but also involves the attainment of technique. Technique is the graceful 工具的表现性使用不仅仅是高效的机械技能和熟悉度，还涉及到技术的掌握。技术是优雅的。
fitting of the tool to the result, maximizing its expressiveness with carefully adjusted and coordinated choices, often involving manipulations that require specialized skills. Technique is both science and art, both perceptual and mechanical. We admire it not only for the difficulty of attainment but also for the fitness of the result. The computer is sometimes criticized for eroding technique because it makes complex actions available with a lower level of kinetic mastery and with much less knowledge of materials. Typefaces, for example, are a sophisticated design element, and they used to be hard to come by and to manipulate. Access to the tools was tied with training in their appropriate use. When the computer made multiple typefaces available to those without graphic design training the result was a new kind of visual clutter. By putting sophisticated tools in the hands of those who have very little knowledge of their correct use, the computer can sometimes short circuit the attainment of technique. The challenge for designers is to scaffold the attainment of technique without sabotaging the novice with too much power. 工具与结果的契合，最大限度地提升其表现力，通常需要经过精心调整和协调的选择，这些选择往往涉及需要专业技能的操作。技术既是科学也是艺术，既包含感知也包含机械。我们欣赏技术不仅因为其难以掌握，还因为结果的适应性。计算机有时被批评为削弱了技术，因为它使复杂的操作变得更容易，所需的运动掌握水平和材料知识也大大降低。例如，字体是一种复杂的设计元素，以前获取和操作都很困难。获取这些工具的途径与相应的使用培训密切相关。 当计算机将多种字体提供给没有平面设计培训的人时，产生了一种新的视觉杂乱。将复杂的工具交给对其正确使用几乎没有了解的人，计算机有时会妨碍技术的掌握。设计师面临的挑战是，在不让初学者因过多的权力而受到影响的情况下，帮助他们掌握技术。
When we focus on the expressive power of the computer we often invoke the model of the musical instrument. A musical instrument is expressive by virtue of its physical affordances, and the learned mastery of the performer. The tool itself requires attention before it can become transparent in use. We must practice the instrument and fit our hands to its keys, strings, or buttons; fit our breathing to its apertures; learn to hold the right posture; bear the weight in the right places. Skill at a musical instrument is a matter of fitting the kinetic ability of the player to the affordances of the machine. Musical instruments require more than mere pointing, they require coordinating many expressive affordances of the human body with the affordances of the tool. Computer input devices can require similar degrees of practice but they rarely offer comparable expressiveness at the same level of transparency as a skilled musician. A computer keyboard or touchpad can become an extension of our hands just as a piano keyboard or drumstick does, but it does not register changes in pressure and tempo. A game controller is much more sensitive, affords virtuoso demonstrations of skill, and can be tied to emotionally charged actions, although games are often limited by formulaic situations and a lack of scope for original performance (figure 10.14). 当我们关注计算机的表现力时，常常会联想到乐器的模型。乐器因其物理特性和演奏者的熟练掌握而富有表现力。工具本身需要我们关注，才能在使用时变得自然。我们必须练习乐器，使手指适应它的键、弦或按钮；调整呼吸以适应它的开口；学习保持正确的姿势；在合适的位置承受重量。演奏乐器的技巧在于将演奏者的运动能力与乐器的特性相结合。乐器不仅仅需要简单的指向，还需要协调人体的多种表现能力与工具的特性。 计算机输入设备可能需要类似的练习程度，但它们在透明度上很少能与熟练的音乐家相提并论。计算机键盘或触控板可以像钢琴键盘或鼓棒一样，成为我们手的延伸，但它们无法记录压力和节奏的变化。相比之下，游戏控制器更加敏感，能够展示高超的技巧，并且可以与情感丰富的动作相结合，尽管游戏往往受到公式化情境和缺乏原创表演空间的限制（图 10.14）。
The conventions of musical instruments have been directly helpful in shaping digital interfaces. Keyboarding of various kinds and especially chording-the simultaneous use of multiple fingers to expand the range of expressive choices-has been a staple of utilitarian and playful digital input systems. Musicians have a hard time learning to play their instruments, but there is a payoff in mastering the complex range of expressive possibilities, because more control leads to a richer product. In electronic environments, game controllers demand virtuoso control similar to musicianship. The game controller offers considerable versatility of action, calling for 乐器的使用习惯在塑造数字界面方面发挥了重要作用。各种类型的键盘，尤其是和弦——同时使用多个手指以扩展表现选择的范围——一直是实用和娱乐数字输入系统的基础。音乐家学习演奏乐器的过程很艰难，但掌握复杂的表现可能性是值得的，因为更好的控制会带来更丰富的产品。在电子环境中，游戏控制器要求的控制技巧与音乐家相似。游戏控制器提供了相当大的操作灵活性，要求
Figure 10.14 图表 10.14
The SONY DUALSHOCK3 wireless controller with pressure and motion sensing and feedback vibration, making (according to its maker) “Each hit, crash and explosion . . . more realistic when the user feels the rumble right in the palm of their hand.” 索尼 DUALSHOCK3 无线控制器具备压力和运动感应功能，以及反馈震动（根据制造商的说法）“每一次撞击、碰撞和爆炸……当用户在手掌中感受到震动时，体验更加真实。”
movement in space and complex chording of buttons. Part of the pleasure of games is this demand for complex signaling and hand-eye coordination. The demand on dexterity taps into the biological connection between the hand and emotional expressiveness. Video game controllers have turned manual dexterity and rapid pointing reflexes into a competitive sport. The popularity of video games has revealed a surprising enthusiasm for mastering very complicated combinations of multifinger controller sequences for the purposes of simulated battle and vehicle navigation. But the expressive vocabulary of games has been limited, because commercial gameplay is so much focused on vehicles and weapons. There are signs that this is changing, however, and the coming decades may see an exploration of manual dexterity for increasingly expressive uses (figure 10.15), including controlling information spaces and navigating virtual worlds. 在空间中的运动和复杂的按钮组合是游戏乐趣的一部分，这需要复杂的信号传递和手眼协调。对灵巧性的要求反映了手与情感表达之间的生物联系。视频游戏控制器将手动灵巧和快速反应转变为一项竞争性运动。视频游戏的流行显示出人们对掌握复杂的多指控制器组合以进行模拟战斗和车辆导航的热情。然而，游戏的表现词汇受到限制，因为商业游戏过于集中于车辆和武器。 然而，有迹象表明这一情况正在改变，未来几十年可能会探索手动灵活性，以实现更加丰富的表达方式（见图 10.15），包括控制信息空间和在虚拟世界中导航。
Our ability to map fine motor actions with our fingers onto representational worlds underlies our use of many tools: the embroidery needle, the carving knife, the paintbrush, the knitting needle. Facility at one helps to build up aptitude for others. A computer-phobic neighbor was surprised to find she was enjoying her grandson’s video games until she realized that she found them easy to play because of her lifelong dedication to the piano. Computer games like musical performance draw on our pleasure in mapping hand movements to complex actions. The pleasure we find in mastering such skills and in finding expression in the movement of our fingers allows us to learn new keyboard arrangements such as the joystick game controller, the arrow keydriven PC game control, the one-handed twiddler keyboard used in experimental devices (figure 10.16), the thumb-operated PDA, or the quickly learned Wii game controller. 我们将手指的精细动作映射到表现世界的能力是我们使用多种工具的基础：刺绣针、雕刻刀、画笔和编织针。擅长一种工具有助于提升对其他工具的能力。一位对电脑感到恐惧的邻居惊讶地发现，她在玩孙子的电子游戏时感到很享受，直到她意识到，正是因为她对钢琴的终身热爱，使得这些游戏对她来说变得容易。像音乐表演一样，电脑游戏也让我们享受到将手部动作映射到复杂动作中的乐趣。 我们在掌握这些技能和手指运动中找到的乐趣，让我们能够学习新的键盘布局，比如操纵杆游戏控制器、箭头键驱动的 PC 游戏控制器、用于实验设备的单手旋转键盘（图 10.16）、拇指操作的 PDA，或者快速上手的 Wii 游戏控制器。
Figure 10.15 第 10.15 图
In the PlayStation video game Heavy Rain (2010), game pad actions mimic in-game actions. For example, climbing up a muddy, slippery hill hand over hand requires similarly challenging finger positioning. 在 2010 年的 PlayStation 视频游戏《重雨》中，游戏手柄的操作与游戏中的动作相呼应。例如，手脚并用地攀爬一座泥泞滑腻的山坡，需要相应的手指位置来应对挑战。
Figure 10.16 第 10.16 图
Twiddler one-handed chorded keyboard used in wearable computing applications. 一种用于可穿戴计算应用的单手和弦键盘。
Figure 10.17 第 10.17 图
Multitouch iPad screen allows navigation of photo archives with pinch and zoom. 多点触控的 iPad 屏幕可以通过捏合和缩放轻松浏览照片库。
The effort of learning complex hand skills can be pleasurable in itself, especially when it is tied to emotionally compelling representational effects, such as rapidly appearing and disappearing colorful objects or the sounds of an explosion. Chording effects performed in a rapid manner within a responsive environment can provide the kind of difficult but achievable challenge that leads to the pleasurable absorption in a task, which Mihály Csíkszentmihályi (1990) identified as flow. As we gain speed and accuracy, mastery of the controller feels like an extension of our physical prowess. Some virtuosos gameplay Super Mario without looking at the screen. They have internalized the sequence, rhythms, and timing of the gameplay, in the same way that a dancer memorizes a choreographed dance. 学习复杂的手部技能本身可以带来愉悦，尤其是当它与情感上引人注目的表现效果结合时，比如快速出现和消失的彩色物体或爆炸的声音。在一个反应灵敏的环境中快速演奏和弦效果，可以提供一种既困难又可实现的挑战，这种挑战会让人愉快地沉浸在任务中，米哈伊·契克森米哈伊（1990）称之为“心流”。随着我们速度和准确性的提高，掌握控制器的感觉就像是我们身体能力的延伸。一些高手在玩超级马里奥时甚至不看屏幕，他们已经内化了游戏的顺序、节奏和时机，就像舞者记住编排的舞蹈一样。
A growing area of design is extending pointing to increasingly sensitive full surfaces, including some that are sensitive to multiple simultaneous points of contact. Touchsensitive screens and trackpads are elaborating new mimetic fingering techniques, such as the two-finger pinch to zoom, or rapid left-to-right flicking to indicate deletion (figure 10.17). Multitouch screens and multitouch tables (horizontal screens, sometimes with associated coded or sensor-equipped objects) allow rapid sorting of images, 一个不断发展的设计领域正在扩展，涉及越来越敏感的完整表面，其中一些对多个同时接触点非常敏感。触摸屏和触控板正在发展新的模仿手势技巧，例如用两个手指捏合来缩放，或快速左右滑动以表示删除（见图 10.17）。多点触控屏幕和多点触控桌（水平屏幕，有时配有编码或传感器设备）可以快速对图像进行排序，
Figure 10.18 第 10.18 图
Multitouch wall-mounted screen, from Perceptive Pixel. 来自感知像素的多点触控壁挂式显示屏。
more detailed zooming of dense information spaces such as data-rich maps, and collaborative work or multiplayer gaming with simultaneous updating of the shared desktop or game board (figures 10.18, 10.19). 更加详细地放大密集信息空间，比如数据丰富的地图，以及协作工作或多人游戏时共享桌面或游戏板的实时更新（见图 10.18，10.19）。
As gesture-based consumer devices like Microsoft’s Kinect become more common, the range of expression that can be brought to digital applications will increase. Researchers at MIT are experimenting with wearable sensors linked to cameras and projectors that can recognize iconic gestures like snapping a photograph (figure 10.20). As such devices become more available hand gestures to simulate flying, walking, reaching, and grabbing may be particularly useful primitives in creating expressive applications. For example, in the experimental Egg’s Journey installation (figure 10.21), the interactor is in the role of an egg reaching for one of a number of showering sperm. Grabbing any one of them produces a cartoon image of the possible child that would result from the pairing (http://synlab.gatech.edu). The interaction is direct and simple, leading to an experience of agency within a very complex representational world. Experiments like this remind us that the expressive possibilities for engagement with the virtual extend far beyond the familiar point-to-shoot conventions of commercial gaming. 随着像微软 Kinect 这样的基于手势的消费设备越来越普及，数字应用程序的表达范围也将不断扩大。麻省理工学院的研究人员正在尝试将可穿戴传感器与摄像头和投影仪相结合，这些传感器能够识别像拍照这样的标志性手势（见图 10.20）。随着这些设备的普及，模拟飞行、行走、伸手和抓取的手势在创建富有表现力的应用程序时将特别有用。例如，在实验性的《蛋的旅程》装置中（见图 10.21），互动者扮演一个蛋，试图抓住一群洒落的精子中的一个。抓住其中任何一个都会生成可能的孩子的卡通形象，这个形象是由配对产生的（http://synlab.gatech.edu）。这种互动既直接又简单，让人在一个极其复杂的表现世界中感受到自主性。这类实验提醒我们，与虚拟世界的互动表达可能性远远超出了商业游戏中常见的拍摄和射击方式。
The inclusion of cameras on cells phones has increased the expressive possibilities of pointing. Capturing a barcode or a book cover in the real world can provide access to all the information about that place. Looking at a place through the camera lens (in combination with GPS information) can produce an overlay of information or a related coupon. Similarly, GPS technology can turn the simple act of visiting a place into a kind of pointing, allowing you to display your image on a map so friends can 手机摄像头的加入拓宽了指向的表现方式。在现实中捕捉条形码或书籍封面，可以获取关于该地点的所有信息。通过相机镜头（结合 GPS 信息）观察一个地方，可以叠加信息或提供相关优惠券。同样，GPS 技术可以将简单的访问行为转变为一种指向方式，让你在地图上展示自己的位置，方便朋友们查看。
Figure 10.19 第 10.19 图
Two students copy a sketch for independent editing using SketchTop, a collaborative sketching application for a multitouch tabletop computer, designed in Ali Mazalek’s Synlab at Georgia Tech. One student touches and holds two of the corners while the other pulls the copy out from under the page by dragging a third corner. 两名学生使用 SketchTop，一个为多点触控桌面电脑设计的协作草图应用程序，复制草图以进行独立编辑。一个学生按住两个角，另一个学生则通过拖动第三个角将副本从页面下方拉出。
see where you are, or to claim an actual place within a social networking game as if it were a square on a Monopoly game board. 查看你的位置，或者在社交网络游戏中像在大富翁游戏板上那样占据一个实际的地方。
The next decades will bring an increase in possibilities for hand control, challenging designers to invent new gestural conventions and new gesture-driven device genres that will be as efficient, learnable, and transparent as the WIMP interface, and as expressive as the modern orchestra or rock and roll band. 在接下来的几十年里，手控的可能性将大幅增加，这将挑战设计师创造新的手势规范和手势驱动的设备类型，使其在效率、易学性和透明度上与 WIMP 界面相当，同时在表现力上也能媲美现代管弦乐团或摇滚乐队。
Many digital artifacts function as tools in that they are used as instruments for achieving other aims, like the creation of a text or the retrieval of a video or the operation of remote telescope, and all digital artifacts have some tool-like elements, such as clickable icons or pull-down menus. Therefore, the values we apply to tool design should be applied to any digital artifact, especially the value of transparency, which allows us to focus our attention not on the tool, but on the demands of the task at hand. 许多数字工件实际上充当工具，因为它们被用作实现其他目标的手段，比如创建文本、检索视频或操作远程望远镜。所有数字工件都有一些工具特征，例如可点击的图标或下拉菜单。因此，我们在工具设计中所重视的原则也应适用于任何数字工件，尤其是透明度这一原则，它使我们能够将注意力集中在任务的要求上，而不是工具本身。
Figure 10.20 图示 10.20
Pranav Mistry of Pattie Maes’s MIT Sixth Sense Group demonstrates a gestural interface to a digital system that includes a camera and colored markings on fingertips. Pranav Mistry 在 Pattie Maes 的麻省理工学院第六感小组中展示了一种手势界面，该界面与一个包含相机和手指上彩色标记的数字系统相连接。
Figure 10.21 第 10.21 图
In Ozge Samanci’s whimsical installation piece, Egg’s Journey (2007), the interactor’s hand and arm gestures are captured and mapped onto a mirroring animated character positioned inside an ovum surrounded by sperm. Grabbing a particular sperm produces an image of the possible child resulting from the combination. 在奥兹格·萨曼奇的奇幻装置作品《蛋的旅程》（2007）中，互动者的手和手臂动作被捕捉并映射到一个位于卵子内的镜像动画角色上，周围环绕着精子。抓住特定的精子会生成一个可能的孩子的图像，这个图像是由这种组合产生的。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: THE TOOL MODEL 设计探索：工具模型分析
Extending the Function of Our Hands 拓展我们手的功能
Focus on an activity you enjoy that involves the use of unpowered hand tools, such as carpentry, cooking, drawing, cleaning, home repair, musical performance, sports: 专注于你喜欢的活动，这些活动使用无动力手工具，比如木工、烹饪、绘画、清洁、家庭修理、音乐表演和运动：
What tools do you find particularly handy for this pursuit? 你认为在这个追求中哪些工具特别实用？
What tools have caused you injury or frustration? 哪些工具让你受伤或感到不满？
What design qualities do these artifacts possess? 这些文物具备哪些设计特点？
Are any nonfunctional qualities of the tools important to you? 工具的非功能性特征对你来说重要吗？
Are there cultural associations prompted by the tools such as feelings of affinity with others who use it? 使用这些工具是否会引发文化联想，例如与其他用户产生亲近感？
For a physical or digital tool that required time to learn: 对于需要花时间学习的实体或数字工具：
Describe how you went about learning it. Did you have expectations of how it would work before you used it? Did the shape of the tool or other physical qualities influence your expectations? Did the tool perform as expected? 请描述你是如何学习这个工具的。在使用之前，你对它的工作方式有什么期待吗？工具的形状或其他物理特性是否影响了你的期待？这个工具的表现是否符合你的预期？
Was the correct means of employing the tool apparent from trial and error? If not, what else was necessary? 使用该工具的正确方法是否通过试验和错误显而易见？如果不是，还需要什么其他的帮助？
How did the difficulty of the learning process contribute to your satisfaction or lack of satisfaction? 学习过程的难度对你的满意或不满意有何影响？
When you try to use the tool after a period in which you have not practiced with it, do you know immediately what to do? Do you refer to written instructions or other aids to recall how to use it? 当你在一段时间没有使用这个工具后再尝试使用时，你能立刻知道该怎么做吗？你会参考书面说明或其他辅助材料来帮助回忆如何使用它吗？
When you are using the tool are you focusing on the tool itself, on your technique in using it, or on the effect of the tool on whatever you are using it for? 当你使用这个工具时，你是关注工具本身、使用技巧，还是它对你所用事物的影响？
When might you or someone you know do any of the following: 你或你认识的人可能会在什么情况下做以下事情：
Use your hands to perform a task that others would use a tool for? 用手来完成通常需要工具的任务吗？
Use an improvised tool instead of a conventional tool to perform a task? 用临时工具代替传统工具来完成任务吗？
Use an unpowered tool instead of a powered tool? 可以使用无电动工具来替代电动工具吗？
What criteria are you applying for choosing the right tool for the job at hand? 你在选择合适的工具时考虑了哪些标准？
Attempt to use an unfamiliar hand tool for a familiar activity, for example, chopsticks or an oversized or undersized fork or spoon for eating or a calligraphy pen for writing; or if you know ping pong, try tennis or billiards; or switch from a cricket bat to baseball or softball. 尝试用不熟悉的工具进行熟悉的活动，比如用筷子或不合适的叉子、勺子吃东西，或者用毛笔写字；如果你会打乒乓球，可以尝试网球或台球；或者从板球棒换成棒球或垒球。
How do your hands behave? 你的手是怎么动的？
Does familiarity with one behavior help or hinder you from learning an alternate method? 对一种行为的熟悉是帮助你学习另一种方法，还是会妨碍你？
What assumptions and expectations do you bring to using the new tool based on your internalized, kinetic knowledge of the familiar tool? 你对使用新工具有什么假设和期望，这些是基于你对熟悉工具的内化和动能知识形成的？
Is your knowledge of the familiar tool in your head or in your hands? Can you describe in words how to use it or do you have to demonstrate? 你对这个熟悉的工具的了解是在脑海中还是在手中？你能用语言描述如何使用它，还是需要亲自演示？
Using Pointing Conventions 使用指示规范
Using Google Scholar or the ACM Library or any similar collection of analytical writing, search one or more essays for the word “point” or its derivative forms (points, pointing, etc.) and find examples of at least five ways that language builds on this physical action as a metaphor for focusing attention. 使用谷歌学术、ACM 图书馆或任何类似的分析性写作资源，搜索一篇或多篇文章中“point”及其派生形式（如 points、pointing 等），并找出至少五种语言如何将这一物理动作作为聚焦注意力的隐喻的例子。
List all the times you use an electronic touch device that is built into a physical structure, such as an elevator button, microwave, or ATM. 列出所有你使用的嵌入在物理结构中的电子触摸设备的情况，比如电梯按钮、微波炉或自动取款机。
What feedback does the device give you to let you know it has received your touch? 设备通过什么反馈让你知道它已经感应到你的触摸？
Have you ever been confused or irritated when using any of these devices? Why? 你在使用这些设备时有没有感到困惑或烦恼？为什么会这样？
Have you seen children using the device? How do they react? What appeals to them or frustrates them about it? 你见过孩子们使用这个设备吗？他们的反应怎么样？这个设备对他们有什么吸引力，或者让他们感到沮丧的地方是什么？
Use the computer for a pleasurable leisure activity, such as a virtual environment, social environment, or video game. 利用电脑进行愉快的休闲活动，比如虚拟环境、社交活动或电子游戏。
Notice every time you point at something. 每当你指向某个东西时，请留意。
Is pointing tied to another action (such as opening, grabbing, shooting)? 指向是否与其他动作（例如打开、抓取或射击）有关联？
Is selecting separate from acting? 选择和表演是分开的吗？
Is pointing too time consuming? 这是否太耗时间了？
It is purposely challenging, as in a game? 这故意设计得很有挑战性，就像在游戏中一样吗？
How transparent is the act of pointing accurately? 指向准确的行为到底有多透明？
How difficult was it to learn? 学习起来有多困难？
Use the computer for a complicated visual task like editing a photograph or creating a 3D model. 使用电脑进行复杂的视觉任务，例如编辑照片或制作 3D 模型。
Does the software allow you to point to the part of the image that you want? 这个软件是否允许您选择您想要的图像部分？
Does it provide feedback on what you have pointed to? 它会对您所指的内容提供反馈吗？
Can you adjust the granularity? 你能调整一下细节吗？
How tactile is the experience? 这个体验的触感怎么样？
How would you prefer to perform this task if you had an ideal, magical technology to support it? 如果你拥有一种理想的魔法技术来支持这个任务，你会如何进行？
How would you describe the design goals for such a perfectly tactile technology to a group of wizard inventors? 你会如何向一群巫师发明家描述这种完美触感技术的设计目标？
What would it take to create such a tool in the actual world? 在现实世界中，创建这样一个工具需要什么条件？
Exploiting the expressive power of pointing 发挥指向的表达力
Choose a memorable image from painting and/or fictional films that focuses the viewer’s attention on a gesture of pointing or the touch of a finger (e.g., Michelangelo’s Creation of Man, or the alien’s finger in the film ET). 选择一幅令人难忘的画作或虚构电影中的图像，重点关注观众对指点手势或手指触碰的注意（例如，米开朗基罗的《亚当的创造》或电影《外星人 ET》中的外星人手指）。
What ideas, spoken dialog, emotions, or concepts are contained within the gesture? How does the artist frame, compose, and contextualize the hand to convey these meanings? 手势中蕴含了哪些想法、对话、情感或概念？艺术家是如何构图、安排和赋予手势背景，以传达这些意义的？
Design or create an interactive artifact that invites the interactor to enact a similar touch. 设计或创建一个互动作品，邀请参与者进行类似的触摸体验。
Pretend that you have a magic wand that could change something that is happening in your daily life in a way that would make things easier or be more to your liking. 想象一下，如果你有一根魔法棒，可以改变你日常生活中的某些事情，让生活变得更轻松或更符合你的期望。
What would you change? 你想改变什么？
What gestures would you use to effect this change? 你会用什么手势来达成这个变化？
Design or create a mock-up or prototype for a digital artifact that invites the interactor to perform the magical effect you have fantasized. 设计或创建一个数字作品的模型或原型，邀请参与者体验你所幻想的魔法效果。
Connecting the Real and the Virtual with Threshold Objects 连接现实与虚拟的临界对象
Teleoperator environments let us perform actions from a distance, such as directing a robot to pick up rocks in space or repositioning a web camera. Choose a teleoperator environment available over the Internet and spend some time exploring it. 遥操作环境使我们能够远程执行各种操作，比如指挥机器人在太空中捡石头或调整网络摄像头的位置。选择一个可以通过互联网访问的遥操作环境，花些时间去探索它。
How responsive is it? How immediate is the feedback? How appropriate is the input device to the action you are performing? 它的响应速度怎么样？反馈有多快？输入设备与您正在进行的操作是否合适？
How would you design an ideal input device for performing the same task? How important is it to have visual, auditory, or haptic feedback for the process? 你会如何设计一个理想的输入设备来完成相同的任务？在这个过程中，视觉、听觉或触觉反馈的重要性有多大？
Choose a fictional world that was very real to you as a child. Imagine you can enter that world, as if it were a movie screen you could step into with the help of a magic threshold object that physically exists in both the real world and the target world (e.g., Dorothy’s ruby slippers that take her back home to Kansas from Oz when she clicks them together). 选择一个在你童年时非常真实的虚构世界。想象你可以进入那个世界，就像它是一个电影屏幕，而你可以通过一个在现实世界和目标世界中都真实存在的魔法物品（例如，多萝西的红色鞋子，当她把它们轻轻一碰，就能从奥兹回到堪萨斯）走进去。
Design the threshold object that would let you act within the fantasy world. How would you summon it? What would you do to direct it? What would be the first sign that you had successfully entered the imaginary world? 设计一个阈值对象，让你能够在幻想世界中行动。你会如何召唤它？你会采取什么措施来引导它？你成功进入这个虚构世界的第一个迹象是什么？
How would you implement your design in a virtual reality environment? 你会如何在虚拟现实环境中实现你的设计？
Making Digital Tools Learnable and Transparent 让数字工具变得易于学习和透明
Examine all the tools in a common image-processing application tool palette. 检查常见图像处理应用程序工具栏中的所有工具。
What is the physical metaphor behind each tool? 每种工具背后有什么样的物理隐喻？
Which are derived from chemical processes? 哪些是由化学过程产生的？
Which are derived from printing? 哪些是源自印刷的？
List all the legacy (predigital) media formats that are referenced by the labels of tools and menu commands. 列出所有工具和菜单命令标签中提到的传统（数字前）媒体格式。
Which tools do you use the most? 你通常使用哪些工具？
Design a minimal set of tools for manipulating images. 设计一套简约的工具用于图像处理。
Sort them into seven or fewer categories with seven or fewer items in each category. Compare result with others. 将它们分成七个或更少的类别，每个类别包含七个或更少的项目，并与其他结果进行比较。
Collectively create the smallest possible set of tools with the most functionality. 共同创造功能最强大的最小工具集合。
Design an iconized tool that acts on an image or text segment in a way that reinforces direct manipulation with clear feedback. (It can produce a whimsical or surprising effect, such as a writing tool with a horror movie font.) Communicate cause and effect clearly so that tool is quickly learnable by trial and error. 设计一个图标化工具，能够对图像或文本片段进行操作，增强直接操作的体验并提供清晰的反馈。（例如，可以使用恐怖电影字体的写作工具，产生异想天开的或令人惊讶的效果。）清晰传达因果关系，使得用户能够通过试错快速掌握该工具。
Your design should be documented with a state diagram if the tool has state, and a flow chart for uses of the tool with storyboard illustration. 如果工具具有状态，您的设计应通过状态图进行文档记录，并使用故事板插图绘制工具使用的流程图。
Implement your tool if possible and observe users with it. 如果可以的话，使用你的工具并观察用户的使用。
What expectations did they bring to the tool? Did the tool fulfill their expectations? 他们对这个工具的期望是什么？这个工具达到了他们的期望吗？
Supporting Expert Practice 支持专业实践
For an activity with which you are familiar, find an example of a tool that is essentially the same for novices and experts. 找一个您熟悉的活动中，对新手和专家来说基本相同的工具的例子。
Is it easy or hard to learn how to use the tool? 学习使用这个工具容易还是困难？
What is the difference in skill between different kinds of users? 不同类型用户的技能差异是什么？
What kinds of practices lead to the acquisition of higher skill levels? 哪些实践能够帮助提高技能水平？
Could the more skillful practice be automated? Why or why not? 更高技能的实践能否实现自动化？为什么可以或不可以？
For an activity with which you are familiar, find an example of a nonpowered hand tool used by experts above your level of skill (e.g., specialized kitchen tools, high-end sports equipment). 针对您熟悉的活动，找一个超出您技能水平的专家使用的非电动手工具的例子（例如，专业厨房工具或高端运动器材）。
How does this object feel in your hand? If you can find an expert (or perhaps a salesperson) ask them what affordances the tool has that might not be apparent to you. 这个物体在你手中感觉怎么样？如果你能找到一个专家（或者销售人员），可以问他们这个工具有哪些可能不太明显的使用特点。
How does an expert use it differently? 专家是如何以不同的方式使用它的？
Find an example of a power tool that has a nonpowered basis (e.g., tooth brush, screwdriver, egg beater) and use each of them in turn to perform the same task. 找一个非电动的电动工具例子（如牙刷、螺丝刀、打蛋器），并依次使用它们完成同一任务。
How much control over the process do you have with each? 你对每个过程的控制程度有多大？
What is your emotional reaction to each? 你对每个事物的情感反应是什么？
What are the cultural connotations of each-who would use them and in what context? 每种文化的内涵是什么？谁会在什么情况下使用它们？
Invent a story about a person who prefers one to the other. What else would you expect such a person to prefer? 编一个关于一个人偏爱某个事物而不是另一个的故事。你还会期待这样的人喜欢什么呢？
Create a storyboard or a set of animations that documents the design of a new interactive virtual tool. (It can be based on a tool you investigated in one of the previous explorations.) Your virtual tool can perform either a literal task (such as a virtual knife whittling virtual wood) or a metaphorical task or (a virtual knife cutting waste out of the U.S. health care system). 创建一个故事板或一组动画，记录一个新的互动虚拟工具的设计。（这个工具可以基于你在之前的探索中研究的工具。）你的虚拟工具可以执行具体任务（比如一个虚拟刀削减虚拟木材）或隐喻任务（比如一个虚拟刀切除美国医疗系统中的浪费）。
What input device (e.g., mouse, stylus, joystick, touchscreen, accelerometer) would work best with your virtual tool? 哪种输入设备（如鼠标、手写笔、游戏杆、触摸屏或加速度计）最适合您的虚拟工具？
How would you provide immediate feedback on the workings of the tool? What sensory information is crucial to success (visual, auditory, haptic)? 你会如何对工具的使用情况提供即时反馈？哪些感官信息（视觉、听觉、触觉）对成功至关重要？
What existing conventions for similar tools are useful for providing sensory feedback? 有哪些现有的类似工具的惯例可以有效提供感官反馈？
How would a novice use your tool? 新手应该如何使用你的工具？
How would an expert use it? 专家会怎样使用它？
How would you support the acquiring of technique from novice to expert? 你会如何支持新手向专家转变的技能提升？
If possible, implement your tool and test it with users doing think-aloud reporting. 如果可以的话，请实施你的工具，并与用户进行思维大声报告的测试。
Does the tool work as you expected it to? 这个工具的表现是否符合你的预期？
Do the users understand how to use it? 用户们理解如何使用它吗？
Does it become transparent with practice? 经过练习后会变得透明吗？
Can they achieve expertise with it? 他们能在这方面获得专业技能吗？
11 The Machine Model: Visibility and Control as Design Goals 11 机器模型：将可见性和控制作为设计目标
Machine: An apparatus . . . so devised that the result of its operation is not dependent on the strength or manipulative skill of the workman. 机器：一种装置……其运作结果不受工人力量或操作技能的影响。
—Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (1989) —牛津英语词典，第二版（1989 年）
A tool is a simple device, customized to a single purpose, operating under our control and responsive to our direction, whose effects are immediately visible to us. A machine is a complex device, designed to perform scripted actions in exactly the same way. Machines are independent of our control once set in motion, although some machines—like vacuum cleaners, automobiles, or nuclear power plants—require alert and skilled operation by human beings to monitor and direct their complex actions. Digital artifacts are like other physical machines in that they perform scripted sequences of actions, but as highly interactive devices they can include extensive human direction. When we think of a digital artifact as a tool we emphasize the design values of transparency and skilled expression. When we think of a digital artifact as a machine we emphasize the design values of visibility (of its operations) and control. 工具是一个简单的设备，专门为特定目的而设计，能够在我们的控制下运作，并对我们的指示作出反应，其效果对我们来说是立竿见影的。机器则是一个复杂的设备，旨在以完全相同的方式执行预设的动作。一旦启动，机器就不再受我们的控制，尽管一些机器——如吸尘器、汽车或核电站——需要人类的警觉和专业操作来监控和引导其复杂的动作。数字工件与其他物理机器相似，执行预设的动作序列，但作为高度互动的设备，它们可以包含大量的人类指导。当我们将数字工件视为工具时，我们强调设计中的透明度和熟练表达的价值。 当我们把数字工件看作一种机器时，我们强调其操作的可见性和控制的设计价值。
Designing for Visibility 设计以增强可见性
The model for interaction with a machine is the black box, the hidden processor that receives input from the user, performs unseen operations on it, and returns the result as output. An automobile receives gasoline and produces motion; a vacuum cleaner receives electricity and creates suction. How they produce these results is hidden in the black box. We don’t need to know how they work as long as they get us where we want to go and continue to suck up the dust motes. Machines often begin as automated versions of hand-controlled artifacts, like the electric drill or can opener. The vacuum cleaner is an automated broom, the automobile a “horseless carriage.” Over the longer sweep of history we can see a progression from human hand, to hand tool, to mechanical device, to electrical device, to computer-controlled process. For example, consider the age-old activity of spinning thread: Bits of animal hide, wool, 与机器交互的模型被称为黑箱，这个隐藏的处理器接收用户的输入，进行看不见的操作，然后将结果作为输出返回。汽车接收汽油并产生运动；吸尘器接收电力并产生吸力。它们如何实现这些功能隐藏在黑箱中。只要它们能将我们带到想去的地方，并继续吸走灰尘，我们就不需要了解它们的工作原理。机器通常是手动控制工具的自动化版本，比如电钻或开罐器。吸尘器可以看作是自动化的扫帚，而汽车则是“无马车”。在漫长的历史进程中，我们可以看到从人手、手动工具、机械设备、电气设备到计算机控制过程的逐步演变。例如，想想古老的纺线活动：一些动物皮和羊毛的碎片，
or plant fiber are first twisted by hand into larger and stronger cords; then a found rock or twig is used for more organized winding; then a handmade spinet is created for the explicit purpose of turning fiber into yarn, with refinement of the design over time and adaptations for thicker and finer cords; eventually the single spinet for twirling fabric fibers into thread is made more efficient by being attached to a spinning wheel; then, in the eighteenth century, the single spinning wheel is made more efficient with the invention of the spinning jenny that allows manual control of eight spindles; with the advent of electricity, spinning is further automated, with the process elaborated into a multimachine assembly line. Currently, thread is spun in giant arrays of computer-controlled machines that have over a thousand spindles each. Each step increases the amount we can produce and distances the process further from direct contact with human fingers. 植物纤维首先被手工扭成更大更强的绳索，然后用找到的岩石或树枝进行更有组织的缠绕。接着，制作一个手工纺锤，专门用于将纤维转化为纱线，随着时间的推移，设计不断改进，并适应了不同粗细的绳索。最终，单个纺锤通过连接到纺车变得更高效。到了十八世纪，单个纺车通过发明纺纱珍妮变得更高效，允许手动控制八个纺锤。随着电力的出现，纺纱过程进一步自动化，发展成多机组装线。 目前，纱线是在巨大的计算机控制机器阵列中纺制的，每台机器有超过一千个纺锤。每一步都提高了我们的生产能力，并使这一过程与人类手指的直接接触越来越远。
Until the industrial revolution, machines were largely powered by human or animal strength. But with the invention of the steam engine in the late eighteenth century, processes could be more completely automated, replacing manually produced piecework of many kinds with more uniform and prolific factory output. As the Oxford English Dictionary definition opening this chapter suggests, a large part of the value of a machine is its substitution of reliable mechanization for potentially faulty human control. Tools augment human effort; machines replace human effort. Machines literally take processes out of our hands and put them in black boxes out of sight and out of our direct control. 在工业革命之前，机器主要依靠人力或动物力量驱动。然而，随着十八世纪末蒸汽机的发明，许多过程得以实现更全面的自动化，取代了手工生产的各种零件，带来了更统一和丰富的工厂产出。正如本章开头的《牛津英语词典》定义所指出的，机器的一个重要价值在于它用可靠的机械化取代了可能出现故障的人类控制。工具增强了人类的努力，而机器则完全取代了人类的劳动。机器实际上将过程从我们手中移走，放入看不见且不在我们直接控制之下的黑匣子中。
As we have seen in part II, it is a helpful part of modular design practice to think of computational procedures as black boxes (figure 11.1), allowing the design team to hide the details of how something is done in order to focus higher- level system components. As interactors we are also familiar with black box input/output mechanical devices like vending machines, which let us focus on our end goals without having to manage the intermediate steps. The customer approaches a large metal box, puts some money in a slot, and the money disappears inside. The customer presses a button, mysterious interior noises are heard, and the soda bottle pops out from some other part of the device. 正如我们在第二部分中所看到的，将计算程序视为黑箱（图 11.1）是模块化设计实践中的一个重要部分，这样设计团队可以隐藏操作细节，专注于更高层次的系统组件。作为用户，我们也熟悉像自动售货机这样的黑箱输入/输出设备，它们让我们能够专注于最终目标，而无需管理中间步骤。顾客走到一个大型金属箱子前，将钱放入一个槽中，钱便消失在里面。顾客按下一个按钮，听到神秘的内部声音，汽水瓶从设备的另一个部分弹出。
Early computer systems worked in a similarly mechanical way. Stacks of punch cards went into a system of large, noisy processors, and some time later reams of 早期计算机系统以类似机械的方式运作。成堆的打孔卡片被送入一个大型且嘈杂的处理器系统，过了一段时间后，便会输出一卷卷的结果。
Figure 11.1 第 11.1 图
A machine receives input and produces output. Its processing is often hidden, making it a black box. 一台机器接收输入并输出结果。它的处理过程通常是隐蔽的，就像一个黑箱。
printouts came out the other end. For such a system, an important design goal was input predictability, since any error in entering data on a card or specifying the sequence of computer commands would bring the processor to a halt, and require a time-consuming, paper-based debugging process, followed by another visit to the basement computer room with a revised set of punch cards. The aim of designers was to take the human out of the system-to mechanize processes as much as possible in order to reduce the chance of human error. 打印输出从另一端出来。对于这样的系统，一个重要的设计目标是确保输入的可预测性，因为在卡片上输入数据或指定计算机命令顺序时的任何错误都会导致处理器停止，并需要耗时的纸质调试过程，之后还要再次前往地下计算机房，带上修订过的打孔卡。设计师的目标是尽可能地将人从系统中剔除，机械化流程，以减少人为错误的发生。
But automated systems contain human errors that can be harder to spot, can do more damage in a shorter period of time, and can prove more complicated to correct than direct human errors. Here are three particularly notorious examples that designers should remember: 但是，自动化系统中的人为错误可能更难以发现，可能在更短的时间内造成更大的损害，并且比直接的人为错误更难以纠正。以下是设计师应该牢记的三个特别臭名昭著的例子：
In the 1980s, several cancer patients died as a result of lethal radiation dosages administered by the Therac- 25 machine, which substituted faulty software safety checks for hardware constraints that would have made it physically impossible to deliver a lethal dosage (Leveson and Turner 1993). 在 1980 年代，几名癌症患者因 Therac-25 机器施加的致命辐射剂量而死亡。这台机器用有缺陷的软件安全检查替代了硬件限制，而后者本可以使施加致命剂量在物理上变得不可能（Leveson 和 Turner 1993）。
On January 15, 1990, 144 AT&T long-distance switches failed because a mistake in a single line of computer code set off a chain reaction that propagated itself each time any individual node would shut down and try to reset itself. The error took nine hours to diagnose, leaving 60,000 people without telephone service and causing 70 million failed telephone calls (http://www.phworld.org/history/attcrash.htm, accessed February 21, 2011>). 1990 年 1 月 15 日，因一行计算机代码中的错误，144 个 AT&T 长途交换机发生故障。这一错误引发了连锁反应，每当某个节点关闭并尝试重置时，问题就会加剧。诊断这个错误耗时九小时，导致 60,000 人无法使用电话服务，并造成 7000 万次电话呼叫失败（http://www.phworld.org/history/attcrash.htm，访问时间：2011 年 2 月 21 日）。
The European rocket system Ariane 5 was destroyed during its launch on June 4, 1996, because of an error in converting a large decimal number from 64 -bit to 16-bit representation (Gleck 1996). 欧洲的阿丽亚娜 5 号火箭系统在 1996 年 6 月 4 日发射时被摧毁，原因是将一个大型十进制数字从 64 位转换为 16 位时出现了错误（Gleck 1996）。
The more we automate the critical infrastructures of human society, the more vulnerable we are to hidden software flaws that can have disastrous consequences. 我们越是自动化人类社会的关键基础设施，就越容易受到隐藏软件缺陷的威胁，这可能会带来灾难性的后果。
Interactors bring the same wariness to their everyday transactions with digital devices, knowing that a slip of the finger can broadcast an embarrassing email message to a list full of strangers, or delete a year’s worth of data, or transfer ten times the intended amount of funds from one account to another. Because the computer acts so quickly and powerfully, we need assurance that we are in control. Our relationship to the machine is therefore not the intimate guidance of the tool, but the power relationship of the command. We tell it what to do, and look for confirmation that it is doing what we expect it to do. It is the designer’s responsibility to support this relationship: to provide the user with the appropriate commands, and with feedback that makes clear what is happening within the hidden recesses of the efficient black box and how to intervene and correct it if it is not what she intended to happen. 互动者在与数字设备进行日常交易时保持高度警惕，因为手指的一次失误可能会将一封尴尬的电子邮件发送给一群陌生人，或者删除一年的数据，甚至将十倍于预期的资金从一个账户转移到另一个账户。由于计算机反应迅速且功能强大，我们需要确保自己掌控全局。因此，我们与机器的关系并不是工具的亲密使用，而是命令与权力的关系。我们告诉它该做什么，并期待得到确认，确保它正在按照我们的期望执行。 设计师有责任支持这种关系：为用户提供合适的指令和反馈，让用户清楚地了解高效黑箱内部发生了什么，以及如何进行干预和纠正，以确保结果符合她的预期。
As we move from tools to machines we gain scope and lose flexibility. While tools can be responsive to corrections because they are optimized for human gestures, 随着我们从工具转向机器，我们的能力范围扩大了，但灵活性却降低了。工具能够对修正做出反应，因为它们是为人类手势优化的，
machines are unforgiving of human error because they are optimized for fixed input followed by fixed sequences of action. The vending machine accepts some coins or bills and spits back the others. The punch-card reader finds the expected holes in the expected columns or chokes on the card, ending the program. The Internet telephone program refuses to let me exit the application until I enter a correct port number, whether I want to or not. 机器对人类的错误毫不留情，因为它们是为固定的输入和固定的操作序列而优化的。自动售货机接受某些硬币或纸币，并将其他的退回。打孔卡读取器在预期的列中找到预期的孔，或者在卡片上卡住，导致程序结束。互联网电话程序拒绝让我退出应用，直到我输入正确的端口号，无论我是否愿意。
Many of the design strategies of error prevention in human-machine interaction aim at constraining the actions of the user to match the inflexibility of the machine. For example, the user is limited to well-formed input by standardized keyboards, letterform conventions, and special fields that only accept specific kinds of characters. In the early days of human-computer interaction (HCI(\mathrm{HCI} ), user input was limited to typing commands. The command line interface, which is still the standard for systems operations, requires the user to be a programmer or trained technician, familiar with a specific abbreviated, formulaic mode of communication that is easier for machines than for humans to decode. Command line interfaces use cryptically abbreviated codes based on chording a command key and an alphabetical key to limit typing and reduce typos. Some old-school computer scientists continue to use command line text editors for their email programs (figure 11.2), just as some people prefer to drive manual shift automobiles, because it gives them more direct control of the mechanism. Though command line interfaces have been replaced with graphical user interfaces (GUI) for many decades, command keys remain a part of computer keyboards, and keyboard shortcuts are widely used in word processors, operating systems, and keyboard-based 许多人机交互中的错误预防设计策略旨在限制用户的操作，以适应机器的刚性。例如，用户只能通过标准化键盘、字母格式规范和仅接受特定字符的特殊输入框来进行有效输入。在人机交互的早期阶段，用户的输入仅限于输入命令。命令行界面仍然是系统操作的标准，要求用户必须是程序员或经过培训的技术人员，熟悉一种特定的简化和公式化的交流方式，这种方式对机器来说比对人类更容易理解。 命令行界面使用基于同时按下命令键和字母键的简化代码，以减少输入量和打字错误。一些老派的计算机科学家仍然使用命令行文本编辑器来处理电子邮件（见图 11.2），就像一些人更喜欢驾驶手动挡汽车，因为这样可以更直接地控制车辆。尽管命令行界面在许多年前就被图形用户界面（GUI）取代，但命令键仍然是计算机键盘的一部分，键盘快捷键在文字处理软件、操作系统和基于键盘的应用程序中被广泛使用
C-x C-f
find file (open a file in a new buffer) 查找文件（在新窗口中打开文件）
C-x C-s
save file 存档文件
C-x I
insert file at cursor positon 在光标处插入文件
C-f
move cursor forward [without arrow keys or mouse] 向前移动光标（不使用箭头键或鼠标）
C-space C 空间（计算机空间）
set a "mark" to indicate the beginning of a selected region 设置一个“标记”以表示所选区域的起始位置
set a "mark" to indicate the beginning of a selected region| set a "mark" to indicate the beginning of a selected region |
| :--- |
C-w
kill a selection 删除一个选项
M-w
copy a selection 复制所选内容
copy a selection| copy a selection |
| :--- |
C-y
paste (yank) a copied or killed selection 粘贴（粘入）已复制或删除的内容
M-v
page down 向下翻动页面
C-x u
undo 取消
C-t
transpose two characters 交换两个字符
M-t
transpose two words 交换两个词的位置
C-x C-f find file (open a file in a new buffer)
C-x C-s save file
C-x I insert file at cursor positon
C-f move cursor forward [without arrow keys or mouse]
C-space "set a "mark" to indicate the beginning of a selected region"
""
C-w kill a selection
M-w "copy a selection"
C-y paste (yank) a copied or killed selection
M-v page down
C-x u undo
C-t transpose two characters
M-t transpose two words| C-x C-f | find file (open a file in a new buffer) |
| :--- | :--- |
| C-x C-s | save file |
| C-x I | insert file at cursor positon |
| C-f | move cursor forward [without arrow keys or mouse] |
| C-space | set a "mark" to indicate the beginning of a selected region |
| | \begin{tabular}{l}
[a selection is bounded by a mark and a cursor position]
\end{tabular} |
| C-w | kill a selection |
| M-w | copy a selection |
| C-y | paste (yank) a copied or killed selection |
| M-v | page down |
| C-x u | undo |
| C-t | transpose two characters |
| M-t | transpose two words |
Figure 11.2 第 11.2 图
Among the most beloved commands in the world of hackers are the original keystroke combinations used in one of the oldest text-editing programs, EMACS (Editor MACroS), developed at MIT in the 1970s. They are based on use of the control key ( C-x\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{x} ) and the meta or Alt/Escape key (M)(\mathrm{M}). 在黑客界，最受欢迎的命令之一是用于最古老的文本编辑程序 EMACS（编辑器宏）的原始按键组合，该程序在 1970 年代由麻省理工学院开发。这些组合基于控制键（ C-x\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{x} ）和元键或 Alt/Escape 键（ (M)(\mathrm{M}) ）的使用。
Figure 11.3 第 11.3 图
Keyboard shortcut commands are listed on the Edit menu of a word processor alongside their human-friendly command names. 在文字处理软件的编辑菜单中，键盘快捷键命令与其易于理解的名称一同列出。
Figure 11.4 图 11.4（Figure 11.4）
The World of Warcraft Rookie Guide here calls attention to the keyboard shortcut in the tooltip message for the gold cup icon. 《魔兽世界新手指南》在金币杯图标的提示信息中提到了键盘快捷键。
video games. It is conventional to list the keyboard commands within the GUIs on the menu next to the appropriate command or in rollover labels associated with icons (figures 11.3, 11.4). 视频游戏。通常在菜单的 GUI 中，将键盘命令列在相应命令旁边，或在与图标相关的悬停标签中（见图 11.3，11.4）。
Once the command has been issued, the system should acknowledge it in some way. The computer produces little direct mechanical feedback-no flashing lights or whirring sounds to reassure us that the bits are switching on and off. So visibility must be the result of explicit coding. One of the most basic problems for interactors is knowing whether or not the computer is doing anything in answer to our input. 一旦发出命令，系统应该以某种方式进行确认。计算机几乎没有直接的机械反馈——没有闪烁的灯光或嗡嗡声来让我们安心，确认位元正在开关。因此，能见度必须通过明确的编码来实现。对于用户来说，最基本的问题之一就是如何判断计算机是否在对我们的输入做出反应。
Upload Files Now CanceI 1 Processing ... 现在上传文件，取消 1 的处理...
Figure 11.5 第 11.5 图
A progress indicator for a web-based university site with very limited visibility, indicating that an upload is in progress but not how long it will take or what percentage of the task has been accomplished. This lack of specific feedback is acceptable if the delay is a matter of seconds. 一个用于网络大学网站的进度指示器，显示上传正在进行中，但不说明需要多长时间或任务完成的百分比。如果延迟仅为几秒钟，这种缺乏具体反馈是可以接受的。
Figure 11.6 图 11.6 号
The Fetch program’s doggy icon trots eagerly to indicate a file transfer in progress, and in this recent version of an Internet classic program, displays a donut progress indicator as well. Fetch 程序的狗狗图标兴奋地移动，表示文件传输正在进行。在这个互联网经典程序的最新版本中，还显示了一个甜甜圈进度指示器。
Figure 11.7 图 11.7
TiVo process tracking. The machine is politely acknowledging the presence of the human spectator, as well as providing information that is helpful for repair. TiVo 过程跟踪。机器礼貌地确认了人类观众的存在，并提供了有助于维修的信息。
This problem is augmented by our expectation that the computer will be immediately responsive and will perform the requested function instantaneously. When the task requires wait time, designers have invented the convention of the progress indicator, which may be an updating text message, progress bar, watch face, hourglass, or spinning icon of some kind that provides the feedback that a command has been received and is being acted on (figures 11.5-11.7). 这个问题加剧了我们对计算机能够立即响应并瞬间执行请求功能的期望。当任务需要等待时，设计师们发明了进度指示器的概念，这可能是更新的文本消息、进度条、手表界面、沙漏或某种旋转图标，用于反馈命令已被接收并正在处理（图 11.5-11.7）。
Whenever possible, designers should use determinate progress indicators that measure the time or tasks remaining in relative (" 98%98 \% done") or absolute (" 1 minute remaining") terms. For lengthy or complex tasks, progress indicators often name and list the intermediate steps and provide estimates of time for each step, increasing the interactor’s sense that the machine is under our control, faithfully executing our commands. A web browser usually has a field with small print at the bottom of the window that we only notice when the page fails to load. Typing in “nytimes.com” is something like sending out a dog to fetch a newspaper, so it is reassuring that if the browser is delayed the messages at the bottom of the browser window follow the progress, telling me that some code somewhere is “Looking up nytimes.com,” “Connecting to nytimes.com,” “Waiting for nytimes.com,” and “Transferring data from nytimes.com.” As other information devices go digital they require similar strategies to control user impatience and provide feedback on invisible processes (figure 11.7). Even if the human spectators are helpless to affect the process, it is still appropriate to acknowledge their presence by reporting on what is going on. 在可能的情况下，设计师应使用确定的进度指示器，以相对（“ 98%98 \% 完成”）或绝对（“ 还有 1 分钟”）的方式来测量剩余的时间或任务。对于较长或复杂的任务，进度指示器通常会列出中间步骤并为每个步骤提供时间估计，这样可以增强用户对机器在我们控制下、忠实执行命令的感觉。网页浏览器通常在窗口底部有一个小字的区域，只有在页面加载失败时我们才会注意到。输入“ nytimes。“com”就像是派一只狗去捡报纸一样，因此如果浏览器出现延迟，浏览器窗口底部的消息会跟随进度，告诉我某个地方的代码正在“查找 nytimes.com”，“连接到 nytimes.com”，“等待 nytimes.com”，以及“从 nytimes.com 传输数据”。随着其他信息设备的数字化，它们需要类似的策略来控制用户的不耐烦，并提供对不可见过程的反馈（图 11.7）。即使人类观众无法影响这个过程，仍然有必要通过报告正在发生的事情来承认他们的存在。
When the multiple steps are less meaningful, such as the installation of a large software program, designers can still acknowledge the impatience of the user by sending general or even playful messages. For example the MIT Campus Map (<http:// whereis.mit.edu>) has a whimsical repertoire of loading screen statements such as: 当多个步骤变得不那么重要时，比如安装大型软件程序，设计师仍然可以通过发送一些普通或甚至俏皮的信息来理解用户的急躁。例如，麻省理工学院校园地图（）有一系列幽默的加载屏幕提示，例如：
Please Wait 请稍等一下
while the little elves draw your map 当小精灵为你画地图时
Please Wait 请稍等一下
the bits are breeding 这些比特正在增殖
Please Wait 请稍等一下
at least you’re not on hold 至少你不用等候
The Sims games have a signature bogus loading screen message (“Reticulating splines”) among other parodic messages that playfully reinforce the dollhouse illusion, like “Making Beds” and “Filling Fridge.” Other games provide a static screen with back-story or gameplay information while loading the procedural elements into memory; a few provide a little bit of playful interaction. The moment when the machine is executing the user’s command is a not just a moment for efficient feedback but also a chance for the designer to communicate with the user, to characterize the relationship as one of obedient fetching, efficient connectivity, playful collaboration, or however else one wants to position it. 《模拟人生》系列游戏有一个标志性的虚假加载屏幕信息（“重构样条”），以及其他一些幽默的信息，这些信息调皮地强化了玩偶屋的幻觉，比如“整理床铺”和“填满冰箱”。其他游戏在加载程序元素到内存时，会显示一个静态屏幕，上面有背景故事或游戏信息；有些游戏则提供一些有趣的互动。当机器执行用户命令时，这不仅是一个高效反馈的时刻，也是设计师与用户沟通的机会，可以将这种关系描述为服从性取物、高效连接、愉快合作，或者其他任何想要的方式。
In informational websites and other applications, the waiting interval has been conventionalized into an opportunity for paid advertising, a practice that is likely to continue, even as increased broadband access eliminates the technical lag time. Since we bring expectations of agency to any digital environment, however, interactive 在信息网站和其他应用中，等待时间已被常规化为付费广告的机会，这种做法可能会持续下去，即使宽带接入的增加消除了技术上的延迟。然而，由于我们在任何数字环境中都带有代理的期望，因此互动性仍然重要。
viewers are irritated by this loss of control over playback and welcome the increasingly standard convention of the “skip” button. 观众对失去播放控制感到不满，并欢迎“跳过”按钮这一越来越普遍的做法。
Acknowledging input and signaling the user that processing is taking place is the minimal degree of visibility a usable machine should provide. In addition it should be able to report on its inner state. The candy machine near my office has a clear window through which I can see the packages of candy stacked one behind another in their separate coded slots. When there is no more of a particular candy left to purchase, the slot appears empty. The state of the system in regard to candy inventory is directly visible to the end-user. Simple mechanical devices also provide indirect visibility. The nearby soda machine is an opaque metal box with no view of the soda cans, displaying a row of lighted buttons labeled with the names of the offered beverages. If a beverage is sold out, the light illuminating its name is turned off, dimming but not erasing the name, a convention for temporary unavailability that is also standard for computer menu items. Graying out disabled choices preserves their place in the mental model of the system while scripting the interactor not to choose them. 识别输入并向用户发出处理正在进行的信号是可用机器应提供的最低可见性。此外，它还应能够报告其内部状态。靠近我办公室的糖果机有一个透明的窗口，我可以看到一个个包装的糖果在各自的编码槽中堆叠。当某种糖果售罄时，那个槽就会显得空空如也。系统在糖果库存方面的状态对最终用户是直接可见的。简单的机械设备也提供间接的可见性。附近的饮料机是一个不透明的金属箱子，无法看到饮料罐，只有一排标有所提供饮料名称的灯光按钮。 如果一种饮料售罄，照亮其名称的灯会熄灭，名称变得暗淡但不会消失，这是一种临时不可用的标识方式，也是计算机菜单项的常见做法。将禁用选项灰色化可以保留它们在系统心理模型中的位置，同时提醒用户不要选择这些选项。
The value of the candy machine design reflects a principle of honest salesmanship that has been adapted for software design: “What You See Is What You Get” (WYSIWYG). Interactive design achieved a milestone when it adopted WYSIWYG standards for the products that were created on the computer for delivery in other media. For example, the first word processors required users to type in the markup language codes for how the text would appear when transferred to paper, so that an italicized title would look like this: 糖果机设计的价值体现了一种诚实销售的原则，这一原则已被应用于软件设计：“所见即所得”（WYSIWYG）。交互设计在采用 WYSIWYG 标准，为在计算机上创建并在其他媒体中交付的产品时，达到了一个重要里程碑。例如，第一款文字处理器要求用户输入标记语言代码，以便在转移到纸张时，文本的显示效果。因此，斜体标题的显示效果是这样的：
<i>War and Peace</i> 《战争与和平》
In 1975 Xerox PARC researchers Charles Simionyi and Butler Lampson created Bravo, the first word processor that allowed on-screen editing of features that were displayed in the same way as they would appear on paper: 1975 年，施乐 PARC 的研究人员查尔斯·西蒙尼和巴特勒·兰普森开发了 Bravo，这是第一个允许在屏幕上编辑的文字处理器，其显示效果与纸上相同：
War and Peace 战争与和平
But as the black box fills up with more and more hidden processes, what you see may be only part of the picture. Visible results on the computer may come from multiple causes: italics can be the result of applying a style to a class of text objects, such as a heading or a comment, and changing one instance may or may not affect other instances of the same class. A user might not know how to interpret what they are seeing or how to produce the effects they want to see. For example, a word processor displaying 但是随着黑箱中隐藏过程的不断增加，你所看到的可能只是全貌的一部分。计算机上可见的结果可能由多种原因造成：斜体可能是对一类文本对象（如标题或评论）应用样式的结果，改变一个实例可能会影响或不影响同类的其他实例。用户可能不知道如何解读他们所看到的内容，或者如何产生他们想要的效果。例如，一个文字处理器显示的内容
War and Peace 战争与和平
may have turned the text red as a Formatting command or as part of the Track Changes tool. If I am unaware of Track Changes, and I receive a document in which changes 可能是因为格式命令或“修订”工具的原因将文本变为红色。如果我对“修订”不熟悉，收到一份包含更改的文档时会感到困惑。
appear in red, I will be baffled over how to deal with it. I may think the changes have been made through the font color tool, and I may be unable to change them back again. If the word processor automatically puts me into the Track Changes mode, and displays my own additions to the text in a third color, I may become doubly confused. A Track Changes mode is very useful for collaboration, but it may be a hindrance to productivity if the interactor is not signaled that they are in a new mode, and given a context for interpreting the computer’s actions. 如果它以红色显示，我会感到困惑，不知道该如何处理。我可能会以为这些更改是通过字体颜色工具完成的，而无法再将它们改回去。如果文字处理器自动让我进入“修订”模式，并用第三种颜色显示我对文本的添加，我可能会更加迷惑。“修订”模式对于协作非常有帮助，但如果参与者没有被告知自己处于新模式中，也没有提供解释计算机行为的上下文，这可能会影响工作效率。
To achieve the design goal of visibility the designer must support the creation of a coherent mental model of the computer’s processing. Graphical user interfaces, and WYSIWYG displays are only as good as the overall picture they create in the mind of the user. Like other cognitive schema, a mental model of a computational application organizes multiple perceptions and actions, allowing us to take in new information quickly and to make testable guesses about what will happen next. A useful mental model need not correspond to the actual working of the machine. For example, thinking of the web as made up of separate “sites” is a useful model even though the sites may not correspond to actual places and we are not really going anywhere when we type in an URL. Similarly, when I feed a check into an ATM machine it displays an image of a wrinkled check being smoothed out. I recognize this as a nonliteral representation of this stage of the ritual of making a deposit: the machine is acknowledging that it has received a check but has not yet recognized the amount payable. If I did not get this feedback I might become anxious by the disappearance of the check. Instead, I have a mental model of what the computer understands and what kind of action it is currently performing; I remain engaged with process, actively awaiting my cue to inspect and verify the deposit amount. 为了实现可见性的设计目标，设计师必须支持创建计算机处理的连贯心理模型。图形用户界面和所见即所得的显示效果的好坏，取决于用户心中形成的整体图像。与其他认知模式一样，计算应用的心理模型能够组织多种感知和行为，使我们能够快速吸收新信息，并对接下来可能发生的事情做出可测试的猜测。一个有效的心理模型不必与机器的实际工作方式完全一致。例如，将网络视为由独立的“网站”组成是一个有用的模型，即使这些网站可能并不对应于实际地点，当我们输入网址时，我们实际上并没有真正去任何地方。 同样，当我将支票放入自动取款机时，它会显示一张皱巴巴的支票被抚平的图像。我将这视为存款仪式阶段的一种非字面表现：机器承认它已收到支票，但尚未识别出应付的金额。如果没有这个反馈，我可能会因支票的消失而感到焦虑。相反，我对计算机的理解以及它当前正在执行的操作有一个心理模型；我保持参与这个过程，积极等待提示，以检查和确认存款金额。
Our mental model of a computer-based environment is reinforced by consistency and immediate feedback. Consistency means that interface elements always behave in the same way: double-clicking on a file always opens it; a list with round buttons always allows you to choose only one of several menu items. Feedback means that the computer offers you evidence that it has received and acted on your command: the file folder changes in appearance when you drag a file over it; the trash can makes a crunching sound when you empty the trash. By adhering to these standardized conventions, designers make the actions of the computer visible to the interactor, and reinforce the mental models that set up our expectations for interaction. 我们对计算机环境的心理模型通过一致性和即时反馈得到了加强。一致性意味着界面元素始终以相同的方式运作：双击文件总是会打开它；带有圆形按钮的列表只能让您选择多个菜单项中的一个。反馈则意味着计算机会向您提供证据，表明它已接收并执行了您的命令：当您将文件拖到文件夹上时，文件夹的外观会发生变化；清空垃圾桶时，垃圾桶会发出咔嚓声。通过遵循这些标准化的惯例，设计师使计算机的操作对用户可见，并强化了我们对交互的心理预期。
Empowering Interactors with Control Structures 赋予交互者使用控制结构的能力
Tools are directed by hand. Machines are directed by control panels. Everything that comes between the interactor and computer code can be understood as part of a digital control panel. Our controls have been steadily increasing, but that has not necessarily brought an increase in our sense of control over automated processes. The computer is 工具由手动操作，机器则由控制面板操作。所有介于用户和计算机代码之间的内容都可以视为数字控制面板的一部分。我们的控制能力在不断提升，但这并不一定意味着我们对自动化过程的控制感也随之增强。计算机是
Figure 11.8 图 11.8（Figure 11.8）
Application programs frequently use their Help menu for locating commands on other menus. 应用程序常常通过帮助菜单来查找其他菜单中的命令。
such a versatile machine that it threatens to outgrow our ability to keep track of the many commands we have programmed it to execute. 这是一台功能多样的机器，甚至让我们难以跟踪我们编程的众多指令。
To perform a task that was once well served by pen and paper, I currently use a word processor that comes with twelve pull-down menus, many of them offering over a dozen choices, including embedded submenus; in addition there can be up to five rows of icons and an adjustable ruler above the document, while underneath the document is another control panel offering a choice of Views and instantaneous updates on the page, line, and column currently being edited. In additon, an optional Task Pane to the right of the document provides eight other possible control panels). Indeed it has become standard to use the Help menu just to locate commands on other menus (figure 11.8). The same explosion of command choices makes games, virtual environments, and professional tools hard to learn and confusing to use. Clearly, the control panel is out of control. The proliferation of icons and menus can paralyze the user with too many choices, destroying transparency by focusing attention on the control panels instead of the task at hand (figure 11.9), or it can become an immersive experience with the allure of a secret society (figure 11.10). 为了完成一个曾经由笔和纸轻松处理的任务，我现在使用一个带有十二个下拉菜单的文字处理器，其中许多菜单提供超过十个选项，包括嵌套的子菜单。此外，文档上方可以有多达五行图标和一个可调节的标尺，而文档下方则有另一个控制面板，提供视图选择和对当前正在编辑的页面、行和列的即时更新。此外，文档右侧的可选任务窗格还提供八个其他可能的控制面板。确实，使用帮助菜单来查找其他菜单中的命令已成为一种标准做法（图 11.8）。 相同的命令选择过多使得游戏、虚拟环境和专业工具变得难以学习且令人困惑。显然，控制面板已经失控。图标和菜单的过多可能会让用户感到不知所措，破坏了透明度，因为注意力集中在控制面板上而非当前任务（图 11.9），或者它可能成为一种沉浸式体验，仿佛置身于一个秘密社团（图 11.10）。
Because the control of increasingly automated and modifiable tasks is so difficult, it is all the more important that designers provide a way to repair errors. In a tool situation with direct manipulation, we can provide step-wise undo commands. In a 由于对越来越自动化和可修改任务的控制非常困难，因此设计师提供修复错误的方法显得尤为重要。在直接操作的工具环境中，我们可以提供逐步撤销的功能。
Figure 11.9 图 11.9（Figure 11.9）
Photoshop includes multiple submenus for reconfiguring control panels and keyboard commands. Photoshop 提供多个子菜单，以便重新配置控制面板和键盘快捷键。
Figure 11.10 图 11.10（图示）
World of Warcraft screenshot. The control structure can cover more than half of the screen. The array of cryptic icons enhances the player’s sense of belonging to a mysterious world of hidden powers, though it seems to locate the player’s agency in the overlay rather than the animated world beneath. 《魔兽世界》截图。控制界面可以覆盖超过一半的屏幕。那些神秘图标的组合增强了玩家对这个隐藏力量的神秘世界的归属感，尽管它似乎将玩家的主动权放在了覆盖层上，而不是下面的动画世界。
machine situation, the step that caused an unwanted effect is often difficult to identify because it is buried in a black box. Often something that seems to the end-user like a one-step operation (such as plugging into a wireless network or printing a document) actually involves multiple pieces of software and hardware, with many places at which unexpected information can cause the system to fail. Such failures can result in cryptic messages that offer the user no clue about how serious the error is or how it can be rectified or prevented from recurring. Perhaps the single worst example of such an error message is this one, from the Windows 95 operating system: 机器状况下，导致不良效果的步骤往往难以识别，因为它隐藏在一个黑箱中。用户认为的单一步骤操作（如连接无线网络或打印文档）实际上涉及多个软件和硬件组件，许多地方的意外信息可能导致系统故障。这种故障可能会产生难以理解的错误信息，用户无法判断错误的严重性，也不知道如何修复或防止再次发生。或许，Windows 95 操作系统中的这个错误信息就是最糟糕的例子：
This program has performed an illegal operation and will be shut down. 该程序已执行非法操作，将被强制关闭。
This notoriously offensive message confuses two domains of regulation: the standardization of machine processes and the legal system. Since it is possible to commit illegal actions with software, such as downloading a copyrighted file or violating a passwordprotected area, the wording is particularly inappropriate and even alarming. Software should serve its users, like an obedient dog, not intimidate them like a police officer. 这条臭名昭著的冒犯性信息混淆了两个监管领域：机器过程的标准化和法律系统。由于软件可以被用于非法行为，比如下载受版权保护的文件或侵犯密码保护的区域，因此这种措辞显得尤为不当，甚至令人感到不安。软件应该像一只听话的狗一样为用户服务，而不是像警察那样威胁他们。
Less alarming but equally unhelpful are error messages like these: 这些错误信息虽然不那么令人紧张，但同样没有帮助：
Bad Window Class, ignored (Windows 2000) 无效的窗口类，已被忽略（Windows 2000）
Unable to join the network linksys33 (iPhone) 无法连接到网络 linksys33 (iPhone)
Can’t open this item. Could not open the item. Try again. (Microsoft Outlook) 无法打开此项。请重试。（Microsoft Outlook）
When categories of errors can be anticipated it is useful to offer error messages that point the user in the right direction even if they do not give completely specific feedback, such as “This is not a valid measurement” or “A required feld is empty.” Overly specific explanations can be annoying when they are off the mark. For example, while working on this book, I entered the Save command on my world processor only to receive the alarming and misleading message in figure 11.11. Note that the only option offered is an OK button, though the error and the explanation were certainly not “OK” with me, and the remedies suggested were not helpful. 当可以预见到错误类别时，提供一些指向正确方向的错误信息是非常有用的，即使这些信息没有给出完全具体的反馈，比如“这不是有效的测量”或“必填字段为空。”过于具体的解释在不准确时可能会让人感到烦恼。例如，在撰写本书时，我在文字处理器中输入了保存命令，却收到了图 11.11 中令人不安且误导的信息。请注意，唯一提供的选项是一个确认按钮，尽管这个错误和解释显然对我来说并不“可以”，而且建议的解决方案也没有帮助。
The most helpful error messages are warnings or alerts that prevent the user from doing something that is permissible but irreversible, such as the messages that ask for confirmation before deleting a file, making a purchase, transferring bank funds, or running a program downloaded from an unknown source. To keep the alert box useful as a convention for arresting attention, designers should only employ it for messages that serve the user, and not for self-serving purposes like demanding that their program be made the default application or soliciting visits to a parent website. Alerts linked to common actions, such as saving a file or exiting a browser, should offer the user the option of suppressing future notices (figure 11.12). 最有帮助的错误信息是那些警告或提示，能够防止用户进行一些虽然允许但不可逆的操作，比如在删除文件、进行购买、转账或运行从未知来源下载的程序之前请求确认的消息。为了保持警报框作为引起注意的有效工具，设计师应仅将其用于服务用户的消息，而不是出于自利的目的，比如要求将他们的程序设为默认应用程序或请求访问母网站。与常见操作相关的警报，例如保存文件或退出浏览器，应该提供用户抑制未来通知的选项（图 11.12）。
A file error has occurred. Check your network connections or make sure the disk is properly inserted and not defective. 发生了文件错误。请检查您的网络连接，确保磁盘正确插入且没有损坏。
(Chapter 12.docx) （第 12 章的文档）
OK 可以
Figure 11.11 图 11.11
Misleading and unnecessarily alarming error message from Microsoft Word 2008 for Mac when a Save command failed. There was no networking error and no disk was inserted. The difficulty was a bug in the newly introduced docx format, so a more correct error message would have prompted the user to save the file in a doc or RTF format. 微软 Word 2008 for Mac 在保存命令失败时显示的错误信息既误导又令人不安。实际上并没有网络错误，也没有插入磁盘。问题出在新引入的 docx 格式中的一个 bug，因此更合适的错误提示应该建议用户将文件保存为 doc 或 RTF 格式。
Figure 11.12 图 11.12
Photoshop alert box. The warning makes clear why the interactor might want to choose a different file format, and it includes the “Don’t show again” checkbox. Photoshop 警告框。警告明确说明了用户可能希望选择其他文件格式的原因，并且包含“不要再显示”复选框。
Much of the frustration of using digital applications results from actions that are “legal” and even reversible but seem to happen of their own accord. Automated formatting in word processors, for example, can introduce unwanted numbering and paragraphing effects that are difficult to reverse. As functionalities are combined through the merger of applications into multiapplication environments, there is a need for an integrated help utility that provides an overview of the many options. For example, a popular suite of applications allows users to create a table in the form of a spreadsheet, slide layout, text document insert, web page grid, or database, each offering a different combination of functionalities and command structures. For such complex environments to function well, application programs must not function as independent machines but as consistent parts of a single system with simplified, integrated control structures. Creating such systems will require designers to establish standardized conventions for common operations-such as adding or deleting rows or columns in a table, sorting rows by clicking on columns, inserting formulas, assigning background 使用数字应用程序时，许多人感到沮丧，主要是因为一些“合法”的操作虽然可以逆转，但似乎是自然而然发生的。例如，文字处理器中的自动格式化可能会引入难以逆转的不必要的编号和段落效果。随着应用程序的合并，形成了多应用环境，因此迫切需要一个集成的帮助工具，以便提供众多选项的概述。例如，一个流行的应用程序套件允许用户以电子表格、幻灯片布局、文本文档插入、网页网格或数据库的形式创建表格，每种形式都提供不同的功能和命令结构组合。 为了让如此复杂的环境正常运作，应用程序不能独立运作，而应作为一个统一系统中简化且集成的控制结构的一部分。创建这样的系统需要设计师建立标准化的约定，以便进行常见操作，比如在表格中添加或删除行列、通过点击列来排序行、插入公式以及设置背景
colors to individual cells-that work across applications, in the same way that placing Help at the right-most part of a menu bar, or pressing control-S to save a file are conventions that currently work across many diverse applications. The more we converge disparate devices and applications and extend the functionality of existing consumer products, the harder designers must work to abstract the common processes and actions and to represent them to the interactor as a coherent and consistent model. 颜色应用于单个单元格的方式与许多不同应用程序中的惯例相同，比如将“帮助”放在菜单栏的最右侧，或按控制-S 保存文件。我们越是将不同的设备和应用程序整合，并扩展现有消费产品的功能，设计师就越需要努力抽象出共同的过程和动作，并将其以一致且连贯的模型呈现给用户。
The Appliance Model: Widgets and Applets Sharing Information 家电模型：小部件与小程序的信息共享
The speed and ingenuity of computer processing is rapidly increasing and individual applications are assimilating more and more functions, making them hard to monitor and more challenging to control. The appliance model of the computer is an attempt to turn the all-purpose personal computer-a single complex, unwieldy, multipurpose machine-into multiple simpler devices. An appliance is a mechanical/ electrical device built to serve a single function, usually a household need, such as a toaster. In his 1998 book, The Invisible Computer, Donald Norman describes the personal computer as hopelessly complex because it tries to do too many things. The “solution” to this complexity is the “information appliance,” which Norman defines like this: “An appliance specializing in information: knowledge, facts, graphics, images, video, or sound. An information appliance is designed to perform a specific activity such as music, photography, or writing. A distinguishing feature of information appliances is the ability to share information among themselves” (Norman 1998, 53). 计算机处理速度和创造力正在迅速提升，各种应用程序也在不断整合更多功能，这使得它们难以监控和控制。计算机的电器模型试图将通用个人计算机——这台复杂、笨重且多功能的机器——转变为多个更简单的设备。电器是为满足单一功能而设计的机械或电气设备，通常用于家庭需求，比如烤面包机。在他 1998 年的书《隐形计算机》中，唐纳德·诺曼将个人计算机形容为过于复杂，因为它试图完成太多任务。 解决这种复杂性的方法是“信息设备”，诺曼对此的定义是：“一种专门处理信息的设备，包括知识、事实、图形、图像、视频或声音。信息设备旨在执行特定的活动，如音乐、摄影或写作。信息设备的一个显著特点是能够相互之间共享信息。”（诺曼 1998，53）。
Norman was right in anticipating an increase in digital media and the ubiquitous availability of streams of information that can be picked up and shared by multiple devices. He was also right in identifying the multiple uses of the personal computer as causing confusion in the late 1990s, as users were just beginning to listen to the radio and watch television on the same device on which they did their email, spreadsheets, word processing, image processing, video gaming, and web surfing. By 2010 the same degree of confusion had spread to the mobile phone, and to the general proliferation of devices which afford some combination of these activities, plus telephoning, instant messaging, book and newspaper reading, video recording, GPS directions, access to movie times, . . . and so forth, with no end in sight. A decade after Norman’s manifesto for information appliances to replace personal computers, the personal computer is going strong and mobile devices are accumulating functions rather than specializing in fewer of them. I would suggest that this is because the interactor brings the expectation of the same affordances to every digital device. Consumers have rejected the notion of a telephone that does nothing but make phone calls, a television that only receives live scheduled broadcast and cable content, or a music player that does nothing but play music. And although book readers are popular, they have expanded access to the web, especially since the magazines and 诺曼正确地预见到了数字媒体的增长以及信息流的普遍可用性，这些信息流可以被多个设备接收和共享。他还准确地指出，个人电脑的多种用途在 1990 年代末造成了混乱，因为用户刚开始在同一设备上收听广播和观看电视，同时进行电子邮件、电子表格、文字处理、图像处理、视频游戏和网页浏览。到 2010 年，这种混乱程度已经扩展到手机，以及各种设备的普遍使用，这些设备可以进行这些活动的组合，还包括电话、即时消息、书籍和报纸阅读、视频录制、GPS 导航、电影时间查询等。 以此类推，前景似乎没有尽头。在诺曼提出信息设备取代个人电脑的十年后，个人电脑依然强劲，而移动设备则在不断增加功能，而不是专注于更少的功能。我认为这是因为用户对每个数字设备都有相同的期望。消费者已经拒绝了仅能打电话的电话、只能接收直播和有线内容的电视，以及仅能播放音乐的音乐播放器。尽管书籍读者很受欢迎，但他们的网络访问能力已经扩大，尤其是自从杂志和
Figure 11.13 图 11.13（图示）
Amazon’s Kindle, when it was released in 2009, offered portability, instant access to books and newspapers over a proprietary net connection, and legibility in low light or direct sunlight, but it was limited by its lack of web access and restriction to black-and-white text and images. 亚马逊的 Kindle 于 2009 年发布时，提供了便携性、即时访问书籍和报纸的功能，能够通过专有网络连接使用，并且在低光或直射阳光下可读性良好，但由于缺乏网络访问以及仅支持黑白文本和图像而受到限制。
newspapers they offer by subscription are publishing rich media content online (figure 11.13). 他们通过订阅提供的报纸在线发布了丰富的媒体内容（图 11.13）。
The continued increases in processing power, memory, and digital bandwidth have made this convergence less frustrating than it was in the late 1990s. 处理能力、内存和数字带宽的持续提升，使得这种融合比 1990 年代末期要顺畅得多。
However, the appliance model is still an important reference point for design, and we can see it not in individual devices, but in the specialized smaller applications that run on these devices, the widgets and applets built for specific (and often proprietary) platforms. The application rather than the device has become the single-function appliance. Instead of a pocketbook full of separate iPod-like devices for music, text, and Internet, consumers are carrying a single iPod or smartphone or tablet loaded with small, specialized applets (figure 11.14). 然而，电器模型仍然是设计的重要参考点。我们看到它不仅体现在单个设备上，而是在这些设备上运行的专用小型应用程序中，这些应用程序是为特定（通常是专有）平台构建的小部件和小程序。现在，应用程序而非设备成为了单功能电器。消费者不再携带装满音乐、文本和互联网的多个类似 iPod 的设备，而是携带一台装有小型专用小程序的 iPod、智能手机或平板电脑（图 11.14）。
Widgets and applets are efficient to produce and disseminate because they leverage the larger platform and user bases. They can be lightweight, made of relatively little 小部件和小程序的生产和传播效率很高，因为它们利用了更大的平台和用户基础。它们可以是轻量级的，制作相对简单。
Figure 11.14 图 11.14
Applets on the iPhone offering formerly separate functions on a single device: a telephone, calendar, web browser, clock, GPS system, camera, calculator, notebook, stock market ticker, weather report, and instant messaging. iPhone 上的小程序将以前分开的功能整合到一个设备中，包括电话、日历、网页浏览器、时钟、GPS 系统、相机、计算器、笔记本、股票行情、天气报告和即时消息。
code, and draw on standardized XML formats like RSS. Widgets often require minimal interaction, giving value by displaying useful, customized information streams like stock portfolios and local weather by preselection. They can make use of information in associated address books and GPS software or plug into existing social networks, so users can share photos or convene games for established “friend” groups. Widgets can be made by a single person or an unfunded development group and find users through established online distribution networks. They are also popular with larger developers and established brands for exploiting the possibilities of cloud computing-the migration of data and applications from the individual desktop of a single machine to the always available web. 小部件通常只需最少的交互，就能通过展示有用的定制信息流（如股票投资组合和当地天气）来提供价值。它们可以利用相关的地址簿和 GPS 软件中的信息，或连接到现有的社交网络，让用户分享照片或为已建立的“朋友”群体组织游戏。小部件可以由个人或无资金的开发团队制作，并通过已有的在线分发网络找到用户。它们也受到大型开发者和知名品牌的青睐，以利用云计算的潜力——将数据和应用程序从单台机器的个人桌面迁移到始终可用的网络上。
As Norman pointed out, information appliances can compensate for limited functionality by sharing information. But this is not always the case with existing software widgets or applets, which are often hampered in development by copyright boundaries. Proprietary data formats may suit industries based on copyright exclusivity, but they also inconvenience and irritate interactors who expect a high degree of control over information in digital form. Application appliances are less useful when they lock 正如诺曼所指出的，信息设备可以通过共享信息来弥补功能上的局限性。然而，现有的软件小部件或小程序并不总是如此，它们在开发过程中常常受到版权限制的影响。专有数据格式可能适合那些依赖版权独占的行业，但这也给期望对数字信息有高度控制的用户带来了不便和困扰。当应用设备被锁定时，它们的实用性就会大打折扣。
Figure 11.15 图 11.15
The CoMotion system shares information across a suite of separate widgets for maps, bar charts, and spreadsheets to create an integrated functionality set for collaborative business applications. CoMotion is produced by General Dynamics. CoMotion 系统通过一系列独立的小部件（如地图、条形图和电子表格）共享信息，从而为协作业务应用程序创建一个集成的功能集。CoMotion 由通用动力公司开发。
up data in separate bins, forcing the interactor to copy and paste or even retype the same information from one program to another. Efficiency attained by limiting functionality, whether in the name of simplicity or proprietary interests, is problematic in an encyclopedic, participatory medium. Therefore, the appliance model will continue to be under pressure to evolve toward greater interoperability and information sharing across applets (figure 11.15). 将数据放入独立的容器中，迫使用户在不同程序间复制、粘贴或重新输入相同的信息。为了追求效率而限制功能，无论是出于简单性还是专有利益的考虑，在一个百科全书式的参与性平台上都是有问题的。因此，设备模型将继续面临向更高互操作性和信息共享发展的压力。
Widgets are a versatile and dynamic category of innovation, contributing to and benefitting from an emerging ecology of networked functionalities. Stabilization of platforms always leads to increased development of specialized genres. In this case there are multiple relatively robust platforms, any one of which (a social network, web portal, mobile operating system) could decline or be replaced by an emerging standard from a competitor or a new area of digital practice, such as interactive TV. But though any or all of the existing platforms may disappear, the widget/applet approach will persist because it reflects the foundational principles of modularity of design and information sharing that makes for successful innovation in the medium as a whole. Designers will continue to be challenged to invent and refine the functionalities and conventions of interaction that allow specialized applications to leverage participation in a community of similar appliances. 小部件是一种多功能且动态的创新类别，既为新兴的网络功能生态系统做出贡献，也从中受益。平台的稳定化总是会促进专业类型的发展。在这种情况下，有多个相对强大的平台，任何一个（如社交网络、网络门户或移动操作系统）都有可能衰退或被竞争对手的新兴标准或新的数字实践领域（例如互动电视）所取代。尽管现有的任何或所有平台可能会消失，小部件/小应用程序的方法仍将持续存在，因为它体现了设计和信息共享的模块化原则，这些原则是整个媒介成功创新的基础。 设计师将继续面临挑战，发明和完善交互的功能和规范，以便专业应用能够更好地利用类似设备的社区参与。
Toward More Expressive Machines 迈向更具表现力的机器
If we are to expand the responsiveness and expressive power of powerful computer systems we must make them more like tools in their support for precise and flexible control of their functioning. Instead of thinking of them as black boxes or limited function appliances, we could think of them as highly responsive power tools that do not take things out of our hands, but instead magnify the power and extend the repertoire of things we can do by hand. The industrial age has provided us with some analog 如果我们想要提升强大计算机系统的响应能力和表现力，就必须让它们更像工具，以便更精确和灵活地控制其功能。与其把它们看作黑箱或功能有限的设备，不如把它们视为高度响应的电动工具，它们不会把事情从我们手中夺走，而是增强我们的能力，扩展我们可以手动完成的任务范围。工业时代为我们提供了一些类比。
examples of expressive and tool-like machines, such as the jig saw, potter’s wheel, food processor, and camera. These artifacts allow for the practice of technique and virtuosity while extending the range of creative possibilities. All of these expressive machines have specialized inputs, precise controls, and predictable output, but they are all flexible enough to be employed with craftsmanship in complex, variable processes. All of these devices are designed by experts and shaped for complex tasks that go beyond what the user could do without mechanical assistance. All of these devices are used differently by individual artisans or performers, and all allow the same user to create a wide range of results, reflecting individual skill and aesthetic choices. 表达性和工具性机器的例子包括锯子、陶轮、食品加工机和相机。这些工具不仅允许技术和技艺的实践，还扩展了创造的可能性。这些表达性机器具有专门的输入、精确的控制和可预测的输出，但它们足够灵活，可以在复杂多变的过程中以工匠精神使用。所有这些设备都是由专家设计的，旨在完成超出用户在没有机械帮助的情况下所能实现的复杂任务。每个工匠或表演者以不同的方式使用这些设备，而同一用户也能创造出多样的结果，体现个人的技能和审美选择。
There are already examples of similarly complex, responsive, and expressive digital artifacts, some of which are based on analog models such as digital still and video cameras and photo/video editing software, digital musical instruments and sound recording/editing programs, digital animation software; and some of which are purely digital expressive structures, such as procedural authoring environments like website and game level editors. The invention and refining of expressive environments like these that put the processing power of the machine into the hands of creative developers will be a growing area of design in coming decades. 目前已经出现了一些复杂、响应式且富有表现力的数字艺术品的例子，其中一些基于模拟模型，如数字静态和视频摄像机、照片/视频编辑软件、数字乐器和声音录制/编辑程序、数字动画软件；而另一些则是纯数字的表现结构，例如程序化创作环境，如网站和游戏关卡编辑器。发明和完善这些将机器处理能力交给创意开发者的表现环境，将在未来几十年成为设计的重要领域。
The growing representational power of computation is also enabling us to make the world around us more expressive by embedding processors into devices distributed through the environment, or attaching computer-readable labels to objects in the world. Cognitive scientists think of the world around us as constituting a system of distributed cognition in which objects scaffold our individual and collective cultural memory and shape our behaviors. Media objects are an important part of this distributed cognition. For example, maps allow us to carry with us more geographical information than we can keep in our heads. Street signs are part of the same distributed cognition system, helping us to locate ourselves and to share our location with others. Computation allows us to automate the operation of these media objects, making them aware of us and able to process information on the spot and on command. A GPS navigator knows where we are and where we want to go and can generate routes and guide us through them, adjusting automatically to our deviations from the plan. We have just begun to explore the possibilities of embedding such smart devices and computer-readable information in objects in the world. The challenge for designers is putting computational power in the right devices and the right places and making their processing visible and sufficiently under our control without letting the machines overstep social boundaries or requiring humans to conform to the rigidity of machines. 计算的日益增强的表现力使我们能够通过将处理器嵌入环境中的设备，或将计算机可读的标签附加到物体上，使周围的世界更加富有表现力。认知科学家认为，周围的世界构成了一个分布式认知系统，其中物体支撑着我们个人和集体的文化记忆，并影响我们的行为。媒体对象在这个分布式认知中扮演着重要角色。例如，地图让我们能够携带比我们记忆中更多的地理信息，而街道标志则是同一分布式认知系统的一部分，帮助我们定位自己并与他人分享位置。 计算技术使我们能够自动化这些媒体对象的操作，使它们能够感知我们并即时处理信息。GPS 导航仪知道我们的位置和目的地，能够生成路线并引导我们，自动调整我们偏离计划的情况。我们刚刚开始探索将这种智能设备和计算机可读信息嵌入现实物体的可能性。设计师面临的挑战是将计算能力放在合适的设备和位置，并使其处理过程可见且在我们的控制之下，同时避免机器超越社会界限或要求人类适应机器的僵化。
The measure of expressivity in digital media is not about using the latest gizmo or achieving the most advanced programming feat. To be an expressive machine, the computational apparatus has to serve an explicit human purpose and to act under our 数字媒体的表现力并不在于使用最新的设备或实现最复杂的编程技术。要成为一个富有表现力的机器，计算设备必须明确服务于人类的目的，并在我们的指导下运作。
control, allowing us a range of meaningful discretionary actions, and augmenting our actions in some way with its automated processes. To achieve a high degree of handson control and craftsmanship with complex computational systems and emerging computational technologies, interactors need sandboxes or other safe modes of operation in which to develop the requisite mastery by repeated experimental exploration. In order to make complex processing power available for expression we have to make computational procedures more visible and computational control systems more flexible. The more visible we can make the operations of the machine, the more control we can give to the expressive user, and the more we can foster the development of expressive technique. 控制使我们能够进行一系列有意义的自由裁量行动，并通过自动化过程在某种程度上增强我们的行为。为了在复杂的计算系统和新兴技术中实现高度的动手控制和工艺，交互者需要沙盒或其他安全的操作模式，以便通过反复实验探索来掌握所需的技能。为了使复杂的处理能力能够用于表达，我们必须提高计算程序的可见性，并增强计算控制系统的灵活性。我们越能让机器的操作变得清晰，就越能赋予表达用户更多的控制权，从而促进表达技巧的发展。
Increasing the visibility of computational processes will also strengthen our ability to analyze claims involving computer systems. Designers will often be faced with situations in which meaningless output is overvalued because it has been produced with great expense of computational skill and resources. Technologists and humanists alike can be mesmerized by the processing power of the black box, treating it like an oracle instead of a calculator. Technologists sometimes assume we can increase expressivity by increasing resolution or processing power, but more pixels or more elaborately mined data do not necessarily make for more meaningful information. Postmodern humanists sometimes find expressive achievement in the procedural distortion of images and texts because it makes us aware of the arbitrary nature of signifiers. But erosion of meaning is a limited form of expressive power, though the use of computation can give it an aura of greater significance. And most of us are all too easily seduced by mere novelty, size, or speed. When faced with such claims for the authority of computational solutions, it is useful to remember the sly parable from Douglas Adams’s Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (1979) in which the greatest computer in the cosmos, Deep Thought, takes 7.5 million years to compute the answer to the “Great Question of Life, the Universe and Everything”: 提高计算过程的可见性将增强我们分析与计算机系统相关的声明的能力。设计师常常面临这样的情况：无意义的输出被过度重视，因为它是以大量的计算技能和资源成本产生的。技术专家和人文学者可能会被黑箱的处理能力所吸引，把它视为神谕而非计算器。技术专家有时认为，通过提高分辨率或处理能力可以增强表达能力，但更多的像素或更复杂的数据挖掘并不一定能提供更有意义的信息。 后现代人文主义者有时通过对图像和文本的程序性扭曲找到表现的成就，因为这让我们意识到符号的任意性。然而，意义的侵蚀只是一种有限的表现力，尽管计算的使用可以赋予其更大的重要性。大多数人很容易被单纯的新奇、规模或速度所吸引。当面对计算解决方案的权威性主张时，回想道格拉斯·亚当斯的《银河系漫游指南》（1979）中的狡猾寓言是很有帮助的，其中宇宙中最伟大的计算机“深思”花费了 7。计算“生命、宇宙和一切伟大问题”的答案需要五百万年
“All right,” said Deep Thought. “The Answer to the Great Question . . .” “好的，”深思说。“伟大问题的答案是……”
“Yes . . . !” “是的……！”
“Of Life, the Universe, and Everything . . .” said Deep Thought. “关于生命、宇宙和一切……”深思者说。
“Yes . . . !” “是的……！”
“Is . . .” “是……的。”
“Yes . . . !!! . . .” “是的……!!!……”
“Forty-two,” said Deep Thought, with infinite majesty and calm. (Adams 1979, chapter 27) “四十二，”深思者以无尽的威严与平静说道。(亚当斯 1979, 第 27 章)
Black-box calculation has tremendous power to exponentially increase our common intelligence, synchronizing the business of life on a global scale and putting a world of information literally at our fingertips, but in the end it is only human intelligence rooted in embodied experience that can create meaningful form. 黑箱计算拥有巨大的能力，可以显著提升我们的共同智慧，在全球范围内协调生活事务，并将丰富的信息直接呈现在我们面前。然而，最终只有扎根于实际经验的人类智慧才能创造出有意义的形式。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: THE MACHINE MODEL 设计探索：机器模型研究
Recognizing and Controlling Machine Processes 识别与控制机器流程
Look at four videos for the Science Channel program How It’s Made (available on television and at http://science.discovery.com). What makes the depicted processes suitable for automation? What parts of heavily automated processes are done by human hands or by humans operating tools? What makes the human worker valuable in each of these circumstances? 请观看四个关于科学频道节目《它是如何制作的》的视频（可在电视上和 http://science.discovery.com 观看）。这些过程为什么适合自动化？在高度自动化的过程中，哪些部分是由人手或人操作工具完成的？在这些情况下，人类工人有什么价值？
Make a list of all the machines you encounter in one day. Include power tools, mechanical devices like bicycles and air pumps, anything with a lever (like a see saw) or a pulley (like a clothesline), cash registers, computers and peripherals, cell phones, land phones, kitchen appliances, toilets, and so on. 列出你一天中遇到的所有机器。包括电动工具、机械设备（如自行车和气泵）、任何带杠杆的物品（如秋千）或滑轮（如晾衣绳）、收银机、计算机及其外设、手机、座机、厨房电器、马桶等。
Sort the machines into meaningful groups by whatever criteria you think most important in differentiating them (e.g., energy source, size, complexity, kind of motor, kind of function). 根据你认为最重要的标准（如能源来源、大小、复杂性、马达类型和功能类型）将机器分成有意义的组。
Choose one of the groups and identify conventional features characteristic of the category (e.g., electrical machines have on/off switches and lights to tell you when they are on, portable machines have handles or wheels). 选择一个组，并识别该类别的典型特征（例如，电气设备通常配有开关和指示灯，以便让您知道它们是否开启，而便携式设备则通常有手柄或轮子）。
With reference to the same list of familiar machines: If you were placed in an isolated room with all the necessary components, which of these machines could you reproduce? Which of them could you repair if it were to break? 针对同一组熟悉的机器：如果你被放在一个隔离的房间里，里面有所有必要的组件，你能复制哪些机器？如果其中某台机器坏了，你能修理哪一台？
For one of the machines create a state diagram (see chapter 4) that describes all of its possible states and the transitions between them. 为其中一台机器绘制状态图（参见第 4 章），以描述其所有可能的状态及状态之间的转换。
Explicitly indicate what level of abstraction you are choosing. 清楚地说明您所选择的抽象层级。
How would your representation be different at a higher or lower level of detail? 在更高或更低的细节水平上，你的表现会有什么不同？
How would it change if presented from a different point of view? For example, 如果从不同的角度来看，会有什么变化？比如，
a microwave has different salient attributes to the manufacturer (e.g., low/high power) than to a family in the kitchen (e.g., with unpopped, popping, and fully popped popcorn). 微波炉对制造商（如低功率和高功率）与对厨房家庭（如未爆、正在爆和完全爆开的爆米花）所具有的显著属性是不同的。
How much control does the user have over these state transitions? 用户对这些状态转换的控制程度如何？
How visible (perceptible) are these states to the user (can you see, hear, smell the difference)? 这些状态对用户的可见程度有多高（你能看到、听到或闻到它们的不同吗）？
For one of the machines on the list create a flow chart of how it operates in a typical session of use. 为列表中的一台机器绘制一张典型使用场景的操作流程图。
What is your mental model of its decision tree and the order in which it performs its tasks? 你对它的决策树的心理模型是怎样的？它执行任务的顺序又是怎样的？
What components do you assume exist even though you can’t see them? 你认为有哪些看不见的组件实际上是存在的？
Can you imagine alternate flow charts that would result in the same visible effects? 你能想象出哪些替代流程图会产生相同的可见效果吗？
How much of the processing of the machine is immediately visible? 机器的处理过程有多少是可以立即看到的？
Design an interactive model of a physical machine. Create a virtual model of a familiar machine that primarily works on physical objects (e.g., a water heater, a washing machine, a vending machine). Make sure that the process is visible in terms that are meaningful to the user of the machine (e.g., not the wiring or the workings of the engine but the stages and parameters of heating, washing, vending). 设计一个物理机器的互动模型。创建一个虚拟模型，模拟一个主要处理物理对象的熟悉机器（如热水器、洗衣机、自动售货机）。确保这个过程以用户易于理解的方式呈现（例如，不涉及电线或引擎的工作原理，而是加热、洗涤和售货的各个阶段和参数）。
Locate existing diagrams, prose explanations, and video demonstrations of the functionality, components, and operation of the kind of machine you are modeling. Abstract these explanations into a single coherent schematic representation in any form that makes sense to you. You will probably need a mixture of images and words. 查找现有的图示、文字说明和视频演示，以了解您所建模机器的功能、组件和操作。将这些说明抽象为一个连贯的示意图，以任何对您有意义的形式呈现。您可能需要结合图像和文字。
Describe the operation of the machine in a flow chart or state diagram or both. 描述机器的操作，可以使用流程图、状态图或两者结合。
Describe the operation of the machine in pseudocode. (You can black box some of the specific routines as long as you name the major classes of processes and the variables that control them.) 用伪代码描述机器的操作过程。（您可以将某些具体的例程视为黑箱，只需命名主要的过程类别和控制它们的变量即可。）
Create a storyboard of an interactive implementation of the model that makes visible the otherwise invisible workings of the machine. 创建一个互动模型的故事板，让机器的隐性运作变得清晰可见。
Implement your storyboard. Test it with other users to be sure the interaction pattern is clear (e.g., that they know how to wash clothes with the model washing machine). 实现你的故事板，并与其他用户进行测试，以确保交互模式清晰（例如，他们知道如何使用这款洗衣机洗衣服）。
Give your digital model to another group of users and after they have used it ask them to describe the workings of the machine. 将您的数字模型交给另一组用户，使用后请他们描述机器的运作方式。
Compare their descriptions to your original schematic explanation. 将他们的描述与您原来的示意图解释进行对比。
How well did your digital model communicate your mental model of how the machine works? 你的数字模型在多大程度上能够表达你对机器运作方式的理解？
What did your model make perceptible that is not perceptible in the physical machine? 你的模型让哪些在物理机器中无法感知的事物变得可感知？
Modeling Hidden Processes 隐藏过程建模
Making the processing of the machine visible to the interactor does not mean that we show the actual circuitry of the machine. We need to create a model that accounts for how things happen and that can guide the interactor’s expectations and behavior. 让交互者看到机器的处理过程并不意味着要展示机器的实际电路。我们需要构建一个模型，解释事情是如何发生的，并指导交互者的期望和行为。
Choose a puzzling mechanical device or digital system and ask three people to explain how they think it works. For example, you could take a description of an automotive breakdown from the Car Talk radio show or an image or animation of one of the devices made by the ancient inventor Heron of Alexandria, or an aspect of a video game that is clearly not random and yet difficult to predict. 选择一个复杂的机械装置或数字系统，询问三个人他们认为它是如何运作的。例如，您可以引用《汽车对话》广播节目中的汽车故障描述，或者使用古代发明家亚历山大·赫伦制作的某个装置的图像或动画，或者视频游戏中明显不是随机的但又难以预测的某个元素。
What experiences and assumptions do their explanations draw on? 他们的解释依赖于哪些经验和假设？
What aspects of the information you provided them with were the most relevant to their explanations? 你提供给他们的信息中，哪些内容对他们的解释最为重要？
Which explanations did you find persuasive? Could they be validated by further observations of the puzzling device or system? 你认为哪些解释是有说服力的？这些解释能否通过对这个令人困惑的设备或系统的进一步观察来验证？
For one month, notice every time something happens in a computer-based environment that you find puzzling. 在一个月内，留意每次在计算机环境中发生的让你感到困惑的事情。
Indicate whether or not you found an explanation for it. 请说明您是否找到了相关的解释。
What was your mental model of the system before the puzzling event? 在这个令人困惑的事件发生之前，你对系统的理解是什么？
Did this event change your model? 这个事件对你的模型有影响吗？
Getting Control of Control Panels 掌控控制面板
The control panel should provide agency over the workings of the machine, without distracting the interactor from focusing on the task at hand. 控制面板应允许用户掌控机器的运作，同时不影响他们专注于当前任务。
Identify control panels attached to tools in applications other than the ones discussed in this chapter. For example, consider games and mobile applications. 确定与工具连接的控制面板，这些工具用于本章讨论以外的应用程序。例如，可以考虑游戏和移动应用。
Do they make elements visible that are otherwise invisible? 他们是否能让原本看不见的元素变得可见？
Do they quantify elements that observable in different ways? 他们是否以不同的方式对可观察的元素进行量化？
Do they increase your understanding of why things happen as they do? 它们是否帮助你更好地理解事物为何会这样发生？
Do they offer you control over variables? 他们是否让你控制变量？
Are there other conventions that could be used for the same control tasks? Would they be an improvement or a less expressive choice? 是否有其他规范可以用于相同的控制任务？这些规范是改进还是表达能力较弱的选择？
Are there conventions used in this example that would work well for control panels in another domain (e.g., using the pie menus from a game in an imageprocessing program)? 这个例子中使用的惯例是否适合在其他领域的控制面板中使用（例如，在图像处理程序中使用游戏的饼图菜单）？
Observe yourself or a member of your group using a complex application program like Photoshop or Microsoft Word to do a familiar task. 观察自己或小组成员使用复杂的应用程序（如 Photoshop 或 Microsoft Word）来完成熟悉的任务。
Write down all the panel settings, menu commands, dialog boxes, and tools that they actively use in the performance of this task. 记录下他们在执行此任务时所使用的所有面板设置、菜单命令、对话框和工具。
Create a design for an interface that includes only those features of the program that were used. Feel free to reassign functions if it will make the new application more coherent or functional, such as making a tool palette into a menu or a menu into a tool palette. 设计一个界面，只包含程序中实际使用的功能。如果重新调整功能能让新应用程序更连贯或更实用，比如将工具调色板改为菜单，或将菜单改为工具调色板，请随意调整。
With the user’s permission, observe a new user of a complex application that you are familiar with attempt to do a complex task. 在用户同意的情况下，观察一个你熟悉的复杂应用的新用户尝试执行一项复杂任务。
Note when the user makes mistakes and whether the program gives feedback so that the user can recognize the mistake and its cause. 观察用户犯错的情况，以及程序是否提供反馈，帮助用户识别错误及其原因。
Is the error message system responsive to user mistakes? 错误信息系统是否能及时响应用户的错误？
Does the Help system provide appropriate direction? 帮助系统是否提供了合适的指引？
Observe another member of your team providing active error correction and coaching for the new user. 观察你团队中的另一位成员如何积极地纠正错误并指导新用户。
What kinds of explanations does the human provide that the system does not provide? 人类提供的解释有哪些是系统无法提供的？
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method? 每种方法的优点和缺点是什么？
How would you design a Help system that would function more like an ideal human helper? (Do not include any cartoon figures.) 你会如何设计一个帮助系统，使其更像理想的人类助手？（请不要包含任何卡通形象。）
Are there some aspects of actual human-to-human coaching that you do not want to reproduce? 你是否有一些实际的人际辅导方面是你不想模仿的？
Are there some aspects that are completely beyond our abilities to script with computer code? 是否有一些方面是我们无法用计算机代码来实现的？
Designing Modular Appliances for Shared Information Resources 设计用于共享信息资源的模块化设备
Hybrid appliances are becoming increasingly common, creating rough combinations of divergent sets of conventions. Answer one of the following with reference to a particular device and share the answers with others in your group, in order to collectively identify control conventions (e.g., menus, remotes, on-screen buttons, navigation commands, state displays) that are moving from one domain to another: 混合设备越来越普遍，形成了不同规范集合的复杂组合。请参考某个特定设备回答以下问题，并与小组中的其他成员分享答案，以便共同识别正在从一个领域转移到另一个领域的控制规范（例如菜单、遥控器、屏幕按钮、导航命令、状态显示）：
How does a television set support gaming? 电视机是如何支持游戏的？
How does a games console support watching television? 游戏机是如何支持观看电视的？
How does a phone support television and gaming? 手机是如何支持电视和游戏的？
Look at three examples of applets or widgets in a single category for a single platform, such as a productivity app for a phone platform or a photo-sharing applet for a social networking site. 查看三个在同一平台上属于同一类别的应用程序或小部件的例子，比如手机平台上的生产力应用或社交网络上的照片分享小部件。
What common conventions do they use? 他们通常使用哪些常见的惯例？
What is the best and worst feature of each of the three applets? 这三个小程序各自的最佳和最差特点是什么？
To what degree do they share information with other applets or with networked data resources? Are there other possibilities for exchange that are not currently exploited? 他们与其他小程序或网络数据资源共享信息的程度如何？是否还有其他尚未被利用的交换方式？
Make a competitive analysis chart listing feature types on the horizontal rows and the three apps on columns. Indicate which apps have which features. 制作一个竞争分析图，横向列出功能类型，纵向列出三款应用程序，并标明各应用程序具备的功能。
Add a fourth column for an ideal applet that would have all the right features, including ones you may want to add new rows for that none of your sample included. 添加一个第四列，用于理想的应用程序，该应用程序应具备所有必要的功能，包括您可能希望为其添加新行的功能，而这些功能在您的示例中并未包含。
Advanced: Create a storyboard or interactive mock-up that corresponds to the ideal app whose functions you specified in the previous exercise. What conventions would you use similarly to other applets? 高级：创建一个故事板或交互式原型，符合您在上一个练习中描述的理想应用程序的功能。您会采用哪些与其他应用程序类似的设计规范？
Advanced: Test the interactive mock-up with other students serving as your test group and improve the design to reflect the results of testing. 高级：与其他学生一起测试互动模型，作为你的测试小组，并根据测试结果改进设计。
Advanced: Create a working version of the ideal applet with some or all of the proposed functionality. 高级：创建一个理想小程序的可用版本，具备部分或全部提议的功能。
Design and if feasible create a media widget/applet that takes two or more streams of structured data from networked sources or from another applet on the same platform and combines them in a useful way. (For example, an applet on a mobile device might combine music from an Internet radio applet with a photo stream, drawing on applets on the same device.) 设计并在可行的情况下创建一个媒体小部件/小程序，该小部件/小程序能够从网络源或同一平台上的其他小程序获取两个或多个结构化数据流，并以有用的方式将它们结合在一起。（例如，移动设备上的一个小程序可以将来自互联网广播的小程序的音乐与照片流结合，利用同一设备上的其他小程序。）
Design and if feasible create a media widget/applet that combines two or more RSS feeds or other preexisting structured data sources, into a single useful display. 设计并在可行的情况下创建一个媒体小部件，将两个或多个 RSS 源或其他现有的结构化数据源整合成一个实用的展示。
Identify parameters to put in the hands of the interactor. For example, combine newspaper and radio feeds and allow the interactor to specify place of origin, or combine air quality and weather data and allow the interactor to specify a danger range for temperature and specific allergens or contaminants. 确定可以交给交互者的参数。例如，可以将报纸和广播的信息结合起来，让交互者指定来源地点；或者结合空气质量和天气数据，让交互者设定温度和特定过敏原或污染物的危险范围。
12 The Companion Model: Helpful Accompaniment as a Design Goal 12 伴侣模型：将有益陪伴作为设计目标
Abstract 概要
When I hit my thumb with a hammer, I get mad at myself, at the person making me do the work, and at the cruel and malignant universe, but I don’t get mad at the hammer. By contrast, when my computer crashes, or fails to give me a file that I know is there, or tells me that I failed to shut it down properly when it was the one that crashed, I get mad at it. 当我用锤子砸到自己的拇指时，我会对自己、让我做这项工作的人以及这个残酷的宇宙感到愤怒，但我不会对锤子生气。相反，当我的电脑崩溃，或者无法找到我明明知道存在的文件，或者告诉我没有正确关闭它时，明明是它崩溃了，我就会对它感到生气。
—Christopher Miller (2004) —克里斯托弗·米勒（2004 年）
The Computer as a Social Presence 计算机作为社会存在的角色
As we have seen, our “intuitive” responses to the computer often derive from learned responses and media conventions that have become transparent to us through habituation. But some of our most powerful unconscious scripts derive not from cultural habituation but from our biology. Although we are usually not aware of it, research has shown that we treat computers as if they were alive (Reeves and Nass 1996). Social scientists explain this phenomenon by pointing out that the human brain evolved long before there were mechanized entities capable of interaction and seems to be hardwired to attribute consciousness to trees, rivers, wind, and statues and to attribute human motivations to wild animals and invisible fairies, based on the evidence of our ancient myths and folk traditions. So it is perhaps not surprising that we see a resemblance to our own consciousness in a machine that initiates actions, makes requests, and responds to our commands. 正如我们所观察到的，我们对计算机的“直觉”反应往往源于通过习惯形成的学习反应和媒体惯例。然而，我们一些最强大的无意识反应并非源于文化习惯，而是源于我们的生物本能。尽管我们通常对此并不自觉，但研究表明，我们对计算机的看法就像它们是活的一样（Reeves 和 Nass 1996）。社会科学家解释这一现象时指出，人类大脑在机械实体能够互动之前就已经进化，似乎天生就会将意识归于树木、河流、风和雕像，并将人类的动机归于野生动物和看不见的仙女，这一切都基于我们古老神话和民间传统的证据。 因此，看到机器在启动行动、发出请求和响应我们的命令时与我们自己的意识相似，这也许并不令人意外。
Therefore, in addition to their expectations that computers will behave like efficient tools and powerful machines, interactors also see digital devices and the programs that run on them as part of the social world, almost as if they were living people. Our sense of the social presence of computers is so strong that as Clifford Nass has demonstrated, people will show politeness to machines, not criticizing them to their “faces” but only sharing negative comments with a second machine, just as we tend to do with other people (Nass, Steuer, et al. 1994). These social expectations add to our pleasure and frustration with digital environments. When a digital environment is transparently helpful and visibly responsive to our 因此，除了期望计算机能像高效的工具和强大的机器那样运作外，互动者还将数字设备及其运行的程序视为社会世界的一部分，几乎就像它们是活生生的人一样。我们对计算机的社会存在感非常强烈，正如克利福德·纳斯所展示的，人们会对机器表现出礼貌，不会当面批评它们，而只会与另一台机器分享负面评论，就像我们对待其他人一样（纳斯、斯图尔等，1994）。这些社会期望增加了我们在数字环境中的愉悦感和挫败感。当数字环境能够透明地提供帮助并对我们的需求做出明显反应时，
commands it can be experienced as an extension of our own mind, just as a familiar and responsive automobile is experienced as an extension of our own body. Sherry Turkle has referred to this attitude as thinking of the machine as a second self (Turkle 1984). Computer environments can become so familiar to us that they seem like an intimate friend who can complete our sentences and whose separate thinking we see as clearly as our own. We share rituals with our interactive devices that are reinforced by thousands of repetitions, creating habitual associations between our own thoughts and desires and the conventions of our smartphones, email programs, social networks, or operating systems. Like strongly identified sports fans, users of PCs or Macs sometimes speak of their chosen platform as if it were part of their personal identity or a tribal affiliation: “I’ve always been a loyal Mac user.” “I’m a PC person.” Marketing strategists reinforce these affiliations, associating stylistic elements with recognizable cultural stereotypes-of hipster artist or efficient businessmanbut the phenomenon is not merely a creation of corporate image making. Techies who would never wear a branded t-shirt are capable of the same degree of intense personal identification with a favorite programming language or open-source operating system. 这些命令可以被视为我们思维的延伸，就像一辆熟悉且灵敏的汽车被视为我们身体的延伸。谢丽·图克尔将这种态度称为将机器视为第二自我（图克尔 1984）。计算机环境可以变得如此熟悉，以至于它们仿佛是一个亲密的朋友，能够接续我们的句子，而我们对它们的独立思考的理解与我们自己的思考一样清晰。我们与互动设备之间的仪式通过成千上万次的重复得到了强化，形成了我们自身思想和欲望与智能手机、电子邮件程序、社交网络或操作系统之间的习惯性联系。 像强烈认同自己支持的体育队伍的球迷一样，PC 或 Mac 用户有时也会将他们选择的平台视为个人身份或部落归属的一部分：“我一直是忠实的 Mac 用户。” “我就是 PC 的人。” 营销策略师通过将风格元素与可识别的文化刻板印象（如时髦的艺术家或高效的商人）联系起来，进一步强化了这种归属感，但这一现象并不仅仅是企业形象塑造的结果。那些绝不会穿品牌 T 恤的技术爱好者，同样会对自己喜爱的编程语言或开源操作系统产生强烈的个人认同感。
Because they are present as almost-living things, digital artifacts have a surprising ability to engage our emotions. We can feel affection for a machine that helpfully accompanies us through our tasks, as we might for a pet dog; I was so charmed by a new and remarkably miniaturized laptop that when prompted for a name for the hard disk I spontaneously called it “Cutie Pie.” And by the same token, when we are frustrated by computer functioning, we can feel personally insulted, and respond with an intensity similar to what we would feel in a quarrel with a contrary family member or a habitually obstructive colleague. In 2005 Kent Norman, a researcher at the University of Maryland, conducted a Computer Rage Survey in which users reported hitting computers, making obscene gestures toward them, shouting at them, describing them to others as “evil,” as well as more extreme behaviors such as setting them on fire or shooting them; and they were eager to act out their rage for the camera and post the video online to be enjoyed by other enraged computer users (http://lap.umd.edu/computer_rage, accessed February 21, 2011). 由于数字工件几乎像活物一样存在，它们能够引发我们的情感，这一点令人惊讶。我们可能会对一台在我们完成任务时乐于助人的机器产生感情，就像对一只宠物狗一样；我被一台新颖且极其小巧的笔记本电脑所吸引，以至于在被问到硬盘的名字时，我自发地叫它“可爱的小饼干”。同样，当我们对计算机的运行感到沮丧时，我们会感到个人受到侮辱，并以类似于与固执的家庭成员或习惯性阻碍的同事争吵时的强度作出反应。 2005 年，马里兰大学的研究员肯特·诺曼进行了一项计算机愤怒调查，用户们报告了击打计算机、对其做出猥亵手势、对其大喊大叫、将其称为“邪恶”，以及更极端的行为，如纵火或射击。他们渴望在镜头前表现出自己的愤怒，并将视频上传到网上，让其他愤怒的计算机用户观看（http://lap.umd.edu/computer_rage，访问日期：2011 年 2 月 21 日）。
Computer rage is the flip side of computer longing, of our desire for a machine that effortlessly anticipates and fulfills our needs, making life easier and less lonely. The challenge for designers is to exploit the magic without triggering the rage: to make digital artifacts that are satisfying, predictable, and transparent to use, and whose workings are demystified and visible, however impressive and valuable we may find them. To do this, we must acknowledge the expectations triggered by our unconscious perception of the computer as a social actor or “second self.” 计算机愤怒是对计算机渴望的另一种表现，反映了我们希望有一台能够轻松预测并满足我们需求的机器，从而让生活变得更简单、更不孤独。设计师面临的挑战是如何利用这种魔力而不引发愤怒：创造出令人满意、可预测且易于使用的数字产品，其运作方式清晰可见，无论我们觉得它们多么令人印象深刻和有价值。为此，我们必须意识到我们对计算机作为社会参与者或“第二自我”的无意识感知所带来的期望。
Synchronization 同步操作
As a versatile social actor, the computer can play a number of roles from teacher to game opponent to secretary. Perhaps the simplest of these roles, and the one that underlies all the others in the imagination of the interactor, is that of companion, a sentient, thinking consciousness that accompanies the human actor through some activity. Accompaniment requires synchronization, of the interactor to the computer and the computer to the interactor. A good example of design for accompaniment is the karaoke machine, which allows a user to sing popular songs accompanied by instrumental tracks and synchronized lyrics. Before the invention of the karaoke machine, there were movies made by the Fleischer brothers and television shows produced by Mitch Miller that provided the text of lyrics synchronized with the performance, enabling the audience to sing along. There were also print genres to support sing-alongs, such as sheet music and a once-popular genre of magazine called a “song sheet” that contained all the lyrics to the top-selling records of the day. Karaoke machines automate the sing-along, providing just the right segmentation of the musical signal: all the instrumentation but none of the singing. In more sophisticated systems the music might be varied in tempo or key to suit the individual, but most of the focus of the karaoke machine is to help the human performer to conform to the digital output rather than the other way around. 作为一个多才多艺的社交参与者，计算机可以扮演多种角色，从教师到游戏对手，再到秘书。其中最简单的角色，且在互动者的想象中支撑着其他所有角色的，是伴侣的角色——一个有意识、会思考的存在，陪伴人类参与者进行各种活动。伴随需要互动者与计算机之间的同步，以及计算机与互动者之间的同步。一个很好的伴随设计例子是卡拉 OK 机，它允许用户在乐器伴奏和同步歌词的陪伴下演唱流行歌曲。 在卡拉 OK 机发明之前，弗莱舍兄弟制作的电影和米奇·米勒制作的电视节目提供了与表演同步的歌词文本，让观众可以跟着唱。还有一些印刷形式支持合唱，比如乐谱和一种曾经流行的杂志，称为“歌曲单”，其中包含当时畅销唱片的所有歌词。卡拉 OK 机则自动化了合唱，提供了恰到好处的音乐信号分段：所有乐器伴奏，但没有人声。 在更复杂的系统中，音乐的节奏或调性可能会有所变化，以适应个人需求，但卡拉 OK 机的主要目的是帮助人类表演者适应数字输出，而不是相反。
This karaoke model of computer-driven accompaniment can be made into a challenging game when the computer is used as more than a music player. Computers can model many kinds of performances, and humans can be challenged and scored on their ability to keep in synchrony with a complex and rapid digital output. Games like Parappa the Rapper (Sony PlayStation 1996) in which the player controls an on-screen avatar who mimics the rapping motions of a succession of teacher characters, and the arcade game (later adapted for consoles) Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) (Konami 1998), in which the player performs dance steps on a platform or game mat by following a onscreen notation, exploit the pleasure of achieving synchronization by providing rapid and complex actions for the player to follow. Guitar Hero (Red Octane 2005) and its successors turn music making into a challenging game. As with the karaoke machine, the computer is the pacesetter in all of these games, and it is up to the interactor to imitate the onscreen performers and follow the symbolic score. Synchronization is achieved because the machine programs the player (figure 12.1). 这种计算机驱动的卡拉 OK 伴奏模型，当计算机不仅仅作为音乐播放器时，可以变成一个具有挑战性的游戏。计算机能够模拟多种表演形式，而人类则可以在与复杂快速的数字输出保持同步的能力上接受挑战并获得评分。像《帕拉帕说唱者》（索尼 PlayStation 1996）这样的游戏中，玩家控制一个屏幕上的角色，模仿一系列教师角色的说唱动作；还有街机游戏《舞动全城》（DDR）（科乐美 1998），玩家通过跟随屏幕上的指示，在平台或游戏垫上表演舞步。这些游戏通过提供快速复杂的动作，带来了实现同步的乐趣。 《吉他英雄》（红色八角 2005）及其后续作品将音乐创作变成了一种富有挑战性的游戏。与卡拉 OK 机类似，计算机在这些游戏中充当节奏的引导者，参与者需要模仿屏幕上的表演者并跟随符号乐谱。同步是通过机器对玩家进行编程来实现的（图 12.1）。
Music players have been sources of mechanized social accompaniment in everyday life since the first commercial gramophones were introduced at the turn of the twentieth century (figure 12.2). Transistor radios in the 1960s separated baby boomer teenagers from their surroundings via ear plugs, and allowed them to plug into their 自 20 世纪初首次商业化的留声机问世以来，音乐播放器就成为了日常生活中机械化社交伴奏的重要来源（见图 12.2）。1960 年代的晶体管收音机通过耳塞将婴儿潮一代的青少年与周围环境隔绝，让他们能够沉浸在自己的音乐世界中。
Figure 12.1 第 12.1 图
Guitar Hero screen for two players provides visual cues to the fingering of the guitar-shaped game controller. The player is following the score, keeping in synchrony with the machine. 《吉他英雄》的双人游戏界面提供了吉他形状控制器的指法视觉提示。玩家正在跟随乐谱，与机器保持同步。
identity-defining rock and roll music wherever they went, creating a new category of highly portable music player that was later exploited for portable tapes and CDs, which provided more customized choice of music than the broadcast model. Computation has increased the ubiquity and range of such personal music playing appliances, allowing us to carry vast libraries of performances in ever-smaller devices, and to play them back with greater flexibility. As a result, portable music players are among the most popular and well-established digital artifacts, as stand-alone devices or as applets built into multifunctional mobile devices like smartphones. 摇滚乐在他们的旅途中定义了身份，创造了一种新的高度便携的音乐播放器类别，后来被用于便携式磁带和 CD，提供了比传统广播模式更个性化的音乐选择。计算技术的进步使得这种个人音乐播放设备的普及性和功能范围大大增强，让我们能够在越来越小的设备中携带庞大的音乐库，并以更灵活的方式播放。因此，便携式音乐播放器成为最受欢迎和成熟的数字产品之一，无论是作为独立设备，还是作为智能手机等多功能移动设备中的应用程序。
Adding computation to the music player not only extends its functionality as a playback device: it also allows us to experience music playing as a form of shared consciousness. For example, some early users of the iPod Shuffle reported thinking of the device as a companion with its own tastes who could also sense their moods and choose to please or to thwart their desires. A Columbia University doctoral student told the Wall Street Journal that he was convinced that his iPod “knows somehow when I am reaching the end of my reserves, when my motivation is flagging” during a bicycle workout, and picks the perfect rap song to get him moving again (Dodes 2004). The simple procedural strategy of random selection practiced over an encyclopedic selection makes the results of any pick unpredictable to the listener, and therefore surprising and eventful. Although the computer only understands the songs as interchangeable bit streams, music always has emotional value for human beings, particularly the music we have chosen for our own collections. The unpredictability of the choices, the emotional power of the music, and the intimacy of earphone delivery 将计算功能添加到音乐播放器不仅扩展了其作为播放设备的功能，还让我们能够体验音乐播放作为一种共享意识的形式。例如，一些早期的 iPod Shuffle 用户表示，他们将这款设备视为一个有自己品味的伴侣，能够感知他们的情绪，并选择满足或阻碍他们的愿望。一位哥伦比亚大学的博士生告诉《华尔街日报》，他确信他的 iPod“以某种方式知道我在精力耗尽、动力减弱”的时候，在骑自行车锻炼时，选择完美的说唱歌曲让他重新振作起来（Dodes 2004）。 随机选择的简单程序策略在丰富的选择中进行，使得每一次选择的结果对听众来说都是不可预测的，因此充满惊喜和变化。尽管计算机只将歌曲视为可互换的比特流，但音乐对人类始终具有情感价值，尤其是我们为自己收藏的音乐。选择的不可预测性、音乐的情感力量和耳机传递的亲密体验
Figure 12.2 图 12.2
“His Masters Voice,” the original trademark image of the Victor Talking Machine Company, evokes the sense of presence and companionship afforded by recorded music players. “他的主人声音”是维克多唱片公司最初的商标图像，唤起了录音音乐播放器所带来的陪伴和存在感。
reinforce a sense of the digital music player as not merely an appliance but a companion (figure 12.3). 强化数字音乐播放器作为伴侣而不仅仅是一个设备的感觉（图 12.3）。
Because computer environments seem somewhat aware of us and because they are capable of observing and recording our every move, interactors are often uncertain of the degree to which their preferences are understood. Recommendation systems like Amazon’s or Netflix’s (figure 12.4) raise the customer’s expectations that their tastes can be matched, creating more annoyance if the book or film that is being offered especially to them is off base. But improving recommendation systems is difficult because observation of behavior does not offer enough contextual cues to make completely reliable inferences about what consumers value in the items they select. The computer has a limited range of observation: it may perceive what we buy and how we rate it, without having any idea of why we chose it or how we feel about it. People may display the same behavior for very different reasons, and they may base their ratings on very different values. It is much easier to design patterns for machines to execute and human beings to imitate, as in Dance Dance Revolution, than to design 由于计算机环境似乎对我们有一定的意识，并且能够观察和记录我们的每一个动作，用户常常不确定他们的偏好被理解的程度。像亚马逊和 Netflix 的推荐系统（图 12.4）提高了顾客的期望，认为他们的品味可以被精准匹配，如果特别为他们推荐的书籍或电影不合适，就会引发更多的烦恼。然而，改善推荐系统是困难的，因为对行为的观察并不能提供足够的上下文线索，以便对消费者在选择的物品中重视的内容做出完全可靠的推断。 计算机的观察能力是有限的：它可能会感知我们购买的商品以及我们的评分，但对我们为何选择这些商品或我们的感受却一无所知。人们可能出于截然不同的原因表现出相似的行为，他们的评分也可能基于不同的价值观。为机器执行和人类模仿设计模式要容易得多，就像在《舞动奇迹》游戏中一样，而不是设计
Figure 12.3 第 12.3 图
An iconic marketing image for the Apple iPod, a device that defined the category of portable music player for the digital era, portrays the listener in a state of altered consciousness. Her body posture and the positioning of her hands suggest the presence of an invisible fantasy dance partner generated by the device. 一张标志性的苹果 iPod 营销图片，这款设备定义了数字时代便携音乐播放器的类别，展现了听众处于一种改变意识的状态。她的身体姿势和手的位置暗示着设备所创造的一个看不见的幻想舞伴的存在。
computer programs that can identify and imitate the complex cultural behaviors of human beings, as recommendation systems attempt to do. Computer-generated recommendations work best when they are offered politely in a way that is easy to refuse, rather than popping up unasked for, inserting themselves between the user and other content, like a bossy salesman or know-it-all friend. 计算机程序能够识别并模仿人类复杂的文化行为，正如推荐系统所尝试的那样。当计算机生成的推荐以礼貌的方式提供，并且容易拒绝时，效果最佳，而不是在用户未请求的情况下突然出现，打断用户与其他内容的互动，就像一个强势的推销员或自以为是的朋友。
Since we identify with our media choices, users can feel particularly uneasy when recommendation systems mischaracterize us based on their surveillance of our usage patterns. A widely circulated Wall Street Journal article captured the anxiety of new TiVo users in 2002. TiVo was the first widely adopted digital video recorder system, and one of its novel and less successful features was an automatic recorder that picked programs it thought the viewer would like, based on similarities to things they had already chosen, and downloaded them without asking: a significantly more intrusive action than a mere recommendation. The WSJ article is tellingly titled “If TiVo Thinks You Are Gay, Here’s How to Set It Straight,” evoking one of the staples of social 由于我们与媒体选择息息相关，当推荐系统根据对我们使用模式的监控错误地描述我们时，用户可能会感到特别不安。一篇广泛传播的《华尔街日报》文章捕捉到了 2002 年新 TiVo 用户的焦虑。TiVo 是第一个被广泛采用的数字视频录制系统，其一个新颖但不太成功的功能是自动录制器，它会根据用户已选择内容的相似性，选择认为用户会喜欢的节目，并在未征得同意的情况下下载：这比单纯的推荐要更加侵入。这篇《华尔街日报》的文章标题颇具讽刺意味，名为“如果 TiVo 认为你是同性恋，这里有办法让它纠正过来”，引发了社会的一个重要话题。
Figure 12.4 图 12.4 说明
The recommendation system from Netflix.com is considered so important to the success of the company that in 2009 Netflix awarded a $1\$ 1 million prize in a competition aimed at improving the performance of its collaborative filtering algorithm by 10 percent. Although most of these “Movies You’ll Love” recommendations seem clearly related to the films the system knows I “enjoyed” and are indeed in my taste range, it is hard to understand what The Philadelphia Story, A Streetcar Named Desire, and The General have in common with Beauty and the Beast. (Accessed September 5, 2010.) Netflix.com 的推荐系统被认为对公司的成功至关重要，因此在 2009 年，Netflix 在一项旨在提高其协同过滤算法性能 10% 的竞赛中颁发了 $1\$ 1 万美元的奖金。尽管这些“你会喜欢的电影”推荐似乎与系统知道我“喜欢”的电影有明显的关联，并且确实符合我的口味，但我仍然很难理解《费城故事》、《欲望号街车》和《大元帅》与《美女与野兽》之间有什么共同点。（访问日期：2010 年 9 月 5 日。）
stereotyping and comic embarrassment. It described users who were so distressed by the choices made by the program that they actively selected other programs in order to try to change their image in the eyes of the machines. For example: 刻板印象和滑稽的尴尬。它描述了一些用户因程序的选择而感到极度不安，以至于他们主动选择其他程序，试图在机器眼中改变自己的形象。例如：
Mr. Iwanyk, 32 years old, first suspected that his TiVo thought he was gay, since it inexplicably kept recording programs with gay themes. A film studio executive in Los Angeles and the selfdescribed “straightest guy on earth,” he tried to tame TiVo’s gay fixation by recording war movies and other “guy stuff.” 伊万尼克先生，32 岁，最初怀疑他的 TiVo 认为他是同性恋，因为它总是无缘无故地录制与同性恋主题相关的节目。作为洛杉矶的一名电影制片厂高管，自称是“地球上最直的男人”，他试图通过录制战争电影和其他“男性内容”来纠正 TiVo 的同性恋偏好。
“The problem was, I overcompensated,” he says. “It started giving me documentaries on Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Eichmann. It stopped thinking I was gay and decided I was a crazy guy reminiscing about the Third Reich.” “问题在于，我过度补偿了，”他说。“它开始给我关于约瑟夫·戈培尔和阿道夫·艾希曼的纪录片。它不再认为我同性恋，而是决定我是一个疯狂的人，怀念第三帝国的往事。”
The anecdote reveals the crude stereotyping of the recommendation system and the ways in which it can reinforce stereotypical thinking in users. Since programmers will 这个轶事揭示了推荐系统的粗糙刻板印象，以及它如何在用户中强化刻板思维。因为程序员会
always be drawn to such handy abstract categories because they are easy to incorporate in automated decision making, it is not surprising that the program generated such exaggerated choices. But why do people who should know better care about such boneheaded judgments? As one user put it, “I know it’s dumb to take it personally, but it’s in your face. These are supposedly objective computers saying, ‘This is what we think of you’” (Zaslow 2002). 我们总是被这些方便的抽象类别所吸引，因为它们容易融入自动决策中，因此程序会生成如此夸张的选择并不令人意外。但为什么那些应该更明智的人会在意这种愚蠢的判断呢？正如一位用户所说：“我知道把它当回事很傻，但这确实摆在你面前。这些所谓的客观计算机在说，‘这就是我们对你的看法’”（Zaslow 2002）。
Recommendations that have prestige of computation behind them-even patently foolish recommendations-can seem like definitive social judgments. Making the processing of the machine visible and allowing the consumer to adjust the system demystifies the recommendation process, reducing anxiety and resentment about what the computer “thinks” (figure 12.5). 具有计算声望的推荐——即使是显而易见的愚蠢建议——也可能被视为明确的社会判断。让机器的处理过程变得可见，并允许消费者调整系统，可以消除推荐过程的神秘感，减少对计算机“想法”的焦虑和不满（图 12.5）。
Accompaniment with surveillance is an enticing structure for advertisers. The economic model behind online information services, from search engines to mail pro- 伴随监控的陪伴模式对广告商来说极具吸引力。在线信息服务的经济模型涵盖了从搜索引擎到邮件服务的各个方面-
Figure 12.5 第 12.5 图 Amazon.com explains the basis of recommendations (“Because you purchased”) and also provides a feedback mechanism for improving them. 亚马逊.com 解释了推荐的依据（“因为您购买了”），并提供了反馈机制以改进这些推荐。
grams to news portals involves monitoring the behavior of users and providing advertising content that matches users’ self-descriptions and behaviors. With media-rich mobile devices becoming ubiquitous, there is increasing interest in providing personalized sales messages triggered by geographic location. Designers will have to determine how to provide messages that people want to receive and are likely to act upon. Just because we can observe behavior does not mean that we can use it effectively. Google’s online email system (figure 12.6) provides advertising based on message content, raising anxieties about the machine spying on personal mail, but usually demonstrating little comprehension of the text. For example, an email invitation to a Tartan Day Celebration may result in ads for Scottish products (possibly relevant) but also for ads for tattoo removal, skydiving, and other unrelated goods and services. 将克朗转换为新闻门户需要监测用户行为，并提供与用户自我描述和行为相匹配的广告内容。随着媒体丰富的移动设备的普及，基于地理位置触发的个性化销售信息的需求日益增加。设计师需要确定如何提供人们愿意接收并可能采取行动的信息。仅仅因为我们能够观察到行为，并不意味着我们能够有效利用这些信息。谷歌的在线电子邮件系统（图 12.6）根据邮件内容提供广告，这引发了对机器监视个人邮件的担忧，但通常对文本的理解很有限。 例如，Tartan Day 庆祝活动的电子邮件邀请可能会引发与苏格兰产品（可能相关）的广告，但也可能出现纹身去除、跳伞以及其他无关商品和服务的广告。
GPS navigator systems provide much closer surveillance and much more assertive recommendations in the form of turn-by-turn instructions spoken by a simulated GPS 导航系统提供更精确的监控和更明确的建议，以语音形式通过逐步指示进行引导
Figure 12.6 第 12.6 图
Ads generated by Gmail based on message contents. The recommendations are most likely to be relevant when the email is itself an advertisement, as it is here. Ad content attached to the content of personal messages can be unnerving, making us feel under surveillance. It helps that the ads are separated visually in their own column and displayed without distracting graphics or typography. 由 Gmail 根据邮件内容生成的广告推荐，尤其在邮件本身就是广告时，推荐内容最为相关。附加在个人信息内容上的广告可能会让人感到不安，仿佛受到监视。广告在视觉上分开，放在独立的栏目中，并且没有干扰注意力的图形或排版，这一点确实很有帮助。
human voice. When the device is working well it is reassuring to have a calm voice giving advice on when to change lanes and how far it is to the next right turn. But the real world quite often diverges from the computer representation. Construction areas and idiosyncratic traffic patterns make the computer’s directions less than optimal at times. The computer does not always know exactly where we are: it can mistake a service road for the adjacent highway, for example. And even when the directions are optimal, they can still be hard to comply with. Human beings make wrong turns or impulsively decide to get off at an earlier exit. Because the GPS system has the ability to observe our behavior in real time and to speak to us in human language, it raises our expectations that it will understand our motives and priorities as well as our geographical positioning. It can therefore arouse antagonism when it responds with the rigidity of a computer to our human spontaneity, telling us to “Please return to the designated route.” In circumstances like this the simulation of companionship works against the interaction, since the neutral tone and rigid repetition reproduces the characteristics of a patronizing, passive-aggressive passenger. Some people, having chosen to use the navigator as a convenience, will purposely avoid the prescribed route because of a sense of humiliation at taking orders from an unresponsive companion. 人声。当设备运行良好时，听到一个平静的声音给出何时变道以及到下一个右转的距离建议是令人安心的。然而，现实世界往往与计算机的表现有所不同。施工区域和独特的交通模式使得计算机的指示有时并不理想。计算机并不总是准确知道我们的位置：例如，它可能会把服务道路误认为相邻的高速公路。即使指示是最优的，遵循这些指示仍然可能很困难。人们有时会走错路，或者冲动地选择在更早的出口下高速。 因为 GPS 系统能够实时观察我们的行为，并用人类语言与我们交流，这使我们期望它能够理解我们的动机、优先事项以及地理位置。因此，当它以计算机的僵化方式回应我们的人类自发性，告诉我们“请返回指定路线”时，可能会引发对立情绪。在这种情况下，陪伴的模拟反而会妨碍互动，因为中立的语气和僵化的重复让人感觉像是一个居高临下、被动攻击的乘客。 一些人选择使用导航仪来方便自己，但却故意避开规定的路线，因为他们觉得接受一个无反应的伙伴的指令很羞耻。
As we move to a world of ubiquitous computing, more and more devices are making recommendations and offering us their advice, challenging designers to minimize the intrusiveness while maximizing the helpfulness of these programs. 随着我们迈向一个无处不在的计算世界，越来越多的设备开始提供建议和意见，这对设计师提出了挑战：在尽量减少干扰的同时，最大化这些程序的实用性。
Politeness 礼貌性
Just as we expect a tool to be transparent and a machine to be visible, we expect a social agent to behave with politeness. Rituals of politeness, according to social theory, are concerned with saving face, with preventing the humiliation that comes from having others witness our frustrated desires. Politeness softens unwelcome demands and oppositional statements with the explicit acknowledgment that other people have needs as well as oneself. Impolite expressions are baldly stated demands, refusals, or assertions of indifference to the needs of others. Designers can sometimes avoid humiliating users and deflect their anger by employing the same polite expressions that mediate human-to-human interaction. 就像我们期望工具是透明的、机器是可见的一样，我们也期望社会代理能够礼貌地行事。根据社会理论，礼貌的仪式旨在维护面子，防止因他人目睹我们未能实现的愿望而感到羞辱。礼貌通过明确承认他人也有需求，来缓和不受欢迎的要求和对立的言论。无礼的表达则是直白的要求、拒绝或对他人需求的漠视。设计师有时可以通过使用同样的礼貌表达，来避免羞辱用户并转移他们的愤怒，这些表达调解了人际之间的互动。
For example, interruption is an unwelcome social interaction common to humans and computers. In the 1990s, the email program Eudora charmed early adopters of multiwindow environments with the message “Excuse me. Eudora needs your help.” The message had a whimsical quality that was subtly consonant with the name of program, which evoked the American Southern writer Eudora Welty, author of a famous short story called “Why I Live in the Post Office.” Eudora had no other anthropomorphic elements beyond the genteel phrasing of this alert, so its evocation of a 例如，干扰是人类和计算机之间一种不受欢迎的社交互动。在 1990 年代，电子邮件程序 Eudora 以“对不起，Eudora 需要你的帮助。”的消息吸引了多窗口环境的早期用户。这个消息带有一种异想天开的特质，与程序名称微妙地相呼应，令人联想到美国南方作家 Eudora Welty，她是著名短篇小说《我为什么住在邮局》的作者。除了这种礼貌的警报措辞外，Eudora 并没有其他拟人化的元素，因此它的唤起
helper was understated and all the more potent. By framing the interruption as a request for help rather than a demand, it put the program in a submissive social role even though it was popping up unbidden. Like a polite human being, it excused itself, asked for our attention, waited patiently until we turned toward it, and then delivered its message. 这个助手被低估了，但却更具影响力。它将干扰表现为请求帮助而非强求，使得程序在社交上显得顺从，尽管它是自发出现的。就像一个有礼貌的人一样，它为自己辩解，请求我们的关注，耐心等待我们转向它，然后传达它的信息。
Of course the best solution to the problem of interruption is to make it unnecessary, and the Eudora ritual would not have remained charming over time, nor is it scalable to the current application environment in which there may be a dozen programs running at the same time. Instead, we have a new interruption convention of icons jumping up and down for our attention in the “dock” or “tray” at the bottom of the screen. This silent movement in a marginal space is similar to Eudora’s “Excuse me,” or to a polite knock at the door, while clicking on the icon is like giving a person permission to enter and interrupt us. Ideally the icons should move slowly (like a soft knocking) and allow us a choice of delay or suppression. But even at rapid speed, the bouncing icon is significantly more polite than the pop-up dialog box that insists on top position, obscuring other windows, like a rude guest elbowing through a crowd, and getting in our face. The more we proliferate simultaneous tasks, and the more we send out software agents to bring us information or take actions on our behalf, the more important it will be to establish rituals of politeness that allow human beings to gracefully shift attention when necessary to accommodate automated processes. 当然，解决中断问题的最佳方法是让它变得不必要，而 Eudora 的仪式随着时间的推移不会保持其魅力，也不适合当前可能同时运行多个程序的应用环境。相反，我们现在有了一种新的中断方式，即图标在屏幕底部的“停靠区”或“托盘”中上下跳动以吸引我们的注意。这种在边缘空间中的静默移动就像 Eudora 的“打扰一下”，或者像是礼貌地敲门，而点击图标则像是给某人进入并打扰我们的许可。理想情况下，图标应该缓慢移动（就像轻轻敲门），并允许我们选择延迟或抑制。 尽管速度很快，弹跳的图标仍然比那些坚持在最上方、遮挡其他窗口的弹出对话框要礼貌得多，就像一个粗鲁的客人在拥挤的人群中肘撞而过，直逼我们面前。随着我们同时进行的任务越来越多，以及派出软件代理来为我们获取信息或代我们采取行动的次数增加，建立礼貌的仪式变得愈发重要，这样人类才能在必要时优雅地转移注意力，以适应自动化过程。
Rules of politeness are also a good reference point for the behavior of programs that are downloaded onto our personal devices or imported as an add-on to browsers or other software environments. Politeness rituals establish boundaries between social actors, setting expectations of what sorts of actions by others can take place on our territory. For example, polite guests only come in when invited, do not explore beyond the areas they have been escorted to, and do not inspect or appropriate the hosts’ possessions. Similarly, when we download an application program, we do not expect it to bring along other uninvited guests, such as advertising messages or spyware, or make alterations to the system without warning. The need for visibility of functioning coincides with the social norm of asking permission before interfering with someone else’s property. 礼貌规则也是我们在个人设备上下载的程序或作为浏览器及其他软件环境的附加组件时，行为的良好参考。礼貌仪式在社会参与者之间划定了界限，设定了对他人在我们领地上可以进行的行为的期望。例如，礼貌的客人只有在被邀请时才会进入，不会超出被带到的区域，也不会检查或占有主人的财物。同样，当我们下载应用程序时，我们不希望它带来其他未被邀请的内容，比如广告信息或间谍软件，或在没有警告的情况下对系统进行更改。 对于功能可见性的需求与在干涉他人财产之前请求许可的社会规范相符。
In setting up politeness as a design goal it is important to point out that it is not desirable to literally reproduce the rituals of human etiquette, since the goal is not a two-way social relationship, but a well-formed interaction in which the human being experiences agency. Polite behavior by the computer-controlled processes is a means of ensuring that the human being is in control of the interaction. An interaction with the computer may be structured as a dialog but it is not symmetrical; the computer should obey rules of politeness, but the human interactor should be issuing clear commands. 在将礼貌作为设计目标时，重要的是要指出，不应字面上复制人类礼仪的仪式，因为目标并不是建立双向的社会关系，而是创造一种良好的互动，让人类感受到自主性。计算机控制的过程中的礼貌行为是确保人类掌控互动的一种方式。与计算机的互动可以被视为对话，但并不是对称的；计算机应遵循礼貌规则，而人类互动者则应发出明确的指令。
In Stanley Kubrick’s 2001 (1968) the supercomputer Hal is the essence of a polite subordinate, even when he is systematically murdering his masters. When HAL says, in his perfectly modulated tones, “I’m sorry, Dave. I’m afraid I can’t do that” the politeness of the refusal mocks the abject helplessness of the trapped human being and intensifies the horror. Similarly, when an unresponsive system, such as a GPS navigator or a customer service phone tree, is presented anthropomorphically as a friendly human conversational partner, our frustration is intensified because the verbal politeness of the system is actually enacting a larger rudeness by ignoring our needs. The most important form of politeness for computer applications is making sure the human interactor is in control of the actions of the machine. 在斯坦利·库布里克的《2001 太空漫游》（1968）中，超级计算机哈尔展现了一个礼貌下属的本质，即使他正在系统性地谋杀他的主人。当哈尔用他完美的语调说：“对不起，戴夫。我恐怕做不到”时，这种拒绝的礼貌嘲讽了被困人类的无助感，增强了恐怖氛围。同样，当一个无反应的系统，比如 GPS 导航仪或客户服务电话树，被拟人化为一个友好的对话伙伴时，我们的挫败感加剧，因为系统的语言礼貌实际上通过忽视我们的需求表现出更大的无礼。 计算机应用中最重要的礼貌形式是确保用户能够掌控机器的操作。
Conversational Structure 会话结构
Because we are inclined to see the computer as a social actor, we often experience interaction as a kind of conversation. As designers we can think of all turn-taking human computer interactions as conversational. Pointing, selecting, and then issuing a command can be understood as an utterance, for which the computer’s performance of the command is the rejoinder. Media conventions structure the conversation as a whole and provide coherence for each exchange. For example, a purchase in an online store can be understood as a series of conversational exchanges: 因为我们倾向于将计算机视为社会参与者，所以我们常常将互动视为一种对话。作为设计师，我们可以把所有轮流进行的人机交互视作对话。指向、选择，然后发出命令可以被视为一种发言，而计算机执行命令的表现则是回应。媒体惯例构建了整个对话，并为每次交流提供了连贯性。例如，在在线商店的购买可以理解为一系列对话交流：
Interactor: Enters an online store 用户：访问在线商店
Machine: Offers recommendations 机器：提供推荐建议
Interactor (ignores recommendations) Initiates a search 交互者（不考虑建议）开始搜索
Machine: Returns a list 机器：返回列表
Interactor: Selects an item from list 交互者：从列表中选择一个条目
Machine: Displays details about the item 机器：展示该项目的详细信息
Interactor: Agrees to purchase 互动者：同意进行购买
Machine: Initiates queries for billing, shipping information 机器：发起关于账单和运输信息的查询
Interactor: Responds to queries 交互者：回答问题
Machine: Asks for confirmation of order 机器：确认订单的请求
Interactor: Provides confirmation of order 交互者：确认订单信息
Machine: Confirms completed purchase 机器：确认购买已完成
These exchanges are coherent because they are structured by a limited number of explicit, shared media conventions such as hyperlinked lists, shopping carts, credit card security codes, and passwords. But the coherence is lost when we try to move from the shared focus of these ritualized exchanges into the vast, ambiguous domain of human language. Although some programs have had limited success in fostering approximations of natural language conversations between human beings and computer programs, coherence can only be achieved by limiting the 这些交流之所以连贯，是因为它们是通过有限的、明确的共享媒体惯例来构建的，比如超链接列表、购物车、信用卡安全码和密码。然而，当我们试图从这些仪式化交流的共同焦点转向人类语言那广阔而模糊的领域时，连贯性就会丧失。尽管一些程序在促进人类与计算机程序之间的自然语言对话方面取得了一定的成功，但要实现真正的连贯性，仍然需要进行限制。
input of the interactor, constructing clever default responses that cover the computer’s lack of comprehension, and setting up scenarios where trying to figure out which words will produce the desired effect becomes a shared riddle (Weizenbaum 1966; Montfort 2003; Mateas and Stern 2003). As a rule, it is more reliable for dramatic and practical situations to offer interactors multiple-choice menus whose answers can be programmed in advance rather than parsed and semantically analyzed on the fly. 交互者的输入构建了巧妙的默认响应，弥补了计算机理解能力的不足，并设置了场景，使得找出哪些词语能产生预期效果成为一个共同的谜题（Weizenbaum 1966; Montfort 2003; Mateas 和 Stern 2003）。通常，在戏剧性和实际情况下，提供多个选择菜单的交互者更为可靠，这些菜单的答案可以提前编程，而不是实时解析和语义分析。
We can think of dialog boxes, such as the alert messages discussed in chapter 11 or Eudora’s polite intrusion as time-based control panels that structure interaction into very brief conversations. The conversation is satisfying when the items on the menu give the interactor control over key elements of the program, and the choices are briefly but clearly presented. As Alan Cooper has pointed out, modal dialog boxes rudely put the interactor into “interrogation mode,” by taking over the screen and freezing other action (Cooper 1995), and even nonmodal boxes can seem imperious, like a hurried waiter who insists we order off the menu with no changes and no explanations. More polite dialog boxes do not interfere with the interactor’s agency to move to other windows and provide links to clarifying information when necessary. 我们可以将对话框视为基于时间的控制面板，例如第 11 章讨论的警报消息或 Eudora 的礼貌干预，它们将交互结构化为非常简短的对话。当菜单上的选项让用户能够控制程序的关键元素时，这种对话是令人满意的，并且选择被简洁明了地呈现。正如艾伦·库珀所指出的，模态对话框粗鲁地将用户置于“审问模式”，通过占据屏幕并冻结其他操作（库珀 1995），即使是非模态对话框也可能显得专横，就像一个急促的服务员坚持我们只能从菜单上点菜，不能更改也不做解释。 更加礼貌的对话框不会妨碍用户在不同窗口之间的操作，并在需要时提供相关信息的链接。
Web registration forms and surveys are also kinds of structured conversations, but they can feel like a too-talkative stranger who won’t let go of your sleeve, or a salesman who won’t leave once he has his foot in your door. A digital form should always indicate its extent and the approximate time it will take to answer it; lengthy forms should make it easy for us to save partial versions and return to them later and to correct part of a faulty form without having to reenter all the correct information, since no one likes to repeat themselves in conversation. 网络注册表单和调查也是一种结构化的对话，但有时它们会让人感觉像一个过于健谈的陌生人，紧紧抓着你的袖子，或者像一个一旦踏入你家门就不肯离开的推销员。数字表单应该始终清楚地指明其内容和大致的回答时间；对于较长的表单，应该方便我们保存部分填写的内容，以便稍后返回，并且能够在不重新输入所有正确信息的情况下修正部分错误，因为没有人喜欢在对话中重复自己。
At a deeper level, as Lucy Suchman has pointed out, all of our interactions with machines can be understood as conversations in which each partner has to attend to and interpret the other’s contributions. Because interaction is always contextualized (or situated) within a particular set of circumstances-such as the particular image you are editing, or whether you are playing a game in privacy or in front of other peopleand specific to an individual, even though the machine may be fairly rigid in its responses, its identical actions may have different meanings. For example, Suchman reports visiting the laboratory of Cynthia Breazeal whose videos present very compelling examples of shared attention with the robot Kismet (Breazeal 2002). When Suchman and her colleagues were unable to produce similar responses, she did not propose that Breazeal’s research result were faulty. Instead, Suchman interprets Cynthia Breazeal’s interactions with Kismet as a synchronized performance between a particular researcher and a machine, open to multiple meaningful constructions, rather than a repeatable sequence that would work in the same way with anyone (Suchman 2007; see figure 12.7) 在更深层次上，正如露西·萨奇曼所指出的，我们与机器的所有互动都可以视为一种对话，每个参与者都需要关注并解读对方的贡献。由于互动总是处于特定的环境中（例如你正在编辑的图像，或者你是在私下玩游戏还是在他人面前玩），并且对个体是特定的，尽管机器的反应可能相对僵化，但相同的行为可能会有不同的含义。例如，萨奇曼提到她曾访问辛西娅·布雷兹尔的实验室，布雷兹尔的视频展示了与机器人基斯梅特共享注意力的非常引人注目的例子（布雷兹尔 2002）。 当萨赫曼和她的同事们无法产生类似的反应时，她并没有认为布里兹尔的研究结果有问题。相反，萨赫曼将辛西娅·布里兹尔与基斯梅特的互动视为特定研究者与机器之间的同步表演，这种表演可以有多种有意义的解读，而不是任何人都能以相同方式重复的过程（萨赫曼 2007；见图 12）。7)
Figure 12.7 图 12.7 解析
Kismet and Leonardo, two sociable robots created by Cynthia Breazeal at MIT. Breazeal’s Personal Robots Group is working with Leonardo on pointing games that create shared attention through gesture and mutual observation. See http://robotic.media.mit.edu. 基斯梅特和莱昂纳多是由辛西娅·布雷兹尔在麻省理工学院创造的两个社交机器人。布雷兹尔的个人机器人团队正在与莱昂纳多合作，进行通过手势和相互观察来创造共享注意力的指向游戏。详情请访问 http://robotic.media.mit.edu。
The Perils of Personification 拟人化的风险
Conversational structure need not have a personified interlocutor. One of the trickiest issues for designers of accompaniment systems is the problem of anthropomorphism: how much should a computer presence resemble that of another person? Although we may relate to digital artifacts as social actors, we do not really think of them as people. Even when they respond to us in language, we want to talk with them instrumentally, in task-specific ways, without the emotionally charged, relationship-building rituals that characterize our conversation with human beings (Shechtman and Horowitz 2003). 对话结构不一定需要具有人格的对话者。陪伴系统设计师面临的一个最棘手的问题是拟人化：计算机的存在应该在多大程度上与人类相似？尽管我们可能将数字物品视为社会行为者，但我们并不真正把它们当作人。即使它们用语言回应我们，我们也希望以工具性的方式与它们交流，专注于特定任务，而不是像与人类交谈时那样充满情感和建立关系的仪式（Shechtman 和 Horowitz 2003）。
How much do we want computers to take on personalities? Popular culture gives ample evidence of both our fear and our longing for automated companions, from the overcontrolling, ultimately homicidal Hal in 2001 to the lovable, trusty sidekicks R2D2 and C3PO of Star Wars. Computer scientists share this fantasy of an animated companion, and have attempted to produce computer-based “creatures with whom you’d want to share some of your life-as with a companion or a social pet” (Bates 1994). As consumer-oriented computer applications grew in the 1980s and 1990s, the desire for an automated companion merged with the desire for a helpful assistant who 我们希望计算机具备多少个性？流行文化充分展示了我们对自动化伴侣的恐惧与渴望，从 2001 年中控制过度、最终变得杀人的 Hal，到《星球大战》中可爱、可靠的伙伴 R2D2 和 C3PO。计算机科学家们也分享这种对动画伴侣的幻想，试图创造出“你愿意与之分享生活的计算机生物——就像伴侣或社交宠物一样”（Bates 1994）。随着 1980 年代和 1990 年代面向消费者的计算机应用的增长，对自动化伴侣的渴望与对有用助手的需求逐渐融合。
could guide users through the increasingly complex processes of daily information processing. 可以帮助用户应对日益复杂的日常信息处理流程。
In 1995, Microsoft Corporation invested million of dollars in the hope of satisfying this desire. Convinced that human beings wanted the computer to behave as a social actor, the Microsoft team introduced a new operating system interface called Bob that acted as a companion and coach to guide the user through a set of applications focused on household activities, including a calendar, a simple word processor, and a checkbook. The program replaced the desktop interface with a cartoonlike navigable two-dimensional house, and shaped the interaction as a dialog with a cartoon dog, Rover. Rover spoke by means of text in speech bubbles, supplying guidance and asking questions. (The program could be personalized by substituting other cartoon “friends of Bob,” such as a more abrasive Scuz or a cuter Hopper the Bunny.) Rover greeted you when the computer booted up and interacted with the user throughout all the applications as well as at the operating system level. 1995 年，微软公司投资了数百万美元，希望满足人们的需求。微软团队相信，人们希望计算机能够像社会参与者一样运作，因此推出了一款名为 Bob 的新操作系统界面，作为用户的伴侣和教练，引导用户使用一系列专注于家庭活动的应用程序，包括日历、简单的文字处理器和支票簿。该程序用一个卡通风格的可导航二维房屋替代了传统桌面界面，并将互动设计成与一只卡通狗 Rover 的对话。Rover 通过气泡中的文本与用户交流，提供指导并提出问题。 （该程序可以通过替换其他卡通角色“鲍勃的朋友”，例如更粗暴的斯库兹或更可爱的兔子霍普，来实现个性化。）当计算机启动时，罗弗会向您打招呼，并在所有应用程序和操作系统层面与用户进行互动。
The Bob operating system is a treasure trove of mistaken design strategies, starting with its too-literal depiction of space, which forced interactors to schlep from room to room when they wanted to switch tasks. The interface also failed to distinguish interactive objects from merely decorative graphic elements, an annoyance that required the remedy of a function key command to highlight the clickable areas of the screen. Bob 操作系统是一个充满错误设计策略的宝库，首先是它对空间的过于字面化描绘，导致用户在切换任务时不得不从一个房间走到另一个房间。界面也未能区分交互对象和仅仅是装饰性图形元素，这种困扰需要通过功能键命令来突出屏幕上可点击区域来解决。
Bob was intended to exploit the observations made by Nass and Reeves of “how computer users project human social traits onto computers” in order to “increase the user’s feeling of mastery and connection to the program” (Winograd 1996). But it had the exact opposite effect. It is one thing to unconsciously experience an interactive device as a sentient, social being; it is another thing to be presented with a particular cartoon character as representing the machine. Elements of social personality are welcome additions when they help us to predict the computer’s behavior or to script our own actions, but they are decorative distractions when they have no procedural or participatory role. When Rover tells us he likes to eat table scraps, how do we relate that to his role in helping us with our email? By contrast, Fetch the dog, the personification of a file transfer program, is a much more appropriate use of canine personification, serving as a progress indicator (figure 11.6), and not triggering any other expectations of interactions. Playing fetch with a dog is a good abstract metaphor for the ritual of file retrieval-we signal what we want and the dog or software program goes out and gets it and brings it back to us. Fetch stays within these boundaries, without interfering with the functionality of the program or trying to hold a conversation with us. Rover, on the other hand, is in our face and overly chatty (figure 12.8). 鲍勃原本打算利用纳斯和里夫斯关于“计算机用户如何将人类社会特征投射到计算机上”的观察，以“增强用户对程序的掌控感和连接感”（温诺格拉德 1996）。但结果却恰恰相反。无意识地将互动设备视为有知觉的社会存在是一回事，而将特定的卡通角色作为机器的代表则是另一回事。当社交个性元素能够帮助我们预测计算机的行为或指导我们的行动时，它们是受欢迎的补充；但当它们没有程序性或参与性角色时，它们就成了装饰性的干扰。 当罗弗告诉我们他喜欢吃桌子上的剩菜时，我们如何将这与他在帮助我们处理电子邮件的角色联系起来？相比之下，Fetch 这只狗作为文件传输程序的拟人化，更适合用犬类拟人化，充当进度指示器（图 11.6），而不会引发其他交互的期望。与狗玩接球是文件检索仪式的一个很好的抽象隐喻——我们发出信号告诉它我们想要什么，而狗或软件程序则出去获取并带回给我们。Fetch 始终保持在这些界限内，不干扰程序的功能或试图与我们进行对话。相反，罗弗则在我们面前，显得过于健谈（图 12.8）。
Figure 12.8 图 12.8
Rover, part of Microsoft’s notoriously annoying Bob interface, and Fetch, the trusty file transfer mascot. Rover 是微软臭名昭著的 Bob 界面中的一部分，而 Fetch 则是可靠的文件传输吉祥物。
Another problem with the personification in the Bob system is common to many such helpers: inconsistency in point of view. Just as we expect novelists to make clear whose thoughts they are following, and filmmakers to make clear whose perspective the camera is showing us, designers need to distinguish between statements made by an interactive character, statements made by the computer system, and statements made by the interactor. In the Bob interface, Rover expressed himself through speech balloons, an established cartoon convention, but sometimes the Bob smiley face appeared within Rover’s speech bubble, and sometimes the interactor’s responses appeared as pull-down menus and radio buttons within Rover’s speech bubbles, blurring the sense of who was “talking” (figure 12.9). This kind of confusion does not seriously interfere with the user’s understanding of whatever is in the speech bubble, but it is distractingly messy, making the interface less transparent. The pointof-view problem permeated the program, starting with the nickname “Bob,” which suggests an accessible personality who was behind all the other helpful avatars. Bob was represented by a bland smiley face with glasses, vaguely resembling Bill Gates, who appeared on the splash screen as the brand for the interface. But Bob was not directly available as a guide. It was as if the social presence human beings intuit within the machine was purposely hiding from us. The intrusively chipper avatars seemed like anxious manifestations of an uncooperative, reclusive boss avatar. Bob 系统中的拟人化问题与许多此类助手的共同点在于视角的不一致。就像我们期望小说家明确他们所描绘的思想，电影制作者清楚摄像机所展示的视角一样，设计师也需要区分互动角色的陈述、计算机系统的陈述以及互动者的陈述。在 Bob 界面中，Rover 通过气泡表达自己，这是一种常见的卡通表现形式，但有时 Bob 的笑脸会出现在 Rover 的气泡中，有时互动者的回应则以下拉菜单和单选按钮的形式出现在 Rover 的气泡内，这使得“说话者”的身份变得模糊（图 12.9）。 这种混乱并不会严重影响用户对气泡中内容的理解，但却显得杂乱无章，使界面不够透明。视角问题贯穿整个程序，从昵称“Bob”开始，这暗示着一个可接近的个性，背后有其他有帮助的化身。Bob 被表现为一个面无表情的笑脸，戴着眼镜，模糊地像比尔·盖茨，他出现在启动画面上，作为界面的品牌。然而，Bob 并没有直接作为向导出现。就好像人类在机器中直觉到的社交存在故意在躲避我们。那些过于活泼的化身似乎是一个不合作、隐居的老板化身的焦虑表现。
Bob was quickly abandoned as a commercial product, leaving behind the almost equally despised Microsoft Office Assistant, better known as Clippy. Like Rover, Clippy was supposed to be a helper companion, but he became notorious for popping 鲍勃很快就被作为商业产品抛弃，留下了几乎同样令人厌恶的微软 Office 助手，大家更熟悉他的是 Clippy。和 Rover 一样，Clippy 本来是个助手伴侣，但他因频繁弹出而声名狼藉。
Figure 12.9 图 12.9 号
In Microsoft’s Bob interface, Rover’s speech balloon is oddly used for the interactor’s choices. 在微软的 Bob 界面中，Rover 的对话气泡被奇怪地用作交互者的选择。
Figure 12.10 第 12.10 图
Clippy, the notoriously intrusive personification of the Microsoft Office Assistant help utility. The offer of help is too vague and Clippy’s concern seems misplaced since few people need help formatting letters, although it is an activity that it is relatively easy for an automated program to identify. Clippy 是微软 Office 助手的拟人化形象，以其过于侵入性的特性而闻名。它提供的帮助显得模糊不清，而 Clippy 的关心似乎也不太合适，因为实际上很少有人需要帮助来格式化信件，尽管这项工作对于自动程序来说相对容易识别。
Figure 12.11 第 12.11 图
Personified companions in role-playing games, like the helper pet in Torchlight, can do useful tasks for the player’s avatar such as fighting, carrying inventory, and running back and forth to town to sell off unnecessary inventory. 在角色扮演游戏中，像《火炬之光》中的助手宠物这样的拟人化伙伴，可以为玩家的角色执行一些有用的任务，例如战斗、携带物品，以及往返城镇出售多余的物品。
up uninvited to offer help where no help was needed (figure 12.10). Clippy was discontinued in 2007. The failure of the Microsoft’s experiments with personified interface agents makes clear that although users may unconsciously behave toward computers in ways that are similar to human-to-human behaviors, they do not want to be burdened with the time-consuming, attention-demanding rituals of conversations and the distractions of cartoon personalities in order to perform the complex tasks that are the focus of computer applications. 不请自来地提供帮助，尽管并没有需要帮助的地方（见图 12.10）。Clippy 于 2007 年停用。微软对拟人化界面代理的实验失败清楚表明，尽管用户可能在无意识中以类似于人际交往的方式对待计算机，但他们并不希望被繁琐、耗时且需要注意力的对话仪式和卡通个性的干扰所困扰，以完成计算机应用程序中的复杂任务。
In general, the creation of interactive characters is best left in the realm of games and interactive fictions. The difference between a disappointing Clippy and a satisfying game-based helper (figure 12.11) or nonplayer character is the game structure that constrains the interaction. Characters within games can satisfy our expectations because they are only expected to know about the game world, and to perform actions appropriate to the game. The context makes our actions meaningful to them and their actions meaningful to us. Personified helper figures in other kinds of applications have to create coherence from the unpredictable, unconstrained expectations of the real world; they are like poorly scripted fictional characters without the right lines to create a meaningful dialog. 一般来说，互动角色的创建最好留在游戏和互动小说的领域。令人失望的 Clippy 与令人满意的游戏助手（图 12.11）或非玩家角色之间的区别在于约束互动的游戏结构。游戏中的角色能够满足我们的期望，因为他们只需了解游戏世界，并执行适合游戏的动作。上下文使我们的行为对他们有意义，而他们的行为对我们也有意义。在其他类型的应用程序中，拟人化的助手角色必须从现实世界中不可预测且不受限制的期望中创造一致性；它们就像剧本糟糕的虚构角色，没有合适的台词来进行有意义的对话。
Fantasies of the Magical Servant 魔法仆人的幻想世界
The stunning increase in electronic processing over the past fifty years has repeatedly triggered fantasies of turning our ubiquitous companion machines into magically responsive servants. For example, the widely distributed Knowledge Navigator concept video, produced by Apple Computer in 1987 and set in 2010, features a bow-tied preppy male as the virtual assistant of a male college professor (figure 12.12). The assistant not only recites summaries of his master’s phone messages and reminders of his appointments, it automatically shields him from his mother’s nagging phone calls, and rapidly tracks down a female colleague who appears via video conference to help him teach his afternoon class. This pre-Google assistant not only finds articles based on misremembered names and vague dates, it graphs the data inside of them as well as generating new graphs of related data on the fly (anticipating the Semantic Web). Viewed two decades later, many of the imagined technologies for accessing, relaying, and displaying information have become commonplace, and most are now delivered not merely on a fixed desktop, as in the video, but also on a wireless mobile device. But none of them are delivered by servant-like talking heads in magical book-like interfaces. 在过去五十年中，电子处理能力的惊人提升不断激发人们的幻想，希望将我们随处可见的伴侣机器变成神奇的响应仆人。例如，苹果公司在 1987 年制作的知识导航员概念视频，设定在 2010 年，展示了一位系着领结的时尚男士作为一位男性大学教授的虚拟助手（图 12.12）。这个助手不仅会朗读教授的电话信息摘要和约会提醒，还会自动屏蔽他母亲的唠叨电话，并迅速找到一位女性同事，通过视频会议的方式出现，帮助他教授下午的课程。 这个前谷歌助手不仅能根据记错的名字和模糊的日期找到文章，还能将其中的数据绘制成图表，并实时生成相关数据的新图表（预见了语义网）。二十年后回顾，许多曾经设想的访问、传递和展示信息的技术已经变得非常普遍，而且大多数现在不仅在固定的桌面上提供，如视频中所示，还可以在无线移动设备上使用。但没有一个是通过仆人般的会说话的头像在神奇的书本界面中提供的。
In fact, one of the most striking things about the Knowledge Navigator as a prediction of technological directions is the lack of a keyboard or joystick to control the device: Although there is a touchscreen in some shots, the interaction is produced not 事实上，知识导航器作为对技术发展方向的预测，最引人注目的特点之一是没有键盘或操纵杆来控制设备：尽管在某些镜头中出现了触摸屏，但交互并不是通过这些方式进行的
Figure 12.12 图 12.12
Knowledge Navigator (1987), Apple Computer’s futuristic vision of a voice- activated, conversational automated assistant who marshals data and human helpers and deflects phone calls from nagging mothers. The video is available at <http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5144094928842683632# >-5144094928842683632 \#>. 知识导航员（1987 年），苹果公司的未来愿景，一个语音激活的对话式自动助手，能够整合数据和人类助手，并阻止来自唠叨母亲的电话。视频可在< http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid= -5144094928842683632# >-5144094928842683632 \#> 查看。
by direct manipulation but by talking to the fellow with the bowtie. This emphasis on natural language conversation reflects a belief that was pervasive in the early days of desktop computing, that executives (i.e., men) would not learn to type, and so interfaces would have to respond to speech, like human secretaries. 通过直接操作，而不是与那个戴领结的人交谈。这种对自然语言对话的重视反映了早期桌面计算机时代普遍存在的一种信念：高管（即男性）不会学习打字，因此界面必须能够像人类秘书一样响应语音。
The same ideal servant fantasy was reflected in the 1990s by Nicholas Negroponte, the founder of the MIT Media Lab, in his often-repeated demand that the computer act like the perfect English butler: 这种理想的仆人幻想在 1990 年代由麻省理工学院媒体实验室创始人尼古拉斯·尼葛洛庞帝所表达，他常常要求计算机像完美的英国管家那样工作：
The best metaphor I can conceive of for a human-computer interface is that of a well-trained English butler. The “agent” answers the phone, recognizes the callers, disturbs you when appropriate, and may even tell a white lie on your behalf. The same agent is well trained in timing, versed in finding the opportune moments, and respectful of idiosyncrasies. People who know the butler enjoy considerable advantage over a total stranger. That is just fine. (Negroponte 1995, 150-151)150-151) 我能想到的人机界面最好的比喻是一个训练有素的英国管家。这个“代理”会接电话，识别来电者，在适当的时候打扰你，甚至可能会为你说一个善意的谎言。这个代理在把握时机方面非常出色，善于找到合适的时刻，并尊重个体差异。认识管家的人的确比完全陌生的人享有很大的优势，这很好。
Negroponte may have had occasion to encounter actual English butlers, but most Americans have never met one. In the movies and the tabloid news English butlers are well represented, however, as the epitome of politeness and personal service. Butlers supply their masters with what they need without being asked. But in fiction and in news accounts butlers are also often treacherous. “The butler did it” is a cliché of murder mysteries because the butler has the access and knowledge to damage his employer if he decides to act autonomously, and the tabloid press reminds us that actual butlers can be excellent sources in a royal scandal. Computer programs that appear to be submissive to our control can be similarly treacherous, destroying our data or revealing it to those who should not see it. But these destructive butler narratives are not part of the technologists’ ideal servant fantasy: their ideal butler is watching over us rather than spying on us, acting only for our welfare, and doing so without the need for explicit instructions. 尼格罗庞特可能有机会遇到真正的英国管家，但大多数美国人从未见过。然而，在电影和小报新闻中，英国管家常常被描绘成礼貌和个人服务的典范。管家在没有被要求的情况下为主人提供所需的东西。然而，在小说和新闻报道中，管家也常常被描绘成背叛者。“管家干的”是谋杀悬疑故事中的一个陈词滥调，因为管家有能力和知识在决定自主行动时伤害雇主，而小报媒体提醒我们，真正的管家在王室丑闻中可以是极好的消息来源。看似顺从我们控制的计算机程序也可能同样背叛，破坏我们的数据或将其泄露给不该看到的人。 但这些破坏性的管家故事并不是技术人员理想中的仆人幻想：他们理想的管家是照顾我们，而不是监视我们，只为我们的福祉而行动，并且无需明确的指示。
The fantasy of the totally responsive servant is unrealistic as a model for design But the fantasy persists because it reflects deeper psychological needs, rooted in human infancy. The master whose unspoken needs are met so completely and seamlessly, the servant who meets those needs without being asked or expecting anything in return can be interpreted in psychoanalytic terms as a variation on the infantile fantasy of the perfect parent. And unlike a human mother, a virtual butler makes no emotional demands on us in return for his absolute loyalty. As a personification of the computer, the servant fantasy reflects a desire to have our needs met absolutely without the trouble of actively engaging with complex information, ambiguous real-world choices, or emotionally demanding human beings. 完全响应的仆人幻想作为设计模型是不切实际的，但这种幻想依然存在，因为它反映了更深层次的心理需求，这些需求源于人类的婴儿期。那个未被言说的需求被如此完全和无缝地满足的主人，以及那个在没有被要求或期待任何回报的情况下满足这些需求的仆人，可以用精神分析的术语解释为对完美父母的婴儿幻想的一种变体。与人类母亲不同，虚拟管家对我们没有情感上的要求，以换取他绝对的忠诚。作为计算机的拟人化，仆人的幻想反映了我们希望在不必主动处理复杂信息、模糊的现实选择或情感要求高的人类的情况下，绝对满足我们需求的愿望。
The fantasy of the perfect automated companion and servant is particularly persistent among those involved in artificial intelligence (AI) research. Ray Kurzweil, a versatile inventor of pattern-recognition software applications, is among the most 完美自动伴侣和仆人的幻想在从事人工智能（AI）研究的人群中尤为持久。雷·库兹韦尔是一位多才多艺的模式识别软件发明家，他是这一领域最杰出的人物之一。
vocal advocates for machine intelligence as the equivalent of human intelligence. Kurzweil has predicted that computers will be indistinguishable from humans by the end of the twenty-first century because exponential increases in processing power will allow us to simulate the processes of the brain. As he wrote in Scientific American in September 1999: “Within several decades, machines will exhibit the full range of human intellect, emotions and skills, ranging from musical and other creative aptitudes to physical movement. They will claim to have feelings and, unlike today’s virtual personalities, will be very convincing when they tell us so (Kurzweil 1999).” 机器智能的支持者认为它与人类智能是等同的。库兹韦尔预测，到二十一世纪末，计算机将与人类无异，因为处理能力的指数级增长将使我们能够模拟大脑的运作。正如他在 1999 年 9 月的《科学美国人》中所写：“在几十年内，机器将展现出人类智力、情感和技能的全方位，包括音乐和其他创造性才能以及身体运动。它们将声称自己有感情，并且与今天的虚拟人格不同，当它们这样告诉我们时，将非常令人信服（库兹韦尔 1999）。”
Building on such visions of the future, Netherlands AI researcher David Levy has predicted there will be marriages between humans and robots by 2050, because the things that make people fall in love-such as feeling that the other person likes them or shares their interests—are reproducible with programming code (Levy 2007). Levy does allow that perhaps only those too shy or unattractive to find human partners would choose intimacy with a robot (Choi 2007). 基于对未来的这种愿景，荷兰人工智能研究员大卫·莱维预测，到 2050 年，人类与机器人之间将会出现婚姻，因为让人们坠入爱河的因素——比如感受到对方的喜欢或与自己有共同兴趣——都可以通过编程代码来实现（莱维 2007）。莱维也承认，或许只有那些过于害羞或不够吸引人而无法找到人类伴侣的人，才会选择与机器人建立亲密关系（崔 2007）。
Citing fears of computers becoming autonomous and acting outside of human control, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held a workshop in 2009 to announce the formation of a committee to study the limits of ethical research. A report of the meeting in the New York Times ended with an interview with the current AAAI president, Microsoft researcher Eric Horvitz, and a description of his most recent research project: 鉴于对计算机可能变得自主并在不受人类控制的情况下行动的担忧，人工智能促进协会（AAAI）在 2009 年举行了一次研讨会，宣布成立一个委员会来研究伦理研究的界限。纽约时报对会议的报道以对现任 AAAI 主席、微软研究员埃里克·霍维茨的采访以及他最近的研究项目的描述作为结尾：
Despite his concerns, Dr. Horvitz said he was hopeful that artificial intelligence research would benefit humans, and perhaps even compensate for human failings. He recently demonstrated a voice-based system that he designed to ask patients about their symptoms and to respond with empathy. When a mother said her child was having diarrhea, the face on the screen said, “Oh no, sorry to hear that.” 尽管有些担忧，霍维茨博士仍然对人工智能研究能够造福人类感到乐观，甚至可能弥补人类的不足。他最近展示了一个语音系统，旨在询问患者的症状并以同理心作出回应。当一位母亲说她的孩子腹泻时，屏幕上的表情说：“哦，不，听到这个我很遗憾。”
A physician told him afterward that it was wonderful that the system responded to human emotion. “That’s a great idea,” Dr. Horvitz said he was told. “I have no time for that.” (Markoff 2009) 一位医生事后告诉他，系统能够对人类情感做出反应真是太棒了。“这是个好主意，”霍维茨博士说他被告知。“我没有时间去做这个。”（马克夫 2009）
Although computers are certainly able to make up for human failings of memory or calculation speed, it is profoundly misguided to expect automated statements of concern to substitute for human sympathy, as the video of Horvitz’s project makes clear (figure 12.13). 尽管计算机确实可以弥补人类在记忆和计算速度上的不足，但期望自动化的关切声明能够替代人类的同情是非常错误的，正如霍维茨项目的视频所清楚表明的（图 12.13）。
The ideal butler understands his master’s wishes with a minimal of explicit direction, and is able to anticipate needs and perform them without being asked. The butler can do this (unfailingly in films and perhaps in life as well) because the needs of the English upper class are severely ritualized, with predictable protocols of polite behavior, and shared linguistic codes for communications between master and servant. Such synchronization and predictability is considerably harder to pull off in software (figure 12.14). 理想的管家能够在很少明确指示的情况下理解主人的愿望，并能预见需求，在不被要求的情况下主动满足这些需求。管家之所以能够做到这一点（在电影中总是如此，生活中也可能如此），是因为英国上层阶级的需求高度仪式化，具有可预测的礼仪行为规范，以及主仆之间共享的语言代码进行沟通。这种同步和可预测性在软件中实现起来则要困难得多（见图 12.14）。
Figure 12.13 第 12.13 图
A Microsoft Research automated “caregiver/caregivee” scenario. The computer caregiver is a disembodied and inexpressive female head who speaks in a robotic monotone without emotional inflection. The expression of concern is so patently empty of empathy that it would be disturbing if the situation showed a truly sick child and his mother instead of the earnest pair who are clearly role playing for the sake of the demo. 微软研究的自动化“照顾者/被照顾者”场景。计算机照顾者是一个无身体、无表情的女性头部，以机械的单调语调说话，缺乏情感的变化。她的关切表情显得极其缺乏同情心，如果场景中出现的是真正生病的孩子和他的母亲，而不是为了演示而认真扮演的角色，这将会让人感到不安。
Figure 12.14 第 12.14 图
Logo of the search engine Ask Jeeves, established in 1996 with natural language queries. The site became iconic for the exaggerated claims and disappointing performance of many early Internet companies. The logo was retired in the United States in 2006 with a change in ownership and the site was successfully rebranded Ask.com with a more focused query domain. 搜索引擎 Ask Jeeves 的标志成立于 1996 年，支持自然语言查询。由于许多早期互联网公司的夸大宣传和令人失望的表现，该网站成为了一个标志。2006 年，因所有权变更，该标志在美国退役，网站成功更名为 Ask.com，专注于查询领域。
The model of ideal master/butler exchange is something like this: 理想的主人与管家之间的交流模式大致是这样的：
Master: We’ll have tea in the drawing room, Jeeves. 主人：我们在客厅喝茶，吉夫斯。
Servant: Very good, sir. 仆人：非常好，先生。
The assertion of an intention (“We’ll have tea in the drawing room”) is actually a coded command that triggers a complex set of actions performed by many coordinated actors. The drawing room fire is adjusted, the tea and crumpets appear in the right quantities, with all the right silverware and china. Very little explicit conversation produces very complex results. This is believable because there is so little variety involved in providing tea in the drawing room for the same imaginary, overprivileged household, decade after decade. The butler’s tasks are programmable because there is only one right way to do things and a fixed set of things one might be asked to do. And of course ideal butlers are legendary for their loyalty, staying with a single family until they are too old to keep the teapot steady. 意图的声明（“我们将在客厅喝茶”）实际上是一个编码命令，触发了一系列复杂的动作，由许多协调的参与者共同完成。客厅的火焰被调整，茶和小点心以适当的数量呈现，配备了所有合适的银器和瓷器。很少有明确的对话却能产生非常复杂的结果。这是可信的，因为在为同一个虚构的、过于特权的家庭提供茶水时，变化非常有限，几十年来都是如此。管家的任务是可编程的，因为只有一种正确的做事方式和一套固定的可能被要求完成的任务。 当然，理想的管家以其忠诚而闻名，他们会一直陪伴一个家庭，直到年纪大到无法稳住茶壶。
But though a fictional English lord may like the same well-brewed tea and the same bland biscuits at the same time every afternoon with no need for further conversation about it, interactors with digital applications are used to mixing things up, taking advantage of the parameterized, multivariant environment to make many explicit choices. And a single program has millions of potential “masters” so it must be prepared to perform many tasks, each of which could be varied in multiple ways. Therefore a model of a conversation between interactor and computer would go something like this: 尽管一个虚构的英国领主可能喜欢每天下午同一时间喝同样的好茶和清淡饼干，而无需进一步交流，但与数字应用程序互动的人们习惯于多样化选择，利用参数化的多变环境做出明确的决策。一个程序有数百万个潜在的“主人”，因此它必须能够执行多种任务，而每个任务又可以以多种方式变化。因此，交互者与计算机之间的对话模型大致如下：
Master/Interactor: Do THIS! 主/交互者：请做这个！
Servant/Computer: I am ready to do THIS. Here are the choices of ways I can do it. Which ones do you want? 仆人/计算机：我已经准备好执行这个任务了。以下是我可以选择的方式，你想要哪一种？
Master/Interactor: Do THIS in THAT way! 主/交互者：请以那种方式来做这个！
Servant/Computer: I am doing THIS in THAT way now (and I am willing to be interrupted for adjustments). 仆人/计算机：我现在以这种方式在做这件事（我愿意在需要时进行调整）。
Servant/Computer: I have now done THIS in THAT way (and I am willing to undo it). Servant/Computer: I am now showing you the result of THIS done in THAT way, (and I am ready to modify it some more or to receive approval). 仆人/计算机：我现在以那种方式完成了这个（我愿意撤销）。仆人/计算机：我现在向你展示以那种方式得到的结果，（我准备进一步修改或等待你的批准）。
Master/Interactor: Approved. 主交互者：已获批准。
The communication is composed of explicit commands on the part of the interactor in response to clear choices offered by the machine, followed by updates and results with the possibility of further commands all along the way. Unlike the unseen, magically responsive Jeeves, the computer needs to ask us what to do and show us what it is up to. 这种交流由互动者明确的指令组成，以回应机器提供的清晰选择，接着是更新和结果，并在整个过程中可以发出进一步的指令。与看不见的、神奇响应的吉夫斯不同，计算机需要询问我们该如何操作，并向我们展示它正在进行的工作。
The more particularly we want to be served by the machine, the more explicitly we must specify what we want. It is up to the designer to invent the interaction conventions that will allow interactors to make those specifications. 我们越希望机器为我们提供服务，就越需要清楚地说明我们的需求。设计师需要创造交互规范，以便用户能够准确表达这些需求。
Figure 12.15 第 12.15 图
The Roomba vacuum cleaner, the first successful consumer robot, uses an explicit, nonverbal command system. Roomba 吸尘器是第一款成功的消费机器人，它采用了明确的非语言指令系统。
The servant framework works best when the task is limited and the performance is visible and under our control. Applets, widgets, and appliance-like robots can be faithful servants because their domain is limited, so their behavior can be ritualized into predictable patterns. A vacuuming robot like iRobot’s Roomba (figure 12.15) is a better model of an ideal computer servant than the bow-tied assistant in the Knowledge Navigator, the search engine butler, or the eerily disembodied medical assistant. A vacuum has a limited repertoire of appropriately nonverbal behaviors, responding to its environment in a clearly readable way. Since it does not use language or respond to verbal commands, users are free to think of it as a kind of nonspecific, benevolent, animated character or pet without fear of misunderstanding or disappointment. Many of our most reliable repetitive task software artifacts—like backup systems or video recorders-behave in a similar faithful-servant manner. Though they may not be robots, they are designed to do a routinized job reliably with limited direction under our explicit command, which once given does not have to be repeated for the job to be performed reliably. 仆人框架在任务有限、性能可见且可控的情况下效果最佳。小程序、部件和类似电器的机器人可以成为忠实的仆人，因为它们的领域有限，行为可以被仪式化为可预测的模式。像 iRobot 的 Roomba 这样的吸尘机器人（图 12.15）是理想计算机仆人的更好模型，而不是知识导航器中的系领带助手、搜索引擎管家或那种令人毛骨悚然的无形医疗助手。吸尘器的非语言行为有限，以清晰可读的方式对环境作出反应。 由于它不使用语言或对口头命令作出反应，用户可以将其视为一种非特定的、友好的动画角色或宠物，而无需担心误解或失望。我们许多最可靠的重复任务软件，比如备份系统或录像机，都是以类似忠实仆人的方式运作。虽然它们可能不是机器人，但它们的设计目的是在我们的明确指令下，可靠地完成日常工作。一旦给出指令，就不需要重复，工作就能可靠地执行。
Scenarios of perfect servant companions are fantasized projections of human longings rather than achievable design strategies. Although technology-driven researchers will continue to find the servant scenarios attractive as a way of organizing larger agendas, designers should not lose sight of the fact that the more we try to make machines in the image of human beings, the more disappointed, humiliated, threatened, and enraged we will 完美仆人伴侣的场景是人类渴望的幻想投射，而非可实现的设计策略。尽管技术驱动的研究人员会继续将仆人场景视为组织更大议程的吸引方式，但设计师应当意识到，越是试图让机器模仿人类，我们就越容易感到失望、羞辱、威胁和愤怒。
become at their failure to understand us. It is appropriate for us to expect automated processes to be companionable by responding to our commands and refraining from destructive, intrusive, or interruptive behavior. It is not appropriate to expect a machine to read our minds, empathize with our sufferings, protect us from the demands of emotional intimacy, or simulate a compassion for others that we are too busy to feel. 我们变得无法被理解。我们有理由期待自动化过程能够友好地响应我们的指令，并避免破坏性、侵扰性或打断性的行为。期待机器能够读懂我们的思想、同情我们的痛苦、保护我们免受情感亲密的要求，或模拟我们因忙碌而无法感受到的对他人的同情，这并不合理。
Responsive Anticipation 灵活的预期管理
Although the fantasy of a perfect servant who understands unspoken or natural language commands is a dangerous model for designers, we can take direction from the servant’s ability to anticipate the needs of the master. We must remember, however, that such anticipation is not produced by magic but by the accretion of conventions by which computers learn to pay attention to the things that are important to us. Instead of trying to anticipate users’ needs (such as formatting a letter) with intrusive helper figures, designers can provide them with customizable templates (such as letterhead formats) so that they can actively shape their tools to anticipate and support their important tasks. Instead of aiming for hands-off systems in which a magical genii retrieves what we want, designers can give interactors more hands-on tools for explicitly tagging and filtering information and for sharing their information organization with one another in the form of controlled vocabulary metadata and structured documents. Successful design lies not in reproducing human thought and feeling in the machine, but in expanding the rituals by which interactors can serve their own thoughts and feeling within digital environments. 尽管完美仆人的幻想，即能够理解未言明或自然语言命令，对设计师来说是一个危险的模型，但我们可以从仆人预见主人的需求的能力中获得启示。然而，我们必须记住，这种预见并非魔法，而是计算机通过积累关注我们重要事物的惯例而形成的。设计师可以提供可定制的模板（如信头格式），而不是通过侵入性的助手形象来试图预见用户的需求（例如格式化信件），这样用户就能主动调整工具，以更好地预见和支持他们的重要任务。 设计师可以为用户提供更多的工具，以便他们能够明确地标记和过滤信息，并通过受控词汇元数据和结构化文档的方式相互分享信息组织，而不是追求那种神奇的精灵为我们获取所需内容的无干预系统。成功的设计不在于在机器中复制人类的思维和情感，而在于扩展用户在数字环境中表达自己思维和情感的方式。
The digital medium is becoming our powerful, silent servant in the same way that other cultural creations have come to serve us. Societies build up systems of signification that guide individuals like an extension of one’s own mind. For example, the social system of place names and street signs, and the media conventions of printed maps form a system of distributed cognition each of us can use to get from place to place without having to memorize every landscape feature of every city we visit. Similarly, designers are building computational conventions that serve as guides and markers for the explorations of the interactor. Players do not have to memorize the function of every icon in the World of Warcraft interface, because the icons are all labeled using the established tooltip convention (figure 11.10). Web surfers do not have to remember the command keys for capturing images on the web because the established contextual menu convention reminds us of our choices (figure 10.12). 数字媒介正如其他文化创造物一样，成为我们强大而无声的仆人。社会建立了符号系统，像思维的延伸一样引导个体。例如，地名和街道标志的社会系统，以及印刷地图的媒体惯例，形成了一个分布式认知系统，使我们能够在不同地点之间移动，而无需记住每个城市的所有地貌特征。同样，设计师们正在构建计算惯例，作为互动者探索的指南和标记。 玩家无需记住《魔兽世界》界面中每个图标的功能，因为所有图标都按照既定的工具提示规范进行了标注（见图 11.10）。网络用户也不需要记住捕捉网页图像的快捷键，因为既定的上下文菜单规范会提醒我们可选的操作（见图 10.12）。
The computer is a faithful servant or reliable companion only to the extent that designers anticipate and provide for the needs of interactors. But when designers raise unrealistic expectations, ignore user needs, or deny interactors agency over important 计算机只有在设计师能够预见并满足用户需求的情况下，才能成为忠实的仆人或可靠的伴侣。然而，当设计师设定不切实际的期望、忽视用户需求或剥夺用户在重要事务上的自主权时，情况就会变得不同。
Figure 12.16 第 12.16 图
The four faces of the computer as our imaginary companion. Our readiness to attribute consciousness to the machine intensifies our hopes and fears, satisfactions and frustrations. Designers must therefore be careful to calibrate expectations so that interactors experience agency over the servant-computer as a reliable companion. 计算机作为我们想象中的伴侣有四个面向。我们倾向于将意识归于机器，这加深了我们的希望与恐惧、满足与挫折。因此，设计师必须谨慎调整期望，以便用户能够感受到对仆人计算机的掌控，成为一个可靠的伴侣。
actions, then the companion in the machine can seem like an incompetent slacker or super villain (figure 12.16). Our sense of the computer as an intentional, aware companion can intensify negative and positive experiences. It can make us more ready to expect magical responsiveness in a media player or a robot; it can also make us more ready to see omnipotent evil when the servant program acts in its own interest and takes away our ability to command it, as when Facebook or Gmail denies us the ability to erase the communications they have been storing for us. Designers should aim to serve the interactor as reliable buddies, doing a predictable job with visibility and consultation, and extending functionality without overpromising magical effects. And we should remember that computers do not think in the same way as human beings about the complex cultural rituals that make up the texture of our lives, so that a multimillion 行动时，机器中的伴侣可能会显得像一个无能的懒汉或超级恶棍（见图 12.16）。我们对计算机作为有意图和意识的伴侣的感知，可能会加剧负面和正面的体验。它可能让我们更容易期待媒体播放器或机器人能有神奇的响应能力；同时也可能让我们更容易看到全能的邪恶，尤其是当服务程序出于自身利益行事，剥夺我们指挥它的能力时，比如 Facebook 或 Gmail 拒绝我们删除他们为我们存储的通信。设计师应致力于作为可靠的伙伴来服务用户，提供可预测的工作，保持透明和咨询，同时在不做过多承诺的情况下扩展功能。我们应该记住，计算机的思维方式与人类在复杂文化仪式方面的思维方式不同，这些仪式构成了我们生活的方方面面，因此一个数百万
dollar algorithm told to come up with “movies you will love” is perfectly capable of choosing a laugh-machine sitcom based on a rating for a complex theatrical work. 算法被告知要推荐“你会喜欢的电影”，完全能够根据复杂戏剧作品的评分选择一部搞笑情景喜剧。
Computer programs are particularly helpful servants when they remember things for us and act on that offloaded memory. Computer software has been integrated into our lives, like a trusty butler into an aristocratic family, to keep track of contacts and dial phone numbers, to keep track of and remind us about our recurring appointments, and to archive and keep at hand our important texts, photographs, and videos. We expect our GPS program to keep track of where we are on the face of the earth, and to remember where we live and what our previous destinations have been. We expect our book reader, media player, or game system to remember where we left off and to return us to the same place the next time we turn to them. And most of us experience the performance of these actions not as unwanted surveillance but as enhanced companionship. 计算机程序在记住事情并根据这些记忆为我们服务时，特别有用。计算机软件已经融入我们的生活，就像一个值得信赖的管家融入贵族家庭，帮助我们管理联系人、拨打电话号码，提醒我们定期的约会，并保存我们重要的文本、照片和视频。我们希望 GPS 程序能够跟踪我们在地球上的位置，记住我们的住址和之前的目的地。我们也希望电子书阅读器、媒体播放器或游戏系统能记住我们上次停留的位置，下次使用时能带我们回到那里。 我们大多数人感受到这些行为的表现，并不是将其视为不受欢迎的监视，而是作为一种更深的陪伴。
We also expect to collaborate with our systems in actively performing tasks. Google has made excellent use of predictive text for search queries by drawing on other users’ searches, reducing the need for the interactor to type out the full query, speeding up the search, and sometimes even returning the answer to the question behind the query within the predictive text itself (figure 12.17). Google Chrome extends that anticipatory behavior to the browser, by displaying our recent and frequent web destinations as choices when we open a new browser tab, while still giving us control over what the browser is allowed to remember (figure 12.17). 我们还希望与我们的系统合作，积极执行任务。谷歌通过借鉴其他用户的搜索，出色地利用了预测文本来处理搜索查询，这样可以减少用户输入完整查询的需求，加快搜索速度，有时甚至能在预测文本中直接给出查询背后问题的答案（见图 12.17）。谷歌浏览器将这种预期行为扩展到浏览器中，当我们打开新的标签页时，会显示我们最近和频繁访问的网站作为选择，同时仍然让我们控制浏览器可以记住哪些内容（见图 12.17）。
Designers will be expanding such conventions of responsive anticipation as users’ engagement with digital environments expands. One way to identify new areas for deepening the interactor’s sense of helpful companionship is to note our own frustrations with things that we wish our software would notice about us. For example, after putting more than two hundred illustrations with cross-references in the text for this book, I would like my word processor to change its default settings to suit my usual practices (figure 12.18). 设计师们将扩展响应性预期的惯例，因为用户与数字环境的互动不断增加。识别深化互动者对有益陪伴感的新领域的一种方法是关注我们自己对软件希望能注意到的事情的挫败感。例如，在为本书的文本插入超过两百个带有交叉引用的插图后，我希望我的文字处理器能够调整默认设置，以符合我平时的使用习惯（图 12.18）。
capital of braz 巴西的首都是什么
Brazil — Capital: Brasília 15^(@)45^(')15^{\circ} 45^{\prime} S 47^(@)57^(')47^{\circ} 57^{\prime} W / -15.75, -47.95 巴西 — 首都：巴西利亚，坐标：南纬 15.75 度，西经 47.95 度
According to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil 根据维基百科的页面 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil
capital of brazil 巴西的首都是什么
capital of brazil map 巴西的首都地图
capital of brazil wiki 巴西的首都维基百科
Figure 12.17 图表 12.17
Before I have finished typing “capital of Brazil” into the Google Search engine (in July 2010), I receive a completion list of predictive text (partially shown here) with the top result drawing on Wikipedia to answer the question behind the search and provide a link to deeper information. 在我输入“巴西的首都”到谷歌搜索引擎之前（2010 年 7 月），我收到了一个预测文本的补全列表（部分显示在这里），其中最上面的结果引用了维基百科，以回答搜索背后的问题，并提供了更深入信息的链接。
Figure 12.18 图 12.18（图示）
Microsoft Word (2008 for Mac) remembers my preference for inserting only the figure number in a cross-reference to an illustration within a single session. But it does not associate my preference with the document or the user, so between sessions it reverts to an irritating default (pasting the entire caption into the body of the text). I would feel more accompanied if the word processor’s default was set to reflect its observation of my behavior and more empowered if I could choose to save my preferred cross-referencing format as part of the style settings associated with the document. 微软 Word（2008 年 Mac 版）能够记住我在单个会话中仅插入图形编号的交叉引用偏好，但它并不将这一偏好与文档或用户关联，因此在会话之间，它会恢复到一个令人烦恼的默认设置（将整个标题粘贴到文本中）。如果文字处理器的默认设置能够反映它对我行为的观察，我会感到更有支持；如果我能选择将我偏好的交叉引用格式保存为文档样式设置的一部分，我会感到更有掌控感。
In order to reinforce the interactor’s sense of accompaniment by a helpful “second self,” we do not need to make cuter animated help programs, natural language dialogs, or simulated butlers. For, in fact, the presence that interactors sense in the machine as a helpful companion is the collective intelligence of the design team, whose decisions are present in the software just as the mind and heart of a novelist is present in a work of fiction. Therefore we should infuse our decision making throughout the design and development process with the goal of helpful companionship, looking for ways to strengthen the conventions of synchronization, politeness, and conversation that link human consciousness with automated processes in order to expand the ways in which digital artifacts can anticipate and serve human needs. The more we build up our system of mutual communication between human beings and software systems with media conventions that allow us to share attention with one another, the further our digital artifacts can go in helping us. 为了增强互动者对“第二自我”的陪伴感，我们并不需要制作更可爱的动画帮助程序、自然语言对话或模拟管家。实际上，互动者在机器中感受到的有用伴侣的存在，正是设计团队的集体智慧，这些决策在软件中体现，就像小说家的思想和情感在其作品中所展现的一样。 因此，我们应该在设计和开发过程中贯穿我们的决策，旨在提供有益的陪伴，寻找加强同步、礼貌和对话惯例的方法，这些惯例将人类意识与自动化过程相连接，以拓展数字产品预测和满足人类需求的方式。随着我们建立人类与软件系统之间的相互沟通体系，并采用允许我们彼此分享注意力的媒体惯例，我们的数字产品在帮助我们方面将更进一步。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: THE COMPANION MODEL 设计探索：伴随模型
Creating Synchronization Rituals 制定同步仪式
Think of a situation in which you were required to imitate the behavior of another person or someone else was required to imitate your behavior. 想想一个你需要模仿他人行为的情境，或者有人需要模仿你行为的情境。
Was the behavior easy or hard to imitate? Why? 这种行为容易模仿还是难以模仿？为什么？
What did the people involved do that made the situation better or worse? 相关人员做了什么使情况改善或恶化？
How did you feel toward the person you were imitating or being imitated by? 你对你所模仿的人或被你模仿的人有什么感受？
Imagine that the other person was a robot rather than a human being. How would that have changed your subjective experience? How would it have affected the difficulty of the imitation task? 想象一下，如果对方是机器人而不是人类，这会如何改变你的主观体验？这会如何影响模仿任务的难度？
Play a traditional children’s game, such as Follow the Leader or Simon Says, in which the object is to imitate a human being. 玩一个传统的儿童游戏，比如“跟随领袖”或“西蒙说”，目的是模仿他人。
What makes it hard or easy to succeed? What makes the game pleasurable to play? 成功的难易因素是什么？是什么让游戏变得有趣？
Would a one-person computer game based on the same traditional game be worth playing? Why or why not? 基于同样传统游戏的一人电脑游戏值得玩么？为什么？
Play a video game such as Parappa the Rapper, Dance Dance Revolution, or Guitar Hero or follow the coach in a game system exercise routine like the Wii Fit-any system in which you have the task of imitating an avatar or following the script set by the computer. 玩一些视频游戏，比如《帕拉帕说唱》、《舞动全城》或《吉他英雄》，或者在游戏系统的锻炼程序中跟随教练，比如 Wii Fit——任何需要模仿角色或按照计算机设定的脚本进行的系统。
What makes it hard or easy to succeed? What makes the game pleasurable to play? 成功的难易因素是什么？是什么让游戏变得有趣？
What is the computer observing about you? How accurate is its observations? How do you feel about the observations? 计算机在观察你什么？它的观察准确吗？你对这些观察有什么看法？
What is the difference in play experience between this game and the human imitation game? 这个游戏与人类模仿游戏的游戏体验有什么不同？
Design or create an interactive application that entices the interactor to imitate the actions of an automated character or symbolic display. 设计或创建一个互动应用，吸引用户模仿自动角色或符号展示的行为。
What would make someone want to play this game or do this task? 什么原因会让人想要玩这个游戏或完成这个任务？
What models can you draw upon from existing situations, games, or artifacts? 你可以从现有的情况、游戏或物品中借鉴哪些模型？
What would be a winning or losing condition? 胜利或失败的条件是什么？
What would make the game enjoyable as a spectator or party game? 什么能让游戏作为观众或聚会游戏更加有趣？
What would make the game valuable as an educational experience? 这款游戏作为教育体验，什么因素会使其变得有价值？
How would the game change if it were played by different age, gender, or cultural groups? 如果不同年龄、性别或文化背景的人来玩这个游戏，游戏会发生怎样的变化？
Becoming More Aware of Accompaniment with Surveillance 更加意识到监视下的陪伴
For one day, record all the items recommended or advertised to you on networked devices based on observation of your behavior (such as your previous purchases, or the content of your email, or your participation in a social networking site or locationbased service). 在一天内，记录所有基于你行为（如之前的购买、电子邮件内容、社交网络或位置服务参与）在网络设备上推荐或广告给你的物品。
Which items were particularly apt or inappropriate? 哪些项目特别恰当或不恰当？
How were they were chosen for you? 他们是怎么被选中的？
What metadata do you think was associated with each of the offered items? 你认为每个提供的项目关联的元数据是什么？
How do these marketing programs see you? What do they consider to be your most salient attributes? 这些营销项目如何看待你？他们认为你最突出的特点是什么？
How would the experience of the recommendations or advertisements be different if the items were offered by a human salesperson? 如果这些商品是由人类销售员提供的，推荐或广告的体验会有什么变化？
Observing the Rules of Politeness 遵守礼貌规则
In your interactions with human beings over the next twenty-four hours, notice when you invoke rituals and conventions of politeness. 在接下来的二十四小时内，与他人互动时，留意你何时使用礼仪和礼貌的习惯。
What are the rituals? 这些仪式有哪些？
Do other people know and expect the same rituals that you know and expect? 其他人是否知道并期待与你相同的仪式？
How do these rituals and conventions work to save face by avoiding direct exercise of power or direct refusal of a need? 这些仪式和惯例是如何通过避免直接行使权力或拒绝需求来维护面子的？
Notice the next time you are interrupted while engaging with one computer-based process by a message (not from a person) but from another computer-based process. 下次当你在使用计算机时，如果被另一个计算机过程发来的消息（而不是来自人的消息）打断，请留意。
How did the message get your attention? 这个消息是如何引起你注意的？
Why did it need your attention? 为什么这件事需要你关注？
Was the automated behavior consonant with the importance of the need? 自动化行为是否符合需求的重要性？
Was the interruption polite? 这个打断算礼貌吗？
What were your feelings about the interruption? 你对这次打断的感受是什么？
How would you redesign the interaction to improve the experience? If the experience was optimal, what aspects of it would you like to see propagated into other systems? 你会如何重新设计互动以提升用户体验？如果体验达到了最佳状态，你希望哪些方面能够在其他系统中得到应用？
Recognizing Ideal Servant Fantasies and Other Personifications 识别理想仆人的幻想及其他拟人化表现
Compare the scenario of the scholar investigating the crossbow in Vannevar Bush’s 1945 essay “As We May Think” to the scenario of the professor in the Apple Computer Knowledge Navigator (1987) video or the scenarios of intelligent agents acting on our behalf within the Semantic Web (Berners-Lee, Hendler, et al. 2001). 比较 Vannevar Bush 在 1945 年论文《我们可能如何思考》中学者研究弩的情景与 1987 年苹果电脑知识导航员视频中的教授情景，或在语义网中代表我们行动的智能代理的情景。
What kind of tasks are these envisioned systems meant to make easier? 这些设想中的系统是为了简化哪些任务而设计的？
What kinds of tasks are they meant to eliminate? 他们想要消除哪些类型的任务？
What is the social role of the computer (or Bush’s proposed “memex” machine) in each of these examples? What would be the job description if done by a human being? 计算机（或布什提出的“记忆机”）在这些例子中扮演的社会角色是什么？如果由人类来完成，这份工作的描述会是什么？
What human beings or automated systems performed these roles at the time the article/video was created? What human beings or automated systems currently perform these roles? 在文章/视频创作时，哪些人或自动化系统担任了这些角色？现在又是哪些人或自动化系统在执行这些角色？
The next time you encounter a personified automated system-such as a telephone help line-notice how you react to it. 下次当你遇到一个拟人化的自动系统，比如电话客服时，注意你是如何反应的。
What expectations does it arouse? Does it meet those expectations? 这引发了什么样的期望？它能满足这些期望吗？
How do you picture the person behind it? 你心目中的那个人是怎样的？
What do think the designers’ goals were for the system? 你认为设计师为这个系统设定的目标是什么？
How would the system be different if the persona were different, for example if it were a dog like Lassie or a cat like Garfield or a human character like Homer Simpson or Maggie Simpson? 如果角色不同，比如是像拉西那样的狗，或者像加菲猫那样的猫，或者像霍默·辛普森或玛吉·辛普森这样的人物，系统会有什么不同？
Chose one example of a computer-based character who is presented as a companion to human beings. Your example can come from science fiction or from actual commercial or research projects. 选择一个计算机角色的例子，该角色被视为人类的伴侣。这个例子可以来自科幻作品或实际的商业或研究项目。
What aspects of companionship is the anthropomorphized computer program aimed at fulfilling? 这个拟人化的计算机程序旨在满足伴侣关系的哪些方面？
What human needs is it expected to anticipate? 人类的需求是什么，应该如何预见？
How are these needs met without computers? What are the real or imagined advantages and disadvantages of meeting them with computers? 这些需求在没有电脑的情况下如何得到满足？用电脑来满足这些需求的实际或想象中的优缺点是什么？
What design challenges would you expect to encounter if you were charged with creating such an automated companion? Would you expect it to be mistaken for a human companion? How would you go about assessing its effectiveness? 如果你被要求设计这样一个自动化伴侣，你预计会遇到哪些设计挑战？你认为它会被误认为是人类伴侣吗？你会如何评估它的有效性？
The mathematician Alan Turing predicted in 1950 that by the year 2000, a human being holding a keyboard-mediated conversation over a teletype network with an unseen interlocutor would not be able to tell if it were a person or a machine on the other end of the wire. His proposal is usually referred to as the Turing Test, and it was meant to answer the question of whether machines could be intelligent by separating the functions of mind from their familiar embodiment in human form (Turing 1950). As a research topic, identify instances in which conversations with machines have been mistaken for conversations with real people 数学家艾伦·图灵在 1950 年预测，到 2000 年，一个人通过打字机网络与一个看不见的对话者进行交流时，将无法判断对方是人还是机器。他的这一提议通常被称为图灵测试，旨在探讨机器是否能够具备智能，通过将思维的功能与其在人体中的具体表现区分开来（图灵 1950）。作为研究课题，识别与机器的对话被误认为与真实人类对话的实例。
Have any of these conversations passed the Turing Test? 这些对话通过图灵测试了吗？
Choose an example of a successful strategy for simulating some aspect of human behavior and describe why it was a success. 选择一个成功的策略示例，模拟人类行为的某个方面，并说明其成功的原因。
Could the same strategy be applied to another artifact? 这个策略可以同样适用于其他工件吗？
If feasible, design or create an artifact that exploits the same strategy. 如果可能的话，设计或创建一个利用相同策略的物品。
Advanced: Taking Eliza or another Chatterbot as your model, design or create a character that can engage in conversational exchanges based on key words. 高级：以 Eliza 或其他聊天机器人为模型，设计或创建一个能够根据关键词进行对话的角色。
Hints: Start with a scenario in which the interactor’s input is highly predictable and make sure that every answer your character provides, and especially the default answers (for when you don’t recognize any keywords), include one or more keywords for the interactor to pick up on. 提示：从一个场景开始，该场景中交互者的输入非常可预测。确保你角色提供的每个答案，尤其是默认答案（当你无法识别任何关键词时），都包含一个或多个关键词，以便交互者能够注意到。
What is the maximum number of coherent exchanges your character can sustain? 你的角色最多能进行多少次连贯的交流？
Designing for Responsive Anticipation 设计响应式预期体验
As you use digital artifacts for the next week, notice every time the software recognizes you by name or restores a previous session. 在接下来的一周里，当你使用数字工具时，留意软件每次通过你的名字识别你或恢复之前的会话。
How would the experience be different without this feature? 没有这个功能，体验会有什么变化？
What is the system recognizing about you besides your name? 系统除了你的名字，还能识别出什么信息？
Design or create an interactive artifact that will help you to remember something important that you might otherwise forget. The design can draw on current, futuristic, or imaginary technology (e.g., location-based cell phones, tiny screens embedded in eyeglasses, holographic butlers), but the mechanism of surveillance and alerting should be concretely described. Be sure to specify the kinds of things the artifact would have to be aware of (e.g., your GPS location, whether you can be interrupted, the identity of people you meet) and how it might recognize and reason about them. 设计或创建一个互动工具，帮助你记住一些重要的事情，以免你忘记。这个设计可以借鉴当前、未来或虚构的技术（例如，基于位置的手机、嵌入眼镜的小屏幕、全息管家），但监控和提醒的机制需要具体描述。请确保说明这个工具需要关注的内容（例如，你的 GPS 位置、是否可以被打扰、你遇到的人的身份），以及它可能如何识别和推理这些信息。
For any existing complex software environment or game (it could be one studied in a previous chapter) document a scenario of a newbie who is trying to learn the basic elements by trial and error exploration without recourse to a printed or online manual. The scenario should involve the accomplishment of a simple goal such as creating an avatar in a game or eliminating red eye with a photo-processing programming. The scenario can be represented as a flow chart, storyboard, annotated screencapture stills or video, or interactive mockup. 针对任何现有的复杂软件环境或游戏（可以是前一章中研究的），记录一个新手的场景，他试图通过试错的方式学习基本元素，而不依赖于纸质或在线手册。这个场景应涉及实现一个简单的目标，比如在游戏中创建一个角色，或者通过图像处理程序消除红眼。场景可以用流程图、故事板、带注释的屏幕截图或视频，或交互式模型来表示。
What conventions would a newbie rely on to tell them what to select and how it will likely behave? 新手通常依赖哪些惯例来指导他们选择内容及其可能的表现？
How well does the system support trial and error exploration (e.g., with tooltips, undo function)? 系统对试错探索的支持程度如何（例如，工具提示和撤销功能）？
How does the system guide the newbie toward the most important basic actions, the building blocks of later, more complex actions? 系统如何引导新手掌握最重要的基本操作，这些操作是后续更复杂操作的基础？
How does the system make clear the effect or correct use of tricky commands, icons, or other elements? 系统如何清晰地说明复杂命令、图标或其他元素的效果及其正确使用方式？
How does the system encourage and support the acquisition of virtuosity? 系统是如何鼓励和支持掌握精湛技艺的？
Is the overall experience of the existing system one of a reliable helper to a newbie user? If not, what changes to the design would improve it? 现有系统的整体体验对新手用户来说是否可靠？如果不是，设计上可以做哪些改进来提升体验？
Choose a digital artifact that you use multiple times in a single day, such as a smartphone or a particular piece of software like a word processor or website like Google or your email program. 选择一个你在一天中多次使用的数字工具，例如智能手机、文字处理软件，或者像谷歌这样的网页，或者你的电子邮件程序。
For twenty-four hours note every time you look at it or use it in any way, and detail what task you are performing and what role the artifact is playing. 在二十四小时内，记录你每次查看或使用它的时间，并详细描述你正在进行的任务以及这个物品的作用。
How often do you engage with it? 你多久会参与这个活动？
How long do your interactions with the artifact last? 你与这个文物的互动时间有多长？
Do you engage with the artifact any differently when you are with other people? 当你和其他人在一起时，你对这个文物的互动方式会有所不同吗？
What would you be doing during the same time if you did not have the device? 如果没有这个设备，你那时会在做什么？
Where would you place the artifact on the spectrum of magical-reliableclueless-evil companions (it could have elements of more than one)? What does it do that leads you to experience it in this way? 你会把这个文物放在魔法、可靠、无知和邪恶伙伴的光谱的哪个位置（它可能包含多个元素）？它有什么特性让你有这样的体验？
What do you value most about it? 你最看重它的哪些方面？
How would you improve it? 你会怎样改进它？
Looking at your list of tasks, how did you (or others) perform these same tasks before the invention of the device? Determine how long ago the artifact was invented. Imagine yourself the same amount of time into the future: How do you expect yourself or others to do the same tasks at that time? 看着你的任务清单，在这个设备发明之前，你（或其他人）是如何完成这些任务的？请确定这个文物的发明时间。想象一下自己在未来同样的时间里：你希望自己或其他人在那时如何完成这些任务？
If you can do so without severe disruption, stop using the device or software environment for twenty-four hours. Keep a record of every time you reach for it or are forced to do something differently. 如果可以不造成严重干扰，请停止使用该设备或软件环境二十四小时。记录每次你想要使用它或被迫以不同方式处理事情的情况。
Were there things you did not do at all? Did you miss them? What were the consequences of not doing them? 你有没有什么事情根本没有去做？你觉得遗憾吗？不去做这些事情会有什么后果？
Were there things you discovered new ways of doing? Were these new ways better or worse than the familiar ones? 你发现了新的做事方法吗？这些新方法比你熟悉的那些更好还是更差？
Did you have to change other aspects of your routine to accommodate this experiment? Were these changes pleasant or unpleasant? 你是否需要调整日常生活的其他方面来适应这个实验？这些调整是令人愉快的还是不愉快的？
Looking at the list of times you wanted to use the artifact, have you changed your attitude toward any of the tasks you wanted to do? 看着你想使用这个文物的时间列表，你对那些想做的任务的态度有变化吗？
Have you noticed things about the world beyond the artifact that were not apparent before? 你有没有注意到关于这个文物之外的世界的一些之前不明显的事情？
Do you expect to use the artifact more or less frequently in the future? 你预计将来会更频繁还是更少使用这个工件？
Have you changed your attitude toward the artifact in any way or noticed things about it you had not noticed before? 你对这个文物的态度是否有过改变，或者你是否注意到了之前未曾发现的细节？
Looking for the Knowledge Navigator servant among current knowledge resources. 在当前知识资源中寻找知识导航员助手。
List all the tasks performed by the automated anthropomorphic assistant in the Knowledge Navigator video, such as taking messages, playing back messages, looking up articles by topic, making graphs from data sets, and so on. 列出自动人形助手在《知识导航员》视频中执行的所有任务，例如接收信息、播放信息、按主题查找文章、从数据集中制作图表等。
Imagine a professor like the one in the video doing the same tasks himself with no assistant. 想象一下，像视频中的教授那样，自己独立完成相同的任务，没有任何助手。
For each of the tasks you identified in the video, list the tools we would currently use to perform them. 针对您在视频中识别的每个任务，请列出我们目前使用的工具。
What functions are missing? 有哪些功能是缺失的？
Would Semantic Web technologies (as envisioned by Tim Berners-Lee and discussed in chapter 11) be helpful? What other technical infrastructure would be needed? 语义网技术（如蒂姆·伯纳斯-李所设想并在第 11 章中讨论的那样）会有帮助吗？还需要哪些其他技术基础设施？
How would you design a system similar to the Knowledge Navigator that would be responsive and helpful, anticipating the interactor’s needs, but without the mediation of the anthropomorphic helper? 你会如何设计一个类似知识导航器的系统，使其能够主动响应和满足用户的需求，而不依赖于拟人化的助手？
Make a storyboard or interactive mock-up of your system that demonstrates clearly how the interactor would retrieve and manipulate the various knowledge elements. 制作一个故事板或互动原型，清晰展示交互者如何获取和处理各种知识元素。
13 The Game Model: Scripting Interaction as Structured Play 13 游戏模型：将互动转化为结构化的游戏玩法
Is play, because it is meta-action, rather than instinctive action, the first appearance of “culture” in animals as well as people? 玩耍是一种元行为，而非本能行为，这是否意味着“文化”在动物和人类中首次出现？
—Brian Sutton-Smith (Sutton-Smith and Pellegrini 1995) —布赖恩·萨顿-史密斯（与佩莱格里尼合著，1995 年）
Game Patterns as Building Blocks for Interaction Design 游戏模式作为互动设计的基础元素
Games are a fundamental human mode of engaging with the world and one another, and one of the most active genres of digital artifacts. In this chapter we are concerned not with the design of digital games, but with the ways in which the structured play we all enjoy in games can provide a useful model for interaction design in general. 游戏是人类与世界及彼此互动的基本方式之一，也是数字艺术品中最活跃的类型之一。本章关注的不是数字游戏的设计，而是我们在游戏中享受的结构化玩法如何为一般的交互设计提供有益的模型。
Games are a more organized form of the more general experience of play, which is a highly adaptive mode of behavior, common to many living creatures, in which activities are pursued for their own sake without regard for the survival benefits they may offer us, often in an exploratory manner without rules, scores, or winning conditions (Sutton-Smith 1997). Play and especially games take place in a self-contained zone of focused attention that the theorist Johan Huizinga memorably called a magic circle (Huizinga 1980), a boundary in space and time, like a theatrical stage during a performance, where actions are detached from the real world. Games may be structured as puzzles or contests, as tests of skillfulness or luck, as controlled performance or the frenzied pursuit of ecstatic disorientation. What makes all these disparate gamesfrom Pat-a-Cake to bullfights to Scrabble—similar to one another is the explicit rule system that structures the interaction, distinguishing them from free play (Caillois 1961; Huizinga 1980; Sutton-Smith 1997; Partlett 1999). 游戏是一种更有组织的形式，属于更广泛的游戏体验，这是一种高度适应的行为模式，许多生物普遍存在。在这种模式中，活动是为了自身的目的而进行的，而不考虑它们可能带来的生存利益，通常以探索的方式进行，没有规则、分数或胜利条件（Sutton-Smith 1997）。游戏，尤其是游戏，发生在一个自我封闭的专注区域，理论家约翰·霍伊辛加形象地称之为“魔法圈”（Huizinga 1980），这是一个在时间和空间上的边界，就像表演中的戏剧舞台一样，行动与现实世界相脱离。 游戏可以被视为谜题或竞赛，作为技巧或运气的考验，或是受控的表演与狂热追求的迷失状态。这些不同的游戏——从拍手游戏到斗牛，再到拼字游戏——之所以相似，是因为它们都有明确的规则系统，这种系统结构了互动，将它们与自由游戏区分开来（Caillois 1961；Huizinga 1980；Sutton-Smith 1997；Partlett 1999）。
Games often exploit the power of external media to create shared symbolic tokens of various kinds-playing fields on the grass, game boards carved in wood or printed on cardboard, invading space ships on computer screens. They focus our attention on these media artifacts, and synchronize our behavior with other players. Like digital artifacts, games are designed as abstract systems that are only realized by performance; it is not a game until someone plays it, just as digital artifacts only become realized 游戏常常利用外部媒体的力量，创造各种共享的象征性标记——草地上的比赛场地、雕刻在木头上的游戏板、印刷在纸板上的游戏，以及计算机屏幕上的入侵飞船。它们将我们的注意力集中在这些媒体工件上，并使我们的行为与其他玩家保持同步。与数字工件类似，游戏被设计为抽象系统，只有通过实际参与才能实现；在有人参与之前，它就不算是一场游戏，就像数字工件只有在被使用时才会显现。
when the computer code is executed in concert with the interactor (Salen, Zimmerman, 2003). Designers can therefore look at games not only as a vital and growing genre of digital media, but also as a fundamental model of successful interaction, like the tool, the machine, and the helpful companion, that can inform our approach to any genre of digital artifact. 当计算机代码与交互者协同执行时（Salen, Zimmerman, 2003）。因此，设计师不仅可以将游戏视为一种重要且不断发展的数字媒体类型，还可以将其视为成功互动的基本模型，类似于工具、机器和有用的伴侣，这为我们处理任何数字作品提供了指导。
We can see the origin of games in the crucial moment when the baby comes to see other people not merely as magical servants of his desires, but as having intentionality and consciousness like his own. When a baby and a parent, having established joint attention, find something that makes them laugh, they repeat it over and over again. The parent plays Peek-a-Boo, hiding and reappearing, hiding and reappearing, in exactly the same way. The baby throws a teddy bear out of the crib, and the parent picks it up. Out it goes again, and again it is picked up; repeat forever . . . or until the baby stops laughing or the parent is exhausted. For parent and baby, this prototypical game is a way of celebrating their mutual awareness of one another. It is playfulness becoming ritualized into game. 我们可以看到游戏的起源在于一个关键时刻：当婴儿开始将他人视为不仅仅是满足他欲望的魔法仆人，而是与他一样拥有意图和意识的个体。当婴儿和父母建立了共同的注意力，发现某些事情让他们发笑时，他们会一次又一次地重复。父母玩捉迷藏，藏起来又出现，方式完全相同。婴儿把泰迪熊扔出婴儿床，父母捡起来。它又被扔出去，又被捡起来；这种循环永无止境……直到婴儿停止笑或者父母感到疲惫。对于父母和婴儿来说，这种典型的游戏是庆祝彼此相互意识的一种方式。它是游戏的顽皮性逐渐变成一种仪式。
Playfulness is an attitude of mind that can lead to many behaviors, some of which might be thought of as work under other circumstances: it is exploratory, and motivated by curiosity and active engagement; playfulness is usually marked by a desire to try things out and see what will happen, and to repeat a surprising, pleasurable, or emotionally charged cause-effect sequence in order to experience agency over it or gain mastery over the requisite skills. Although it may seem contradictory that playfulness is marked by both an openness to the unexpected and a desire to repeat significant cause-effect sequences, they can both be seen as part of an active exploration of the rules by which things work. The baby wonders what will happen if he drops that teddy bear, and then he drops it again and again to verify the result and his ability to produce it. When we act playfully we take pleasure in the world around us and also in our own abilities. As a result we get attached to the situations and artifacts that induce a state of playful enjoyment. The conjunction of computation and media has created a potential playground of infinite proportions where every digital artifact is potentially an opportunity for playful attachment. 玩耍是一种心态，可以引发多种行为，其中一些在其他情况下可能被视为工作：它具有探索性，源于好奇心和积极参与；玩耍通常表现为想尝试新事物并观察结果的愿望，以及重复那些令人惊讶、愉快或情感丰富的因果关系，以便体验对这些关系的掌控或掌握必要的技能。尽管看似矛盾，玩耍既展现了对意外的开放性，又渴望重复重要的因果关系，但这两者都可以视为对事物运作规则的积极探索。 宝宝好奇如果把那个泰迪熊扔下去会发生什么，于是他一次又一次地扔，以验证结果和自己的能力。当我们以玩耍的方式行动时，我们会享受周围的世界和自己的能力。因此，我们会对那些带来玩乐享受的情境和物品产生依恋。计算与媒体的结合创造了一个无限可能的游乐场，每一个数字物品都有可能成为玩乐依恋的机会。
New technologies trigger a state of playful exploration when they afford direct manipulation with immediate feedback. Designers can exploit this propensity by aiming for a mixture of the familiar and the surprising. If interaction with an artifact is completely predictable and familiar, and the results are merely practical task completion, the element of playful attachment will be minimal. The opposite of playfulness in games is called grinding, the repetition of game actions that are so formulaic they become joyless, usually done in order to score points that lead to more enjoyable game play, such as power-ups or admission to a new level of the game. Adventure games and online role-playing games based on character development are often marked by grinding, which players complain about and sometimes illicitly automate or hire out. 新技术在提供直接操作和即时反馈时，会引发一种轻松愉快的探索状态。设计师可以利用这种倾向，追求熟悉与惊喜的结合。如果与某个物品的互动完全可预测且熟悉，而结果仅仅是完成实际任务，那么玩乐的成分就会非常少。在游戏中，玩乐的对立面被称为“磨练”，指的是那些重复的游戏动作，这些动作公式化到失去乐趣，通常是为了获得积分，以便解锁更有趣的游戏体验，比如增强道具或进入新的游戏关卡。 基于角色发展的冒险游戏和在线角色扮演游戏通常以“刷怪”而著称，玩家对此常常感到不满，有时甚至会非法自动化或外包。
On the one hand, once an activity is no longer challenging or fun it becomes work. On the other hand, if an interaction is confusingly unfamiliar and unpredictable, it will produce only minimal playful attachment. But there is a sweet spot in design between the overly familiar and the overly challenging. An artifact that is composed of both familiar and novel elements behaving in a discernable though complex pattern is more likely to arrest our attention, and to create a mood of playful attachment. For example, the classic game Pac-Man (1980) combines familiar game patterns such as a maze, collection of tokens, and enemies for eluding and chasing (behavior which folktales and animated cartoons often associate with ghosts), with novel elements like the central activity of eating, the computer-based automated behavior of the game pieces, Pac-Man’s mouthlike shape, and the power pellet upgrades. The direct manipulation of the highly responsive Pac-Mac figure made for a challenging but transparent and learnable interaction, reinforced by rich immediate feedback (figure 13.1). Game designers are always aiming for that sweet spot, but it is an elusive goal, usually requiring intensive game tuning through iterative playtesting and redesign (Fullerton 2008). 一方面，一旦某项活动失去了挑战性或乐趣，它就变成了工作。另一方面，如果一种互动让人感到困惑且不熟悉且不可预测，它只会产生微弱的游戏性依附。然而，在设计中，存在一个介于过于熟悉和过于具有挑战性之间的最佳平衡点。一个由熟悉和新颖元素组成，并以可辨别但复杂的方式运作的物品，更容易吸引我们的注意力，并营造出一种游戏性依附的氛围。 例如，经典游戏《吃豆人》（1980）将熟悉的游戏模式，如迷宫、收集代币和躲避追逐的敌人（这种行为常常与鬼魂相关的民间故事和动画片相联系），与新颖的元素结合在一起，比如以吃东西为中心的活动、游戏角色的计算机自动行为、《吃豆人》的嘴巴形状以及能量豆的升级。对高度响应的《吃豆人》角色的直接操控，使得互动既具挑战性又透明，且易于学习，丰富的即时反馈进一步增强了这一体验（见图 13.1）。游戏设计师总是追求那个理想的平衡点，但这往往是一个难以实现的目标，通常需要通过反复的游戏测试和重新设计进行深入的调试（Fullerton 2008）。
Games focus playful exploration into repeatable, patterned behaviors. When we put our hands over our faces and then remove them, exclaiming “Peek-a-Boo!” or 游戏专注于有趣的探索和重复的、有规律的行为。当我们把手放在脸上再移开，兴奋地喊出“藏猫猫！”时，
Figure 13.1 第 13.1 图
The game Pac-Man (1980) was developed by a team led by Toru Iwatani at Namco. It provides a useful model for interaction design, mixing familiar and unfamiliar elements in a challenging but learnable environment based on direct manipulation, trial-and-error learning, and the reinforcement of playful exploration with rich feedback. 游戏《吃豆人》（1980 年）是由南梦宫的岩谷彻团队开发的。它为交互设计提供了一个有益的模型，结合了熟悉与不熟悉的元素，在一个基于直接操作、试错学习和丰富反馈的环境中，既具挑战性又易于学习。
when we retrieve and return a baby’s teddy bear over and over again, or move a bishop chess piece diagonally or press a sequence of keys to make Mario jump across a gap in a platform game, we are performing little rituals of interaction. These rituals, once learned, are transparent to the players, performed without consciously thinking about them, allowing players to focus their attention on the larger game goals like making the baby laugh, attacking the opposing queen chess piece, or saving Mario from a pursuing enemy. The more repeatable or combinable the game rituals, the more they extend the pleasurable experience of shared attention between human beings, or between the human being and the companionable computer system. Human culture draws on ritualized behaviors that begin as playful exploration-like hand clapping, collecting things, swapping things, associating sounds with gestures or objects-to create coherent symbolic communication and social organization. Once they are absorbed into culture these game patterns become available for playful exploration and then for further ritualization in more expressive games. For example, playful swapping behaviors become patterned into pebble-based games and eventually developed into a monetary system that becomes the basis of play money, which can then be used as part of the real-estate-buying game pattern in a board game like Monopoly. 当我们一次又一次地取回并归还婴儿的泰迪熊，或者将象棋中的主教棋子对角移动，或按下一个键序列让马里奥在平台游戏中跳过空隙时，我们实际上是在进行一些小的互动仪式。这些仪式一旦掌握，就会变得对玩家来说是自然而然的，执行时无需刻意思考，从而使玩家能够将注意力集中在更大的游戏目标上，比如让婴儿开心、攻击对方的皇后棋子，或拯救马里奥免受追击的敌人。游戏仪式越是可重复或可组合，它们就越能增强人类之间，或人类与友好的计算机系统之间共享注意力的愉悦体验。 人类文化源于仪式化的行为，这些行为最初是通过玩耍探索而产生的，比如拍手、收集物品、交换物品，以及将声音与手势或物体相结合，从而形成连贯的象征性交流和社会组织。一旦这些游戏模式融入文化，它们便可用于玩耍探索，并在更具表现力的游戏中进一步仪式化。例如，玩耍中的交换行为被模式化为基于卵石的游戏，最终演变为一种货币系统，成为游戏货币的基础，这可以在像大富翁这样的棋盘游戏中作为房地产购买游戏模式的一部分使用。
Game designers build upon such age-old and modern rituals to make the explicit procedures they think of as game mechanics. A game mechanic is any behavioral pattern that can be expressed as part of the game rules. Game mechanics specify how players perform game actions and how they evaluate symbolic elements within the game. For example, many games have mechanics for introducing elements of chance into a game, such as picking playing cards from a shuffled deck or letter tiles from a sack or spinning a “wheel of fortune” or using a software-based random-number generator to govern the appearance of nonplayer characters in an adventure game or colored gems in a grid. Game making involves assembling such mechanics into a coherent, rule-based system that provides a predictable, synchronized, yet surprising experience. Game designers can draw on a large repertoire of game mechanics. Some of them are crossgenre, like turn taking or score keeping with points, some are specific to particular game genres. For example, the designer of a new board game (Parlett 1999) could draw on such genre mechanics as these: 游戏设计师在古老与现代的仪式基础上，构建他们所认为的游戏机制的明确程序。游戏机制是指可以作为游戏规则一部分的任何行为模式。游戏机制规定了玩家如何进行游戏操作，以及他们如何评估游戏中的符号元素。例如，许多游戏都有引入随机元素的机制，比如从洗好的牌堆中抽取扑克牌、从袋子中抽取字母瓦片、旋转“幸运之轮”，或使用软件随机数生成器来控制冒险游戏中非玩家角色的出现，或在网格中出现彩色宝石。 游戏制作是将各种机制整合成一个连贯的、基于规则的系统，以提供可预测、同步但又充满惊喜的体验。游戏设计师可以借鉴丰富的游戏机制，其中一些是跨类型的，例如轮流进行或用积分记录分数，而另一些则特定于某些游戏类型。例如，一款新桌游的设计师（Parlett 1999）可以参考以下这些类型的机制：
Dividing a board into squares or other segments 将一个板子切分成方块或其他区域
Representing players with game tokens that are alike but differentiated 用相似但有所区别的游戏代币来代表玩家
Moving a token through a segmented path toward a goal 将一个标记沿着分段路径移动到目标位置
Using spinner, dice, or cards to calculate moves by chance 通过转盘、骰子或卡片随机计算移动步骤
Designating board squares as beginning, end, lucky, or unlucky 将棋盘格子标记为起点、终点、幸运格或不幸运格
Organizing the winning condition as a race or territorial battle 将胜利条件设定为比赛或领土争夺战
Figure 13.2 图 13.2（示例）
Donkey Kong (Nintendo 1981) designed by Shigeru Miyamoto, the first platform game and forerunner to Super Mario Brothers (Nintendo 1985). 《大金刚》（任天堂 1981 年）由宫本茂设计，是第一款平台游戏，也是《超级马里奥兄弟》（任天堂 1985 年）的开创者。
Platformer video games (figures 13.2, 13.3) also have genre-specific mechanics, derived from multiple media sources including board games, arcade games, and animated cartoons such as: 平台游戏（图 13.2，13.3）也有特定于类型的机制，这些机制来源于多种媒体，包括桌游、街机游戏和动画卡通，例如：
Segmented, obstacle-filled space, traversed by a cartoon figure controlled by the player 玩家控制的卡通角色穿越一个充满障碍物的分段空间
Jumping from platform to platform with penalties for falling 从一个平台跳到另一个平台，掉落会受到惩罚
Enemies who must be jumped over, stomped, or otherwise evaded or destroyed 必须跳过、踩踏或以其他方式躲避和消灭的敌人
Collection of items by colliding with them, usually small and coin-like 通过碰撞收集物品，通常是小巧且像硬币一样的物品
Changes of state of the player character (e.g., bigger, smaller, more powerful) 玩家角色的状态变化（例如，变得更大、更小或更强大）
Earned or lucky power-ups to create change of state 通过获得或幸运的道具来实现状态变化
Levels with increasing difficulty and novelty of challenges 难度和新颖性逐渐提升的关卡
“Boss” monster or most powerful adversary in the last level 最后一关的“Boss”怪物或最强敌人
A goal, often a rescue or retrieval as the object of the game 一个目标，通常是游戏中的救援或回收任务
The same game mechanic, such as movement across a board in increments determined by chance, can be instantiated using different game actions, such as turning a spinner or rolling dice. And the same mini-mechanics can represent different actions in 相同的游戏机制，比如通过随机决定的增量在棋盘上移动，可以通过不同的游戏动作来实现，例如转动指针或掷骰子。而这些微机制可以代表不同的动作。
Figure 13.3 第 13.3 图
Screenshot from Super Mario 3 (Nintendo, 1990) here shown in a screenshot from the Wii Virtual Console version (2007). The Mario games extended the gameboard with side scrolling, elaborating the platform jump into the navigation of an increasingly inventive and challenging landscape. 这是来自超级马里奥 3（任天堂，1990 年）的截图，展示的是 Wii 虚拟控制台版本（2007 年）。马里奥系列游戏通过横向卷轴的方式扩展了游戏场景，将平台跳跃演变为在一个越来越富有创意和挑战性的环境中进行导航。
different games: such as rolling dice in a six-year-old’s board game, in a role player’s battle simulation, or on a Las Vegas craps table. 不同类型的游戏：比如在六岁小孩的棋盘游戏中掷骰子，在角色扮演游戏的战斗模拟中，或者在拉斯维加斯的掷骰子桌上。
Designers often exploit the abstract quality of games to generate formulaic versions of the same underlying gameplay with different surface branding or representational elements, such as a stock maze game with a newly popular cartoon figure, or the numerous variants of Monopoly, themed with the Simpsons, Batman, Coca-Cola, or New York City. But there is always room for invention within established genres when designers reimagine the experience of the player in the light of the particular affordances of new platforms or the deeper representational affordances of culturally complex game elements. For example, the game mechanics of the platformer and other video genres have been deconstructed into microgames of WarioWare (Gingold 2005; see figures 13.4, 13.5), and adapted by independent game designers to express themes usually associated with serious dramatic genres like mortality (figure 13.6) and regret (figure 13.7). 设计师们常常利用游戏的抽象特性，创造出相同基础玩法的公式化版本，配以不同的表面品牌或表现元素，比如一个带有新流行卡通角色的迷宫游戏，或者以《辛普森一家》、《蝙蝠侠》、《可口可乐》或纽约市为主题的各种大富翁变种。然而，当设计师们在新平台的特定功能或文化复杂游戏元素的更深层表现功能的背景下重新构想玩家的体验时，传统类型中总是有创新的空间。例如，平台游戏和其他视频类型的游戏机制已经被解构为《瓦里奥制造》的微型游戏（Gingold 2005；见图 13.4，13。5），并由独立游戏设计师改编，以表达通常与严肃戏剧类型相关的主题，例如死亡（图 13.6）和遗憾（图 13.7）。
Figure 13.4 第 13.4 图
Screenshots from WarioWare for the Nintendo Gameboy (2003), which makes extremely rapid microgames out of the core mechanics of videogames like the Mario series. 来自 2003 年任天堂 Gameboy 的 WarioWare 截图，它将马里奥系列等电子游戏的核心机制转化为极其快速的微型游戏。
The same playful attitude can also turn the formulaic mechanics of other digital artifacts to more expressive uses. Even the much ridiculed genre of the automated slide show (Tufte 2006) drearily familiar from thousands of predictable business and academic presentations, can be transformed into the expressive subgenre of Pecha Kutcha (see http://www.pecha-kucha.org) for imaginative stage presentations by designers; or into a party game in which players are asked to improvise presentations to nonsense slides; or into the idiosyncratic art installations of a former rockstar (http://www.davidbyrne.com/art/eeei). 相同的玩乐态度也可以将其他数字艺术品的公式化机制转变为更具表现力的用途。即使是被广泛嘲笑的自动幻灯片展示（Tufte 2006），在成千上万的可预测的商业和学术演示中显得乏味，也可以转变为设计师们在舞台上进行富有想象力的 Pecha Kutcha 子类型（见 http://www.pecha-kucha.org）；或者变成一种派对游戏，玩家被要求即兴演讲无意义的幻灯片；又或者变成前摇滚明星的独特艺术装置（http://www.davidbyrne.com/art/eeei）。
Convening Shared Attention with Game Mechanics 利用游戏机制聚集共同关注
Games exploit the pleasure of synchronized companionship, discussed in chapter 12, to build up complexity. For example, one-year-old children playfully explore the manipulation of their own hands and take pleasure in clapping, and in imitating the clapping of others as a demonstration of agency and sameness. Older toddlers enjoy 游戏利用第 12 章中讨论的同步陪伴的乐趣来增加复杂性。例如，一岁的小孩通过玩耍探索自己手的操控，享受拍手的乐趣，并模仿他人的拍手，以此展示自主性和相似性。年长的幼儿喜欢
Figure 13.5 第 13.5 幅图像
The core mechanics of Super Mario Brothers abstracted into WarioWare microgames by game designer/theorist Chaim Gingold: shooting fireballs, collecting coins, entering pipes, dodging enemies, stomping enemies, jumping over gaps (Gingold 2005). 超级马里奥兄弟的核心机制被游戏设计师和理论家 Chaim Gingold 抽象为 WarioWare 微型游戏：发射火球、收集金币、进入管道、躲避敌人、踩踏敌人、跳过空隙（Gingold 2005）。
Figure 13.6 图 13.6（图示）
Jason Rohrer’s Passage (2007), an art game that is an explicitly autobiographical meditation on mortality, in which the protagonist meets up with a mate whose presence limits his access to treasures (like the one in this screenshot) but increases the intensity with which they are enjoyed. The landscape scrolls horizontally like a platform game simulating a life journey ending in death. The nostalgic low-resolution graphics reinforce the theme of the passage of time. Game and artist’s statement are available at http://hcsoftware.sourceforge.net/jason-rohrer. 杰森·罗赫的《通道》（2007）是一款艺术游戏，明确地以自传的方式探讨死亡。主角与一个伙伴相遇，伙伴的存在限制了他获取宝藏的机会（如这个截图中的宝藏），但却增强了他对这些宝藏的享受。游戏的场景像平台游戏一样水平滚动，模拟了一段以死亡为终点的生命旅程。怀旧的低分辨率图形进一步强调了时间流逝的主题。游戏和艺术家的声明可以在 http://hcsoftware.sourceforge.net/jason-rohrer 找到。
the more complex interaction of Pat-a-Cake, which requires more precise timing and observation because the clap is achieved with a partner. Pat-a-Cake turns the skill of hand clapping into a more complex mechanic of social interaction. Games reinforce the synchronization of behavior needed for participation in human society, and game mechanics form an expressive vocabulary that can be adapted and repurposed, providing the basis for survival-oriented social rituals like hunting, gathering, and food sharing, and for the cultural elaboration of social life like singing, dancing, and law 更复杂的互动形式“拍手游戏”需要更精确的时机和观察，因为它是与伙伴一起进行的。“拍手游戏”将手拍的技能转变为一种更复杂的社会互动机制。游戏强化了参与人类社会所需的行为同步，而游戏机制则形成了一种可以适应和重新利用的表达词汇，为生存导向的社会仪式提供基础，如狩猎、采集和食物分享，同时也丰富了社会生活的文化，如唱歌、跳舞和法律。
Figure 13.7 第 13.7 图
Braid (2008), an experimental game created by Jonathan Blow that plays with conventions of the platform game to explore the subjective experience of time and engage themes of regret and failed relationships. In this screen, the design explicitly echoes Donkey Kong. See <http://braidgame.com>>. 《辫子》（2008）是一款由乔纳森·布洛创作的实验性游戏，它打破了平台游戏的传统，探索时间的主观体验，并探讨遗憾和失败关系的主题。在这个画面中，设计明显借鉴了《大金刚》。请访问 < http://braidgame.com >> .
making. Having mastered just-for-fun synchronized hand clapping as preschoolers, we are prepared for attendance at theater and political events as adults where hand clapping has a semiotic role in expressing approval. Having mastered Pat-a-Cake, we are prepared for handshakes, high fives, fist bumps, and other expressions of exuberant, shared celebration. 制作。作为学前班的小朋友，我们掌握了为了娱乐而进行的同步拍手，因此在成年后参加戏剧和政治活动时，我们已经能够用拍手来表达赞同。掌握了“拍手游戏”后，我们也为握手、高五、拳头碰拳等热情的庆祝方式做好了准备。
We are also prepared for hand-based communication with machines, with joysticks, keyboards, mice, and haptic game controllers that respond to our grip by vibrating against our palms. Like game makers, interaction designers build complex structures out of simpler, conventionalized mechanics. Just as game designers adapt the same conventional mechanics of behavior, like rolling the dice, for diverse situations from Shoots and Ladders to Craps, interaction designers draw on standardized interaction mechanics to express very different actions. Click-and-drag, for example, is a symbolic ritual, like moving a piece on a game board, that can be mapped to the act of reorganizing a set of file folders or ejecting a hard disk or repositioning a battleship or placing shoes in a shopping bag. Our current interface conventions may someday seem like a kind of human-computer Pat-a-Cake, a primitive language of shared attention that is laying the basis for more complex cultural structures, with larger groups of participants drawn into a global magic circle. 我们也准备好与机器进行手势交流，使用操纵杆、键盘、鼠标和触觉游戏控制器，这些设备会通过在我们的手掌上振动来响应我们的握持。就像游戏制作人一样，交互设计师通过更简单、常规化的机制构建复杂的结构。正如游戏设计师将相同的行为机制（如掷骰子）适应于从《爬梯子到射击》到《克拉普斯》的各种情况，交互设计师则利用标准化的交互机制来表达非常不同的动作。例如，点击并拖动就像在游戏棋盘上移动棋子一样，是一种象征性的仪式，可以映射到重新整理文件夹、弹出硬盘、重新定位战舰或将鞋子放入购物袋的行为。 我们目前的界面规范将来可能会像一种人机互动的拍手游戏，这是一种共享注意力的原始语言，为更复杂的文化结构奠定基础，吸引更多参与者进入一个全球性的魔法圈。
The widespread use of digital mobile devices in the first decade of the twenty-first century has produced new ways of convening groups and focusing the attention of 在二十一世纪的头十年，数字移动设备的广泛使用创造了新的方式来召集群体并集中注意力
Figure 13.8 图表 13.8
Improv Everywhere MP3 Experiment 7 (2010). Improv Everywhere stages fanciful, synchronized participatory events by drawing on theatrical and game conventions to coordinate the behavior of crowds of people. The participants download an audio file and show up at the same time and place to follow the directions of the disembodied pre-recorded voice. See <http:// improveverywhere.com>/ for videos of their past “missions.”. Improv Everywhere MP3 实验 7（2010）。Improv Everywhere 通过借鉴戏剧和游戏的元素，组织奇幻的同步参与活动，以协调人群的行为。参与者下载音频文件，并在同一时间和地点集合，按照无形的预录音声的指示行动。请访问/观看他们过去“任务”的视频。
like-minded strangers in live-action public events. Instant messaging, email, and other digital communication channels were first used as part of the youth culture to organize “meet ups” and to convene unannounced "flash mobs, " and grew to become an important form of global political action and a growing site of artistic expression. Improv Everywhere, an experimental theater group, has playfully explored the possibilities for coordinated whimsical actions by large groups of people in public places (<http://improveverywhere.com>> ), using mobile media players to choreograph their actions and drawing on play rituals like tossing beach balls around, game mechanics like Rock Paper Scissors, and theater games that have people imitating outlandish characters like bumblebees, dolphins, and astronauts (figure 13.8). Such masssynchronization events are likely to become increasingly common in coming decades with greater ambition for the coordination of behaviors across geographical distance, and expanded use of more complex game mechanics for both serious and playful purposes. 在现场公共活动中，志同道合的陌生人通过即时消息、电子邮件和其他数字通信渠道，最初作为青年文化的一部分，用于组织“聚会”和召集未宣布的“闪电人群”。这些方式逐渐演变为全球政治行动的重要形式和日益增长的艺术表达平台。Improv Everywhere，一个实验性剧团，幽默地探索了在公共场所由大群人协调进行奇思妙想行动的可能性（< http://improveverywhere.人们使用移动媒体播放器来编排他们的动作，借鉴扔沙滩球等游戏仪式、石头剪子布等游戏机制，以及模仿大黄蜂、海豚和宇航员等荒诞角色的戏剧游戏（见图 13.8）。这样的群体同步事件在未来几十年可能会越来越普遍，随着对跨地域行为协调的更高期望，以及在严肃和娱乐目的上对更复杂游戏机制的广泛应用。
Sustained casual games have been an important component of the success of large social media sites. The huge popularity of the Facebook game Farmville (Zynga 2009), which had over 80 million players in 2009 , was surprising to veteran game designers because the mechanics seemed so trivial, and the game so unchallenging (figure 13.9). But simple games work well in social media environments because they produce a sense of a shared daily ritual that is more about presence than performance. The fun 持续的休闲游戏一直是大型社交媒体网站成功的重要组成部分。2009 年，Facebook 游戏 Farmville（Zynga 2009）拥有超过 8000 万玩家，这让资深游戏设计师感到意外，因为游戏机制看似简单，且挑战性不高（见图 13.9）。然而，简单的游戏在社交媒体环境中表现良好，因为它们营造了一种共享日常仪式的感觉，更注重参与感而非表现。乐趣
Figure 13.9 第 13.9 图
Farmville (2009), a social networking simulation game in which players cultivate farm plots adjacent to those of Facebook friends. The game requires repetitive actions to keep the farm in cultivation, and encourages players to purchase items that give the game world more variety, but it does not reward skill or engage players in mechanics of chance. Farm plots can be adjacent to those of friends and game items can be exchanged, providing some of the pleasures of playful companionship with a relatively small investment of social and cognitive energy. The enormous popularity of Farmville, despite its evident simplicity and crass commercialism, bewildered and irritated both mainstream and independent game designers, a response that is epitomized by the title of Ian Bogost’s parody Facebook game, Cow Clicker (2010). Farmville（2009）是一款社交网络模拟游戏，玩家可以在与 Facebook 朋友相邻的农田上进行耕作。游戏需要玩家进行重复操作以维持农田的耕作，并鼓励购买物品来增加游戏世界的多样性，但并不奖励技巧或让玩家参与运气的机制。农田可以与朋友的农田相邻，游戏物品可以互相交换，这为玩家提供了一种轻松的陪伴乐趣，且只需较少的社交和认知能量投入。 尽管 Farmville 显得简单且商业化严重，但其巨大的受欢迎程度让主流和独立游戏设计师感到困惑和不满，这种反应在 Ian Bogost 的恶搞 Facebook 游戏《牛点击器》（2010）的标题中得到了生动体现。
of games like Farmville comes from the low level of coordination and skill needed to achieve a shared play experience with people who are drawn from an already meaningful network of “friends.” Young children learn to play together through “parallel play” experiences, sitting beside one another, aware of one another’s presence, without directly interacting. Games like Farmville can be seen as parallel play experiences for large virtual communities. 像 Farmville 这样的游戏源于实现与来自一个已有意义的“朋友”网络的人们共享游戏体验所需的协调和技能水平较低。年轻儿童通过“平行游戏”学习一起玩耍，他们坐在一起，意识到彼此的存在，但并不直接互动。像 Farmville 这样的游戏可以被视为大型虚拟社区的平行游戏体验。
Game mechanics can also be used for researching knowledge transmission across social networks. For example, in December 2009, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) celebrated the 40th anniversary of the establishment of ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet, with a contest structured like a treasure hunt (https://networkchallenge.darpa.mil/Default.aspx). In order to explore what strategies were most effective in obtaining and relaying information quickly across a geographically distributed social network, they launched ten weather balloons in locations across the United States and challenged players to form teams to find them in order to win a $40,000\$ 40,000 prize (Greenemeier 2009). The winning team from MIT, who found all ten balloons in under seven hours, motivated participation by sharing the prize money along the chain with the finders of each balloon and whoever was directly 游戏机制也可以用于研究知识在社交网络中的传播。例如，在 2009 年 12 月，美国国防高级研究计划局（DARPA）庆祝了 ARPANET 成立 40 周年，ARPANET 是互联网的前身，并举办了一场类似寻宝的比赛（https://networkchallenge.darpa.mil/Default.aspx）。为了探索在地理分布的社交网络中，哪些策略在快速获取和传递信息方面最有效，他们在美国各地发射了十个气象气球，并挑战玩家组队寻找这些气球，以赢得 $40,000\$ 40,000 奖品（Greenemeier 2009）。来自麻省理工学院的获胜团队在七小时内找到了所有十个气球，他们通过与每个气球的发现者和直接参与者分享奖金，激励了大家的参与
linked to their recruitment. The runner-up team from Georgia Tech, who found nine of the ten balloons in the same amount of time, took a more cooperative approach to motivation by pledging to contribute the prize money to charity. Like the huge raiding parties in World of Warcraft or the plant-gifting Farmville players, information researchers are repurposing ancient game mechanics. Each in their own way is contributing to the common cultural project of reinventing the rituals of shared attention to suit the increased speed and scale of the global village. 与招聘相关。来自乔治亚理工学院的亚军团队在同样的时间内找到了十个气球中的九个，他们采取了更为合作的激励方式，承诺将奖金捐给慈善机构。就像《魔兽世界》中的大型突袭队伍或《农场游戏》中的植物赠送玩家一样，信息研究人员正在重新利用古老的游戏机制。每个人都以自己的方式为共同的文化项目贡献力量，重新定义共享注意力的仪式，以适应全球村庄日益加快的速度和规模。
Playing with Media Conventions 玩转媒体规范
Games employ many of the same media conventions as nongame applications, often demanding a high degree of focus on complex media objects. One of the most striking examples of a game with elaborate print components is the classic print-based tabletop role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D), invented in the 1970s as an outgrowth of tabletop war games (Gygax 1978; Fine 1983). D&D is not a single game but an encyclopedic game system for individual game masters and players to use as the basis for improvised collaborative adventures that can be set in elaborately specified D&D fantasy worlds. Gameplay is based on thick books of quantitative tables that specify the rules for creating characters and for performing actions in the game, based on rolls of special dice (figures 13.10, 13.11). Each dice roll provides a significant parameter for the calculation of a dramatic game action, such as whether you have hit a target and how much you have injured the enemy. The point system is cumulative with action in one game session affecting the skill and experience points that your character carries over from one quest to another. 游戏采用了许多与非游戏应用相同的媒体惯例，通常需要对复杂的媒体对象保持高度专注。一个最引人注目的例子是经典的桌面角色扮演游戏《龙与地下城》（D&D），它是在 1970 年代作为桌面战争游戏的延伸而发明的（Gygax 1978；Fine 1983）。D&D 并不是一款单独的游戏，而是一个百科全书式的游戏系统，供各个游戏主持人和玩家用作即兴合作冒险的基础，这些冒险可以设定在详细描绘的 D&D 幻想世界中。游戏的玩法依赖于厚厚的量化表格书，这些表格规定了创建角色和在游戏中执行动作的规则，基于特殊骰子的掷骰结果（图 13.10，13.11）。 每次掷骰子都会为戏剧性的游戏行动提供重要参数，比如你是否击中了目标，以及你对敌人造成了多少伤害。积分系统是累积的，一个游戏会话中的行动会影响角色在不同任务间携带的技能和经验值。
Among the game mechanics that D&D has made conventional for the tabletop role-playing genre are: D&D 为桌面角色扮演游戏所普遍采用的游戏机制包括：
a game master, who sets up game sessions by designing quests and describing the action including the parts played by nonplayer characters 游戏主持人通过设计任务和描述行动，包括非玩家角色的表现，来组织游戏会话
player-designed characters based on a substitution system of differentiated character types (e.g., warrior, wizard, cleric, thief) and attributes (e.g., strength, intelligence, dexterity, charisma), who persist from game session to game session, changing in experience and skill points. 玩家设计的角色基于替代系统，具有不同的角色类型（如战士、法师、牧师、盗贼）和属性（如力量、智力、敏捷、魅力），这些角色在游戏会话之间持续存在，并随着经验和技能点的增加而不断变化。
a system of rule books with fantasy elements specified as mathematical formulae determining the probabilities of game events 一套包含幻想元素的规则书系统，使用数学公式来确定游戏事件的概率
the use of dice to decide game events 通过掷骰子来决定游戏中的事件
the use of a grid system for the game map, and of concealed or progressively revealed custom maps as game boards 游戏地图采用网格系统，并使用隐藏或逐步揭示的自定义地图作为游戏板
the inclusion of nonplayer characters (NPC) controlled by the game master 游戏主持人所控制的非玩家角色（NPC）的引入
team-based gameplay in questing parties of four players with complementary skills 四名玩家在任务小队中进行团队合作，技能互补
Class Level Name 班级级别名称
Level 等级
EP Needed 需要 EP（扩展版）
Hit Points 生命点数
开锁/解除陷阱
Open Locks/
Remove Traps
Open Locks/
Remove Traps| Open Locks/ |
| :---: |
| Remove Traps |
行窃或悄无声息地移动/藏身于阴影中
Pickpocket or
Move Silently/
Hide in Shadows
Pickpocket or
Move Silently/
Hide in Shadows| Pickpocket or |
| :---: |
| Move Silently/ |
| Hide in Shadows |
Figure 13.10 第 13.10 图
A representative Dungeons & Dragons table, used by players for calculating the “experience points” needed to attain the different levels (e.g., Apprentice, Cutpurse, Master Thief) within the overarching professional category of Thief, and showing for each level the values to use in calculating vulnerability to attack and likelihood of success in some of the essential tasks of thievery. 一个典型的《龙与地下城》游戏表格，供玩家计算达到不同等级（如学徒、扒手、盗贼大师）所需的“经验值”。该表格显示了每个等级在计算攻击脆弱性和成功概率时所需的数值，这些等级属于盗贼这一职业类别，并涉及一些基本的盗窃任务。
The D&D players are imaginatively role playing in a world of dungeons, dragons, and wizards, and yet the game mechanics involve a lot of arithmetical calculation with reference tables, an activity more generally associated with work than play. The combination of magic and arithmetic works because the dice focus attention in real time within the social world of the players on a chance event happening in the shared fantasy realm. The physical mechanics of choosing and throwing the oddly shaped dice according to instructions in arcane tables is evocative of the world of wizardry and spells that forms the dramatic context of the game. D&D 玩家在一个充满地下城、龙和巫师的世界中进行富有想象力的角色扮演，但游戏机制却涉及大量的算术计算和参考表，这种活动通常更像是工作而非娱乐。魔法与算术的结合之所以有效，是因为骰子在玩家的社交环境中实时聚焦于共享幻想世界中发生的偶然事件。根据神秘表格的指示选择和投掷形状奇特的骰子，这一物理过程唤起了构成游戏戏剧背景的巫术和咒语的世界。
Moving tabletop team fantasy games to the computer has taken the dice away as well as the physical presence of other players, while opening up many rich representational possibilities. Graphic role-playing games are one of the most popular genres of digital entertainment, with best-selling fantasy games like BioWare’s Neverwinter Nights (2002) and Blizzard’s World of Warcraft (2004) using interactive substitution displays to emphasize the choices of character classes, attributes, and inventory items open to players (figure 13.12). Digital games preserve the underlying mathematical mechanic for the blow-by-blow calculation of battles, including a randomized element, but eliminate the need to look up tables or roll physical dice. 将桌面团队幻想游戏转移到计算机上，不仅带走了骰子，也失去了其他玩家的实体存在，但同时开启了许多丰富的表现可能性。图形角色扮演游戏是数字娱乐中最受欢迎的类型之一，像 BioWare 的《无冬之夜》（2002 年）和暴雪的《魔兽世界》（2004 年）这样的畅销幻想游戏，利用互动替代显示来强调角色职业、属性和玩家可选择的物品（见图 13.12）。数字游戏保留了战斗逐步计算的基本数学机制，包括随机元素，但消除了查找表格或掷骰子的需求。
The D&D calculation tables and dice are transmission codes, and playing with them compared to playing a similar video game is like looking up a phone number in a D&D 的计算表和骰子可以看作是传输代码，玩这些游戏就像在查找电话号码，与玩类似的视频游戏相比，体验截然不同
Figure 13.11 图 13.11
Dice used in a session of Dungeons & Dragons, from Wikipedia Commons, created by Franganghi. 用于《龙与地下城》游戏的骰子，来源于维基百科共享，创作者是 Franganghi。
paper directory and then manually dialing the number, compared to touching a hyperlinked name and letting your smartphone do the lookup and dialing for you. But for tabletop players, the dice and tables are part of the enjoyment of the game, providing a different pleasure from the visualized instantiation of the fantasy world (see <http://www.helium.com/debates/155881-which-is-better-online-roleplaying-games -or-tabletop-roleplaying-games>). In fact, visualizing a role-playing world in moving images can make it less real for some players, just as film adaptations made from novels can disappoint fans of the original, because the film version does not correspond to the individual’s imagination of the world. 纸质目录，然后手动拨打号码，这与点击超链接名称让智能手机自动查找和拨打相比，体验截然不同。但对于桌面游戏玩家来说，骰子和桌子是游戏乐趣的重要组成部分，带来了与幻想世界的可视化呈现不同的乐趣（见）。事实上，对于一些玩家来说，以动态影像呈现角色扮演世界可能会让其显得不那么真实，就像从小说改编的电影可能会让原著粉丝失望，因为电影版本并不符合他们对世界的想象。
Interface transparency is not always valuable in a game. We may not want to eliminate the decoding, because logical codes are classic game elements. Symbol systems used in games are interesting to us because of the novelty of the symbol or the intricacy of the system and not, as in life, for what they represent. Clapping in Pat-a-Cake is only clapping; it does not hold the meaning of clapping in a theater or high fiving, but is enjoyable in itself as the synchronized intersection of hand on hand. A map in a game is not interesting as a way of getting around an actual place-it is the place, and the pleasure comes from navigating from one segment to another and noticing the relationship between places. Play money in a game functions like real money, but it has no practical value outside the game. When we receive it as pay, take it from other players, save it, 在游戏中，界面透明并不总是有价值的。我们可能不想去掉解码，因为逻辑代码是经典的游戏元素。游戏中的符号系统之所以吸引我们，是因为符号的新颖性或系统的复杂性，而不是像生活中那样因为它们所代表的意义。在“拍手游戏”中，拍手仅仅是拍手；它并不具备在剧院中拍手或击掌的意义，但作为手与手的同步交汇，它本身就很有趣。游戏中的地图并不是为了帮助我们在实际地点之间移动而有趣——它就是那个地方，乐趣在于从一个部分导航到另一个部分，并观察地点之间的关系。 游戏中的虚拟货币在游戏内的功能类似于真钱，但在游戏外没有实际价值。当我们把它作为报酬收到时，要从其他玩家那里获取并保存
Figure 13.12 第 13.12 图
World of Warcraft talent calculator for a member of the Rogue class, including the Mutilate refinement of the talent for assassination. 《魔兽世界》中的盗贼职业天赋计算器，包含刺杀天赋的精炼选项。
or spend it, we are enacting rituals that have value in the real world but are pure performance in the context of the game. Words in a crossword puzzle game like Scrabble are equally meaningless. Their denotation and connotation are merely decorative details in the context of our focus on placing letters in legal arrangements to increase our score. Games allow us the pleasure of thinking of clapping, mapping, accumulating money, and formulating words as abstract codes and pure mechanics of interaction with a satisfying cognitive complexity that is independent of what they buy or mean. 或者花费它，我们正在进行一些在现实世界中有价值但在游戏中只是表演的仪式。像拼字游戏 Scrabble 中的单词同样是毫无意义的。它们的指称和内涵在我们专注于将字母合法排列以增加得分的背景下，仅仅是装饰性的细节。游戏让我们享受将拍手、绘图、积累金钱和构造单词视为抽象代码和纯粹互动机制的乐趣，这种乐趣具有令人满意的认知复杂性，与它们所购买或意味着什么无关。
Human beings are capable of seeing any complex set of interactions or media codes as a game, of getting lost in the signifiers and ignoring the things signified. The allure of computational artifacts draws on this pleasure, and it can work against transparency, efficiency, and expressivity-the values we discussed as part of the more instrumental tool model. We do not necessarily value efficiency in game interactions; sometimes we value cumbersome processes because the extra effort needed to focus our attention on their arbitrary, excessive elaboration brings us a welcome detachment from the world of time and consequence outside the magic circle. Games allow us to indulge our 人类能够将任何复杂的互动或媒体代码视为一种游戏，沉迷于符号而忽视其所指的内容。计算机工件的魅力正是源于这种乐趣，它可能会影响透明度、效率和表现力——这些都是我们在更具工具性的模型中讨论过的价值观。在游戏互动中，我们并不总是重视效率；有时我们反而重视繁琐的过程，因为为了集中注意力于这些任意且过度的细节所需的额外努力，让我们从魔法圈外的时间和后果的世界中获得一种愉悦的超脱。游戏让我们得以沉浸于我们的体验中。
predilection to fetishize numbers, letters, or currency-like tokens, or to become enraptured with complexity for its own sake. Completing the New York Times Sunday crossword puzzle or assembling a 1,000-piece jigsaw puzzle or an intricate Lego model of the Millennium Falcon can create the satisfying sense of absorption and challenge recognized as a flow experience (Csíkszentmihályi 1990). The intricacy of a system, the pleasures of manipulating complex coded objects, even when they are part of a realworld task, like moving gambling chips around a colorful roulette table, buying and selling securities, operating a military remote targeting system, estimating the risk of a natural disaster with mathematical probability tables, can create a seductive sense of being in a magic circle, intensely engaged but distant from consequences in the real world. Computers reinforce the danger of losing sight of consequences in the physical world, even as they help us to manipulate ever more complex and powerful symbol systems. Designers should bear this danger in mind and look for ways to remind interactors of what is at stake in real-world systems whose complexity can create game-like immersion. 对数字、字母或类似货币的代币的迷恋，或因复杂性而感到陶醉。完成《纽约时报》周日填字游戏、拼装 1000 片拼图，或制作千年隼的复杂乐高模型，都能带来一种被称为“流动体验”的令人满意的沉浸感和挑战感（Csíkszentmihályi 1990）。 系统的复杂性和操控复杂编码对象的乐趣，即使这些对象涉及现实任务，比如在五彩斑斓的轮盘桌上移动赌博筹码、买卖证券、操作军事远程瞄准系统，或利用数学概率表估算自然灾害的风险，都能营造出一种迷人的魔法圈感，让人深度参与却与现实世界的后果保持距离。计算机加剧了我们对物理世界后果的忽视，尽管它们帮助我们操控越来越复杂和强大的符号系统。 设计师应当意识到这一风险，并寻找方法提醒互动者在复杂的现实世界系统中所面临的风险，这些系统的复杂性可能会导致类似游戏的沉浸体验。
Games also remind us of the human tendency to fetishize cumbersome mechanics when they are embedded in familiar media formats, and to confer the status of specialized wizard upon those who have mastered them. Processes that have long been mystified by paper-based professional rituals, like writing a will or filing a tax return, become more transparent when digital media automates the rules or makes the previously hidden mechanics visible to nonprofessionals. Practitioners who are used to privileged access to the mechanics of their profession often expect designers to reproduce the older, print-based rituals. Literary scholars have made ill-considered but passionate arguments for retaining a library cataloging system based on heavy drawers overstuffed with handwritten index cards. Technologists can be equally passionate in finding hidden virtues in obsolete command-line text editors or seductively complicated and insufficiently tested programming packages. Designers faced with requests for the reproduction of unnecessarily cumbersome practices or the use of cultish technologies should ask themselves whether the specialists involved are clinging to their magic dice and secret tables, enraptured by the game-like immersion of the secret code, instead of focusing on the best mechanics for instantiating the underlying practical quest. 游戏让我们意识到，人类往往会在熟悉的媒体格式中迷恋复杂的机制，并将掌握这些机制的人视为专业的“巫师”。那些长期以来被纸质专业仪式所神秘化的过程，比如立遗嘱或报税，当数字媒体自动化规则或使隐藏的机制对非专业人士可见时，变得更加透明。习惯于特权访问其职业机制的从业者，常常期待设计师重现旧有的印刷仪式。文学学者曾提出不够周全但充满热情的论点，主张保留基于装满手写索引卡的沉重抽屉的图书馆编目系统。 技术人员在寻找过时的命令行文本编辑器或复杂且测试不足的编程包中的隐藏优点时，往往同样充满热情。设计师在面对要求复制不必要繁琐做法或使用迷信技术的请求时，应该反思参与的专家是否过于依赖他们的魔法骰子和秘密表格，沉迷于秘密代码的游戏般体验，而忽视了实现基础实际任务的最佳方法。
The plasticity of bits allows us to blur the boundary between actual artifacts and playful forgeries, everyday identities and masquerades, real events and make believe. The new genres of alternate reality games and pervasive games exploit this heightened awareness of how easily we can be deceived and focus attention on the game-like structures of our real social, political, and economic structures, by mixing game elements with real-world experiences and convening groups of players to identify, share, and decode the purposely ambiguous puzzle pieces. Instead of setting gameplay within a self-consistent, safely insulated magic circle, alternate reality games often use intrusive tactics such as emails and instant messages, and plots that involve violent conspiracies, suppressed information, and secretive informants to blur the distinction 位的可塑性使我们能够模糊实际物品与玩乐伪造品、日常身份与伪装、真实事件与虚构之间的界限。新兴的替代现实游戏和普遍游戏利用了我们容易被欺骗的高度意识，关注我们真实的社会、政治和经济结构中的游戏化元素，通过将游戏元素与现实体验相结合，召集玩家群体识别、分享和解码那些故意模糊的拼图。交替现实游戏通常不在一个自洽、安全隔离的魔法圈内设置游戏玩法，而是采用侵入性策略，比如电子邮件和即时消息，以及涉及暴力阴谋、被压制的信息和秘密线人的情节，从而模糊了界限
between in-game events and events in the real world. As pervasive game designer and theorist Jane McGonigal puts it, “If we could make your toaster print something we would” (McGonigal 2005). Pervasive games involve players in highly participatory and complicated games by relying on ritualized mechanics such as mystery solving, decoding of media artifacts, treasure hunting, and fantasy role playing to structure social interactions. Often the game mechanics are meant to serve the purposes of creating enjoyable or ideologically desirable social interactions, rather than creating transparent, immersive, or conventionally satisfying game experiences. As McGonigal points out, designers of such games create team missions 在游戏内事件与现实世界事件之间。正如普遍游戏设计师和理论家简·麦戈尼戈所说：“如果我们能让你的烤面包机打印东西，我们就会这样做”（麦戈尼戈 2005）。普遍游戏通过依赖仪式化的机制，如解谜、解码媒体文物、寻宝和角色扮演，来让玩家参与高度互动和复杂的游戏，从而构建社会互动。游戏机制通常旨在创造愉快或意识形态上可取的社会互动，而不是追求透明、沉浸或传统上令人满意的游戏体验。正如麦戈尼戈所指出的，这类游戏的设计师会创建团队任务。
that require players to misread (non-game) people, places and objects as a part of the game. For example: “Some time today you will be approached by the Speaker. The Speaker could be anyone, anywhere. all we know is that the Speaker will say something to you. It could be anything, and you’ll only know it’s the Speaker if you form a circle around him or her and dance wildly.” Or “Sometime today you will find the Mystery Key. It won’t look like a key, but it will work some kind of magic when you encounter a locked door later in the game. So make sure you take with you any unusual objects you find along the way.” With this built-in ambiguity, teams must approach everyone and everything with a game mindset. When encountering a person, a team must assume he or she is a plant; when finding an object, a team must assume it is a prop to be deployed creatively. These missions require teams to affect a confident belief, to act as if the game is everywhere and everything at all times. (McGonigal 2003) 这要求玩家将（非游戏）的人、地点和物体误解为游戏的一部分。例如：“今天某个时候，你会遇到发言人。发言人可以是任何人，任何地方。我们只知道发言人会对你说些什么。可能是任何内容，只有当你围着他或她跳舞时，你才会知道那是发言人。”或者“今天某个时候你会找到神秘钥匙。它看起来不会像钥匙，但在游戏中遇到锁门时，它会施展某种魔法。所以确保你带上沿途找到的任何不寻常的物品。”在这种内在的模糊性下，团队必须以游戏的心态接近每一个人和每一件事。 当遇到一个人时，团队必须假设他或她是卧底；当发现一个物体时，团队必须假设它是一个可以创造性使用的道具。这些任务要求团队表现出自信，仿佛游戏随时随地都在进行。（麦戈尼戈尔，2003）
The after effects of the pervasive game are as important to McGonigal as the game experiences. People are left with a “game-play mindset” in their ordinary lives, defamiliarizing the naturalized environment. Perhaps they become aware of their desire for life to be more like games, more shapely and predictable, with clearer rules of behavior. Perhaps they become aware of their impatience with the rules of existing social games. Participating in a pervasive game with the aesthetic of “performing belief” as McGonigal describes it, invites the players to think of the world as it is as just one instantiation of the possible worlds it could be. 这种普遍游戏的后果对麦戈尼格来说与游戏体验同样重要。人们在日常生活中形成了“游戏思维”，使得自然环境变得陌生化。或许他们开始意识到自己渴望生活更像游戏，更加有形和可预测，行为规则也更加明确。或许他们对现有社会游戏规则的不满也愈发明显。参与一种具有“表现信念”美学的普遍游戏，如麦戈尼格所描述的，邀请玩家将现实世界视为可能世界的一个实例。
Of course, defamiliarizing the mechanics of interaction only works as a design strategy if the mechanics are already quite familiar, and the point of the defamiliarization is clear. The risk in creating games or art pieces that subvert familiar media conventions is that interactors will experience frustrated befuddlement rather than the intended heightened understanding of the way the world is put together. 当然，只有在互动机制已经相当熟悉且陌生化的目的明确时，陌生化作为设计策略才有效。创造颠覆熟悉媒体惯例的游戏或艺术作品的风险在于，参与者可能会感到困惑和挫败，而不是预期中的对世界构成方式的更深理解。
Art is another kind of playful magic circle, free to invent its own mechanics. Artists explore the plasticity of the new digital medium, intentionally stretching and transgressing familiar media conventions and rituals, and sometimes inventing new expressive mechanics of interaction that can be adapted by designers. For example, Camille Utterback’ Liquid Time Series (2000-2002) translates the interactor’s physical approach to a digital video image into the immediate agency of pushing part of the image “deeper” in time: 艺术是一种玩耍的魔法圈，能够自由创造自己的规则。艺术家们探索新数字媒介的可塑性，故意突破和超越传统媒体的惯例和仪式，有时还发明出新的互动表现机制，供设计师使用。例如，卡米尔·乌特巴克的《液态时间系列》（2000-2002）将互动者对数字视频图像的物理接近转化为将图像的一部分“更深”推入时间的直接能力：
Figure 13.13 图 13.13
Camille Utterback’s Liquid Time, an art installation project in which segments of the moving image change, reflecting temporal movement, in response to the viewer’s movements in the space in front of the image. 卡米尔·阿特巴克的《液态时间》是一项艺术装置项目，移动图像的片段会随之变化，反映时间的流动，以响应观众在图像前的动作。
In the Liquid Time Series installation, a participant’s physical motion in the installation space fragments time in a pre-recorded video clip. As the participant moves closer to the projection screen they push deeper into time-but only in the area of the screen directly in front of them. Beautiful and startling disruptions are created as people move through the installation space. As viewers move away, the fragmented image heals in their wake-like a pond returning to stillness. The interface of one’s body-which can only exist in one place, at one time-becomes the means to create a space in which multiple times and perspectives coexist. (Utterback 2000-2002) 在液态时间序列的装置中，参与者在空间中的身体运动使预录视频片段的时间变得支离破碎。当参与者靠近投影屏幕时，他们深入时间，但仅限于屏幕前的区域。人们在装置空间中移动时，会产生美丽而惊人的干扰效果。当观众远离时，碎片化的图像在他们身后愈合，仿佛池塘恢复了平静。一个人的身体界面——只能在一个地方、一个时间存在——成为创造一个多个时间和视角共存的空间的手段。（Utterback 2000-2002）
Utterback’s piece evokes the continuities and discontinuities between present consciousness and memory, by disrupting “a basic premise of time based media-that the unit of recording is also the unit of playback” (figure 13.13). 乌特巴克的作品揭示了当下意识与记忆之间的连续性与断裂，通过颠覆“时间媒体的基本前提——录制单元即为播放单元”（图 13.13）。
Similarly, David Rokeby’s Machine for Taking Time (2001-2004) displays a composite image that mimics the familiar cinematic pan, from individual images that are continuous in space but compellingly discontinuous in time (figure 13.14), and Jonathan Blow’s 同样，David Rokeby 的《时间机器》（2001-2004）展示了一幅复合图像，模仿了熟悉的电影平移效果，这些单个图像在空间上是连续的，但在时间上却引人注目地不连续（图 13.14），以及 Jonathan Blow 的作品。
Figure 13.14 第 13.14 图
David Rokeby, Machine for Taking Time (2001-2004). The camera pans still images taken at different seasons but stitched together to form a dynamically reconfigured, continuous cinematic space in which “Time moves very slowly and very fast at the same time.” 大卫·罗基比，时间机器（2001-2004）。相机平移不同季节拍摄的静态图像，拼接成一个动态重构的连续电影空间，在这里“时间既缓慢又迅速地流动。”
experimental platform game Braid (figure 13.7) offers multiple variations on the theme of rewinding the past as the focus of gameplay. Works like these radically challenge familiar media conventions for structuring time, perhaps providing the basis for new genre conventions that can capture our complex experience of temporality including the distortions of subjective memory, the relativistic time of physicists, or the ways in which our brain dynamically reknits the web of connections linking past, present, and future events. 实验平台游戏《Braid》（图 13.7）围绕倒带过去的主题，提供了多种玩法变体。这类作品彻底挑战了我们熟悉的媒体时间结构，或许为新的游戏类型奠定了基础，能够更好地捕捉我们复杂的时间体验，包括主观记忆的扭曲、物理学家的相对时间，以及我们大脑如何动态地重新编织连接过去、现在和未来事件的网络。
Playing with Cognition 认知的探索
Game design elements often focus us on and support core cognitive activity such as matching, sorting, collecting, and sequencing, as well as pattern recognition for symbolic codes (like the alphabet), and math skills. For example, the Royal Game of Ur, perhaps the oldest surviving board game, dated to the third millennium B.C., is structured as a race across a game board of meaningfully patterned squares, with patterned tokens differentiated by color, and moves determined by casting dice made of animal bones (Green 2008). Playing this game involves some mathematical and sequencing skills and the ability to interpret a symbol system, which presumably would have reinforced the skills involved in deciphering the proto-alphabetical symbolic writing of the period (figure 13.15). 游戏设计元素通常使我们专注于并支持核心认知活动，例如匹配、分类、收集和排序，以及对符号代码（如字母表）的模式识别和数学技能。例如，乌尔的皇家游戏可能是现存最古老的棋盘游戏，追溯到公元前第三个千年。它的结构是一个在有意义的图案方格上进行的比赛，棋子通过颜色区分，移动则由用动物骨头制成的骰子决定（Green 2008）。玩这个游戏需要一些数学和排序技能，以及解读符号系统的能力，这可能会增强当时解读原始字母符号书写所需的技能（图 13.15）。
Since games are interactive systems based on abstract patterns, game conventions can help us to think concretely about complex computational artifacts. For example, consider the classic board game Go (figure 13.16), which is played by placing black or white stones on a board of 19 xx1919 \times 19 squares in patterns that enclose the opponent’s stones. There are few rules beyond placing one stone at a time in alternating 由于游戏是基于抽象模式的互动系统，游戏规则可以帮助我们更具体地思考复杂的计算作品。例如，考虑经典棋盘游戏围棋（图 13.16），它通过在 19 xx1919 \times 19 个方格的棋盘上放置黑白棋子来包围对手的棋子。除了交替放置一颗棋子外，几乎没有其他规则。
Figure 13.15 第 13.15 图
The Royal Game of Ur in the British Museum, from a tomb in modern day Iraq, dated to 2600 BC. There are seven white and seven block game pieces, and a game board with inlays of shell, red limestone, and lapis lazuli. The eight-petal rosette squares are believed to confer advantage on the token that lands on them. The game has survived in recognizable form to modern times, and is a forerunner of backgammon. 英国博物馆中的乌尔王游戏，出土于现代伊拉克的一座墓葬，日期可追溯到公元前 2600 年。游戏包含七个白色棋子和七个黑色棋子，以及一个镶嵌有贝壳、红色石灰石和青金石的棋盘。八瓣玫瑰花形的方格被认为能为落在上面的棋子提供优势。这个游戏以可识别的形式延续至今，是双陆棋的前身。
turns, yet Go opens up a large possibility space, engendering complex strategies. In fact, Go is many times more complex than chess in the possible moves that can be made at any given time and the effect of individual moves on later moves, making it so far impossible for computers to outplay human beings. It serves as a model for interaction design in gaining such expressive power out of such an elegant economy of rules. 尽管围棋的回合数较多，但它创造了一个巨大的可能性空间，形成了复杂的策略。实际上，围棋在任何时刻的可能走法和单个走法对后续走法的影响上，复杂程度远超国际象棋，这使得计算机至今无法战胜人类。它作为交互设计的模型，展示了如何在如此简洁的规则体系中获得强大的表现力。
Go is also a good example of a game whose state is readable from the position of pieces on the game board. Games in general offer a useful palette of conventions for representing state, which as we saw in chapter 4 is one of the key concepts in a procedural medium. As game worlds become more elaborate, it is increasingly challenging for game designers to display the many elements that make up the dynamically changing state of the world-a problem that is increasingly important in the visualization of real-world systems as well. Go, like Othello, chess, and checkers, is structured as a contest between tokens of contrasting colors, and viewing their numbers and positions on the board reveals who is winning. Casual video games that focus on removal, such as Tetris, Jewel Quest, Collapse, and Zuma, display state as the number of remaining pieces. In Tetris and Zuma, the position of pieces on the board also 围棋是一个很好的例子，它的状态可以通过棋盘上棋子的摆放位置来读取。一般来说，游戏提供了一种有用的约定调色板来表示状态，正如我们在第四章中看到的，这是程序性媒介中的一个关键概念。随着游戏世界变得越来越复杂，游戏设计师展示构成动态变化的世界状态的许多元素变得越来越具有挑战性——这个问题在可视化现实世界系统中也变得越来越重要。围棋与黑白棋、国际象棋和跳棋一样，是一种不同颜色棋子之间的对抗，棋子在棋盘上的数量和位置可以揭示谁在获胜。 休闲视频游戏，如俄罗斯方块、宝石迷阵、崩溃和祖玛，显示的状态是剩余棋子的数量。在俄罗斯方块和祖玛中，棋子在棋盘上的位置也
Figure 13.16 第 13.16 图
A game board for Go, which has been played in China for more than 2,000 years. The object is to surround the opponent’s stones in order to occupy the most space. Stones can be placed at any intersection (point) in the grid as long as there is at least one connected point open. Surrounded stones are removed (captured by the opponent). Although the mechanics of the game are very simple, the strategies are in some ways more complex than those of chess. 围棋棋盘，这项游戏在中国已有超过 2000 年的历史。游戏的目标是围住对手的棋子，以占据更多的空间。棋子可以放在网格中的任何交叉点，只要至少有一个相连的开放点。被围住的棋子会被移除（被对手捕获）。尽管游戏的规则非常简单，但在某些方面，其策略比国际象棋更为复杂。
reflects the building time pressure-as time runs out, the board starts filling up or the pieces get closer to the hole. By eliminating the need for a separate timer, the game designer reduces distraction and increases the dramatic tension of the gameplay. Videogames and board games that focus on the player’s movement through an abstract map (Pac-Man, Donkey Kong, Shoots and Ladders) can similarly display state in the positioning of the tokens on a single overview image. 反映了建筑时间的压力——随着时间的流逝，棋盘逐渐被填满，或者棋子越来越接近洞口。通过取消单独计时器的需求，游戏设计师减少了干扰，增强了游戏的戏剧张力。专注于玩家在抽象地图上移动的电子游戏和桌游（如吃豆人、唐老鸭、射击与梯子）同样可以通过在单一概览图中展示棋子的定位来体现状态。
Simulation games, like Civilization, SimCity, and The Sims are so complex that they require multiple displays to keep track of all the changing variables. Players split their attention between the main display, which gives a good summary image of the state of system (for example, in the appearance of the furniture and friends in the Sims house), and the control panels at the margins or on other screens lower in the menu hierarchy. The strategy of a main summary view with strong representational elements-such as a a map or scenario mock-up—augmented by deeper details in 模拟游戏，如《文明》、《模拟城市》和《模拟人生》，复杂到需要多个显示器来跟踪所有变化的变量。玩家的注意力在主显示器（提供系统状态的良好概览，例如《模拟人生》中的家具和朋友的外观）与边缘或菜单层级下方其他屏幕上的控制面板之间分散。主摘要视图结合强烈的表现元素，如地图或场景模型，并辅以更深入的细节。
quantitative control panels can be applied to the visualization of other kinds of simulations as well. For example, we might summarize global warming effects with mapbased images of rising sea levels and melting ice caps, while presenting a graph of specific measurements in a separate display. 定量控制面板同样可以用于其他类型模拟的可视化。例如，我们可以通过地图图像总结全球变暖的影响，比如海平面上升和冰盖融化，同时在单独的显示中展示具体的测量图表。
Replay as Repetition with Variation 变奏中的重复
Closely related to the display of state is the game-like pattern of replay. Parameterized repeatability, or the ability to replay a game with significant changes, is an important affordance of digital game environments for the presentation of simulated systems. In a game like Lemonade Stand, for example (figure 5.5), we can try multiple strategies for maximizing profit, such as changing the recipe or increasing the advertising budget. By playing the game more than once we learn from our mistakes and we get a clearer picture of how the lemonade business is modeled by the program. 状态显示与游戏的重放模式密切相关。参数化的可重复性，即在重大变化下重放游戏的能力，是数字游戏环境中展示模拟系统的重要特性。例如，在像《柠檬水摊》这样的游戏中（图 5.5），我们可以尝试多种策略来最大化利润，比如调整配方或增加广告预算。通过多次玩这个游戏，我们能够从错误中学习，更清晰地理解程序如何模拟柠檬水业务。
Over the past twenty years games have developed elaborate mechanisms for replay, which can also be useful when applied to informational systems such as educational simulations. Most games allow players to save the state of the game at intervals in order to be able to repeat the last portion of the game without having to start over from the beginning if you lose a round (i.e., if your character dies). In some games repetition is by levels; in other games it is by puzzles or challenges within a level; some games will allow greater freedom, so that players can save at will anywhere throughout the game. Some games allow multiple instances of the same game to be saved, which allows the player to try out more than multiple strategies and compare the results. Often a game will establish specific explicit save points and will automatically save or prompt the players to save before and after completing a particularly treacherous challenge. It is conventional to endow characters with multiple lives so that they can be reinstated after a failed attempt. Often a new instance of a character who has died but has lives remaining will automatically reappear at the save point. The many variations on such mechanics for restoring a game world and respawning a character are equally useful for creating simulated worlds for analyzing complex processes. For example, if we were analyzing the effects of multiple pollutants on the ecology of a pond, we could save the simulation of a period of time with one hypothetical pollutant, and then run parallel instances of the same time period with and without a second pollutant. Or we could respawn instances of threatened species to try multiple strategies for survival, or save multiple versions of the same scenario and play through them to compare strategies for favoring one species or another. 在过去的二十年中，游戏发展出了复杂的重玩机制，这在教育模拟等信息系统中也非常有用。大多数游戏允许玩家在特定时间间隔内保存游戏状态，以便在输掉一轮（例如角色死亡）时，可以重复游戏的最后部分，而无需从头开始。在某些游戏中，重玩是按关卡进行的；在其他游戏中，则是通过关卡内的谜题或挑战；还有一些游戏则提供更大的自由度，允许玩家在游戏的任何地方随意保存。有些游戏允许保存多个相同游戏的实例，这样玩家可以尝试多种策略并比较结果。 游戏通常会设定特定的存档点，并在玩家完成特别危险的挑战前后自动保存或提示玩家保存。通常，角色会被赋予多个生命，以便在失败后能够复活。通常，一个已经死亡但仍有生命的角色的新实例会自动在存档点重新出现。这些用于恢复游戏世界和重生角色的机制的多种变体同样适用于创建模拟世界，以分析复杂的过程。 例如，如果我们分析多种污染物对池塘生态的影响，可以先保存一个假设污染物的模拟时间段，然后在同一时间段内并行运行有和没有第二种污染物的实例。我们还可以重新生成受威胁物种的实例，尝试多种生存策略，或者保存同一场景的多个版本进行比较，以便找出更有利于某一物种的策略。
Repetitive plays of simulated systems can lead to deeper insight when the scenario design and interface elements support clear comparison between different instances. In quantitative simulations, such as economic models, election forecasting, or epidemiology studies, providing continuous sliders for key parameters (sales, voters, 重复进行模拟系统的演示可以在场景设计和界面元素能够清晰比较不同实例时，带来更深刻的洞察。在定量模拟中，例如经济模型、选举预测或流行病学研究，提供关键参数（如销售、选民）的连续滑块。
vaccinations) and readable color coding for the salient outcome (profit/loss, Republican/Democrat, disease decline/spread) can anchor understanding in physical gestures tied to sensory feedback. Games with sharply differentiated avatar choices (e.g., fighters vs. sneaks, opposing sides in a conflict) encourage repetition for the exploration of alternate strategies or points of view. 疫苗接种和清晰的颜色编码可以帮助人们理解显著的结果（如利润/损失、共和党/民主党、疾病的减少/传播），并通过与感官反馈相关的身体动作来加深理解。具有明显区分的角色选择的游戏（例如，战士与潜行者，冲突中的对立方）鼓励玩家反复尝试，以探索不同的策略或观点。
Repetition with variation can also lead to dramatically satisfying juxtapositions in interactive narratives. For example, in Sarah Cooper’s Reliving Last Night (2001), an interactive romantic comedy, we can juxtapose short scenes covering the same moment under different conditions. The story concerns a young woman entertaining a young man, and the interactor can choose what she wears (sloppy or sexy), what she serves (coke or vodka), and what music she puts on. In every version of the story another young man, whom she has recently broken up with, arrives and reacts to the presence of the potential new boyfriend. The story is divided into short dramatic segments and the navigation scheme allows for repetition of the same scene with different parameters (figure 13.17). 重复与变化在互动叙事中也能产生戏剧性且令人满意的对比。例如，在莎拉·库珀的《重温昨夜》（2001）这部互动浪漫喜剧中，我们可以在不同条件下对同一时刻的短场景进行对比。故事讲述了一位年轻女性招待一位年轻男性，互动者可以选择她的穿着（邋遢或性感）、她提供的饮品（可乐或伏特加）以及她播放的音乐。在每个版本中，另一个她最近分手的年轻男性都会出现，并对潜在的新男友的存在作出反应。故事分为短小的戏剧片段，导航方案允许在不同参数下重复同一场景（图 13.17）。
Figure 13.17 第 13.17 图
Sarah Cooper’s interactive story, Reliving Last Night (2001) is divided into dramatic segments that maximize the dramatic contrast between parameterized events. Here an old boyfriend is about to arrive and the protagonist and her potential new boyfriend can be in varying states of inebriation and listening to one of three choices of music, changing the way the scene plays out while keeping the basic characters consistent. Sarah Cooper 的互动故事《重温昨夜》（2001 年）分为多个戏剧性片段，以最大化参数化事件之间的戏剧对比。在这个场景中，一个旧男友即将到来，主角和她潜在的新男友可能处于不同的醉酒状态，并且在听三种音乐选择之一，这改变了场景的发展方式，同时保持了基本角色的一致性。
The Mechanic Is the Message 机械师即是信息
In making an interactive system, as in designing a game, as game designer Tracy Fullerton has pointed out, the mechanic is the message (Fullerton 2007). Most commercial games are structured around a small number of mechanics: moving fast, shooting (or knifing, punching, etc.), and evading. But mechanics can have expressive qualities even within this narrow range. Mario, the classic platform game hero, is forced to relentlessly run and jump to evade disaster, squash his enemies, and make his way through the many obstacles of his world. But his jumps are exhilarating and varied, with mushroom-shaped enemies, trampolines, and magic spinners to propel him, and surprising landscapes opening up in unexpected places, constantly expanding the boundaries and the inventive possibilities of the game. Mario’s cheerful resiliency is like the dogged hopefulness of the slapstick film hero Buster Keaton or the antic evasiveness of Bugs Bunny. Like all archetypal comic heroes, Mario can be beaten down, but he will always rise up again; or he will as long as the player is willing and able to enact his story. By playing Super Mario Brothers we enacting a rule system in which the villains will keep coming but the hero will triumph in the end if the player puts in the time and effort to master the necessary skills. The game is a semiotic system encoding meanings about what makes for success in a thrilling but hostile, competitive world. 在制作互动系统时，正如游戏设计师特雷西·富尔顿所指出的，机制就是信息（富尔顿 2007）。大多数商业游戏围绕少数几种机制构建：快速移动、射击（或用刀、拳打等）和躲避。然而，即使在这个狭窄的范围内，机制也可以展现出丰富的表现力。马里奥，这位经典平台游戏的英雄，被迫不断奔跑和跳跃以躲避灾难、击败敌人，并穿越他世界中的各种障碍。他的跳跃既令人兴奋又多样化，有蘑菇形状的敌人、蹦床和魔法旋转器来助力他，意想不到的地方不断展现出惊人的风景，持续扩展游戏的边界和创造性可能性。 马里奥的快乐韧性就像滑稽电影英雄巴斯特·基顿的顽强希望，或是巴格斯·邦迪的滑稽逃避。作为典型的喜剧英雄，马里奥虽然会被打倒，但他总会重新站起来；只要玩家愿意并能够演绎他的故事。通过玩《超级马里奥兄弟》，我们在执行一个规则系统：反派会不断出现，但只要玩家投入时间和精力掌握必要的技能，英雄最终会取得胜利。这个游戏是一个符号系统，传达了在一个刺激但敌对、竞争激烈的世界中成功的意义。
The Sims finds expressive mechanics in the everyday rituals of middle-class suburban life, like finding a job, taking a shower, picking things off the floor, asking friends to a party, and giving someone you like a backrub. The ordinary furnishings of a home are game objects with behaviors that satisfy our expectations taken from the real world and affect the state of the game. For example, you can use the telephone to order a pizza for your Sims. The pizza will be delivered in a dramatized event that will decrease the amount of money the household has and satisfy the appetite counter of the characters who eat it. It will also create trash that will impact the messiness counter and require cleaning up afterward. The Sims is an interpretation of the rewards and risks that attend our everyday activities. 《模拟人生》在中产阶级郊区生活的日常仪式中找到了表现机制，例如找工作、洗澡、捡东西、邀请朋友参加聚会，以及给喜欢的人按摩背部。家庭中的普通家具作为游戏物品，具备行为，满足我们从现实世界中获得的期望，并影响游戏状态。例如，你可以通过电话为你的模拟人生订购比萨饼。比萨饼将在一个戏剧化的事件中送达，这将减少家庭的金钱，并满足吃它的角色的食欲。同时，它还会产生垃圾，影响杂乱程度，并需要在之后进行清理。 《模拟人生》是对我们日常活动中所面临的奖励与风险的诠释。
Many of the activities we are familiar with can be recast as game mechanics and interpreted as part of a cause-and-effect rule system. We are surrounded by systems of ritualized behaviors, and we can choose to represent them as games by identifying the reward systems they belong to, the limited resources they use up, the competitions they are part of, and so forth. For example, a family holiday celebration might be represented by game mechanics based on any of the following elements: 我们熟悉的许多活动可以重新构建为游戏机制，并视为因果规则系统的一部分。我们生活在仪式化行为的系统中，可以通过识别它们的奖励系统、消耗的有限资源、参与的竞争等，将这些活动表现为游戏。例如，家庭节日庆祝活动可以通过以下任一元素的游戏机制来表现：
scoring of points in bragging contests 在炫耀比赛中获得的分数
competing for consumption of food 争夺食物消费
depletion of limited resources (money for presents, food) 有限资源的耗尽（用于礼物的资金和食物）
scoring of transgressive behavior (nose rings, alcohol consumption) 对越界行为的评估（如鼻环和饮酒）
rituals of synchronized behavior (singing, echoing praise, gift exchange) 同步行为的仪式（如唱歌、互相赞美、交换礼物）
role playing (nurturer, authority figure, trickster, political opponent) 角色扮演（养育者、权威人物、诡计者、政治对手）
contests for attention 吸引注意力的竞争
success at keeping/revealing secrets 成功地保守/揭示秘密
using the dinner table as a game board with place settings representing territory, and placement reflecting teams’ organization 将餐桌作为游戏板，餐具象征领土，摆放方式体现团队的组织结构
In ordinary life we may find ourselves playing multiple games at the same time and losing track of the score in some of them. We may be assigned to roles in social games that we do not want to play or do not know how to play. We often find ourselves in social situations that feel like a single playing field is being used simultaneously for conflicting sports, as if some players are suited up for football while others are in a leisurely round of miniature golf. The pleasure of actual games is that they substitute a controlled, consistent area of focus where a limited group of people agree, within the constraints of the game, to act according to the same rules. An awareness of the game-like structure of social behavior can provide a palette of interaction mechanics for designers, and should be increasingly helpful as computation is embedded in more and more ever-day objects and becomes increasingly important to everyday social rituals (Goffman 1959, 1967; Berne 2004). 在日常生活中，我们可能会同时参与多个游戏，并在其中一些游戏中失去对分数的掌控。我们可能被分配到一些不想参与或不知道如何参与的社交游戏角色中。我们常常发现自己处于社交场合，感觉就像一个单一的场地同时被用于不同的运动，仿佛有些人穿着足球装备，而其他人则在悠闲地打迷你高尔夫。实际游戏的乐趣在于，它们提供了一个受控且一致的关注区域，在这个区域内，一小群人同意在游戏的规则限制下共同参与。 对社交行为的游戏化结构的认识可以为设计师提供多种互动机制，随着计算技术越来越多地融入日常物品，这对日常社交仪式的重要性也将日益增强（戈夫曼 1959, 1967; 伯恩 2004）。
Because games are such a fundamental building block of culture, they are often used as a metaphor for social situations (“He won’t play by the rules.” “They threatened to pick up their ball and go home.” “That remark was out of bounds.”). Games can also be used as a conceptual framework for understanding complex issues. The branch of applied mathematics called game theory attempts to reduce the messy world of social organization into neat game-like abstract patterns, so that they can be analyzed by mathematicians and philosophers and used by economists, political scientists, and computer scientists to model social behavior. For example, the Prisoner’s Dilemma game is based on a scenario in which each of two prisoners can either cooperate with one another or defect from their partnership to seek individual advantage: 游戏作为文化的基本构建块，常常被用作社会情境的隐喻（“他不会遵守规则。” “他们威胁要收起球回家。” “那句话超出了界限。”）。此外，游戏也可以作为理解复杂问题的概念框架。应用数学中的博弈论试图将复杂的社会组织简化为整齐的游戏抽象模式，以便数学家和哲学家进行分析，同时也为经济学家、政治科学家和计算机科学家建模社会行为提供支持。例如，囚徒困境游戏的场景是，两个囚犯可以选择互相合作，或者为了个人利益而背叛对方：
Two suspects are arrested by the police. The police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and, having separated both prisoners, visit each of them to offer the same deal. If one testifies (defects from the other) for the prosecution against the other and the other remains silent (cooperates with the other), the betrayer goes free and the silent accomplice receives the full ten-year sentence. If both remain silent, both prisoners are sentenced to only six months in jail for a minor charge. If each betrays the other, each receives a five-year sentence. Each prisoner must choose to betray the other or to remain silent. Each one is assured that the other would not know about the betrayal before the end of the investigation. How should the prisoners act? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner\'s_dilemma retrieved August 8, 2009) 两名嫌疑人被警方逮捕。由于证据不足，警方无法定罪。在将两名囚犯分开后，警方分别拜访他们，提出相同的交易。如果一人作证（背叛另一人）对另一人进行起诉，而另一人保持沉默（与其合作），背叛者将被释放，而沉默的同伙将面临十年的监禁。如果两人都保持沉默，他们将因轻罪只被判六个月监禁。如果两人都背叛对方，他们将各自被判五年监禁。每个囚犯必须选择是背叛对方还是保持沉默。每个人都被告知对方在调查结束之前不会知道背叛的事情。囚犯们应该如何选择行动？维基百科/囚徒困境（检索于 2009 年 8 月 8 日）
Game theory analysis of the Prisoner’s Dilemma usually stresses the advantage of the defection choice, and is based on an assumption that the partners have no reason to be loyal to one another against their own self-interest. The scenario has been extensively used as a way to understand a wide range of social behaviors, from nuclear disarmament to steroid use among athletes, where choices have to be made between self-interest and collective interest, and where there is imperfect knowledge and distrust among the participants. Game theory scenarios form the basis for much largescale economic modeling, and they have been used in everyday practical applications such as the automated auction system used by Google for selling online advertising (Levy 2009). 囚徒困境的博弈论分析通常强调背叛选择的优势，假设合作伙伴之间没有理由对彼此忠诚，而是追求自身利益。这个情境被广泛用于理解各种社会行为，从核裁军到运动员使用类固醇，在这些情况下，参与者必须在个人利益和集体利益之间做出选择，并且彼此之间存在不完全的知识和不信任。博弈论情境为大规模经济建模奠定了基础，并且已被应用于日常实际场景，例如谷歌用于在线广告销售的自动拍卖系统（Levy 2009）。
Although some would claim that such economic game scenarios can explain many complex social phenomena, such approaches have been criticized as ahistorical (Levitt and Dubner 2005; Fine and Milonakis 2009). Humanistic disciplines, like history and literary studies, are skeptical of approaches that reduce human behavior to logical formulas, believing that our actions reflect complex cultural motivation, social traditions, and unconscious needs and desires that resist quantification. The Prisoner’s Dilemma game assumes that ideology, moral values, personality, and personal relationships are irrelevant to prisoners’ choices. This is not a value-neutral or scientifically objective assumption; it reflects an ideology, rooted in modern European political thought, that focuses on narrowly defined self-interest as a determinant of human behavior and privileges quantifiable phenomena (How much time do they spend in prison?) over qualitative phenomena (What is the relationship between the two prisoners? What is their attitude toward the police?). In the actual world, people regularly act against their rational self-interest, and economists as much as anyone else can be deceived in assessing the value of objects of desire. Though game theory models seem reductive to humanists, they will continue to be seductive to social scientists, if only because they lend themselves so well to programmed simulations. Designers should look to game theory for useful procedural models of behavior, while remaining skeptical about how well their compelling mathematical complexity represents the complexity of the real world. 尽管有人认为这些经济游戏场景能够解释许多复杂的社会现象，但这种方法却受到批评，认为它缺乏历史性（Levitt 和 Dubner 2005；Fine 和 Milonakis 2009）。人文学科，如历史和文学研究，对将人类行为简化为逻辑公式的做法持怀疑态度，认为我们的行为反映了复杂的文化动机、社会传统，以及那些难以量化的无意识需求和欲望。囚徒困境游戏假设意识形态、道德价值观、个性和人际关系与囚犯的选择无关。 这并不是一个价值中立或科学客观的假设；它反映了一种意识形态，根植于现代欧洲政治思想，强调狭义自利作为人类行为的决定因素，并优先考虑可量化的现象（他们在监狱里待了多久？）而非定性的现象（这两个囚犯之间的关系如何？他们对警察的态度是什么？）。在现实世界中，人们常常会违背理性的自我利益，经济学家和其他人一样，在评估欲望对象的价值时也可能会受到误导。尽管博弈论模型对人文学科的学者来说显得过于简化，但它们仍然会吸引社会科学家，至少因为它们非常适合编程模拟。 设计师应参考博弈论，以获取有用的行为模型，同时对其引人注目的数学复杂性是否能真实反映现实世界的复杂性保持怀疑。
Once more, designers will do well to remember the programmer’s adage, Garbage In, Garbage Out. The representation of a situation as a quantitative game is not necessarily more reliable or precise because it involves complicated computer-based calculations. It is part of the designer’s responsibility to make sure that users of such a system fully understand the rules of the underlying game, including what has been left out of the representation. 设计师们再次需要牢记程序员的格言：垃圾进，垃圾出。将某种情况表示为定量游戏并不一定意味着它更可靠或精确，因为这涉及复杂的计算机计算。设计师有责任确保使用该系统的用户充分理解基础游戏的规则，包括哪些内容被省略。
Patterns Make Reality 规律塑造现实
We have been concerned in this book with understanding the patterns by which we can design more expressive and coherent interactive artifacts and advance the 我们在这本书中关注的是理解如何设计更具表现力和连贯性的互动作品，并推动这一进程
development of the new digital medium. In summing up this effort I return to Danny Hillis’s words, the epigram for this book: “Whenever I design a chip, the first thing I want to do is look at it under a microscope—not because I think I can learn something new by looking at it but because I am always fascinated by how a pattern can create reality” (Hillis 1998). 新数字媒介的发展。在总结这一努力时，我想起了丹尼·希利斯的话，这是本书的箴言：“每当我设计一个芯片时，第一件想做的事就是用显微镜观察它——不是因为我认为能从中学到什么新东西，而是因为我总是对图案如何创造现实感到着迷。”（希利斯 1998）。
Patterns make reality, and media patterns-like the circuits on a computer chip, the divisions on a map, the fields in a database, the sections of a Wikipedia page, and the mechanics of a game-shape reality by providing the templates by which we exchange meaning with one another. Games are a fundamental building block for designers because they ritualize behavior. But playfulness is even more important because it disrupts ritual patterns and reconfigures reality. I encourage every designer reading this book to approach your career with an attitude of radical playfulness, looking for ways to disrupt the patterns that define us in order to reconfigure reality to better serve human needs. 模式塑造现实，媒体模式——如同计算机芯片上的电路、地图上的划分、数据库中的字段、维基百科页面的部分以及游戏的机制——通过提供我们彼此交流意义的模板来影响现实。游戏是设计师的基本构建块，因为它们使行为变得仪式化。然而，游戏的趣味性更为重要，因为它打破了仪式模式并重新构建现实。我鼓励每位阅读本书的设计师以一种激进的游戏态度来对待自己的职业，寻找打破定义我们的模式的方法，以便重新构建现实，更好地满足人类的需求。
Patterns make reality. What we can represent determines what we can do, what we can know, and who we can be. The hardware and software platforms on which digital information is inscribed and transmitted will change over the coming decades, as will the job opportunities in this evolving field. But the task of shaping a powerful new medium of representation will remain the same. 模式塑造现实。我们能够表达的内容决定了我们能做什么、能了解什么以及能成为什么样的人。未来几十年，数字信息记录和传输的硬件与软件平台将会变化，这个不断发展的领域中的工作机会也会随之改变。但塑造一种强大的新表现媒介的任务将始终如一。
The creation of a more coherent and expressive digital medium is not something that is achievable in any single project or over the course of a single career, nor is the future inevitably weighted in favor of free expression and deeper knowledge. We did not come into possession of the computer as a medium of representation through patterns of perfect benevolence, but through the common human history of exploitation and conflict as well as aspiration and achievement. But design is an intrinsically optimistic profession, and a more expressive medium is worth reaching for, and achievable through a collective professional dedication to the principles of design as a cultural practice. 创建一个更连贯且富有表现力的数字媒介并非在任何单一项目或职业生涯中都能实现，未来也不一定必然倾向于自由表达和更深的知识。我们获得计算机作为表现媒介，并不是通过完美的善意，而是通过人类历史中的剥削与冲突，以及追求与成就。然而，设计是一种本质上乐观的职业，更具表现力的媒介值得我们去追求，并且可以通过对设计作为文化实践原则的集体专业奉献来实现。
The contribution of digital design to human culture goes beyond the usefulness of any particular application. Every designer who struggles to make a particular artifact more coherent and expressive is contributing to the collective project of expanding human understanding by inventing the medium. 数字设计对人类文化的贡献不仅仅体现在某个特定应用的实用性上。每位努力使某个作品更加连贯和富有表现力的设计师，都是在通过创造媒介为拓展人类理解的共同事业贡献力量。
DESIGN EXPLORATIONS: THE GAME MODEL OF INTERACTION 设计探索：互动游戏模型
Recognizing the Conventions and Structure of Games 了解游戏的规则和结构
Play a game (like bridge or charades) that involves closely coordinating your thoughts with a partner or teammates. 玩一个需要与搭档或队友紧密配合思维的游戏（例如桥牌或猜词游戏）。
How well could your partner read your thoughts and intentions? 你的伴侣能多好地理解你的想法和意图？
How well were you able to read your partner’s thoughts and intentions? 你有多好地理解伴侣的想法和意图？
When were you most in sync? What produced the common understanding? 你们最默契的时候是什么时候？是什么促成了这种共同理解？
When were you least in sync? What produced the communication gap? 你们最不协调的时刻是什么时候？是什么导致了沟通上的障碍？
Did the opposing team members coordinate their behaviors differently than you did? How so? 对方队员的行为协调方式和你们有什么不同？具体是怎样的？
Identify a game that you play or watch regularly with other people either in person or over the Internet. 找到一个你经常和其他人一起玩或观看的游戏，无论是面对面还是在线。
What generation and gender are the people you share this game with? 你和谁一起玩这个游戏？他们的年龄和性别是什么？
Are you affiliated with them in other ways besides your playing or watching the game together? Does playing together change the intensity or quality of your affiliation? 除了你们一起玩或看比赛之外，你们还有其他方式与他们有联系吗？一起玩会影响你们关系的深度或质量吗？
Are there rituals to your interaction that are not in the official rules of the game? 你们的互动中是否有一些不在游戏官方规则里的仪式？
Have you noticed significant differences in the experience if a new player is added or a game-related ritual is disrupted? 如果添加一个新玩家或打乱游戏相关的仪式，你是否注意到体验上有明显的不同？
Games can function as boundary objects, uniting disparate social groups for whom playing the game means different things within a single functional system. 游戏可以作为一种边界对象，将不同的社会群体团结在一起，因为对他们来说，玩游戏在一个统一的功能系统中具有不同的意义。
Is the preceding statement true of your experience of any games? 你在任何游戏中的体验是否符合之前的说法？
Is it true for the role of public games such as Olympic contests or organized team sports? 公共游戏的角色，比如奥林匹克比赛或组织的团队运动，是真的吗？
Identify a game that functions as a boundary object and describe the important features of the game from the perspective of two or more categories of player/ spectators. 找到一个作为边界对象的游戏，并从两个或多个玩家/观众的角度描述该游戏的重要特征。
Translating Legacy Game Mechanics into Procedural Computer Code 将经典游戏机制转化为程序化计算机代码
Play the same game (e.g., Scrabble, chess) in at least two of these ways: using a nondigital game board and playing against a real person; using a digital game board and playing against a real but remotely located person; using a digital game board and playing against a computer-generated opponent. What is the difference in your expectations, attention, and behavior in each of these situations? Is there a difference in degree or kind of satisfaction you experience? 以至少两种方式玩同样的游戏（例如，拼字游戏、国际象棋）：一种是使用非数字游戏棋盘与真实对手对弈；另一种是使用数字游戏棋盘与远程的真实对手对弈；还有一种是使用数字游戏棋盘与计算机生成的对手对弈。在这些情况下，你的期望、注意力和行为有什么不同？你所体验的满足感在程度或种类上有区别吗？
Design an interactive version of a simple board game. Identify a board game aimed at children under seven years old and analyze all the mechanics of the game (the rules, the tokens, and game board). 设计一个简单棋盘游戏的互动版本。选择一个适合七岁以下儿童的棋盘游戏，并分析该游戏的所有机制（包括规则、棋子和游戏板）。
Make a mock-up of the game board and all the tokens. If there are dice or a spinner in the game, invent a digital equivalent to generate a random number in a limited range through the imperfect agency of the player. 制作游戏板和所有棋子的模型。如果游戏中有骰子或转盘，可以设计一个数字工具，通过玩家的操作在有限范围内生成随机数。
Describe how all the objects in the game will behave using procedural notation such as flow charts, state diagrams, or pseudocode. 描述游戏中所有物体的行为，可以使用流程图、状态图或伪代码等形式。
Make a paper version of the game and playtest your rules with potential users to be sure the mechanics are clear and consistent. The game may require tuning to make it harder or easier or more or less complicated. 制作游戏的纸质版本，并与潜在用户进行规则测试，以确保游戏机制清晰且一致。可能需要对游戏进行调整，以使其更具挑战性或更简单，或者更复杂或更容易。
After analyzing the results of the playtesting, redesign the game and revise your documentation. 在分析游戏测试结果后，重新设计游戏并更新相关文档。
If possible, implement the game and do further iterative playtesting. 如果可以的话，请实现游戏并进行更多的迭代测试。
Design and if possible implement a similar game to the one in the preceding exercise, with the same underlying abstract mechanics but different surface content. 设计并尽可能实现一个与前一个练习中相似的游戏，保持相同的基本抽象机制，但内容有所不同。
Making Meaning with Replayability 通过可重玩的方式创造意义
Design a replayable version of a family holiday dinner in which there are at least four characters with two or more visible states (e.g., sleepiness, intoxication, anger, parental doting, etc.). 设计一个可以反复体验的家庭节日晚餐版本，至少包含四个角色，并且每个角色有两种或更多的可见状态（例如，困倦、醉酒、愤怒、父母的溺爱等）。
Describe a positive outcome of the dinner as an event with clear preconditions expressed as character states (e.g., a young couple will announce their engagement at a dinner but only if they are feeling loving toward one another and if the drunken uncle has fallen asleep and the mother is not angry at the father and if the father is still in the dining room.) 描述晚餐作为一个事件的积极结果，前提条件以角色状态表达（例如，一对年轻情侣将在晚餐上宣布他们的订婚，但前提是他们彼此感到爱意，醉酒的叔叔已经睡着，母亲对父亲没有生气，父亲仍在餐厅里。）
Describe a negative outcome of the dinner as an event that results from the combination of a set of individual character states (e.g., the young couple will leave early if any two of the following take place: the uncle has become enraged by a political argument, the mother has retreated to the kitchen in tears, the father has retreated to the den to watch the football game. 描述晚餐的负面结果，这个结果是由一组个体性格状态的组合造成的（例如，如果以下任意两个情况发生，年轻夫妇将会提前离开：叔叔因政治争论而愤怒，母亲泪流满面地退回厨房，父亲则退回书房看足球比赛）。
Describe a neutral outcome of the dinner (e.g., the young couple will stay until the end of the dinner but will keep their engagement a secret, if not enough bad or good things happen to force one of the more extreme events.). 描述晚餐的中性结果（例如，这对年轻情侣会一直待到晚餐结束，但会对他们的订婚保密，除非发生足够的坏事或好事，迫使其中一个极端事件发生。）
Describe three time periods within the dinner and actions that the characters can take during each of these periods that will affect their own or other people’s states. 描述晚餐中的三个时间段，以及角色在每个时间段内可以采取的行动，这些行动将影响他们自己或他人的状态。
Mock up your replayable scenario, making the actions and the effects as visible as possible through graphic dramatization, verbal dramatization, control panels, or a combination of these. 模拟您的可重放场景，尽量通过图形化、口头表达、控制面板或它们的组合，使动作和效果更加清晰可见。
Decide on an interaction mechanic: Which characters does the interactor control? What important choices can the interactor make? 确定互动机制：互动者可以控制哪些角色？互动者可以做出哪些重要决策？
Play through multiple combinations of states and make each one as dramatically interesting as possible. 通过多种状态的组合进行游戏，让每一种状态都尽可能地引人入胜。
When you are satisfied with your replayable scenario, test it with others and adjust the visibility and cause-and-effect structure as necessary. Pay attention to the tuning of the game, making sure that the good or bad effects are motivated by the choices of the interactor. 当你对可重播的场景感到满意时，应该与他人进行测试，并根据需要调整可见性和因果关系结构。注意游戏的平衡，确保好的或坏的效果是由参与者的选择所引起的。
Making Meaning with Expressive Game Mechanics 通过富有表现力的游戏机制来创造意义
Take a familiar expression that uses games as a metaphor (e.g., “That remark was out of bounds”; “We want to level the playing field for the disadvantaged”) and design 采用一个常见的游戏隐喻表达（例如，“那句话超出了界限”；“我们希望为弱势群体创造一个公平的竞争环境”）并进行设计
a game mechanic that expresses the relationship captured by the metaphor. Is there a clearly defined contest? a scoring mechanism? Are cheating behaviors visible? 一种游戏机制，体现了隐喻所表达的关系。是否有明确的竞赛？是否有得分机制？作弊行为是否明显可见？
Design and mock up (and, if possible, create and iteratively test) a game based on the Prisoner’s Dilemma scenario that includes the same outcomes as the original game, but more contextual detail and different decision factors (other than simple, competing self-interest) for the characters to take into account. For example, you could include the nature of the crime in the scenario or more information about the relationship of the perpetrators. You could differentiate between what the lawyers advise each prisoner to do and what they decide to do. How do the values behind your model differ from the values behind the classic scenario? 设计并模拟（如果可能，创建并进行迭代测试）一个基于囚徒困境的游戏，该游戏保留原始游戏的结果，但增加了更多的背景细节和不同的决策因素（除了简单的自利竞争）供角色考虑。例如，您可以在场景中加入犯罪性质或关于犯罪者关系的更多信息。您可以区分律师对每个囚犯的建议与他们的实际决定。您的模型所体现的价值观与经典场景的价值观有何不同？
The video games of Jason Rohrer (such as Passages and Gravity) are explicitly autobiographical. Play one or both of these games (they are available at <http://hcsoftware. sourceforge.net>) and read the associated artist statements. 杰森·罗赫的电子游戏（如《通道》和《重力》）具有明显的自传性质。你可以玩这两个游戏中的一个或两个（它们可以在< http://hcsoftware.sourceforge.net>上找到），并阅读相关的艺术家声明。
What recognizable game mechanics is Rohrer using? Rohrer 使用了哪些易于识别的游戏机制？
What game genres do these mechanics come from? What other mechanics are in these game genres that he doesn’t use? 这些机制属于哪些游戏类型？在这些游戏类型中，还有哪些机制是他没有使用的？
What conventions does he take from other narrative genres such as film? To what extent do the actions of the interactor carry the emotion of the piece? 他从其他叙事类型（如电影）中借鉴了哪些惯例？互动者的行为在多大程度上传达了作品的情感？
What is the difference between presenting this experience as a game and presenting it as a short animated film? 把这个经历作为游戏呈现和作为短动画电影呈现有什么不同？
How do you imagine the mechanics of the game would be different if another member of Rohrer’s family designed them? 如果罗赫尔家族的其他成员来设计游戏机制，你认为游戏的机制会有什么不同？
Design your own autobiographical video game (or create a biographical video game for a fictional character) building upon Rohrer’s expressive use of game elements and using elements from any video game genre. 设计你自己的自传式视频游戏（或为虚构角色创作传记视频游戏），借鉴罗赫尔对游戏元素的独特运用，并结合任何视频游戏类型的元素。
Identify the protagonist and describe in words the game’s scenario, literal action, emotional analogy, and the life experience it symbolically enacts. 确定主角，并用文字描述游戏的情境、具体动作、情感比喻，以及它象征性地展现的生活经历。
What is the mood of the game? Does it have a “winning” state? 这个游戏的氛围如何？它有“胜利”状态吗？
Does it have a clear termination point? 这个问题有明确的结束点吗？
Identify a visual style and any auditory assets for the game, such as music or sound effects. 确定游戏的视觉风格以及相关的音频素材，如音乐或音效。
Make a storyboard for your game. 为你的游戏创建一个故事板。
Prepare a flow chart of game action with state diagrams if appropriate. 准备一个游戏动作的流程图，必要时可使用状态图。
Describe the action of elements in the game world with pseudocode. 用伪代码描述游戏世界中元素的行为。
If possible, implement one part of the game and playtest it with others. 如果可以的话，先实现游戏的一部分，并与其他人进行测试。
If possible, implement the whole game and playtest it with others. 如果可以的话，完整地实现这个游戏，并与其他人进行测试。
Glossary 术语表
Abstract 概要
A representational strategy used in computer programming that involves analyzing data and processes so that they may be specified by their most generalized components. The objective of data abstraction and procedural abstraction is to create components that can be reused in the widest possible range of cases while still maximizing the efficiency of the individual case. A database is an example of data (or information) abstraction. A set of rules for alphabetizing any list in any language is an example of procedural abstraction. Abstraction is sometimes described as “hiding” the extraneous, more specific information. 在计算机编程中，表示策略是一种分析数据和过程的方法，使其能够通过最一般化的组件进行定义。数据抽象和过程抽象的目标是创建可以在尽可能多的场景中重用的组件，同时最大限度地提高每个具体案例的效率。数据库就是数据（或信息）抽象的一个例子，而对任何语言中的列表进行字母排序的规则则是过程抽象的一个例子。抽象有时被形容为“隐藏”那些多余的、更具体的信息。
Abstraction Layers Nested layers of increasingly complex symbolic code. For examples, ASCII code is an abstraction layer that represents letters in the form of 0 s and 1 s ; it rests on top of the lower layer of abstraction that represents electrical charges as 0 s and 1s, and it supports higher levels of abstraction that represent words and programming instructions using ASCII letters. Establishing appropriate abstraction layers in a system is strategy for the design of complex systems. See also Abstraction, Encapsulation, Modularity. 抽象层是嵌套的，层次逐渐增加，形成越来越复杂的符号代码。例如，ASCII 码作为一种抽象层，以 0 和 1 的形式表示字母；它建立在表示电荷为 0 和 1 的更低层次的抽象之上，并支持更高层次的抽象，用 ASCII 字母表示单词和编程指令。在系统中建立适当的抽象层是设计复杂系统的一种策略。另见抽象、封装和模块化。
Accessibility Affording access to people with special needs. Accessibility design guidelines provide direction for designers on ways to compensate for limitations in sight, hearing, mobility, and other abilities with the goal of making information and participation available to as many people as possible. Digital affordances support wider access by allowing us to provide multiple instantiations of the same item, and multiple ways of communication, for example, through both written text and speech for web pages and virtual communities. (For information on web accessibility standards see http://www.webaim.org.) 可及性是为有特殊需求的人提供访问的能力。可及性设计指南为设计师提供了指导，帮助他们克服在视力、听力、行动能力等方面的限制，旨在让尽可能多的人能够获取信息和参与活动。数字可及性通过提供同一内容的多种形式和多种沟通方式，支持更广泛的访问，例如，通过书面文本和语音为网页和虚拟社区提供信息。（有关网页可及性标准的信息，请访问 http://www.webaim.org.）
Accompaniment Used here to describe the pleasurable feeling that a digital artifact has been designed to anticipate and serve an interactor’s needs, creating a sense of a partner intelligence, similar to Sherry Turkle’s notion of a the computer as a “second self” (Turkle 1984). 陪伴是用来描述数字产品被设计成能够预见并满足用户需求所带来的愉悦感，这种体验创造了一种类似于 Sherry Turkle 所提到的“第二自我”的伴侣智能（Turkle 1984）。
Active Creation of Belief The experience of trying out actions in a interactive environment such as a game world, and finding that things act in accordance with your expectations, reinforcing your belief in the virtual world (Murray 1997). See also Agency, Interactivity, Immersion. 积极信念的形成 在互动环境（如游戏世界）中尝试行动的体验，发现事物与预期一致，从而增强了你对虚拟世界的信念（Murray 1997）。另见代理性、互动性和沉浸感。
Affordance A concept used in the field of human-computer interaction (HCI) to describe the functional properties of objects or environments-the properties that allow particular uses. For example, a blackboard affords writing and erasing; a low, flat, supported surface thirty inches 可供性是人机交互（HCI）领域中的一个概念，用于描述物体或环境的功能特性——这些特性决定了特定的使用方式。例如，黑板可以用来书写和擦除；一个低而平坦的支撑表面高约三十英寸。
square affords sitting. The term “affordances” was first used by James J. Gibson in “A Theory of Affordances” (1977) to mean the “action possibilities” of a material object in relationship to a potential user, and was adopted by Donald Norman (1989) in The Design of Everyday Things in which it is defined as “the perceived and actual properties of the thing, primarily those fundamental properties that determine just how the thing could possibly be used.” In the context of this book—as in chapter 3 of Hamlet on the Holodeck (Murray 1997)—the digital medium itself is taken to have four affordances or properties that are useful for representation: the procedural, participatory, encyclopedic, and spatial affordances. In addition, individual platforms have affordances: for example, mobile platforms afford location-specific information services. 正方形提供坐的可能性。“可供性”这一术语最早由詹姆斯·J·吉布森在《可供性理论》（1977）中提出，指的是物体与潜在用户之间的“行动可能性”，并在唐纳德·诺曼的《日常事物的设计》（1989）中被采用，定义为“事物的感知和实际属性，主要是那些决定事物可能如何被使用的基本属性。”在本书的背景下——如穆雷在《哈姆雷特在全息甲板》第三章中所述——数字媒介被认为具有四种可供性或属性，这些属性对表现非常有用：程序性、参与性、百科全书性和空间可供性。 此外，各个平台都有其独特的功能，例如，移动平台能够提供与位置相关的信息服务。
Affordance Grid As presented in chapter 3, an aid for analyzing and designing digital artifacts, by visualizing the design space as composed of opportunities to maximize each of the four characteristic properties of the digital medium: the procedural, participatory, encyclopedic, and spatial affordances. 在第 3 章中介绍的可供性网是一种分析和设计数字工件的工具，它通过将设计空间可视化为最大化数字媒介四个特征属性的机会：程序性、参与性、百科全书式和空间可供性。
Agency In this book, as in chapter 4 of Hamlet on the Holodeck (Murray 1997), agency is defined as an aesthetic pleasure characteristic of digital environments, which results from the well-formed exploitation of the procedural and participatory properties. When the behavior of the computer is coherent and the results of participation are clear and well motivated, the interactor experiences the pleasure of agency, of making something happen in a dynamically responsive world. The term “agency” is meant as a corrective to the inexact use of “interactive” as both a descriptive and an evaluative term. See Dramatic Agency. 在这本书中，正如《哈姆雷特在全息甲板》第四章（穆雷 1997）所述，代理被定义为数字环境中的一种美学愉悦，这种愉悦源于对程序性和参与性特征的有效利用。当计算机的行为一致，参与的结果清晰且有充分的动机时，互动者会体验到代理的乐趣，即在一个动态响应的世界中促成某些事情的发生。“代理”一词旨在纠正“互动”这一描述性和评估性术语的不准确使用。请参见戏剧代理。
Agent In computer science, an agent is a piece of computer code that can make decisions and initiate behaviors autonomously (rather than as a centrally controlled subroutine) within a larger computational environment. An agent has goals and preferences and often acts like a human agent, (e.g., a real estate agent, a talent agent) in seeking information or negotiating exchanges on behalf of an actual person. 在计算机科学中，代理是指一段能够自主做出决策和启动行为的计算机代码（而不是作为一个集中控制的子程序）在更大的计算环境中运行。代理具有目标和偏好，通常像人类代理（例如，房地产代理或人才代理）一样，代表真实的人寻求信息或进行交易谈判。
A-life (Artificial Life) In computer science, the name given to programming code that, on execution, mimics life forms in some way, such as becoming self-replicating, displaying genetic mutation, or simulating a biological ecology. The classic example of A-life is John Conway’s Game of Life (Gardner 1970). A-life（人工生命）是计算机科学中的一个术语，指的是一种编程代码，它在执行时以某种方式模仿生命形式，比如自我复制、表现出遗传变异或模拟生物生态。A-life 的经典例子是约翰·康威的《生命游戏》（加德纳 1970）。
Algorithm A well-defined set of rules for accomplishing a calculation, search, or other objective of a programming environment. Software engineering involves the use of established algorithms and the development of new ones for more efficient processing of information. Algorithms are abstract methods, separate from the specific computer code in which they are written. 算法是为实现计算、搜索或其他编程目标而制定的一套明确规则。软件工程不仅使用已有的算法，还开发新的算法，以更高效地处理信息。算法是一种抽象方法，与其具体实现的计算机代码是分开的。
Alternate Reality Games Games that take place on multiple real- world and digital platforms and simulate events happening in the real world, often involving conspiracy plots, puzzles, and codes that are unraveled by groups of players in loose confederations or organized teams. See also Pervasive Games. 替代现实游戏是在多个现实和数字平台上进行的游戏，模拟现实世界中的事件，通常涉及阴谋情节、谜题和代码，由松散的联盟或组织团队的玩家共同解开。另见普遍游戏。
Analog Analog forms of representation record information in a continuous stream with analogous qualities to the recorded phenomena. For example, the chemicals in photographic 模拟的表现形式以连续的方式记录信息，具有与被记录现象相似的特性。例如，摄影中的化学物质。
film vary continuously in direct proportion to the light emitted. Analog representation is often differentiated from digital representation, which relies on discrete samples, such as pixels on a screen. 电影的变化与发出的光成正比。模拟表示通常与数字表示相区别，后者依赖于离散样本，比如屏幕上的像素。
Applet A small application that runs on a mobile platform or other specialized device and usually has highly focused functionality, such as a single game, an email program, or weather update. See also Widget. 应用程序是一个在移动平台或其他专用设备上运行的小型应用，通常功能非常专一，比如单个游戏、电子邮件程序或天气更新。另见小部件。
Appliance Model An approach to the design of digital artifacts as networked versions of old appliances (such as a home heating system hooked up to the Internet) or in specialized new “information appliances” (such as a dedicated music player). The appliance model reflects a view of computers, articulated in Donald Norman’s The Invisible Computer, as invisibly embedded inside other limited-use objects (Norman 1998). 家电模型是一种将数字产品设计为旧家电的网络版本的方法，例如连接到互联网的家庭供暖系统，或是专门的新型“信息家电”，如专用音乐播放器。家电模型反映了对计算机的看法，这种看法在唐纳德·诺曼的《隐形计算机》中得到了阐述，认为计算机隐蔽地嵌入在其他有限用途的物体中（诺曼 1998）。
Artifact Used here to mean any material entity created by a human being on purpose and with some degree of expertise for the purposes of representation, such as letters carved in stone, a paper shopping list, a portrait done in oils or by photography, a film, an interactive website. Digital artifact is the broadest term for anything made of bits and processors, such as a website, a virtual reality environment, a wireless network, a mobile phone, the Internet as a whole, and so on. 这里的“文物”指的是人类有意创造的、具有一定专业水平的任何物质实体，用于表现目的，比如刻在石头上的字母、纸质购物清单、油画或摄影作品、电影、互动网站等。数字文物是指由比特和处理器构成的广义术语，包括网站、虚拟现实环境、无线网络、手机以及整个互联网等。
Artificial Intelligence (AI) A specialized field of computer science that attempts to model the processing of the human brain or imitate higher-level reasoning in computer code. Also used for characters within games that act as autonomous agents and make decisions based on their situated experience. 人工智能（AI）是计算机科学的一个专门领域，旨在模拟人脑的处理方式或在计算机代码中模仿更高级的推理。此外，它还用于游戏中的角色，这些角色作为自主代理，根据所处环境的经验做出决策。
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange, pronounced “ask-key,” associates a binary code (using only 0 s or 1 s ) with each letter of the alphabet so alphabetically encoded information (everything written in letters and words) can be inscribed in computer bits and transmitted across digital networks. First devised in the 1960s. ASCII 美国标准信息交换码，发音为“ask-key”，将二进制代码（仅使用 0 和 1）与字母表中的每个字母关联，使得字母编码的信息（所有用字母和单词书写的内容）能够被记录在计算机位中，并通过数字网络进行传输。该标准最早在 1960 年代制定。
Asynchronous Not synchronous, that is, not happening at the same time. Asynchronous discussions and collaborations are a characteristic feature of digital communication, because designers have invented conventions such as email, blog threads, and Facebook wall posts that allow contributions to be made to a subject of shared focus by people in different locations who are participating at different times. 异步意味着不是同步的，也就是说，不是在同一时间发生。异步讨论和协作是数字通信的一个显著特征，因为设计师们创造了电子邮件、博客讨论和 Facebook 动态等惯例，使得来自不同地点的人们能够在不同时间对共同关注的主题进行贡献。
Attribute A quality of an abstract entity expressed as a generalized category (e.g., “color” is an attribute of flowers). Attributes have values that vary with particular instances of the abstract entity they describe (e.g., the color “red” of a particular flower). Such attribute/value pairs can take the form of fields in a database or metadata tags or variables attached to objects in computer programs. 抽象实体的属性质量以一般类别的形式表达（例如，“颜色”是花的一个属性）。属性的值会根据所描述的抽象实体的具体实例而变化（例如，某朵花的颜色是“红色”）。这样的属性/值对可以表现为数据库中的字段、元数据标签或附加在计算机程序对象上的变量。
Avatar Derived from the Hindu concept of a god embodied in different beings. A digital avatar is a character within a virtual world who represents the interactor or player. Avatars can be specified by gender, appearance, affiliation, personality, and skills using avatar-builder programs that allow the user to pick and choose from a substitution system of attributes or to assign points in 从印度教概念衍生的化身是以不同生物形式体现的神灵。数字化身是虚拟世界中的角色，代表互动者或玩家。用户可以通过化身构建程序指定化身的性别、外观、隶属、个性和技能，允许他们从属性替代系统中选择或分配点数。
a resource allocation system. In fictional role-playing games avatars often belong to fanciful “races” like elf, vampire, or Klingon. 一种资源分配系统。在虚构的角色扮演游戏中，角色通常属于幻想中的“种族”，例如精灵、吸血鬼或克林贡。
Binary Having two possible values, as bits in a computer have values that we interpret symbolically as either 0 or 1 . Everything that is represented in the digital medium, including the commands it executes, the values it calculates, and the information it stores, is represented within the machine as a group of binary bits, a collection of 0 s and 1 s . 二进制是指具有两种可能值的系统，因为计算机中的位被我们象征性地解释为 0 或 1。在数字媒介中表示的一切，包括执行的命令、计算的值和存储的信息，都是以一组二进制位的形式存在于机器中，即由 0 和 1 组成的集合。
Bit A single unit of electrically charged material within a computer. A bit (originally an abbreviation for binary digit) can be in one of two states, symbolically represented as 0 or 1 . Bits are arranged in groups of eight known as bytes. 位是计算机中一个电荷材料的基本单位。位（最初是二进制数字的缩写）可以处于两种状态，通常用 0 或 1 表示。位以八个为一组，称为字节。
Bitmap A computer system’s internal representation of an image as an array of pixels in which one or more bits represent each pixel. Familiar graphics formats like JPEG are compressed bitmaps. Bitmapped graphics are often differentiated from vector graphics, which are stored as a set of instructions for redrawing the image. 位图是计算机系统内部将图像表示为像素数组的方式，其中每个像素由一个或多个比特表示。像 JPEG 这样的常见图形格式是压缩的位图。位图图形通常与矢量图形区分开，后者是通过一组指令来重绘图像的。
Black Box A convention for describing a process that is a component of a modular software system without specifying how the process works, but indicating what its inputs and outputs are. See also Encapsulation. 黑箱 A 是一种描述过程的约定，指的是模块化软件系统中的一个组成部分，它不具体说明过程的工作原理，而是指出其输入和输出。另见封装。
Boundary Object Any classification system or standardized form or other cultural convention used by multiple distinct communities that would otherwise be separated by conflicting understandings of a shared domain. Defined by Bowker and Star (1999) as “those objects that both inhabit several communities of practice and satisfy the information requirements of each of them” (16). For example, a system for classifying the work of nurses may bridge the very different understanding of patient care held by the nursing community of practice and that of the hospital accountants. 边界对象 指的是任何分类系统、标准化表单或其他文化惯例，这些被多个不同的社区使用，而这些社区因对共享领域的理解存在冲突而可能被隔离。根据 Bowker 和 Star（1999）的定义，“这些对象同时存在于多个实践社区中，并满足每个社区的信息需求”（第 16 页）。例如，用于分类护士工作的系统可能会弥合护理实践社区与医院会计师在病人护理方面截然不同的理解。
Branching Tree A common metaphor for the spatial representation of a computer program in which alternate sequences of action diverge (branch off) from common decision points. 分支树是一种常见的隐喻，用于表示计算机程序的空间结构，其中不同的操作序列从共同的决策点分岔。
Byte A group of eight bits, or the smallest unit of computer memory that can represent a single letter of information. 字节是由八个位组成的，是计算机内存中能够表示单个字母信息的最小单位。
Categorization Placing items in categories based on common elements. Differs from classification in that categories may or may not be well ordered. 分类 将物品根据共同特征归入不同类别。与分类不同的是，类别的排列可能不够规范。
Cell In a spreadsheet or database table, the intersection of a single record and a single field makes one cell, into which a value can be entered. 在电子表格或数据库表中，单个记录与单个字段的交集构成一个单元格，您可以在其中输入一个值。
Channel Derived from the analogy of the channel of a river, a path through which information flows. Channels are used in three related but different ways: 1 . In information theory, the channels can be analyzed for the relationship of signal (coherent, intentionally transmitted, meaningful information) to noise (meaningless interference, like static in a radio broadcast). 2. Cognitive scientists often speak of perceptual channels such as vision, hearing, and touch. 3. In common experience, channels are a feature of legacy radio and television transmission—separately administered sources of similar information, often associated with entertainment networks (e.g., NBC, 渠道这个词源于河流的类比，指的是信息流动的路径。渠道有三种相关但不同的用法：1. 在信息理论中，渠道可以用来分析信号（连贯、有意传输且有意义的信息）与噪声（无意义的干扰，如收音机广播中的静电）之间的关系。2. 认知科学家常常提到感知渠道，比如视觉、听觉和触觉。3. 在日常经验中，渠道是传统广播和电视传输的一个特征——这些是分别管理的类似信息源，通常与娱乐网络（例如 NBC）相关。
PBS, BBC) that provide the primary means for choosing an information source (tuning to a channel). Each of these uses can be fruitful as a reference point for digital design, but it is important not to confuse them. PBS 和 BBC 提供了选择信息来源（调到频道）的主要方式。每种用途都可以作为数字设计的参考点，但重要的是不要将它们混淆。
Chunk, Chunking A segment of information. According to cognitive scientists, we remember information best when it is organized into chunks, aggregating many smaller units into fewer larger ones (Miller 1956). Chunking-separating information into memorable larger units-is therefore an individual cognitive strategy and also a strategy for the design of complex artifacts and large information resources. See Semantic Unit. 分块，信息分段。根据认知科学家的研究，我们在将信息组织成块时，记忆效果最佳，这意味着将许多较小的单元聚合成较少的较大单元（米勒 1956）。分块，即将信息分离成易于记忆的较大单元，是一种个人认知策略，同时也是设计复杂物品和大型信息资源的有效方法。请参见语义单元。
Class, Classes A data abstraction in object-oriented programming for specifying sets of objects that share common structures, in the form of attributes and processes (methods). Members of a class are instances of the underlying pattern. Members of a class can differ from one another because the attributes and processes can be described as containing variables and parameters. For example, one might define a class of monsters and give them the general attribute of height, a variable that can have a specified range of values, and a general method of finding food that can have parameters to specify what kind of food a particular monster prefers and how it goes about harvesting or hunting it. Classes can be nested within one another with child classes inheriting properties from parent classes. For example, a water-monster class could inherit size attributes and eating habit methods from the parent monster class, and then add its own attributes and methods, like fins and swimming, appropriate to the water. 类是面向对象编程中的一种数据抽象，用于定义一组共享共同结构的对象，这些结构以属性和方法的形式存在。类的成员是其基础模式的实例。类的成员之间可以存在差异，因为属性和方法可以包含变量和参数。例如，可以定义一个怪物类，并为其设置一个通用属性——身高，这是一个可以有特定值范围的变量，同时还可以定义一个寻找食物的通用方法，该方法可以通过参数来指定特定怪物喜欢的食物类型以及它获取或捕猎食物的方式。类之间可以相互嵌套，子类可以继承父类的属性。 例如，一个水怪类可以继承父类的大小属性和饮食习惯方法，并添加适合水域的自身属性和方法，比如鳍和游泳。
Classification A classification (or classification scheme) is an ordered system of classes that attempts to account for all the items within the larger domain, and to differentiate them unambiguously, based on their most important attributes and relationships. Classification schemes often include hierarchies. Examples: the biological classification taxonomy (domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, species) for living things, the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) system for books. 分类（或分类方案）是一个有序的类别系统，旨在涵盖更大领域内的所有项目，并根据其最重要的属性和关系进行明确区分。分类方案通常包含层次结构。例如：生物分类法（域、界、门、纲、目、属、种）用于生物，国会图书馆分类（LCC）系统用于书籍。
Cloud Computing The location of an individual user’s documents, media files, and software applications on a server accessible over a network and available in multiple locations and on multiple devices (and therefore imagined to be in a ubiquitous but nonmaterial cloud) rather than in a single location or on a single-person desktop or laptop machine. The user’s access to the data and software is through an account with the company hosting it. 云计算是指个人用户的文档、媒体文件和软件应用程序存储在一个可以通过网络访问的服务器上，用户可以在多个地点和设备上使用这些资源（因此被想象成一个无处不在但非物质的云），而不是仅仅存储在单一地点或个人的桌面或笔记本电脑上。用户通过与托管这些数据和软件的公司建立的账户来访问它们。
Code A set of symbols-socially fixed patterns-that are associated with experiential phenomena or with another set of symbols, or both. Visual alphabets encode spoken language; Braille and Morse code represent visual alphabets; computer languages represent instructions that make sense to humans (e.g., “calculate paycheck”) in symbols that make sense to computers (Os and 1s). Correspondences between codes, such as the equivalence of a set of dots and dashes to a particular set of letters, can be specified without ambiguity; but the relationship of symbolic codes to the realm of human experience, such as the meaning of words or gestures, is ambiguous, indeterminate, and a matter of interpretation. See also Semiotics. 代码是一组符号——社会上固定的模式——与经验现象或另一组符号相关，或两者都有。视觉字母表用于编码口语；盲文和摩尔斯电码则代表视觉字母表；计算机语言用对人类有意义的符号（例如，“计算工资”）表示对计算机有意义的指令（0 和 1）。代码之间的对应关系，例如一组点和划线与特定字母集的等价性，可以明确指定；但符号代码与人类经验领域的关系，例如词语或手势的意义，则是模糊的、不确定的，并且需要解释。另见符号学。
Codex A manuscript divided into pages and bound together like a modern book, as differentiated from a scroll (plural: codices). 手稿是将页面分开并像现代书籍一样装订在一起的，与卷轴有所区别（复数形式为：codices）。
Collocate, Collocation Collocation is the principle in information science of locating like things together, such as books by the same author collocated on the same shelf, or papers about the same topic collocated in the same file folder. Pronounced “co-locate.” 词汇搭配是信息科学中的一个原则，指的是将相似的事物放在一起，比如同一作者的书籍放在同一书架上，或者关于同一主题的论文放在同一个文件夹中。发音为“co-locate”。
Companion Model One of the four models of interaction discussed in part V. Digital artifacts serve as companions to human interactors because we think of anything animated as a social actor (Reeves and Nass 1996), because we can give it behaviors that emulate human actions (such as playing a musical instrument), and because we can engage in imitation games with it, with the computer echoing human actions (as in control of an avatar with a joystick) or with the human imitating the computer (as in dancing and musical performance games). Design goals for the computer as companion include synchronization, politeness, and conversational responsiveness. See also Game Model, Machine Model, and Tool Model. 伴侣模型 四种互动模型之一，在第五部分讨论。数字工件作为人类互动者的伴侣，因为我们将任何动画的事物视为社会行为者（Reeves 和 Nass 1996），并且可以赋予它模仿人类行为的能力（例如演奏乐器），还可以与它进行模仿游戏，计算机可以回响人类的动作（如用操纵杆控制虚拟角色），或者人类可以模仿计算机（如在舞蹈和音乐表演游戏中）。计算机作为伴侣的设计目标包括同步、礼貌和对话的响应性。另见游戏模型、机器模型和工具模型。
Complexity The representation of complexity is an important goal of computation. Computer systems are symbolic representations of processes and entities, and they become more powerful by standardizing components and combining them into larger units. Complexity is built up in computer programming systems through Modularity, Encapsulation, and nested Abstraction Layers. 复杂性是计算的重要目标。计算机系统作为过程和实体的符号表示，通过标准化组件并将其组合成更大的单元，变得更加强大。在计算机编程系统中，复杂性通过模块化、封装和嵌套抽象层逐步构建。
Computer A computer is an object or set of objects that changes state in a perceivable way in response to a new set of stimuli, and in accordance with a previously inscribed set of conditional instructions. We currently implement this machine using electronic circuits, but it could conceivably be implemented in other materials. It is not the bits that make a computer, but the behavior-the ability to execute a variable process described in symbolic code. 计算机是一种能够在感知上改变状态的对象或一组对象，它会根据新的刺激和之前设定的条件指令进行反应。目前我们使用电子电路来实现这台机器，但它也可以用其他材料来构建。计算机的本质不在于比特，而在于其行为——即执行用符号代码描述的可变过程的能力。
Conditional Statement In computer programming, an instruction that has multiple outcomes based on the state of a variable. The simplest and most common conditional instruction is in the form: IF X is true, THEN do this, ELSE do something-else. Conditional statements can also specify multiple responses for multiple conditions, or prescribe conditions for continuing or exiting from a repeated sequence of actions. See also Loop. 条件语句在计算机编程中是指根据变量状态具有多种结果的指令。最简单和常见的条件指令形式是：如果 X 为真，则执行此操作；否则执行其他操作。条件语句还可以为多个条件指定不同的响应，或者规定在重复执行某些操作时的继续或退出条件。另见循环。
Connotative The implied, associated meaning of a semiotic symbol, as distinguished from the denotative and ideological meaning. For example, an American flag may officially denote the nation known as the United States of America, but it may have additional connotations of military service when it appears on an elderly man’s lapel pin; or of celebration of community when carried by child on the Fourth of July. 含义是一个符号所隐含的、关联的意义，与其指称意义和意识形态意义有所不同。例如，美国国旗可能正式代表美利坚合众国，但当它出现在一位老人的胸针上时，可能带有额外的军事服务的象征；而在独立日时被孩子们举起时，则可能象征着社区的庆祝。
Constraint The constraints on a design project are limitations of any kind, such as time, money, human resources, computational power, bandwidth, and skill. Specific client needs, such as branding or institutional values, can also constrain the range of acceptable design solutions. Platforms of implementation are an important source of constraint. For example, a web project might be constrained in color palette, privacy rights, download time; a mobile application might be constrained by screen size, video formats, attention time. See also Affordance. 设计项目的约束是指各种限制，例如时间、资金、人力资源、计算能力、带宽和技能。特定客户的需求，如品牌形象或机构价值观，也可能限制可接受的设计方案范围。实施平台是一个重要的约束来源。例如，网页项目可能在色彩调色板、隐私权和下载时间上受到限制；而移动应用程序则可能受到屏幕尺寸、视频格式和用户注意力时间的限制。另见可供性。
Container A common concept in computing, referring to a unit that holds information and has its own name and location. All information systems from ancient baskets and jugs to terabyte hard drives have the concept of a container. Containers usually have labels and nest inside one 容器是计算领域中的一个常见概念，指的是一个存储信息的单元，具有独特的名称和位置。从古代的篮子和罐子到千兆字节的硬盘，所有信息系统都包含容器的概念。容器通常带有标签，并且可以嵌套在其他容器内部。
another, like fields in a record and records in a database or files in folders that are enclosed in other folders. 另一个例子，比如记录中的字段、数据库中的记录，或者文件夹中包含在其他文件夹里的文件。
Contextual Menu A specialized menu that appears on demand and only when needed, usually in association with a particular object, such as an object in a virtual world or a file in an operating system. Contextual menus have limited options and appear in physical proximity to the object they control. They are usually called up by selecting the object or pressing a control key, or both. Also called pop-up menus. 上下文菜单是一种特殊的菜单，仅在需要时出现，通常与特定对象相关联，比如虚拟世界中的物体或操作系统中的文件。上下文菜单的选项有限，通常在它们所控制的对象附近显示。通常通过选择对象或按下控制键，或两者同时来调用。也称为弹出菜单。
Controlled Vocabulary A set of descriptors used in a standardized and consistent manner to ensure precision of reference and retrieval, for example, street names within a single city, subject categories within the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) system, and the Getty Thesaurus of Art and Architecture. See also Folksonomy, Namespace, Nomenclature. 受控词汇是一组以标准化和一致的方式使用的描述词，旨在确保引用和检索的准确性，例如，某个城市的街道名称、国会图书馆分类（LCC）系统中的主题类别，以及盖蒂艺术与建筑词典。另见民间分类法、命名空间和命名法。
Conventions Social practices and communication formats shared by members of a culture or subculture, as well as media formats shared by artifacts within the same genre. Conventions routinize and ritualize repeated interactions, providing a familiar way of addressing novel situations or receiving novel information-for example, shaking hands, printing newspaper headlines in larger type, or displaying hyperlinked text on a web page in a different color. Conventions become transparent from familiarity, allowing us to focus on the new information-the particular person we are greeting with a handshake, today’s headlined news, or the destination the linked word is pointing to. Conventions are most often recognized when they are violated in some way, making us aware of our routine expectations, as when someone refuses to shake hands or a boldfaced word on a web page is not clickable. 习俗是文化或亚文化成员共同遵循的社会实践和交流方式，以及同一类型文物所共享的媒体格式。习俗使得重复的互动变得常规化和仪式化，为我们提供了一种熟悉的方式来应对新情况或接收新信息，例如握手、用较大字体打印报纸标题，或在网页上以不同颜色显示超链接文本。由于熟悉，习俗变得透明，让我们能够专注于新信息——我们握手问候的特定人、今天的头条新闻，或链接词所指向的目的地。 习惯通常在被违反时最容易被识别，这让我们意识到自己的日常期望，比如当有人拒绝握手，或者网页上的加粗字词无法点击时。
Convergence In digital media, convergence means the intersection of genres that were formerly separated by incompatible means of inscription and transmission, such as television and print journalism. Discussions of convergence often focus on the commercial institutions and revenue models that are disrupted by the movement from analog to digital delivery systems, on the erosion of familiar conventions, and on the increased participation of the mass audience as active content producers. See Jenkins 2006. 在数字媒体中，融合指的是曾因不兼容的记录和传播方式而分开的不同类型的交汇，例如电视和印刷新闻。关于融合的讨论通常集中在从模拟到数字交付系统转变所带来的商业机构和收入模式的冲击、熟悉惯例的消失，以及大众作为积极内容生产者参与度的提高。参见詹金斯 2006 年。
Culture Human culture is a system of shared meaning resting on the singularly human practice of symbolic communication. Culture encompasses all the complex socially transmitted practices, rituals, codes, and beliefs shared by the members of a society, including all the media formats, genres, and conventions by which shared attention is focused and meaning is expressed. Cultural meaning is not fixed, but always a matter of interpretation (Geertz 1973, 89). See also Discourse Community. 人类文化是一个共享意义的系统，基于人类独特的符号交流实践。文化涵盖了所有复杂的社会传递的实践、仪式、规范和信仰，这些都是社会成员共同分享的，包括各种媒体格式、类型和约定，通过这些方式，关注得以集中，意义得以表达。文化的意义并非固定，而是一个不断被解读的问题（Geertz 1973, 89）。另见话语社区。
Data Any collection of symbolic units, often quantitative, collected or presented for the purpose of analysis. Data become most useful when structured by semantic segmentation into labeled units. Data are sometimes differentiated from procedures (in programming language) and from information (in information science.) Procedures take data as an input, perform operations on data, and may also output data in the form of lists or tables. In information science, data are seen as a raw representation of facts or perceptions while information is more meaningful than data because it includes interpretation. 数据是任何符号单位的集合，通常是定量的，收集或呈现的目的是为了分析。当数据通过语义分割结构化为标记单位时，它们的价值最大。数据有时与程序（在编程语言中）和信息（在信息科学中）有所区分。程序将数据作为输入，执行操作，并可能以列表或表格的形式输出数据。在信息科学中，数据被视为事实或感知的原始表示，而信息则比数据更具意义，因为它包含了解释。
Database An information structure composed of identically structured records, which can be created, modified, and accessed individually, such as an electronic address book. Each record of a database contains segments called fields. The set of all records sharing the same field structure is called a table. Databases structured as a single table are called flat file databases; those with multiple interlocking tables are relational databases. 数据库是一种由结构相同的记录组成的信息结构，这些记录可以单独创建、修改和访问，例如电子地址簿。每条记录包含称为字段的部分。所有具有相同字段结构的记录集合称为表。只有一个表的数据库称为平面文件数据库，而具有多个相互关联表的数据库则称为关系数据库。
Decision Space The complete set of possibilities available when making a decision. 决策空间 指在做出决策时可选择的所有可能性。
Denotative The literal level of meaning, the thing most explicitly invoked by a semiotic symbol, like the name of a person, place, or thing, as opposed to the connotative and ideological levels of meaning. 指称性意义是字面意义的层面，指符号所明确表示的事物，比如人、地点或物品的名称，与隐含意义和意识形态意义相对。
Descriptor An indexing term that describes a media object of some kind and allows it to be accessed, such as the name of an item in a catalog, a search term attached as metadata to a video clip, or a bar code printed on a piece of merchandise. See also Metadata, Structured Document, Tags. 描述符 是一个索引术语，用于描述某种媒体对象并便于访问，例如目录中项目的名称、作为视频剪辑元数据的搜索词，或印刷在商品上的条形码。另见元数据、结构化文档和标签。
Design The process of intentionally shaping a specific artifact or process by choosing among alternate strategies in order to achieve explicit goals. Design is shaped by the specific constraints and affordances of the available resources and by the explicit and implicit needs, desires, and taste preferences of the user group. 设计是通过选择不同的策略，有意地塑造特定的工件或过程，以实现明确的目标。设计受到可用资源的具体限制和可能性的影响，同时也受到用户群体的明确和隐含需求、愿望及品味偏好的影响。
Digital The adjective used to identify artifacts and processes composed of and performed by computers based on electronic bits. The word “digital” is derived from digit (fingers), and it means divided into discrete, that is, separate, parts, like the fingers of a hand. Digital representation is often differentiated from analog representation, which records information as a directly varying continuous stream rather than as discretely sampled points. For example, the magnetism of predigital audiotape directly varied analogously with (in the same proportions as) the sound waves continuously captured by the microphone. A digital recorder would set individual bits to 0 or 1 at discrete microsecond intervals. 数字 这个形容词用于描述由计算机基于电子比特构成和执行的工件和过程。“数字”一词源于“数字”（手指），意味着分为离散的、独立的部分，就像手指一样。数字表示通常与模拟表示相区分，后者将信息记录为直接变化的连续流，而不是离散的采样点。例如，前数字音带的磁性与麦克风连续捕捉的声波成比例地直接变化。数字录音机会在离散的微秒间隔内将每个比特设置为 0 或 1。
Digital Medium The medium that rests on the inscription, transmission, and representation of information by electronic bits, using the procedural, participatory, spatial, and encyclopedic affordances of computation. 数字媒介 这种媒介依赖于通过电子比特对信息进行铭刻、传输和表示，利用计算的程序性、参与性、空间性和百科全书式的特性。
Direct Manipulation An interface design strategy in which the user is able to affect an object that is either directly present on the screen (such as text in a word processor) or represented through a visual depiction (such as an iconized file folder), with a direct physical action without having to communicate through a mediating command line or menu. For example, clicking and dragging the icon of a file from one iconized folder to another is direct manipulation. The phrase was coined by pioneering HCI researcher Ben Shneiderman (1992). 直接操作是一种界面设计策略，用户可以通过直接的物理动作来影响屏幕上直接显示的对象（如文字处理器中的文本）或通过视觉表现（如图标化的文件夹）表示的对象，而无需通过中介命令行或菜单进行交互。例如，将一个文件的图标从一个图标化的文件夹拖动到另一个图标化的文件夹就是直接操作。这个术语是由人机交互领域的开创者本·施奈德曼于 1992 年提出的。
Disambiguate To resolve ambiguity by assigning a single meaning where there are multiple possible meanings. For example, if there are three authors with the same name, disambiguation results when a librarian or encyclopedia editor or database creator provides a separate listing with a unique identifier for each. 消歧义是指通过为多个可能的含义指定一个唯一的意义来解决歧义。例如，如果有三个同名的作者，当图书管理员、百科全书编辑或数据库创建者提供一个独特的标识符并列出每位作者时，就会实现消歧义。
Distributed Cognition A theory of cognition that holds that knowledge and understanding are distributed between our minds and our material artifacts and between an individual mind and larger groups of individuals. For example, our limited individual memory can be augmented by referring to notes on a blackboard, scanning the titles of books on a shelf, or consulting Google or Wikipedia. Bees in a hive have distributed cognition of where to find nectar and how to make honey, with no single bee knowing the whole process. Media conventions are part of our human system of distributed cognition, making the knowledge of many available to the individual, and shaping our behaviors into coordinated rituals with limited individual coaching. 分布式认知是一种认知理论，认为知识和理解在我们的思维、物质工具以及个体思维与更大群体之间是分散的。例如，我们有限的个人记忆可以通过参考黑板上的笔记、浏览书架上的书名或使用谷歌和维基百科来增强。蜂巢中的蜜蜂在寻找花蜜和制作蜂蜜的过程中具有分布式认知，没有一只蜜蜂能掌握整个过程。媒体惯例是我们人类分布式认知系统的一部分，使得许多人的知识能够为个体所用，并将我们的行为塑造成在有限个体指导下的协调仪式。
Discourse Community A group of people who communicate in shared genres (such as scientific articles, political blog posts, teenagers’ instant messages). Discourse communities understand one another in part because of their mastery of the media conventions specific to their genres: Teenagers recognize abbreviations and slang, and the appropriate range of responses to a novel but familiar situation, such as a fashion mistake or a sports defeat; scientists recognize specialized vocabularies, and the familiar conventions by which a new experimental finding is presented. The term was coined by sociolinguist Martin Nystrand (1982). The related term “interpretive communities” was coined by literary critic Stanley Fish (1980), as part of an argument that literary texts are only meaningful in the context of the cultural assumptions of specific groups of readers. 话语社区是指一群在共享体裁（如科学文章、政治博客、青少年即时消息）中进行交流的人。话语社区能够相互理解，部分原因在于他们掌握了特定体裁的媒体惯例：青少年能够识别缩写和俚语，并对新颖但熟悉的情况（如时尚错误或体育失利）做出适当反应；科学家则能够理解专业词汇以及呈现新实验发现的常规方式。这个术语是由社会语言学家马丁·奈斯特兰德于 1982 年提出的。 相关术语“解释性社区”是由文学评论家斯坦利·费什于 1980 年提出的，他认为文学文本只有在特定读者群体的文化假设背景下才能被理解。
Distributed Creation of Resources The practice of creating a networked resource, such as a Wikipedia page or a set of tagged photographs, by coordinating the contributions of creators located in different places and working independently through the use of a common framework. 分布式资源创建 通过协调来自不同地点、独立工作的创作者的贡献，利用共同框架创建网络资源的实践，例如维基百科页面或一组带标签的照片。
Distributed Cognition A concept in cognitive science that describes the process of knowing things as a collective enterprise, encoded in the built environment, in shared rituals, in other minds, and in media objects. For example, we find our way around an unfamiliar city by way of maps and signage and by following other people, building on a limited amount of first-hand individual knowledge of the environment. The design of interactive systems, like the design of physical tools or printed diagrams, is a contribution to the distributed intelligence resources of a society. 分布式认知是认知科学中的一个概念，描述了知识获取作为一种集体活动的过程，这些知识体现在建筑环境、共享仪式、他人思维和媒体对象中。例如，我们在陌生城市中通过地图、标识和跟随他人来找到方向，这依赖于我们对环境有限的第一手知识。交互系统的设计，类似于物理工具或印刷图表的设计，都是对社会分布式智能资源的贡献。
Document A media object such as a text, image, or animation. Structured documents are divided into meaningful segments using metadata tags such as <heading> or <table of contents>. 文档 A 的媒体对象，包括文本、图像或动画。结构化文档通过使用元数据标签（如或）将其划分为有意义的部分。<table></table>
DOI Digital object identifier. A standard for assigning a unique numerical identifier to any digital representation for the purpose of naming it with bibliographic precision and accessing it consistently though its URL may change. DOIs can refer to fixed information, like an article in a digital library, or to a container for changing elements, such as an official membership list. DOI（数字对象标识符）是一种为任何数字内容分配唯一编号的标准，旨在以书目精确性进行命名，并确保即使其 URL 发生变化也能一致访问。DOI 可以指代固定的信息，例如数字图书馆中的文章，也可以指代包含可变元素的容器，如官方会员名单。
Dramatic Agency The experience of agency within a procedural and participatory environment that makes use of compelling story elements, such as an adventure game or an interactive narrative. To create dramatic agency the designer must create transparent interaction conventions 戏剧性代理是在一个程序化和参与性环境中体验的，这种环境利用引人入胜的故事元素，如冒险游戏或互动叙事。为了实现戏剧性代理，设计师需要建立透明的互动规范。
(like clicking on the image of a garment to put it on the player’s avatar) and map them onto actions that suggest rich story possibilities (like donning a magic cloak and suddenly becoming invisible) within clear stories with dramatically focused episodes (such as, an opportunity to spy on enemy conspirators in a fantasy role-playing game). （例如，点击衣物图像将其穿在玩家角色上）并将其转化为暗示丰富故事可能性的动作（如穿上魔法斗篷后突然隐形），在清晰的故事中有戏剧性集中情节（例如，在幻想角色扮演游戏中，有机会监视敌方阴谋者）。
Element An entity created with metadata tags that functions as a primitive component or building block of structured documents. For example, an XML schema that defines a particular kind of document, such as a catalog listing, is composed of elements, such as author and title. Elements can form hierarchies and can be associated with attributes. 元素是通过元数据标签创建的实体，作为结构化文档的基本组成部分或构建块。例如，定义特定类型文档（如目录清单）的 XML 模式由元素构成，如作者和标题。元素可以形成层次结构，并且可以与属性关联。
Emergent Behavior Describes a phenomenon characteristic of complex systems where unforeseen or unforeseeable behaviors arise as the result of the individual actions of multiple agents. Emergent behaviors are sometimes self-organizing. For example, flocking is an emergent behavior of geese, resulting from each goose locating itself with reference to its immediate neighbors but no goose having a goal of creating the emergent chevron shape of the group. Computational systems can exhibit similar emergent behavior, such as A-life systems. Also used for the unexpected behavior of human beings in virtual environments, such as the use of quest-related game spaces as virtual picnic grounds. 新兴行为是复杂系统的一种特征现象，指的是多个主体的个体行为所导致的不可预见或无法预见的行为。这些新兴行为有时会自我组织。例如，鹅群的成群结队就是一种新兴行为，每只鹅根据周围邻居的位置进行定位，但没有任何一只鹅的目标是形成群体的人字形。计算系统也可能表现出类似的新兴行为，比如人工生命系统。此外，这个概念也用于描述人类在虚拟环境中的意外行为，例如将与任务相关的游戏空间当作虚拟野餐场所。
Encapsulation An abstraction strategy used in computer programming in which chunks or modules of processing code are embedded in larger systems without having to list all the components of the module. For example, the Print module is encapsulated within the Print command that appears on the File menu of an application. The programmers who write the word processor or the photo editor applications only have to know how to take the user’s input and passing it to the encapsulated Print module as a set of parameters (such as name of the file, size of the paper, margin size, type and location of printer). The commands that go to the printer are hidden from the application programmers, encapsulated within the single Print command. Encapsulation is therefore a crucial strategy of modular programming and a means of building up abstraction layers to create a complex system. 封装是一种抽象策略，广泛应用于计算机编程中，它将处理代码的模块嵌入到更大的系统中，而无需列出模块的所有组成部分。例如，打印模块被封装在应用程序文件菜单中的打印命令内。编写文字处理器或照片编辑器的程序员只需了解如何获取用户输入，并将其作为一组参数（如文件名、纸张大小、边距、打印机类型和位置）传递给封装的打印模块。发送到打印机的命令对应用程序程序员是隐藏的，封装在单一的打印命令中。 封装是模块化编程的重要策略，也是构建抽象层以形成复杂系统的有效方法。
Encyclopedic Affordance With the procedural, participatory, and spatial properties, one of the four defining representational affordances of the digital medium. The digital medium is encyclopedic in three ways: its capacity-the vast number of bits of information it can contain; its extensive range of legacy and computational media formats and genres, including text, moving images, photographs, drawings, animations, musical recordings, audio recordings, live image and sound, three-dimensional models, databases, search engines, and video games; and its ability to represent any process through logical symbolic representation, including simulations of highly complex systems. When the encyclopedic affordance is appropriately exploited, large information resources are semantically segmented at multiple levels of granularity, sorted, classified, and labeled with controlled vocabularies. When informational spaces or virtual worlds are well organized with clear boundaries, consistent navigation, and encyclopedic details that reward exploration they create the experience of immersion. 数字媒介具有程序性、参与性和空间特性的百科全书式可供性，是其四个定义性表现可供性之一。数字媒介在三个方面展现出百科全书的特性：首先是其容量——可以容纳的海量信息位数；其次是其广泛的遗留和计算媒体格式与类型，包括文本、动态图像、照片、绘画、动画、音乐录音、音频录音、实时图像和声音、三维模型、数据库、搜索引擎以及视频游戏；最后是其通过逻辑符号表示来表现任何过程的能力，包括对高度复杂系统的模拟。 当百科全书的功能得到合理利用时，大型信息资源会在多个层次上进行语义分割、排序、分类，并使用受控词汇进行标记。当信息空间或虚拟世界组织得当，具备清晰的边界、一致的导航以及鼓励探索的详细信息时，它们便能创造出沉浸式的体验。
Entity Any abstract item in a computer program that can be given a unique name. Entities often have attributes. 实体是计算机程序中任何可以被赋予唯一名称的抽象项目，通常具有一些属性。
Expression In its simplest sense, expression is the effective communication of ideas or feelings by any means. All media of communication are used for expressive purposes and digital media have many potential modes of expression, including the verbal, visual, auditory, and tactile. Expression is a different goal from usefulness, the goal of products of engineering, which are expected to function instrumentally, as tools for accomplishing a task. But highly useful devices can also function as expressive media, reflecting and reinforcing status relationships and other cultural values. For example, an airplane cockpit can be seen as primarily a set of tools (an “instrument panel”) for accomplishing the task of flying an airplane, but its design is also an expression of the social hierarchy of pilot, copilot, cabin crew, and passengers. The same object can be expressive of quantitative scientific data and of more ambiguous qualitative values like social relationships. The design of utilitarian digital devices and the creation of digital works of art and the design of everything in between are all part of the collective effort of expanding the expressive power of the emerging digital medium. An expressive tool allows the user an appropriate degree of choice, inflection, and individual adjustment, supporting the development of expertise, craftsmanship, and technique. 表达在最简单的意义上，是通过任何方式有效地传达思想或情感。所有的交流媒介都用于表达目的，而数字媒体则拥有多种潜在的表达方式，包括语言、视觉、听觉和触觉。表达的目标与有用性不同，有用性是工程产品的目标，这些产品被期望作为工具有效地完成任务。然而，高度有用的设备也可以作为表达媒介，反映和强化地位关系及其他文化价值观。 例如，飞机驾驶舱可以被视为一组主要用于飞行任务的工具（“仪表盘”），但其设计也反映了飞行员、副驾驶、机组人员和乘客之间的社会等级。同一个物体既可以表达定量的科学数据，也可以传达更模糊的定性价值，比如社会关系。实用数字设备的设计、数字艺术作品的创作，以及介于两者之间的所有设计，都是为了扩展新兴数字媒介的表现力而进行的集体努力。一个表现工具使用户能够在选择、语调和个人调整上有适当的自由，从而支持专业技能、工艺和技术的发展。
Extensible, Extensibility An important design value, extensibility is the capacity to add additional functionality or capacity to a finished artifact, such as additional memory added to extension slots in a camera or additional templates added into an extensible folder of a word processor. In programming, extensibility refers to the ability to add new constructs to a language, so the Extensible Markup Language or XML\mathbf{X M L} is a framework for elaborating new tagging structures, independent of its predecessor the HyperText Markup Language (HTML). 可扩展性是一个重要的设计价值，指的是向完成的产品中添加额外功能或容量的能力。例如，在相机的扩展插槽中增加额外内存，或在文字处理器的可扩展文件夹中添加更多模板。在编程中，扩展性意味着能够向语言中添加新的构造，因此可扩展标记语言（ XML\mathbf{X M L} ）是一个用于定义新标记结构的框架，与其前身超文本标记语言（HTML）无关。
Facet One of several sets of search terms associated with the same item, allowing for search or filtering by multiple attributes or by multiple independent classification systems. 与同一项目相关的多个搜索词集合中的一个方面，允许通过多个属性或独立的分类系统进行搜索或筛选。
FAQs Stands for “Frequently Asked Questions,” a useful feature of websites and other communications of organizations. FAQs 是“常见问题”的缩写，是网站和其他组织沟通中非常实用的一个功能。
Feedback, Feedback Loop In interface design, feedback refers to the signal the machine returns to the user as the result of a user action. Ben Shneiderman’s Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design include “Provide Informative Feedback” for every user action, with the most significant feedback for “infrequent, major actions” (Shneiderman 1992). Feedback can be visual (highlighting a selected object), auditory (the clicking sound of a mouse button), haptic (the vibration of a game controller), or verbal (“Windows is shutting down”). 反馈，反馈循环在界面设计中，反馈是指机器根据用户的操作返回给用户的信号。Ben Shneiderman 的八大黄金法则中提到“为每个用户操作提供信息反馈”，并强调对“少见的重大操作”要给予最重要的反馈（Shneiderman 1992）。反馈可以是视觉的（突出显示所选对象）、听觉的（鼠标按钮的点击声）、触觉的（游戏手柄的震动）或口头的（“Windows 正在关闭”）。
In systems theory, feedback is the system mechanism that signals an effect of an action, and sometimes results in a change to the system. The classic example is the change in temperature that provides feedback to a thermostat in a feedback loop that causes the air conditioner or heater to switch off when the desired temperature is reached, and to switch back on when it gets too hot or too cold. 在系统理论中，反馈是指系统机制，它能够指示某个行为的效果，有时会导致系统的变化。一个经典的例子是温度变化为恒温器提供反馈，在反馈回路中，当达到设定温度时，空调或暖气会自动关闭，而当温度过高或过低时又会重新启动。
Field In a database, a field is a segment of a record with a fixed length and data type that corresponds to a single semantic unit, like a name, address, or social security number. 在数据库中，字段是记录的一个部分，具有固定的长度和数据类型，代表单一的语义单位，例如姓名、地址或社会安全号码。
Filter One of the essential functions for interaction with large data resources, Filtering is done by changing the value of one or more attributes or data fields in a search query or 过滤是与大型数据资源交互的基本功能之一，它通过更改搜索查询中一个或多个属性或数据字段的值来实现
parameterized display in order to remove items from a larger set. If I am searching for movies made by Humphrey Bogart in the American Film Institute online database, I might filter them to include only those made between 1940 and 1955, or only the ones that Lauren Bacall was also in, or only those with both attributes. 为了从一个更大的集合中筛选项目，我可以进行参数化显示。如果我在美国电影协会的在线数据库中搜索亨弗莱·鲍嘉的电影，我可能会筛选出 1940 年至 1955 年间制作的电影，或者只选择劳伦·巴考尔参演的电影，或者同时满足这两个条件的电影。
Flow The experience of pleasurable absorption in a task that is neither too easy nor too challenging, identified by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. Flow is characterized by clear goals, a sense of control, concentration on an intrinsically pleasurable activity, loss of self-consciousness, and a distorted consciousness of time (Csíkszentmihályi 1990). 流动是指在一项既不太简单也不太具有挑战性的任务中体验到的愉悦沉浸感，这一概念由米哈伊·契克森米哈伊提出。流动的特点包括明确的目标、控制感、专注于内心愉悦的活动、失去自我意识以及对时间的扭曲感知（契克森米哈伊 1990）。
Flow Chart A diagram made up of boxes and arrows used to describe a computer program or other branching process that makes clear the individual actions and decision points leading to divergent outcomes. Flow charts can be used for the computer’s processing, the interactor’s decision path, or for decision trees that describe conditionalized abstract processes of any kind, such as the question and answer script for a telephone help system. 流程图是由方框和箭头构成的图示，用于描述计算机程序或其他分支过程，清晰地展示导致不同结果的各个行动和决策点。流程图可以用于计算机的处理、用户的决策路径，或用于描述任何类型的条件抽象过程的决策树，例如电话帮助系统中的问答脚本。
Folksonomy A set of descriptor metadata tags that are created by mass participation without editorial control, Folksonomies are created in shared web resources such a web-based photo archive. They are often shown in overview as tag clouds. See also Controlled Vocabulary, Taxonomy. 民间分类是一种由大众参与创建的描述性元数据标签集合，且没有编辑控制。民间分类通常在共享的网络资源中生成，例如网络照片档案。它们通常以标签云的形式展示。另见受控词汇和分类法。
Format A standardized aggregation of technical and social conventions governing the inscription and transmission of symbolic patterns so that they form recognizable media artifacts. Formats serve as containers for the creation, transmission, and reception of meaning. Examples of formats: the URL protocols and HTML code that shape web pages; the paper sizes and column arrangements that shape newspapers. 格式是对技术和社会规范的标准化整合，规定了符号模式的记录和传递方式，使其形成可识别的媒体作品。格式作为意义创造、传递和接收的载体。格式的例子包括：塑造网页的 URL 协议和 HTML 代码，以及影响报纸排版的纸张尺寸和列布局。
Formative Evaluation Testing that takes place while an interactive project is in development, with collection of results to influence iterative design decisions. Testing done to assess the value of the completed product or project is summative evaluation. 形成性评估是在互动项目开发过程中进行的测试，通过收集结果来影响迭代设计决策。而对已完成的产品或项目进行的评估则称为总结性评估。
Frame In cognitive science, computer programming, and interaction design, this term refers to a structure, framework, or schema that provides a controlling pattern into which formulaic elements can be fitted. A frame can shape interactions between people (e.g., ordering a meal in a restaurant) or the processing of information in a media artifact (a political news story). Culturally familiar frames allow us to assimilate new events and perceptions into established patterns, sparing us confusion and misunderstanding. When two interactors, or the creator and receiver of a message, do not share the same frame as a context for decoding a message, they may understand each individual sign but still fail to communicate. For example, a host may rise and a guest may not understand that this is the signal to take one’s leave. Larger cultural frames, such as ideologies, allow us to interpret complex new events within familiar contexts. Framing a problem is a crucial step in any design process, and often involves reframing from the original presentation to a broader perspective. See also Culture, Genres. 在认知科学、计算机编程和交互设计中，这个术语指的是一种结构、框架或模式，它提供了一种控制模式，可以将公式化的元素嵌入其中。框架可以影响人们之间的互动（例如，在餐厅点餐）或在媒体作品中处理信息（如政治新闻故事）。文化上熟悉的框架使我们能够将新事件和感知融入既有模式，从而避免混淆和误解。当两个互动者，或信息的创作者和接收者，在解码信息时没有共享相同的框架作为上下文时，他们可能理解每个单独的符号，但仍然无法有效沟通。 例如，主人可能会起身，而客人却可能不明白这意味着该离开了。更大的文化框架，比如意识形态，帮助我们在熟悉的背景下理解复杂的新事件。界定问题是任何设计过程中的关键步骤，通常需要将原始呈现重新调整为更广泛的视角。另见文化和类型。
Function A small procedure that is usually part of a larger software system. A function and its inputs are specified in abstract form, and inputs are passed to the function as the parameters 函数是通常属于更大软件系统的一小部分的过程。函数及其输入以抽象的方式定义，输入作为参数传递给函数。
when it is called (i.e., when it gets the signal to execute its instructions) by another part of the system. So a function named ADD that is specified in the code like this: 当系统的其他部分调用它时（即，当它接收到执行指令的信号时）。因此，代码中指定的名为 ADD 的函数是这样的：
ADD (numberone, numbertwo) [how to call the function] 调用函数：添加（数字一，数字二）
Sum = numberone + numbertwo [what the function does] 和 = numberone + numbertwo [这个函数的功能]
might be called with specific numerical values in a statement like this 可能会在类似这样的语句中使用特定的数字值 ADD(3,44)\operatorname{ADD}(3,44)
It would then execute the following: 然后将执行以下步骤：
Sum =(3+44)=47=(3+44)=47 计算总和 =(3+44)=47=(3+44)=47
The function ADD would receive the numbers 3 and 44 as input and return the value 47 as output. Functions can also handle nonquantitative symbolic processes. See also Method, Procedure. 函数 ADD 会接收数字 3 和 44 作为输入，并返回 47 作为输出。函数还可以处理非定量的符号过程。另见方法和过程。
Functional Specification A document created at the beginning of the design process for a computational artifact indicating what the final product is expected to do. Designers should be careful to question a client’s specifications in order to identify the core underlying requirements and to avoid reproducing inefficient legacy processes. In the ideal design process the creation of the functional specification document will be a collaborative activity, with strong user participation, and will provide the opportunity to collectively rethink the larger context of interaction in the light of the affordances of the digital medium. See also Wireframes. 功能规格说明书是在计算工件设计初期创建的文档，明确最终产品的预期功能。设计师应仔细审视客户的规格，以识别核心需求，避免重复低效的遗留流程。在理想的设计过程中，功能规格说明书的编写应是一个协作活动，用户参与度高，并为共同重新思考数字媒介的可用性提供机会。另见线框图。
Game One of the oldest cultural forms, a structured form of play, in which human beings direct joint attention to symbolic media (like playing cards or game boards), often within a magic circle that shuts out real-world concerns. Games rest on the pleasure that comes from synchronized behavior and a mutual awareness of shared attention (Murray 2003). Games are often structured as contests or puzzles (Murray 2006) but can best be thought of as system of behavior that involves game mechanics, rules, and often has winning conditions (Salen and Zimmerman 2003). 游戏是最古老的文化形式之一，属于一种结构化的娱乐方式。在这种方式中，人们将共同的注意力集中在象征性的媒介上（如扑克牌或棋盘），通常在一个排除现实世界干扰的魔法圈内。游戏的乐趣源于同步行为和对共享注意力的相互意识（穆雷 2003）。游戏通常被设计为竞赛或谜题（穆雷 2006），但更准确地说，它们是一种行为系统，包含游戏机制、规则，并且通常设有获胜条件（萨伦和齐默尔曼 2003）。
Game Mechanics The rule-based, abstract processes and rituals by which games are structured, often involving symbolic game elements, movement around a game space, possession of tokens within the game, turn taking, and score. For example, rolling dice to move around a game board is a mechanic in many games; jumping over obstacles is a mechanic in platform games. Mechanics can be thought of as composed of physical and logical components: one can change the dice to a spinner in the board game or change the input device from a game controller to a keyboard in the platform game while retaining the logical structure of the underlying mechanics. Mechanics can also map symbols to the actions they represent, such as identifying a roll of the dice in Dungeons & Dragons with the performance of a spell in the game world. 游戏机制是通过规则、抽象过程和仪式构建游戏的方式，通常涉及象征性的游戏元素、在游戏空间中的移动、代币的拥有、轮流进行和得分。例如，掷骰子在游戏板上移动是许多游戏中的一种机制；在平台游戏中跳过障碍物也是一种机制。游戏机制可以看作是由物理和逻辑组件组成的：我们可以将棋盘游戏中的骰子换成旋转器，或者将平台游戏中的输入设备从游戏控制器换成键盘，同时保留其基本的逻辑结构。 机械也可以将符号与它们所代表的动作相对应，例如在《龙与地下城》中，将掷骰子与游戏世界中的施法联系起来。
Game Model One of the four models of human-computer interactivity discussed in part V. Games are an ancient genre of representation that focuses our playful shared attention on synchronized, pleasurable rule-based systems of interaction. Digital artifacts elicit playful behavior and shape interaction into similarly rule-based systems of shared attention that resemble games. 游戏模型 人机交互的四种模型之一，在第五部分讨论。游戏是一种古老的表现形式，专注于我们共同的娱乐注意力，围绕着同步的、愉悦的规则基础互动系统。数字作品激发玩乐行为，并将互动塑造成类似的基于规则的共享注意力系统，类似于游戏。
Design goals for the computer as game include convening synchronized participants through shared rituals and encouraging kaleidoscopic playfulness. 作为游戏的计算机设计目标包括通过共享仪式召集同步参与者，并鼓励多样化的游戏乐趣。
Game Theory A field of study in mathematics concerned with calculating outcomes of gamelike situations that has been applied to the study of strategic decision making in social science, political science, and economics. Game theory produces simulations that are usually based on the assumption that human beings are rational actors trying to maximize their advantages in unpredictable situations. 博弈论是一个数学研究领域，专注于计算类游戏情境的结果，并已被应用于社会科学、政治科学和经济学中的战略决策研究。博弈论的模拟通常基于一个假设，即人类是理性的行为者，试图在不可预测的情况下最大化自己的优势。
Genre A term of categorization within literary and communication studies, referring to representational artifacts that are characterized by similar conventions and formulas. Genres can have subgenres (e.g., the novel and the detective novel) and can be media-specific within a single medium such as print (news article, feature article), film (buddy movie, gross-out teen movie), television (sitcom, hospital show). Genres also exist across media (detective story, exposé, romance, allegory, tragedy). “Genre fiction” is a term that refers to stories that have more exaggerated genre formulas such as horror films, medieval fantasies, murder mysteries, science fiction. Genres serve as cultural frames and cognitive schemas for understanding a new media artifact as a member of a familiar group with predictable conventions. The advantage of writing or designing within recognizable genres is that the audience can form expectations of what is likely to happen based upon familiarity with the conventions. Interactive role-playing games are often based on genre fiction conventions, starting with the popular Dungeons & Dragons games based loosely on Tolkien’s fiction. Digital genres and subgenres include: video game, first-person shooter game, simulation game; website, university web page, newspaper site, political blog, online store. See also Conventions. 类型 A 是文学和传播研究中的一种分类术语，指的是具有相似惯例和公式的表现性作品。类型可以有子类型（例如，小说和侦探小说），并且可以在特定媒介内有所区分，如印刷（新闻文章、特写文章）、电影（搭档电影、恶搞青少年电影）、电视（情景喜剧、医院剧）。类型也可以跨媒体存在（如侦探故事、揭露、浪漫、寓言、悲剧）。“类型小说”是指那些具有更夸张类型公式的故事，例如恐怖电影、中世纪幻想、谋杀神秘和科幻小说。 类型作为文化框架和认知模式，帮助我们理解新的媒体作品，使其成为一个熟悉群体的一部分，具备可预测的惯例。在可识别的类型中进行创作的优势在于，观众可以根据对这些惯例的熟悉程度，形成对可能发生事件的预期。互动角色扮演游戏通常基于类型小说的惯例，最初是基于托尔金的作品而流行的《龙与地下城》游戏。数字类型和子类型包括：视频游戏、第一人称射击游戏、模拟游戏；网站、大学网页、报纸网站、政治博客、在线商店。另见惯例。
Gentle Slope System The term refers to the slope of the learning curve, which takes the learner from novice to expert. If it is too steep then learners become discouraged. A gentle slope system introduces new material in small increments. 温和的坡度系统是指学习曲线的坡度，它帮助学习者从新手成长为专家。如果坡度过陡，学习者会感到沮丧。温和的坡度系统通过小幅度逐步引入新材料。
GIGO “Garbage in, garbage out,” a proverbial expression in computer programming, a corrective to the false authority often attributed to computer-generated information, and a reminder that you cannot make reliable calculations on the basis of false or sloppy input data. 垃圾进，垃圾出，这是一句计算机编程中的谚语，提醒我们不要过于依赖计算机生成的信息，因为如果输入数据不准确或不规范，就无法进行可靠的计算。
Global Variable A global variable in a computer software system is accessible to every module in the system, as opposed to a local variable that is only seen and acted upon by a single module. 全局变量是计算机软件系统中的一种变量，系统中的每个模块都可以访问它，而局部变量则仅对单个模块可见并被处理。
Granularity The size of a chunk of information within a larger unit. Information can be either coarse-grained or fine-grained, composed of larger or smaller chunks. The smaller the chunks the more detail we understand and the greater the degree of precision with which we can reference the resource. For example, if we refer to books by page numbers we are doing it at a finer granularity than if we just refer to the author, title, and date of publication. Semantic segmentation of a resource often results in useful chunking at multiple degrees of granularity. For example, a film can be usefully divided by single frame, line of dialog, continuous shot, or dramatic scene, or (less logically) DVD “chapter.” 粒度是指在更大单位内信息块的大小。信息可以是粗粒度或细粒度，由较大或较小的块组成。块越小，我们理解的细节就越多，引用资源的精确度也越高。例如，如果我们通过页码引用书籍，这比仅仅引用作者、标题和出版日期要更细致。资源的语义分割通常会在多个粒度级别上产生有用的分块。例如，一部电影可以通过单帧、对话、连续镜头或戏剧场景（或者（较不合逻辑的）DVD“章节”）进行有效划分。
Grid A form of visual organization of intersecting horizontal and vertical lines based on the table, one of the earliest forms of information design. 网格是一种视觉组织方式，由交叉的水平和垂直线构成，基于表格，是信息设计最早的形式之一。
Grinding A pejorative term for boring, repetitive gameplay that is necessary for the achievement of a game goal. Building a character in an online role-playing game often requires hours of grinding to increase skill levels. 磨练是一个贬义词，指为了达成游戏目标而进行的无聊且重复的游戏过程。在在线角色扮演游戏中，提升角色技能通常需要花费数小时的时间进行磨练。
GUI Graphical user interface, a combination of computer display and input devices that provides the interactor with an abstract or concrete representation of the system as the basis of interaction with the machine: for example, the familiar WIMP desktop environment. GUI 图形用户界面是计算机显示器和输入设备的结合，为用户提供系统的抽象或具体表示，作为与机器交互的基础，例如我们熟悉的 WIMP 桌面环境。
Haptic Referring to touch, and to the interface devices that address the sense of touch through pressure and vibration. 触觉，指的是通过压力和振动来感知触觉的设备。
Harmony One of the goals of visual design. Harmony is achieved by balancing visual elements across the vertical and horizontal axes of the image. For example, a square-shaped object on the upper right may be balanced by a square-shaped object on the lower left. The more harmonious the elements the less obtrusive each individual element will be, allowing the viewer to explore them evenly, as we do the letterforms on the page because of the harmonious balance at the root of book design (Dondis 1973). 和谐是视觉设计的一个重要目标。通过在图像的垂直和水平轴上平衡视觉元素，可以实现和谐。例如，右上角的方形物体可以通过左下角的方形物体来达到平衡。元素之间的和谐性越高，每个单独元素的干扰就越小，这使得观众能够更均匀地探索这些元素，就像我们在页面上探索字形一样，因为书籍设计的根本在于和谐的平衡（Dondis 1973）。
HCl See human-computer interaction. HCl 参见人机交互。
Heuristic A generally reliable but imprecise procedure for accomplishing a task, such as using the proverbial “rule of thumb” instead of a precisely calibrated ruler for making approximate, but good-enough measurements. 启发式方法通常是一种可靠但不够精确的程序，用于完成任务，比如用“经验法则”代替精确的尺子进行近似但足够好的测量。
Hexadecimal A counting system using base 16 instead of base 10 (like our conventional numerals) or base 2 (like the 0 s and 1 s of computer code). The 16 integers of the system are represented by the symbols: 十六进制是一种使用基数 16 的计数系统，而不是基数 10（如我们常用的数字）或基数 2（如计算机代码中的 0 和 1）。该系统的 16 个数字由以下符号表示： {:[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9," A "," B "," C "," D "," E "," F "]:}\begin{array}{llllllllllllllllll}0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & \text { A } & \text { B } & \text { C } & \text { D } & \text { E } & \text { F }\end{array}
Hexadecimal functions as a kind of shorthand for binary representations, allowing humans to read it more easily and using only two digits to represent eight binary bits. 十六进制函数是一种二进制表示的简化方式，使人们更容易阅读，并用两个数字表示八个二进制位。
For example the hexadecimal code for the color violet is 例如，紫色的十六进制颜色代码是
CC33FF
representing the more cumbersome binary code: 表示更复杂的二进制代码：
110011000010001011111111
Hierarchy A system of organization in which some elements are subsumed by others within a multitier structure, for example a computer file system in which files are contained in folders and folders are nested one inside the other; a library classification system of categories and subcategories; or the chain of command of a military organization from commander to generals to privates. In creating a hierarchical organization it is important that items at the same level of the hierarchy be appropriately similar to one another. 层级结构是一种组织系统，其中一些元素被其他元素包含在多层次的结构中，例如计算机文件系统，文件存放在文件夹中，文件夹又相互嵌套；图书馆的分类系统包括类别和子类别；或者军事组织中的指挥链，从指挥官到将军再到士兵。在创建层级组织时，确保同一层级的项目彼此相似是非常重要的。
Human-Computer Interaction Human-computer interaction (HCI), the field that applies empirical methods to the design and evaluation of computer-based artifacts, drawing on multiple 人机交互（HCI）是一个领域，运用实证方法来设计和评估计算机相关的产品，借鉴多个学科的知识
disciplines. The major professional organization for researchers in the field is CHI, a special interest group of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): http://www.sigchi.org. 学科。该领域研究人员的主要专业组织是 CHI，这是计算机协会（ACM）下的一个特别兴趣小组：http://www.sigchi.org。
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) HyperText Markup Language, invented by Tim BernersLee as the basis for the World Wide Web, and made public in 1991. It is based on the international standard SGML (Standardized Generalized Markup Language), which was originally developed for the representation of print documents in electronic form. HTML created a notation for hypertext that has become the global standard, and provided the basis for the standardized linking and display of documents independent of the platform, operating system, and application in which they were created. See also XML. 超文本标记语言（HTML）是由蒂姆·伯纳斯-李发明的，作为万维网的基础，并于 1991 年公开。它基于国际标准 SGML（标准化通用标记语言），最初是为了在电子形式中表示印刷文档而开发的。HTML 创建了一种超文本标记法，已成为全球标准，并为文档的标准化链接和显示提供了基础，无论这些文档是在什么平台、操作系统和应用程序中创建的。另见 XML。
Hypertext Electronic text that contains hyperlinks-words or images that when clicked on lead to other documents or parts of documents. Hypermedia is a collection of hyperlinked media objects that includes other media formats, usually temporal formats such as audio or moving images in addition to text and still images. Ted Nelson is credited with coining the word “hypertext” in the 1960s and has expressed disappointment with the structure of the World Wide Web, which he considers inferior to his proposed architecture that included, among other things, two-way hyperlinks and transclusion. Nelson’s vision of computer-based hypertext echoed Vannevar Bush’s call for a “memex” machine based on earlier microfilm technologies (Bush 1945; Nelson 1987). 超文本是一种电子文本，包含超链接的单词或图像，点击后可以跳转到其他文档或文档的某个部分。超媒体则是一个包含超链接媒体对象的集合，通常还包括其他媒体格式，尤其是时间格式，如音频或动态图像，以及文本和静态图像。特德·尼尔森被认为是“超文本”一词的创始人，他在 1960 年代提出了这一概念，并对万维网的结构表示失望，认为其不如他所设想的架构，后者包括双向超链接和转引。尼尔森对计算机基础的超文本的设想与范尼瓦·布什对基于早期微缩胶卷技术的“记忆机”的呼吁相呼应（布什 1945 年；尼尔森 1987 年）。
Icon A visual sign in which an image is used to represent a digital object or action through its resemblance to a highly salient, characteristic, recognizable aspect of the thing it signifies. Since digital actions are often quite different from those in the physical world, icons often refer to analogous physical actions, such as using an image of a scissors to represent deletion of part of a document. 图标是一种视觉符号，使用图像来代表数字对象或动作，通常通过与所指事物的显著特征相似来实现。由于数字动作与物理世界中的动作往往有很大不同，图标通常会借用类似的物理动作，例如用剪刀的图像来表示删除文档的一部分。
Ideology A set of ideas and beliefs, held consciously or unconsciously, and often associated with an ideal of social organization or with the program of a particular political faction or cultural tradition. Ideological assumptions provide an important interpretative frame in which meaning is transmitted or inferred, and it is often the controlling frame in which denotative and connotative meanings are assessed. For example, ideological beliefs about the nature and appropriate social role of women may shape the way in which female avatars are constructed in virtually worlds. Other areas of contested ideological assumptions include political systems; economic systems; stereotypes of nationality, gender, race, age, and occupation; sexual morality; religious doctrines; nationalism; pacifism; vegetarianism; secularism, and so on. There is no way to make completely neutral cultural choices, since we are all products of particular cultures and tolerance is itself an ideology. Nonetheless, designers have a responsibility to be mindful of the effects of ideological assumptions upon design choices, to be explicit about choices that are ideologically driven, and to avoid design choices that intentionally or inadvertently reinforce questionable beliefs and values. 意识形态是指一组思想和信念，这些思想和信念可能是自觉或无意识的，通常与某种社会组织的理想或特定政治派别或文化传统的计划相关。意识形态假设提供了一个重要的解释框架，在这个框架中，意义得以传递或推断，通常也是评估字面和隐含意义的主导框架。例如，关于女性本质及其适当社会角色的意识形态信念，可能会影响女性化身在虚拟世界中的构建方式。 其他有争议的意识形态假设领域包括政治制度、经济制度、国籍、性别、种族、年龄和职业的刻板印象、性道德、宗教教义、民族主义、和平主义、素食主义、世俗主义等。由于我们都是特定文化的产物，因此无法做出完全中立的文化选择，而宽容本身也是一种意识形态。尽管如此，设计师有责任关注意识形态假设对设计选择的影响，明确意识形态驱动的选择，并避免那些故意或无意中强化可疑信念和价值观的设计选择。
Immersive, Immersion Immersion is an experience of the interactor, a sense of being contained within a space or state of mind that is separate from ordinary experience, more focused and absorbing, and requiring different assumptions and actions (like swimming when immersed in 沉浸式体验是一种互动者的感受，仿佛置身于一个与日常生活截然不同的空间或心态中，这种体验更加专注和引人入胜，并且需要采取不同的假设和行动（例如在水中游泳时的状态）
water). Immersive experiences are disrupted by inconsistency and incompleteness of the environment, and reinforced by encyclopedic detail and a sense of vast spaces within clearly marked boundaries. Immersion is further reinforced in digital environments by the active creation of belief, by which the interactor is cued to explore and to take actions within the immersive world and is rewarded for the actions with appropriate responses. Immersion and interactivity are characteristic pleasures of digital environments. See also Agency. 沉浸式体验会因环境的不一致和不完整而受到干扰，同时又因丰富的细节和在明确边界内的广阔空间感而得到增强。在数字环境中，沉浸感通过主动创造信念进一步加强，互动者被引导去探索并在沉浸式世界中采取行动，并因这些行动获得适当的反馈而受到奖励。沉浸感和互动性是数字环境的主要乐趣。另见代理。
Information Information is data that has been organized, contextualized, and interpreted. 信息是经过整理、 contextualized 和解读的数据。
Information Design The arrangement of information in any medium so that it is available for retrieval and optimized for understanding. Information designers and information architects create organizational structures to store, retrieve, and present information as clearly as possible, mastering complexity through the use of appropriate conventions of format and representation. In digital media the most common objects of information design are databases, archives, and mediarich websites. 信息设计是将信息以各种媒介进行组织，以便于检索和优化理解。信息设计师和信息架构师创建结构，以尽可能清晰地存储、检索和展示信息，通过适当的格式和表现方式来应对复杂性。在数字媒体中，信息设计的常见对象包括数据库、档案和富媒体网站。
Information Theory A branch of research and engineering practice at the intersection of electrical engineering and mathematics. Information theory is based on the transmission model of communication elaborated by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, which sees all exchanges of meaning between animals, people, and/or machines, as the transmission of a message from point A where the sender encodes it, through a channel that maximizes signal and minimizes noise, to point B where the signal is decoded by the receiver into the original message (Shannon and Weaver 1963). 信息论是电气工程与数学交叉领域的研究和工程实践分支。它基于克劳德·香农和沃伦·韦弗提出的通信传输模型，认为动物、人与机器之间的所有意义交流，都是从发送者在 A 点编码信息，通过一个最大化信号、最小化噪声的通道，传输到接收者在 B 点解码成原始信息的过程（香农和韦弗 1963）。
Inherit, Inheritance In object-oriented programming, a class, or generalized description of an object, can inherit attributes and methods (processes) from a parent class of which it is a subcategory. For example, the class of toasters could inherit the attribute of electrical switches from the parent class of appliances. 在面向对象编程中，一个类或对象的通用描述可以从其父类继承属性和方法（过程）。例如，烤面包机类可以从电器这个父类继承电气开关的属性。
Input The data that is fed into a computer-based procedure. See also Output. 输入是传递给计算机程序的数据。另见输出。
Inscription Inscription is the intentional shaping of a receptive physical material with an appropriate technology so that it produces a perceptible result. Inscription requires an intentional agent, a markable material, an appropriate technology, and a perceptible result. Inscription, transmission, and representation are the three functions of a medium. See also Convention, Format, Genre. 铭刻是指使用适当的技术对一种可接受的物质进行有意的形状塑造，以产生可感知的结果。铭刻需要一个有意的主体、可标记的材料、合适的技术和可感知的结果。铭刻、传递和表现是媒介的三种功能。另见：惯例、格式和体裁。
Instance, Instantiation In computational systems, computer code describes entities as generalized cases that are realized in run-time as specific instances or instantiations. The word “instantiation” can also be sued to refer to the process of creating specific instances from abstract representations. Although one can speak of the instantiation of any generalized procedural object, such as a vector graphic or a video game, it is most often used in the context of object-oriented programming, where it refers to specific run-time versions of a general class of computational objects. Instantiation is an important representational strategy characteristic of the digital medium, derived from its procedural and encyclopedic affordances. See also Abstraction. 实例化是在计算系统中，计算机代码将实体描述为在运行时实现的特定实例或实例化的广义案例。“实例化”一词也可以指从抽象表示创建特定实例的过程。虽然可以讨论任何广义过程对象的实例化，例如矢量图形或视频游戏，但它通常在面向对象编程的上下文中使用，指的是一般计算对象类的特定运行时版本。实例化是数字媒介特有的重要表现策略，源于其过程性和百科全书式的特性。另见抽象。
Intellectual Access A goal of informational systems: to provide access to material held in a collection based on the meaning of the content. For example, finding a book through the subject catalog provides intellectual access, whereas finding it by its ISBN does not. 信息系统的目标是根据内容的含义提供对收藏材料的访问。例如，通过主题目录找到一本书可以实现智力访问，而通过 ISBN 找到它则无法实现。
Interaction An instance of related behavior between two entities that are acting upon one another, usually through a common medium or some shared or transferred artifact; for example: a spoken conversation, a telephone call, a purchase in a store, a street fight. The parties to an interaction can be living things (like human beings or plants in pond ecology) or mechanical devices (like vending machines or computers) or dynamic elements in a complex emergent social system such as mortgage rates, bank capital, and regulation constraints within the global economy. In digital media, human actions and computer responses are shaped into discrete interactions, which, if well formed, elicit the experience of agency in the interactor. Digital environments can also represent complex systems of interaction in simulations. 互动是两个实体之间相关行为的实例，它们通过共同的媒介或某些共享或转移的物品相互作用；例如：口头对话、电话通话、商店购物或街头斗殴。互动的参与者可以是生物（如人类或池塘生态中的植物）、机械设备（如自动售货机或计算机），也可以是复杂社会系统中的动态元素，如抵押贷款利率、银行资本和全球经济中的监管约束。在数字媒体中，人类的行为和计算机的响应被塑造成离散的互动，如果设计得当，会引发参与者的代理体验。 数字环境同样可以在模拟中展现复杂的互动系统。
Interactive, Interactivity A design term that is often used too loosely, and is sometimes confused with mere activity or potential actions. Composed of three separate entities: the procedural and participatory affordances of the digital medium, and the associated aesthetic pleasure of agency that results when the interactor is appropriately scripted to perform actions that the computer code can respond to appropriately. See also Immersion. 互动性是一个设计术语，常常被过于宽泛地使用，有时与单纯的活动或潜在的行为混淆。它由三个独立的部分组成：数字媒介的程序性和参与性特征，以及当互动者被合理引导去执行计算机代码能够适当响应的动作时所带来的代理美学愉悦。另见沉浸感。
Interactor The human being who is interacting with a digital artifact. Preferable to “user” because the artifact is not necessarily a tool. 交互者 与数字产品互动的人。这个称谓比“用户”更合适，因为这些产品不一定是工具。
Interaction Design An emerging discipline that structures people’s relationship to artifacts and systems, especially but not only those that make use of the affordances of the digital medium. Interaction designers emphasize the fit between human actions and system responses. 交互设计是一门新兴学科，旨在构建人们与物品和系统之间的关系，尤其是那些利用数字媒介特性的系统。交互设计师强调人类行为与系统反应之间的协调性。
Interface Generally used to indicate the perceptible parts of a computer program that stand between the code and the user. A useful term, though misleading as the focus of digital design since interaction design is more inclusive and has supplanted it as a description of professional practice. 通常用于指代计算机程序中可感知的部分，这些部分位于代码与用户之间。这个术语虽然有用，但可能会误导，因为数字设计的重点在于交互设计，它更具包容性，并已成为专业实践的主要描述。
Intuitive An often-misused term applied as a design value for digital environments. A truly “intuitive interface” draws on tacit knowledge and well-established conventions to cue the behavior of the interactor to act appropriately in a new environment without explicit direction. For example, if we approach a mysterious new gizmo and it has a big red button in the middle of it, we will “intuitively” try to press it. 直观是一个常被误用的术语，作为数字环境设计的价值。真正的“直观界面”依赖于潜在的知识和成熟的惯例，能够在没有明确指示的情况下，引导用户在新环境中做出恰当的行为。例如，当我们接触到一个神秘的新设备时，如果它中间有一个大红按钮，我们会“直观地”尝试去按它。
Internet The system of transmitting computer-coded electronic signals around the globe through a distributed network formed by connecting millions of smaller networks, using standardized formats and protocols, and composed of computers, electrical wires, fiber optic cables, and radio waves. 互联网是一个全球性的系统，通过连接数百万个小型网络，使用标准化的格式和协议，传输计算机编码的电子信号。它由计算机、电缆、光纤和无线电波组成。
Iterative Design A necessity for interactive projects whose hidden user requirements, programming glitches, and interaction design flaws only become apparent as the design is realized as use case, functional specification, mock-up, storyboard, prototype, and working modules. Iterative design is dependent upon formative evaluation with users outside the development team, 迭代设计是互动项目的必要条件，因为这些项目的隐藏用户需求、编程错误和交互设计缺陷只有在设计转化为用例、功能规范、模型、故事板、原型和工作模块时才会显现。迭代设计依赖于与开发团队外部用户的形成性评估。
whose supervised sessions provide feedback on what is working and what needs to be modified. 监督会议提供关于有效之处和需要改进之处的反馈。
Joins In relational databases, the technical term for a table that unites fields from two other tables. Also the name of a database search command that seeks information from multiple tables. 在关系数据库中，“连接”是指一个表，它将来自两个其他表的字段结合在一起。同时，这也是一个数据库查询命令的名称，用于从多个表中检索信息。
Joint Attentional Scene Social interactions between a young baby and a caregiver in which they are both paying attention to the same thing and they are also both aware of their shared focus are called joint attentional scenes. Joint attention is a starting point for the acquisition of language (Donald 1991; Donald 2001; Tomasello 2001) and the foundation of all media design. 联合注意场景是指年轻婴儿与看护者之间的互动，他们共同关注同一事物，并意识到这种共同的关注。联合注意是语言习得的起点（Donald 1991; Donald 2001; Tomasello 2001），也是所有媒体设计的基础。
Label One of the building blocks of information organization, a form of metadata that identifies or describes the object that it is attached to. Labels are often associated with containers. 信息组织的基本要素之一，标签是一种元数据，用于识别或描述所附加的对象。标签通常与容器相联系。
Legacy Media Media whose conventions and formats predate the digital revolution, such as print, television, still photography, telephony. The term derives from information architecture, which is frequently concerned with building new systems while making provision for the archiving and retrieval of existing data stored in older systems and formats, referred to as legacy data. Examples of legacy formats: vinyl record albums, paper-based books, half-hour television programs. Examples of legacy conventions: holiday music albums, page numbers in books, television commercial breaks. Designers should draw upon but not blindly reproduce legacy media formats and conventions in digital environments. Instead they should ask what purpose the conventions served in their original context, and if the underlying purpose is still valid (e.g., providing advertising revenue), they should determine how best to serve it using the affordances of digital media. 传统媒体是指在数字革命之前的媒体形式，包括印刷、电视、静态摄影和电话等。这个术语源于信息架构，通常关注于构建新系统，同时为存档和检索存储在旧系统和格式中的现有数据（称为遗留数据）提供支持。遗留格式的例子有黑胶唱片、纸质书籍和半小时的电视节目。遗留惯例的例子包括节日音乐专辑、书籍中的页码以及电视广告的插播。设计师应当借鉴这些传统媒体的格式和惯例，但不应在数字环境中盲目复制。 相反，他们应该询问这些惯例在其原始背景中所服务的目的，如果这个基本目的仍然有效（例如，提供广告收入），那么他们应该确定如何利用数字媒体的优势来最好地实现这一目的。
Lifeworld Used here to mean the messy world of culture and embodied experience that we inhabit in our daily lives, where meaning is ambiguous and shifting depending on the frame of reference, and where we understand one another through repeated acts of negotiation and empathy, mediated by symbolic representations like language and digital artifacts. The term was introduced by the philosopher Husserl and has a similar but more technical meaning in the field of phenomenology. Here it is contrasted to the order we seek in the neat categories of our classification systems. 生活世界在这里指的是我们日常生活中所处的文化和具体体验的复杂世界。在这个世界中，意义是模糊和不断变化的，取决于不同的参考框架。我们通过反复的谈判和同理心来理解彼此，这些过程通过语言和数字媒介等符号表现来实现。这个术语由哲学家胡塞尔提出，在现象学领域有类似但更为专业的含义。在这里，它与我们在分类系统中所追求的整齐秩序形成了对比。
Linear Having a single sequence from beginning to end, as in a straight line. Used to describe legacy media such as books and films, and sometimes used pejoratively of unisequential digital artifacts. Hypertext and experimental digital art is often described as nonlinear. It is problematic, however, to design for a negative quality, so nonlinear is not helpful as a design term. See also Multiform and Multisequential. 线性 指从开始到结束有一个单一的序列，就像一条直线。这个词用于描述传统媒体，如书籍和电影，有时也带有贬义地用于单一序列的数字作品。超文本和实验数字艺术通常被称为非线性。然而，为负面特质进行设计是有问题的，因此“非线性”作为设计术语并不实用。另见多形式和多序列。
Link The building block of hypertext. The link came into most active use with the popularity of the World Wide Web in the late 1990s, but was explored earlier starting with the proposals and demonstrations of Douglas Engelbart, Alan Kay (at Xerox PARC), and Ted Nelson; the Movie Manual Project of the Architecture Machine Group (the precursor to MIT’s Media Lab); Brown University’s Hypermedia project; the University of Virginia’s StorySpace Project later published by Eastgate Systems; Apple Computer’s HyperCard; the independent commercial project SuperCard; IBM’s Guide. 链接是超文本的基本构建块。虽然链接在 1990 年代末随着万维网的流行而广泛使用，但早在道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特、艾伦·凯（在施乐 PARC）和泰德·尼尔森的提案和演示中就已经被探索过；包括建筑机器组的电影手册项目（麻省理工学院媒体实验室的前身）、布朗大学的超媒体项目、弗吉尼亚大学的 StorySpace 项目（后来由 Eastgate Systems 出版）、苹果公司的 HyperCard、独立商业项目 SuperCard 以及 IBM 的 Guide。
List One of the earliest forms of information organization, common to oral (memorized, recited) media and early writing. As writing developed, lists could be expanded and spatialized into tables. One of the signs of an immature medium or a disordered domain is a reliance on overlong lists, rather than tables and hierarchies. 信息组织的早期形式之一，常见于口头（记忆、朗诵）媒体和早期书写。随着书写的发展，列表可以扩展并转化为表格。一个不成熟的媒介或无序领域的标志之一是过度依赖冗长的列表，而不是使用表格和层级结构。
Loop A foundational programming structure in which a set of instructions is executed repeatedly until an exit condition is met. Infinite loops-programming sequences that repeat forever, or until the process is terminated or the computer crashes-are a common cause of program failure. 循环是一种基本的编程结构，其中一组指令会反复执行，直到满足退出条件。无限循环是指那些永远重复的编程序列，或者直到进程被终止或计算机崩溃，这通常是程序失败的常见原因。
Machine Model One of the four models of interactivity discussed in part V. A machine is any manufactured device that augments human effort, performing its automated task with minimal human intervention. Design goals for the computer as machine include maximizing human control, and making the hidden processing visible to the interactor. See also the Companion Model, Game Model, and Tool Model of interactivity. 机器模型是第五部分讨论的四种交互模型之一。机器指的是任何制造的设备，它通过最小的人为干预来增强人类的工作，执行自动化任务。作为机器的计算机设计目标包括最大化人类的控制，并使隐藏的处理过程对用户可见。另请参见伴侣模型、游戏模型和工具模型。
Magic Circle An intermediate or liminal space (Turner 1966), isolated in space and in time, between the real world and the world of the imagination in which playful cultural experiences can take place, such a baseball stadium or a card table during a game, or a theatrical stage during a performance. The term was coined by Johan Huizinga in Homo Ludens, where he describes magic circles as “temporary worlds within the ordinary world dedicated to the performance of an act apart” (Huizinga 1938/1980, 10). 魔法圈是一个中介或临界空间（特纳 1966），在时间和空间上与现实世界和想象世界隔离，在这里可以进行有趣的文化体验，比如棒球场、游戏中的牌桌，或表演时的戏剧舞台。这个术语由约翰·胡伊津哈在《游戏的人》中提出，他将魔法圈描述为“在普通世界中专门用于进行独立行为的临时世界”（胡伊津哈 1938/1980，10）。
Markup Language A standardized annotation system for specialized documents. HTML is a Hypertext Markup Language that is used for defining the elements of web pages, using tags embedded within the document, like this 标记语言是一种专门文档的标准化注释系统。HTML 是一种超文本标记语言，用于定义网页元素，使用嵌入在文档中的标签，例如这样。 << h1 >> Markup for Level One Heading < //</ h1 >>. << h1 >> 一级标题的标记 < //</ h1 >> .
XML is a more abstract markup language that can be used for defining other markup languages. XML 是一种更为抽象的标记语言，可用于定义其他标记语言。
Mechanics See Game Mechanics. 详细了解游戏机制。
Medium, Media Any combination of materials and cultural practices that is used to support intentional, meaningful communication by affording inscription, transmission, and representation. We can think of anything made on the computer as belonging to a single medium: the digital medium. 媒介是指用于支持有意且富有意义的交流的各种材料和文化实践的组合，能够实现书写、传输和表现。我们可以将计算机上制作的任何内容视为属于一种媒介：数字媒介。
Megabyte A unit of computer memory, equivalent to one million bytes (roughly one million letters) or eight million bits (eight million 0s or 1s). 兆字节是计算机内存的单位，等于一百万字节（大约一百万个字符）或八百万比特（八百万个 0 或 1）。
Memex Machine Vannevar Bush’s conception of an associative, hypertext reference system as described in his article, “How We May Think” for Atlantic Magazine (1945), which foreshadowed and helped to inspire the invention of later computer-based hypertext systems, including the World Wide Web. Bush was concerned with solving the problem of the twentieth-century information explosion, which had in his view outrun the ability of traditional libraries to serve the advancement of knowledge. The memex is based on microfilm rather than computer display Memex 机器是 Vannevar Bush 在其文章《我们如何思考》中提出的一个关联性超文本参考系统的构想，该文章发表于《大西洋月刊》（1945 年），它预示并激发了后来的计算机超文本系统的发明，包括万维网。Bush 关注的是解决 20 世纪信息爆炸的问题，他认为这一问题超出了传统图书馆推动知识进步的能力。Memex 系统基于微缩胶卷，而非计算机显示。
screens (which had not yet been invented). Bush’s concept was taken up by Douglas Engelbart and Ted Nelson in the 1960s when computer terminals became available in research laboratories (Bush 1945; Engelbart 1962; Nelson 1974a and b). 屏幕（当时尚未发明）。布什的概念在 1960 年代被道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特和泰德·尼尔森采纳，当时计算机终端在研究实验室中开始普及（布什 1945；恩格尔巴特 1962；尼尔森 1974a 和 b）。
Mental Model The mental representation of an entity, process, or system. Mental models usually include assumptions about cause and effect, based on the user’s interpretation of the behavior of digital artifacts. Once formed, they guide the user’s behavior and can lead to errors if they do not align with the actual structure of the system. According to Donald Norman, a user’s “mental model of a device is formed primarily by interpreting its perceived actions and visible structure” (Norman 1988, 17). It is therefore up to designers to make sure that the visible actions of the system support the user in forming a mental model that leads to successful interaction. This need not be a completely faithful representation of the how the machine or program actually performs its part of the process, as long as it is helpful as a framework for the actions of the user. 心智模型是对某个实体、过程或系统的心理表征。心智模型通常包含关于因果关系的假设，这些假设基于用户对数字产品行为的理解。一旦形成，心智模型会引导用户的行为，如果与系统的实际结构不符，可能会导致错误。根据唐纳德·诺曼的说法，用户对设备的“心智模型主要是通过对其感知动作和可见结构的解释而形成的”（诺曼 1988, 17）。因此，设计师需要确保系统的可见动作能够帮助用户形成一个促进成功互动的心智模型。 这不必完全忠实于机器或程序在过程中的实际表现，只要它能为用户的操作提供有用的框架。
Menu Bar The hierarchical list of command categories that extends across the top of the screen of computer applications. A key design element that was standardized in the Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines (first promulgated in 1987), in ways that have remained useful to this day, such as always placing the File and Edit commands on the left and the Help commands at the extreme right. The expansion of commands as applications take on more functionality has threatened the capacity and coherence of the menu bar (AppleComputerInc 1992). 菜单栏是一个层次化的命令类别列表，位于计算机应用程序屏幕的顶部。它是一个关键的设计元素，首次在 1987 年发布的 Macintosh 人机界面指南中进行了标准化，这种设计至今仍然有效，例如始终将“文件”和“编辑”命令放在左侧，而将“帮助”命令放在最右侧。随着应用程序功能的不断扩展，命令的增加对菜单栏的容量和一致性构成了威胁（AppleComputerInc 1992）。
Message In standard information theory, the meaningful unit initiated by a sender that is translated into a coded signal that is transmitted and decoded into the original message. Semiotics would expand the model to include more ambiguous cultural messages, including those we send by our clothing, gestures, and tone of voice as well as by our words (Shannon and Weaver 1963; Chandler 2001; Finnegan 2002). 在标准信息理论中，发送者发出的有意义单位被转换为编码信号，随后被传输并解码为原始信息。符号学则扩展了这一模型，涵盖了更模糊的文化信息，包括我们通过服装、手势、语调以及语言所传达的信息（香农和韦弗 1963；钱德勒 2001；芬尼根 2002）。
Metadata Data about data. Descriptors attached to media objects (such as books, films, video, works of art, or digital files of any kind) that describe the structure, use, ownership, or content of the object. Library catalogs, whether on paper or online, contain metadata about the books in the collection, including the author, title, subject, number of pages, date of publication, and so on. See also Folksonomy, Controlled Vocabulary. 元数据是关于数据的数据。它是附加在媒体对象（如书籍、电影、视频、艺术作品或任何类型的数字文件）上的描述性信息，描述对象的结构、用途、所有权或内容。图书馆的目录，无论是纸质的还是在线的，都包含有关馆藏书籍的元数据，包括作者、标题、主题、页数、出版日期等信息。另见民间分类法和受控词汇。
Metaphor A fundamental strategy of human cognition, by which we understand one thing by mapping it onto something else, usually something drawn from concrete physical experience (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Metaphors are also a strategy of interface design, most notably in the desktop metaphor by which files, folders, trash cans, and (in a separate, inconsistent metaphor) windows are visual representations of abstract entities within the machine. Metaphors can help us to form useful mental models of a digital environment, but they are also potentially misleading since digital processes often diverge from physical processes, and if taken too far can introduce unnecessary effort. For example, in the notorious Microsoft Bob system, applications were placed in separate graphically represented “rooms,” distracting users from the task at hand by asking them to create a spatial mental model and to navigate through unnecessary virtual places. 隐喻是人类认知的一种基本策略，通过将一种事物映射到另一种事物上来理解，通常源自具体的物理经验（Lakoff 和 Johnson 1980）。隐喻同样是一种界面设计策略，最明显的例子是桌面隐喻，其中文件、文件夹、垃圾桶和（在一个单独且不一致的隐喻中）窗口，都是机器内部抽象实体的视觉表现。隐喻可以帮助我们形成数字环境的有用心理模型，但它们也可能会产生误导，因为数字过程往往与物理过程不同，过度使用可能会带来不必要的麻烦。 例如，在臭名昭著的微软 Bob 系统中，应用程序被放置在不同的图形化“房间”里，这使得用户分心，需要构建一个空间心理模型，并在不必要的虚拟空间中进行导航。
Method In object-oriented programming systems, a named, separately executed procedure that is associated with a particular object. For example, an Employee object might have a method called calculateHours associated with it. 在面向对象编程系统中，方法是与特定对象关联的一个命名的、独立执行的过程。例如，一个员工对象可能有一个名为 calculateHours 的方法。
Micropayments A system of small payments, advocated by Ted Nelson and others, that would compensate copyright holders for digital documents excerpted or reproduced by others in a network. See also Transclusion. 微支付是一种小额支付系统，由泰德·尼尔森等人提倡，旨在补偿因他人在网络中摘录或复制的数字文档而对版权持有者的损失。另见转引。
Microworld An interactive model that provides a useful abstraction of much larger complex system. Microworlds were first proposed by educational theorist Seymour Papert as a way of using computers to support exploratory learning of subjects like Newtonian physics (Papert 1980). 微观世界是一个互动模型，能够有效地抽象出更大、更复杂的系统。教育理论家西摩·帕普特首次提出微观世界的概念，旨在利用计算机支持对牛顿物理等学科的探索性学习（帕普特 1980）。
Mock-up A rapidly produced rough approximation of a product, often a noninteractive digital image of an interactive environment. Mock-ups are useful for communicating design ideas, for comparing alternate approaches, and for guiding development. They can be used for paper-based testing or hardwired to simulate the processing of the final system in a particular use case, to serve some of the same purposes as a truly functional prototype. See also Iterative Design Process, Storyboard, Wireframes. 模型是快速制作的粗略产品近似，通常是交互环境的非交互数字图像。模型在传达设计理念、比较不同方法和指导开发方面非常有用。它们可以用于纸质测试或硬件连接，以模拟特定用例中最终系统的处理，达到与真正功能原型相似的目的。另见迭代设计过程、故事板和线框图。
Modal, Mode An interface design strategy based on establishing different states of the system in which the same user actions have different results. For example, modal dialog boxes take over control of a window-based interface, keeping the user within the dialog window until a choice is selected. This is a violation of user agency and is best used for brief interruptions like announcing a security alert or asking for terms of service to be accepted. 模态，模式 一种界面设计策略，通过建立系统的不同状态，使得相同的用户操作产生不同的结果。例如，模态对话框会接管窗口界面，用户在选择选项之前无法离开对话框。这种设计限制了用户的自主权，适合用于短暂的中断，比如发布安全警报或请求用户接受服务条款。
Modular, Modularity A desirable attribute of software systems that entails decomposing a larger program into smaller, coherent units with clearly defined protocols for interactions between the separate modules. Modularity is a key strategy of abstraction, foundational to the design of complex systems. 模块化是软件系统的一种理想特性，它将较大的程序分解为较小且相互关联的单元，并为各个模块之间的交互定义了清晰的协议。模块化是抽象的重要策略，是设计复杂系统的基础。
Moore’s Law The observation, prediction, and development goal articulated by Intel Corporation cofounder Gordon Moore in 1965. It states that the capacity and speed of computer processing chips doubles every eighteen months to two years, a continuing trend that has made computational devices exponentially more powerful, and therefore ever smaller, lighter, and cheaper over the past four decades. As a result, it has been safe for designers to assume that processes that are too slow today will be widely available at satisfactory speeds at some point in the future. 摩尔定律是英特尔公司联合创始人戈登·摩尔在 1965 年提出的观察、预测和发展目标。它表明，计算机处理芯片的容量和速度每 18 个月到两年就会翻一番，这一持续的趋势使得计算设备在过去四十年中变得越来越强大、越来越小巧、轻便且便宜。因此，设计师可以合理地预期，今天速度过慢的处理过程在未来某个时刻将会以令人满意的速度广泛可用。
Multiform Having more than one configuration based on the same general components or framework. Games are often based on multiform scenarios, dynamically generating variant instances of a character type, place, or event, from an underlying procedural abstraction, or assembling variant combinations from a substitution system. 多形态 基于相同的一般组件或框架的多种配置。游戏通常基于多形态场景，动态生成角色类型、地点或事件的不同实例，这些实例源自底层的过程抽象，或通过替代系统组合而成。
Multimedia Composed of media objects in multiple formats, corresponding to legacy media types, such as video and text in a single document. 多媒体是由多种格式的媒体对象组成的，类似于传统媒体类型，例如在一个文档中同时包含视频和文本。
Multisequential A multisequential story or a multisequential information space is one in which there is more than one valid, coherent path through a set of segments. The distinction between 多序列故事或多序列信息空间是指在一组片段中存在多个有效且连贯的路径。
multisequential and unisequential is more helpful for design choices than linear and nonlinear, since multisequentiality is more specific, connoting coherence and greater complexity, while nonlinearity is less specific and negative. 多序列和单序列在设计选择上比线性和非线性更有帮助，因为多序列性更为具体，代表着一致性和更高的复杂性，而非线性则相对模糊且带有负面色彩。
Naturalize To assume that social or representational conventions are natural rather than the result of historical and cultural forces; to take familiar behaviors, artifacts, or design features for granted without noticing their origins. Naturalizing is an effect of ideology and power structures; for example, the powerlessness of women in nineteenth-century English was taken for granted as a part of nature until challenged by feminists. Naturalizing is also an effect of habit; for example, by the end of the twentieth century people took the telephone for granted as an ordinary part of life, only noticeable by its absence. By the early twenty-first century, the cell phone had become similarly unremarkable. Naturalizing is a useful concept for calling our attention to what we notice and what we don’t notice in social structures and the design of artifacts. 自然化是指将社会或表现性惯例视为自然现象，而非历史和文化力量的产物；在未意识到其起源的情况下，人们将熟悉的行为、物品或设计特征视为理所当然。自然化是意识形态和权力结构的结果；例如，十九世纪时，女性的无力感被视为自然的一部分，直到女权主义者对此提出挑战。自然化也源于习惯；例如，到二十世纪末，人们将电话视为生活中普通的一部分，只有在缺失时才会引起注意。到二十一世纪初，手机也变得同样不引人注意。 自然化是一个有用的概念，它帮助我们关注社会结构和物品设计中我们所注意到的和未注意到的事物。
Namespace Sets of related names within a nomenclature that are used consistently to identify and differentiate sets of objects, such as names of vegetables applied to a group of computer servers, or names of trees applied to roads in a subdivision. 命名空间是指在命名法中一致使用的一组相关名称，用于识别和区分一组对象，比如将蔬菜名称用于一组计算机服务器，或将树木名称用于某个小区的道路。
Navigation Bar In a spatialized information structure, like a website, the “nav bar” is a menu bar that remains in the same physical place, like the top or left side of a web page, to give access to all the distinctly labeled areas within the space. Navigation bars should also give intellectual access to the contents of the space, providing an overview of what is to be found on a website in the same way that a table of contents presents an overview to a book’s contents. 在空间化的信息结构中，例如网站，“导航栏”是一个固定在同一位置的菜单栏，通常位于网页的顶部或左侧，以便访问所有明确标记的区域。导航栏还应提供对空间内容的清晰访问，像目录为书籍提供概述一样，帮助用户了解网站上可以找到的内容。
Network A set of nodes connected to one another, often drawn as circles connected by arcing lines or directional arrows. Networks are often offered as a form of information design and social organization that is more democratic than hierarchical branching trees (although a branching tree is in fact a particular kind of directional network). But networks can also reinforce existing power structures and privilege some nodes over others. 网络是一组相互连接的节点，通常以圆圈和弯曲线或方向箭头的形式表示。网络常被视为一种比层级分支树更具民主性的社会组织和信息设计形式（尽管分支树实际上是一种特定的方向网络）。然而，网络也可能加固现有的权力结构，使某些节点比其他节点更具特权。
New Media A vague term that refers to the new formats and genres created by the introduction of computer processing into communication in the last half of the twentieth century. This book argues for thinking about digital artifacts as comprising a single new digital medium. 新媒体是一个模糊的概念，指的是在 20 世纪后半叶计算机处理技术引入通信后所创造的新格式和新类型。本书主张将数字作品视为一个统一的新数字媒介。
Node A meaningful unit, connected to other meaningful units within a network. In spatial design, such as urban planning, the area around a metro station or a shopping district can be thought of as a node, connected to other activity areas by paths. 节点是一个有意义的单元，连接着网络中其他有意义的单元。在空间设计中，例如城市规划，地铁站或购物区周围的区域可以视为一个节点，通过路径与其他活动区域相连。
Noise In information theory, the disruptive, meaningless, or extraneous part of a meaningful transmission, like static in a radio broadcast, as opposed to the meaningful signal. 噪声在信息理论中指的是有意义传输中那些破坏性、无意义或多余的部分，类似于收音机广播中的静电，与有意义的信号相对。
Nomenclature Any system of names that is socially agreed upon, such as the Latin names for parts of plants, the days of the week and the months of the year, or roads of the U.S. highway system. Nomenclatures are made up of one or more namespaces. 命名法是指任何一个社会公认的名称系统，例如植物部位的拉丁名称、一周的天数、月份，或美国公路系统的道路。命名法由一个或多个命名空间构成。
Nonlinear A vague descriptor for artifacts that deviate from unisequential organization. Nonlinearity cannot be a design goal because it is a negative value. Disrupting linearity is a limited goal and may lead to incoherence, since merely tearing out pages of a book or editing 非线性是一个模糊的术语，用于描述那些偏离单一顺序组织的物品。非线性不能作为设计目标，因为它本质上是负面的。打破线性虽然是一个有限的目标，但可能导致不连贯，因为仅仅撕掉书页或进行编辑并不足以实现真正的非线性。
a film in random shot order would create a nonlinear artifact. A more specific goal is multisequentiality, creating a more complex structure of multiple coherent sequences instead of only one. 随机镜头顺序的电影会产生非线性效果。更具体的目标是实现多序列性，构建多个连贯序列的复杂结构，而不仅仅是单一的序列。
Object Objects are high-level programming concepts that combine data and procedures (methods). Objects are defined as classes, generalized clusters of attributes and behaviors; a specific object is an instance (or instantiation) of the class patterns, with its own variation. For example, if an object FLOWER has the attribute COLOR with several possible values, a single instance of the class might be a YELLOW FLOWER or a RED FLOWER. 对象是将数据和方法结合在一起的高级编程概念。对象被定义为类，是属性和行为的集合；特定对象是类模式的一个实例，具有自己的变体。例如，如果一个对象“花朵”有一个“颜色”属性，并且有几种可能的值，那么该类的一个实例可能是“黄色花朵”或“红色花朵”。
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) A programming structure and set of practices that is afforded by a number of languages, beginning with Alan Kay’s SmallTalk (1974) and most commonly associated with C++ and Java. OOP is characterized by an abstraction hierarchy in which elements of the system, called objects, are specified as members of classes with shared characteristics. Objects combine data structures and related processes or methods. The methods are often written as event-handlers, to be triggered by an interaction initiated by a human interactor, another object, or another computational process. 面向对象编程（OOP）是一种编程结构和实践集合，起源于多种语言，最早由艾伦·凯在 1974 年提出的 SmallTalk 开始，通常与 C++和 Java 相关联。OOP 的特点是有一个抽象层次结构，系统中的元素称为对象，这些对象被定义为具有共同特征的类的成员。对象结合了数据结构和相关的过程或方法。这些方法通常被编写为事件处理程序，以便在与人类交互者、其他对象或计算过程的交互中被触发。
Ontology In philosophy, a definition and specification of the essence of an entity, as in the statement that “God is Love,” or matter is composed of irreducible atoms. In computer programming, ontology is an explicit formal specification of the objects, concepts, and other entities that are assumed to exist in some area of interest, and the relationships that hold among them, as in an ontology of human diseases and treatments. 本体论在哲学中指的是对实体本质的定义和描述，例如“上帝是爱”或物质由不可分割的原子构成。在计算机编程中，本体论是对某个特定领域中假定存在的对象、概念及其他实体的明确规范，以及它们之间的关系，比如人类疾病与治疗的本体论。
Orature A body of composed works in oral form, parallel to the term “literature” for written works, and coined to recognize the many cultural forms that arise from societies without writing technology or that are sustained independent of traditions of writing. Also called “oral literature.” 口述文学是指以口头形式创作的作品，类似于书面作品的“文学”一词，旨在承认那些源自没有书写技术的社会或独立于书写传统的多种文化形式。也称为“口头文学”。
Output The data that is produced by a computer program and passed on to other processes and sometimes to the interactor. See also Input. 输出是由计算机程序生成的数据，这些数据会传递给其他进程，有时也会传递给用户。另见输入。
Parameter, Parameterize A variable whose value changes the way a programming function is calculated or an object is instantiated. For example, a program function may be written as GetPrice (item, color, quantity). A program may call this function by specifying the parameters like this: GetPrice(blouse, red, 3) causing the program to return the price of three red blouses. The variables that specify the attributes of instances of a class are also parameters, as when we instantiate the class defined as flower(color) with the statement “new flower(red)”. Parameterized objects and processes are characteristic of computational structures. 参数，参数化是指一个变量，其值会改变编程函数的计算方式或对象的实例化方式。例如，一个程序函数可以写成 GetPrice (item, color, quantity)。程序可以通过指定参数来调用这个函数，例如：GetPrice(blouse, red, 3)，这样程序就会返回三件红色女衬衫的价格。指定类实例属性的变量也是参数，比如当我们用语句“new flower(red)”来实例化定义为 flower(color) 的类时。参数化的对象和过程是计算结构的特征。
Participatory Affordance With the encyclopedic, procedural, and spatial properties, one of the four defining representational affordances of the digital medium. The digital medium is participatory in allowing an interactor to manipulate, contribute to, and have an effect on digital content and computer processing. Participation combined with procedurality create interactivity, which means that the designer must script the behavior of the computer and the behavior of the interactor. When participation has been well shaped the interface becomes transparent. Transparent participation combined with visible procedurality creates the experience of agency for the interac- 参与性可供性具备百科全书式、程序性和空间属性，是数字媒介四个核心表现可供性之一。数字媒介具有参与性，允许用户操控、贡献和影响数字内容及计算机处理。参与性与程序性结合形成了互动性，这要求设计师编写计算机和用户的行为。当参与性得到良好设计时，界面会变得透明。透明的参与性与明显的程序性结合，带来了用户的自主体验。
tor, a key design goal for any digital artifact. The participatory affordance can support but should not be confused with social participation in online communities or with the participatory design practices that foster extensive user involvement in the development process. 参与性特征可以提供支持，但不应与在线社区的社会参与或促进用户广泛参与开发过程的参与设计实践混淆。
Participatory Design A design tradition with its roots in Sweden that seeks to include marginalized groups like poor people or technological novices in every step of the design process, not merely as informants or testers but as collaborating members of the design team. 参与设计是一种源于瑞典的设计传统，旨在将边缘化群体（如贫困者或技术新手）融入设计过程的每一个环节，不仅仅作为信息提供者或测试者，而是作为设计团队的合作成员。
Pattern A recognizable configuration, especially those that can be perceived and recognized by sight or sound. Cognitive patterns, called schema, provide frames for assimilating new experiences to known configurations. Media conventions are patterns that fit together into formats and genres, allowing us to convey the meaning of a novel communication by shaping it into a familiar configuration. 模式 A 是一种可识别的配置，尤其是那些可以通过视觉或听觉感知和识别的模式。认知模式，称为图式，为我们将新经验与已知配置进行整合提供了框架。媒体惯例是可以组合成各种格式和类型的模式，使我们能够通过将新信息塑造成熟悉的形式来传达其意义。
Pervasive Games Games that take place in real-world locations or that use informational computer technologies like email or social networks for gaming purposes while blurring the boundary between the everyday world and the game. See also Alternate Reality Games. 无处不在的游戏是指那些在现实世界中进行的游戏，或利用电子邮件、社交网络等信息技术进行的游戏，这些游戏模糊了日常生活与游戏之间的界限。另见替代现实游戏。
Place A memorable, differentiated area within a navigable space. Designing navigable digital environments requires the creation of distinct places through consistent labels, visual cues, and especially through association with memorable events. See also Active Creation of Belief, Immersion, Spatial Affordance. 在可导航的空间中创建一个令人难忘且独特的区域。设计可导航的数字环境需要通过一致的标签、视觉提示，尤其是通过与难忘事件的关联，来打造独特的场所。另见信念的主动创造、沉浸感和空间可供性。
Platform Fixed configuration of inscription materials and transmission codes, of hardware and software, that forms a foundation for multiple media artifacts. Examples of stable digital platforms: an operating system like MS-DOS, Windows, Mac OS X; a game console like Nintendo Wii, Microsoft Xbox, Sony PlayStation; a browser like Explorer, Firefox, Chrome; a DVD format like Blu-ray. Platforms have affordances and constraints. The existence of a stable platform encourages the growth of standardized formats linked to conventions of representation leading to the development of genres. For example, the popularity and stability of the iPhone platform has led to the development of several genres of phone applications, in the common format of an iPhone “app.” Once developed, genres can become independent of their incubating platform, although they may still retain features that reflect the affordances and constraints of the originating environment. 平台是由固定的材料和传输代码组成的配置，包括硬件和软件，构成多个媒体作品的基础。稳定的数字平台示例包括：操作系统如 MS-DOS、Windows、Mac OS X；游戏机如任天堂 Wii、微软 Xbox、索尼 PlayStation；浏览器如 Explorer、Firefox、Chrome；以及 DVD 格式如蓝光。平台具有其特定的优势和限制。稳定平台的存在促进了与表现惯例相关的标准化格式的增长，从而推动了流派的发展。例如，iPhone 平台的流行和稳定性促成了多种手机应用程序流派的出现，采用了 iPhone“应用”的常见格式。一旦形成，流派可以独立于其起源平台，尽管它们可能仍保留反映原始环境特征和限制的某些特点。
Platformer, Platform Game A classic videogame genre in which the player controls a character who jumps from one platform to another on a single stationary screen, as in Donkey Kong (Miyamoto 1981), or moving from left to right in a continuously scrolling multiscreen landscape, as in Super Mario Brothers (Miyamoto,1985). 平台游戏是一种经典的视频游戏类型，玩家控制角色在一个静止的屏幕上从一个平台跳到另一个平台，例如《大金刚》（宫本茂 1981 年），或者在一个不断滚动的多屏幕场景中从左到右移动，例如《超级马里奥兄弟》（宫本茂，1985 年）。
Play A mode of behavior, found in many animals and humans, involving pleasurable and often exploratory or creative activities not directly related to survival. Activities usually associated with hardship or work, such as running up hills, hunting for something rare, or performing repetitive tasks can be undertaken for their own sake. Play can serve developmental purposes, provide practice for skill mastery, give contained expression to antisocial emotions, dramatize our vulnerability to chance events or our commitment to succeed by focused effort. It may also make us more resilient by keeping alive alternate behavior patterns that would not otherwise be part of 玩耍是一种行为模式，存在于许多动物和人类中，涉及愉悦的、探索性或创造性的活动，这些活动与生存没有直接关系。通常与艰辛或工作相关的活动，如爬山、寻找稀有物品或执行重复性任务，可以为了自身的乐趣而进行。玩耍可以促进发展，提供技能掌握的练习，表达反社会情绪，戏剧化我们对偶然事件的脆弱性，或展示我们通过专注努力来取得成功的决心。它还可能通过保持其他行为模式的活力，使我们更具韧性，这些模式在其他情况下不会成为我们的一部分。
our repertoire (Sutton-Smith 1997) . Digital artifacts that respond to direct manipulation with immediate feedback, like a handheld device that changes in some way with the swipe of a finger, can induce a playful state of mind. See Game. 我们的曲目（Sutton-Smith 1997）。数字艺术品能够通过直接操作和即时反馈进行响应，例如手持设备在手指滑动时会以某种方式变化，这可以激发一种玩乐的心态。请参见游戏。
Predictive Text Text that pops up automatically in response to partially entered text, filling in what has not yet been entered. Predictive text relieves the burden of repetitive typing on awkward mobile devices and provides search engines with the ability to steer queries to known areas. Interactors are usually given a choice of accepting or rejecting the completion text which may appear in line as if typed by the interactor or in a separate line for confirmation. 预测文本是指在用户部分输入时自动弹出的文本，帮助填补尚未输入的内容。它减轻了在不便的移动设备上重复打字的负担，并使搜索引擎能够将查询引导到已知领域。用户通常可以选择接受或拒绝这些自动补全的文本，这些文本可能会以用户输入的方式显示在同一行中，或在单独的行中进行确认。
Primitives The smallest units in a processing system, with which the more complex units can be built. The 00s and 11s of machine code are the lowest level primitives of programming languages. The representations of alphanumeric characters and other data types sit on top of these representational primitives, as do the operations of the computer. On top of these patterns of 00s and 11s are built the higher-level primitives of assembler language such as ADD and GOTO Structured languages have more complex primitives such as IF THEN and CASE statements, and are translated by special programs called compilers into the primitives of machine code that allows the computer to execute them. It is a principle of good programming to establish primitives and build complexity from efficiently designed simpler elements. Similarly, designers can think of participatory actions, like pointing and clicking, as primitives of interaction, and interface elements like menus and buttons as primitives of visual interaction design. 原语是处理系统中最基本的单位，可以用来构建更复杂的单元。机器代码中的 00 和 11 是编程语言中最低级的原语。字母数字字符和其他数据类型的表示建立在这些基本原语之上，计算机的操作也是如此。在这些 00 和 11 的模式之上，构建了汇编语言的更高级原语，例如 ADD 和 GOTO。结构化语言则具有更复杂的原语，如 IF THEN 和 CASE 语句，并通过称为编译器的特殊程序将其翻译成机器代码的原语，以便计算机能够执行。 良好的编程原则是先建立基本元素，再从高效设计的简单元素中构建复杂性。同样，设计师可以将参与性动作，如指点和点击，视为交互的基本元素，而将菜单和按钮等界面元素视为视觉交互设计的基本元素。
Procedures In programming, procedures are sets of instructions that the machine will execute. Functions and methods are procedures, and the word is sometimes used to distinguish the instruction part of a software environment from the data. 在编程中，过程是机器执行的一系列指令。函数和方法都是过程，这个词有时用来区分软件环境中的指令部分与数据。
Procedural Affordance The most important of the four affordances of the digital medium, the processing power of the computer that allows us to specify conditional, executable instructions. The procedural affordance has created a new representational strategy, as powerful as spoken language or recorded moving images: the simulation of real and hypothetical worlds as complex systems of parameterized objects and behaviors. When procedurality is well designed the actions of the computer have visibility, and the parameters are in the control of the interactor. Procedurality and participation are the affordances that create interactivity, and visible procedurality combined with transparent participation creates the experience of agency for the interactor, a key design goal for any digital artifact. Not to be confused with the use of the word “procedural” to describe the more linear programming strategies that predate object-oriented programming. See also interactivity, agency, and the participatory, spatial, and encyclopedic affordances. 程序性可供性 是数字媒介四种可供性中最重要的一种，它指的是计算机的处理能力，使我们能够指定条件性和可执行的指令。程序性可供性创造了一种新的表现策略，和口语或录制的动态影像一样强大：模拟真实和假设的世界，作为复杂的参数化对象和行为系统。当程序设计得当时，计算机的操作是可见的，参数则由交互者掌控。 程序性和参与性是创造互动体验的基础，明显的程序性与透明的参与性结合，为互动者带来了代理体验，这是任何数字产品设计的关键目标。请勿将“程序性”一词与早于面向对象编程的线性编程策略混淆。另请参见互动性、代理性以及参与性、空间性和百科全书式的特性。
Progress Indicator A convention for providing feedback to interactors on an otherwise invisible automated process, like downloading a file, which requires waiting. For example the familiar progress bar represents the task as a line moving left to right filling up a space in proportion the degree of completion. Progress indicators often have explicit calculations of time left to wait, and are associated with a cancel button allowing the interactor to quit a too-slow process. 进度指示器是一种为用户提供反馈的方式，用于在下载文件等不可见的自动化过程中等待。例如，常见的进度条将任务表示为一条从左到右移动的线，填充的空间与完成度成正比。进度指示器通常会明确显示剩余等待时间，并配有一个取消按钮，允许用户退出过于缓慢的过程。
Protocol A formal standard specification for exchanging communication in systems of people, machines, or both combined. Diplomatic protocol is a code of conduct that includes, for example, specifications of how ambassadors and heads of state are greeted and seated at international functions in order to ensure that no one will be confused, misunderstood, or offended. Internet Protocol (IP) is a suite of standard formats and processes for transferring information across machines and transmission technologies. 协议是一种正式的标准规范，用于在人员、机器或两者结合的系统中进行通信。外交协议是一种行为准则，规定了在国际活动中如何迎接和安排大使及国家元首，以确保不会造成困惑、误解或冒犯。互联网协议（IP）是一套标准格式和流程，用于在机器和传输技术之间传输信息。
Prototype A crucial element in the design process, a simplified version of the final system, which communicates to potential users, developers, funders, and other stakeholders the key functionality and design elements. Rapid prototyping allows design teams to share ideas and to critique approaches to a design problem based on hands-on interaction. See also Iterative Design Process, Mock-up, Storyboard. 原型是设计过程中的一个重要环节，它是最终系统的简化版本，能够向潜在用户、开发者、资助者及其他利益相关者传达关键功能和设计要素。快速原型制作使设计团队能够分享创意，并通过实际互动对设计问题的方法进行评估和批评。另见迭代设计过程、模型和故事板。
Prototype Theory A strategy of classification for ambiguous sets of artifacts, established experimentally by Eleanor Rosch, based on identifying representative exemplars and shared attributes, such as "chair "and “sofa” as exemplars of the category “furniture” (Rosch 1975). A cognitive model that can be employed as an alternative design strategy to (or a way of eliciting the necessary distinctions for) fixed definitions and hierarchical taxonomies. 原型理论是一种对模糊工艺品集合进行分类的策略，由埃莉诺·罗什通过实验建立。该理论基于识别代表性范例和共享属性，例如“椅子”和“沙发”作为“家具”类别的代表（罗什 1975）。它是一种可以作为固定定义和层次分类法的替代设计策略，或用于引出必要区分的认知模型。
Pseudocode Imitates computer code without attention to rigid syntax and without abbreviations that may be mysterious to humans. Pseudocode is the human-readable, step-by-step logic of a computer algorithm expressed in a syntax that is similar to programming syntax but is meant to be read by humans rather than machines. 伪代码模仿计算机代码，不拘泥于严格的语法，也不使用可能让人困惑的缩写。伪代码是计算机算法的逐步逻辑，以类似编程的语法表达，旨在让人类而非机器理解。
Radio Button An interface convention defined in the Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines, as one of a set of buttons in which only one can be chosen at any time. Radio buttons are round, and the chosen one is marked by a dot in the middle. Radio buttons are differentiated from sets of check boxes, which are square, and which afford multiple simultaneous marked (checked) choices. 单选按钮是一种界面约定，定义在 Macintosh 人机界面指南中，属于一组按钮，其中任何时候只能选择一个。单选按钮是圆形的，选中的按钮中间会有一个点。单选按钮与复选框组不同，复选框是方形的，允许同时选择多个选项（已选中）。
Recoding A concept in cognitive science referring to the reconceptualizing of information in order to make it more memorable, especially the chunking of smaller items into larger conceptual units, such as the breaking down of a long string of numbers into multiple smaller units. 重新编码是认知科学中的一个概念，指的是为了提高信息的记忆效果而对信息进行重新构思，特别是将较小的项目分组为更大的概念单元，比如将一长串数字拆分成多个较小的部分。
Record An entry in a database representing a single item, made up of discrete fields. 数据库中表示单个项目的记录，由多个独立字段构成。
Reframing An important part of the design process that involves reassessing the original context in which a design problem is presented in order to substitute a different viewpoint or widen or otherwise refine the context. See also Frame. 重新框架是设计过程中的一个重要环节，涉及重新评估设计问题的原始背景，以便从不同的角度进行思考，拓宽或进一步细化背景。另见“框架”。
Refining An important part of the process of creating new media genres is the refining of existing media conventions. For example, as part of the process of reinventing television news, designers refined the headline scroll so that it moves vertically instead of horizontally, assuring that viewers always see a complete headline. 精炼 在创造新媒体类型的过程中，一个重要环节是对现有媒体惯例的改进。例如，在重新定义电视新闻时，设计师将标题滚动条进行了优化，使其垂直滚动而非水平滚动，从而确保观众始终能够看到完整的标题。
Remediation The phenomenon of reproducing the conventions or content or both of one medium in another. Also the theory, advanced by Jay Bolter and Richard Grusin, that “new 修复现象是指将一种媒介的惯例或内容，或两者同时复制到另一种媒介中。这也是杰伊·博尔特和理查德·格鲁辛提出的理论，认为“新
media” always reconfigure older media, and in particular that digital forms both borrow from and seek to suppress earlier forms (Bolter and Grusin 1999). 媒体总是会重新配置旧有的媒体，尤其是数字形式既借鉴了早期形式，又试图抑制它们（Bolter 和 Grusin 1999）。
Representation With inscription and transmission a primary component of any medium. The process or effect of creating meaning by connecting signs (e.g., the set of vocalizations pronounced “tree,” the written word “tree,” a sketch of a trunk and branches) with referents in the world (a particular tree) or abstract concepts (the general category of “tree”). Representation is supported by socially constructed codes, and meaning is created within specific cultural communities of interpretation, such as French courtiers of the seventeenth century or contemporary American urban teenagers. 表示、铭文和传递是任何媒介的核心组成部分。通过将符号（如发音为“树”的声音、书写的“树”字、树干和树枝的草图）与现实中的指称（特定的树）或抽象概念（“树”的一般类别）相连接，来创造意义。这种表示依赖于社会构建的代码，意义是在特定文化的解释社区中形成的，例如十七世纪的法国宫廷或当代美国的城市青少年。
Representational codes are sometimes distinguished from presentational codes, which involve immediate bodily presence (e.g., gestures, clothing) rather than mediated communication such as writing. In acting, “representation” refers to a detached style rejected by twentieth-century theorist/teachers like Stanislavsky and Strasberg in favor of “embodying” the character. See also Medium, Semiotics. 表现性代码有时与表现性代码区分开，后者涉及即时的身体存在（例如，手势、服装），而不是像写作这样的媒介交流。在表演中，“表现”指的是一种被二十世纪的理论家和教师，如斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基和斯特拉斯伯格所拒绝的超然风格，他们更倾向于“体现”角色。另见媒介和符号学。
Resource Allocation A kind of game mechanic in which a player is given a limited quantity of some resource (money, weapons, land, avatar-building skill points) to distribute among a range of desirable choices. Resource allocation games (e.g., Civilization, SimCity, The Sims) force players to think strategically. The mechanic is applicable not only to games but also to simulations in general, and to the avatar-building phase of games in many genres. 资源分配是一种游戏机制，玩家需要在有限的资源（如金钱、武器、土地、角色构建技能点）中进行选择和分配。资源分配类游戏（如《文明》、《模拟城市》、《模拟人生》）要求玩家进行战略思考。这种机制不仅适用于游戏，也适用于各种模拟场景，以及许多类型游戏中的角色构建阶段。
Respawning The generation of a new instance of an object or character in a simulated world or game. The Pac-Man ghosts respawn after dying, as does Pac-Man himself until he has used up all his lives. Usually respawning happens at a designated place in a game world, often setting the player back to an earlier stage. 在模拟世界或游戏中，生成对象或角色的新实例的过程。吃豆人（Pac-Man）的幽灵在死亡后会重新出现，吃豆人自己也是如此，直到他用完所有生命。通常，重新生成会在游戏世界中的指定地点进行，常常将玩家送回早期阶段。
Rituals Standardized patterns of interaction that are performed in a predictable, prescribed, or spontaneously elaborated but consistently repeated manner among members of a culture. Rituals may be written down and repeated verbatim (as in religious and legal ceremonies) or they may provide a general framework for interaction (like greeting guests at an informal party). Rituals often assign different roles to the participants, such as the bride, groom, minister, ring-bearer, and so on, at a wedding. Familiar rituals organize social life for large-scale events (like elections) and repeated events (like leave-taking). According to James Carey, ritual is a foundational interpretative model for understanding all of communication, providing a more complex framework for understanding meaning than the transmission model of information theory (Carey 1989). Interaction design can be thought of as the creation of appropriate rituals for coordinating human-computer interactions and human-human interactions mediated by computer. 仪式是文化成员以可预测、规定或自发扩展但一致重复的方式进行的标准化互动模式。仪式可以书面记录并逐字重复（如宗教和法律仪式），也可以为互动提供一般框架（例如在非正式聚会上迎接客人）。在婚礼上，仪式通常为参与者分配不同的角色，如新娘、新郎、牧师和戒指持有者等。熟悉的仪式为大型事件（如选举）和重复事件（如告别）组织社会生活。 根据詹姆斯·凯瑞的观点，仪式是理解所有交流的基础性解释模型，它为理解意义提供了比信息理论的传输模型更为复杂的框架。交互设计可以被视为为协调人机交互和人际交互（通过计算机进行中介）创造合适的仪式。
Robustness A desirable quality in computer systems, indicating reliability and flexibility, especially the ability to recover from error-inducing conditions such as poorly formed input or other conditions that the developers could not explicitly foresee. Modularity supports robustness by allowing programmers to isolate elements that can lead to program failure, such as hardwarespecific drivers that will need to be updated separately from the rest of the system. See also Modularity, Scalability. 鲁棒性是计算机系统中一种理想的特性，意味着系统的可靠性和灵活性，尤其是从错误引发的情况中恢复的能力，比如格式不正确的输入或开发者无法预见的其他情况。模块化通过让程序员能够隔离可能导致程序失败的部分来支持鲁棒性，例如需要单独更新的硬件特定驱动程序。另见模块化和可扩展性。
Sandbox An area in a complex computer system or game where interactors can practice with the tools and commands at their disposal without consequences in the main system. Also used to describe games or environments that allow the player to construct their own virtual objects, such as Spore Galaxies or Second Life. 沙盒是一个在复杂计算机系统或游戏中，供用户在不影响主系统的情况下练习工具和命令的区域。这个词也用来描述允许玩家构建自己虚拟物体的游戏或环境，比如《孢子银河》和《第二人生》。
Save Point A place or level in a game at which the player is allowed to save the current state to be returned to on replay if they reach a losing state-usually the player’s character dying or failing irreversibly at a task-before reaching the end of the end. Some save points, like the start of a new level, are automatic, and some require the player to issue an explicit game-saving command. Platform games like Super Mario will automatically respawn a new instance of a character at save points. 保存点是游戏中允许玩家保存当前状态的地方或关卡，以便在重玩时返回，特别是在角色死亡或任务失败等不可逆转的情况下。一些保存点，比如新关卡的起始位置，是自动保存的，而有些则需要玩家手动发出保存命令。像《超级马里奥》这样的横版游戏会在保存点自动重生角色。
Scalability A desirable quality in computer systems, indicating an ability to accommodate more users, larger data sets, and other increases in the scale of processing without crashing or having to be reengineered. Scalability is also a useful concept for human systems, which often work at the small-scale level, such as the accounting system in a family-run pizza parlor, but do not “scale” appropriately to accommodate a larger enterprise, such as a chain of pizza parlors. See also Robustness. 可扩展性是计算机系统中一种理想的特性，指的是系统能够在不崩溃或重新设计的情况下，容纳更多用户、更大的数据集以及其他处理规模的增加。可扩展性对于人类系统同样重要，这些系统通常在小规模层面上运作，比如家族经营的比萨店的会计系统，但在面对更大企业（如比萨连锁店）时却无法有效扩展。另见鲁棒性。
Scenario A story-like abstraction of a dramatic situation that focuses key elements of a design problem, as in a use case, or of a replayable simulated process, as in a military training system. See also Storyboard. 场景 A 是一个故事化的抽象，专注于设计问题的关键要素，例如用例，或可重复的模拟过程，例如军事训练系统。另见故事板。
Schema An organized, abstract representation of knowledge, pluralized as schemas or schemata. The term can be used to refer to mental constructs (cognitive schemas representing, for example, our general concept of a house, a newspaper, or the grammatical structures of a language), classification schema (like the Dewey Decimal system), or computational objects (e.g., XML schemas for standardized documents, components of computational knowledge representations). See also Frame, Class, Pattern, Substitution System, Taxonomy, Template. 结构 是一种有组织的、抽象的知识表示，复数形式为 schemas 或 schemata。这个术语可以指心理构造（例如，认知结构代表我们对房屋、报纸或语言语法结构的一般概念）、分类结构（如杜威十进制分类法）或计算对象（例如，用于标准化文档的 XML 结构、计算知识表示的组成部分）。另见框架、类、模式、替代系统、分类法和模板。
Search Engine A computer program that matches input words or phrases with items in a networked information resource or database. Google succeeded in the 2000s in displacing other search engines for the World Wide Web because its algorithm made use of the linking structure of the web, taking into account the links into and out of a site as well as the content of the site itself in determining relevance and value. 搜索引擎是一个计算机程序，它将输入的单词或短语与网络信息资源或数据库中的项目进行匹配。谷歌在 2000 年代成功取代了其他万维网搜索引擎，因为它的算法利用了网络的链接结构，综合考虑了网站的内外部链接及其内容，从而确定相关性和价值。
Segmentation Division of information into its constituent units. Segmentation is one of the key tasks of information design. The granularity with which information is segmented is always an important design decision, with the goal of creating semantic units that provide both precision of reference and preserves the context of the larger unit. Legacy segmentation conventions often reflect the constraints of predigital materials, such as the paper page or the vinyl record album. 信息的分段是将信息划分为其基本单元。分段是信息设计中的一项关键任务。信息分段的粒度始终是一个重要的设计决策，旨在创建既能提供精确引用又能保留更大单元上下文的语义单元。传统的分段惯例往往反映了数字化之前材料的限制，例如纸张页面或黑胶唱片专辑。
Semantic Unit A unit of information in which a single physical form is associated with a logical division in meaning. A paragraph is a semantic unit, but a page is a physical segment that may or may not correspond to a meaningful content division. Other examples of semantic units are: a spoken or written word, a sentence, a chapter, a database field or table, a shot in a movie, a 语义单位是指信息的一个单元，其中一个单一的物理形式与意义上的逻辑划分相对应。段落是一个语义单位，而页面则是一个物理段落，可能与有意义的内容划分相符，也可能不符。其他语义单位的例子包括：一个口头或书面的单词、一个句子、一个章节、一个数据库字段或表格，以及一部电影中的一个镜头。
single photograph, a sequence of shots or photographs detailing a unified action. Semantic units may overlap one another or be nested one inside the other. In representing information in digital form it is important to segment it into semantic units of multiple levels of granularity for indexing and display. 单张照片或一系列镜头可以详细描述一个统一的动作。语义单元可能会相互重叠或嵌套。在以数字形式表示信息时，将其划分为多个粒度级别的语义单元，以便于索引和展示是非常重要的。
Semantic Web A goal articulated by Tim Berners-Lee and pursued by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for integrating vast distributed knowledge resources through common information structures such as permanent addresses and XML document schemas (Berners-Lee, Hendler, and Lassila 2001; Shadbolt, Hall, Berners-Lee, and Shadbolt 2006). 语义网是蒂姆·伯纳斯-李提出的目标，万维网联盟（W3C）致力于通过永久地址和 XML 文档模式等共同信息结构，整合广泛的分布式知识资源（伯纳斯-李、亨德勒和拉西拉 2001；沙德博特、霍尔、伯纳斯-李和沙德博特 2006）。
Semiotics The study of signs, such as language, gestures, and written or graphical texts for the purpose of understanding what they mean and how that meaning is constructed within specific cultural contexts. Important theorists of semiotics include Ferdinand de Saussure, A. J. Greimas, Roland Barthes, and Umberto Eco. 符号学是研究符号的学科，包括语言、手势以及书面或图形文本，旨在理解它们的意义以及这些意义在特定文化背景下是如何构建的。符号学的重要理论家有费尔迪南·德·索绪尔、A·J·格里马斯、罗兰·巴特和翁贝托·埃科。
Shared Attention The basis of all communication. Media conventions and genres create shared attention by establishing common formats, expectations, and semantic associations. To invent a new medium is to expand the human capacity for shared attention, to increase the complexity of our reasoning about the world and to deepen our capacity for mutual understanding. See also Joint Attentional Scene. 共享注意力是所有沟通的基础。媒体惯例和类型通过建立共同的格式、期望和语义关联来创造共享注意力。发明一种新媒介意味着扩展人类的共享注意力能力，增加我们对世界的推理复杂性，并加深我们相互理解的能力。另见联合注意场景。
Simulation A system with behaviors, implemented as a human-performed game or a computer program or a combination of the two, that abstracts and imitates key components of an imaginary or real system, usually composed of multiple actors and complex causal relationships. Simulations are usually run multiple times to assess the effect of changing parameters. 模拟是一个具有行为的系统，可以是人类进行的游戏、计算机程序或两者的结合，旨在抽象和模仿一个虚构或真实系统的关键组成部分，通常涉及多个参与者和复杂的因果关系。模拟通常会多次运行，以评估参数变化的影响。
Sign A sign is a conventionalized physical form (signifier) that is recognized as referring to something other than itself (the signified) within a specific discourse community. A sign can be a symbol (like letters), an icon (like the stick figures differentiating male and female public toilets), or an index (like smoke is for fire). 标志是一个约定俗成的物理形式（能指），在特定的语境社区中被认作指代某种不同于自身的事物（所指）。标志可以是符号（如字母）、图标（如区分男性和女性公共厕所的简笔画）或指示物（如烟代表火）。
Signal A form of patterned data, perceivable by machine or human, that is inscribed and transmitted in a medium, such as audio transmitted as a radio wave or letters transmitted by telegraph. In information theory, signals are corrupted by noise. 信号是一种可被机器或人感知的模式化数据，记录并通过某种媒介传输，例如以无线电波传输的音频或通过电报传输的字母。在信息理论中，信号会受到噪声的干扰。
Situated Action Theory A framework for understand human-machine interactions as conversations in which both parties are constantly assessing the state of the other. In the situated action model, the user’s knowledge of a process is not identical with a single step-wise decision tree or plan, but inextricably tied to a much less predictable sequence of embodied actions. It is therefore the designer’s job to enhance communication, anticipating the user’s state, making the machine’s assumptions visible, and giving the user control over the sequence rather than expecting her behavior to conform to invariant scripts (Suchman 1987). See also Distributed Cognition. 情境行动理论是一个框架，用于理解人机交互的对话过程，其中双方不断评估对方的状态。在情境行动模型中，用户对过程的理解并不等同于单一的逐步决策树或计划，而是与一系列不可预测的具身行动紧密相连。因此，设计师的任务是增强沟通，预测用户的状态，使机器的假设变得可见，并让用户掌控行动顺序，而不是期望她的行为符合固定的脚本（Suchman 1987）。另见分布式认知。
Spatial Affordance With the encyclopedic, participatory, and procedural properties, one of the four defining representational affordances of the digital medium. Digital environments can represent space using all the strategies of traditional media, such as maps, images, video tracking, and three-dimensional models. Unlike older media, however, and similarly to the experiential 空间可供性 具有百科全书式、参与性和程序性特征，是数字媒介四个定义性表现可供性之一。数字环境可以通过传统媒体的各种策略来表示空间，例如地图、图像、视频追踪和三维模型。然而，与旧媒体不同，数字媒介更类似于体验式。
world and the designed spaces of landscapers, urban planners, and architects, digital media artifacts can be navigated. This affordance is not a function of visual representation, since it can be produced in text adventure games like Zork and Adventure, which created navigable spaces without any images. It is byproduct of the procedural and participatory affordances, of setting up rules of interaction that have the consistency of navigating a fixed landscape, and of the innate human propensity to make sense of the world through spatial metaphors: we are predisposed to spatialize our experience, turning the appearance of text on our screen into the experience of “visiting” websites. Navigable space is created by clearly distinguishing one place from another and creating consistent interaction patterns that support movement between spaces. When encyclopedically large and detailed informational spaces or virtual worlds are well organized with clear boundaries, consistent navigation, and encyclopedic details that reward exploration they create the experience of immersion. 在世界以及景观设计师、城市规划师和建筑师设计的空间中，数字媒体作品可以被导航。这种能力并不是视觉表现的结果，因为它也可以在像《佐克》和《冒险》这样的文字冒险游戏中实现，这些游戏创造了没有任何图像的可导航空间。这是程序性和参与性功能的副产品，设定互动规则的过程具有导航固定景观的一致性，同时也反映了人类天生倾向于通过空间隐喻理解世界的特性：我们倾向于将体验空间化，将屏幕上文本的外观转化为“访问”网站的体验。 可导航空间是通过清晰地区分不同地点，并建立支持空间间移动的一致互动模式而形成的。当信息空间或虚拟世界像百科全书一样庞大且详细，且组织良好、边界清晰、导航一致，并且提供丰富的探索奖励时，它们会带来沉浸式的体验。
State In computer-based environments, the state of a system at any moment is the set of current values of all the system variables. The concept of state is useful to the designer in understanding the range of possibilities for elements of a system (such as characters within a virtual world, documents within an archive) as well as for the system as a whole. 在计算机环境中，系统在任何时刻的状态是所有系统变量当前值的集合。状态的概念帮助设计师理解系统元素（如虚拟世界中的角色或档案中的文档）的各种可能性，以及整个系统的状态。
State Diagram A representation of a complex system as a network in which the nodes are distinct states and the directional lines connecting individual nodes (called edges, and drawn as arrows) representing the conditions under which the system will change state. For example, a state diagram of a graduate student could have a node labeled “ABD” (all but dissertation) connected by an arrow labeled “Dissertation Accepted” to another node labeled “PhD.” 状态图是对复杂系统的网络表示，其中节点代表不同的状态，连接这些节点的箭头（称为边）表示系统在何种条件下会发生状态变化。例如，一个研究生的状态图可能有一个标记为“ABD”（除论文外的所有要求）的节点，通过一个标记为“论文接受”的箭头连接到另一个标记为“博士”的节点。
Storyboard A design tool consisting of a sequence of single images, like a comic strip, illustrating a temporal sequence, used in the preproduction phase of a film, animation, or interactive digital artifact. Storyboards are used as a strategy for thinking through design, and can be used early in the process, in conjunction with mock-ups to illustrate the interaction, or to illustrate a written use case. See also Iterative Design, Scenario, Wireframes. 故事板是一种设计工具，由一系列单独的图像组成，类似于漫画，展示时间序列，通常用于电影、动画或互动数字作品的前期制作阶段。故事板作为一种设计思考策略，可以在早期阶段与模型结合使用，以展示交互或书面用例。另见迭代设计、场景和线框图。
Structured Archive A set of digital artifacts that have been semantically segmented and indexed with controlled metadata. Structured archives are similar to physical and digital libraries, but they may contain a wider range of media formats and unpublished as well as published items. 结构化档案是指一组经过语义分割并使用受控元数据进行索引的数字文物。它们类似于实体和数字图书馆，但可能包含更广泛的媒体格式，包括未出版和已出版的项目。
Structured Document A document, like an HTML page or a podcast, composed of discrete parts labeled with metadata tags, which provide semantic segmentation similar to the fields in a database record. A large repository of similarly structured media files is a structured archive. See also Semantic Web. 结构化文档是指像 HTML 页面或播客这样的文档，由带有元数据标签的独立部分组成，这些标签提供类似于数据库记录字段的语义分割。一个包含大量类似结构化媒体文件的存储库被称为结构化档案。另见语义网。
Substitution System A way of generating variation within a fixed template, by identifying slots that can be filled by any one of a set of similar elements. Language is a grammatical substitution system, allowing us to substitute any noun or noun phrase, for example, as the subject of a sentence. Style sheets for web pages are substitution systems, establishing a fixed pattern for the display of variable content. Game avatars are constructed with substitution systems that allow players to interchange hairstyles, facial features, body shapes, and clothing, creating elaborate 替代系统是一种在固定模板中生成变体的方法，通过识别可以由一组相似元素填充的空位。语言是一种语法替代系统，允许我们替换任何名词或名词短语，例如作为句子的主语。网页的样式表是替代系统，建立了可变内容显示的固定模式。游戏角色是通过替代系统构建的，允许玩家互换发型、面部特征、身体形状和服装，从而创造出复杂的形象。
variation within a fixed, easily extended framework. Substitution systems can be used as an information design and presentation strategy to establish genres that focus shared attention, and as a software design strategy to reduce the complexity of the programming task while expanding the interactor’s range of choice and experience of variety. Proceduralized substitution systems can generate highly complex variations by assembling the templates and filling the slots dynamically according to parameterized rules. 在一个固定且易于扩展的框架内进行变体设计。替代系统可以作为信息设计和展示策略，帮助建立专注于共享注意力的类型，同时也可以作为软件设计策略，减少编程任务的复杂性，扩展交互者的选择范围和多样性体验。程序化的替代系统能够通过动态组装模板和根据参数化规则填充槽位，生成高度复杂的变体。
Subroutine In computer systems structured with a single central control program, subroutines are subordinate programs that are passed information to do specific tasks and then return information and control to the master program. Creating subroutines is an example of modularity in programming. See also Function. 在以单一中央控制程序构建的计算机系统中，子程序是接收信息以执行特定任务的从属程序，然后将信息和控制权返回给主程序。创建子程序是编程中模块化的一个例子。另见函数。
Synchronous Happening at the same time, like a live chat via voice, text, or video. See also Asynchronous. 同步发生，指同时进行的活动，例如通过语音、文本或视频进行的实时聊天。另见异步。
Table One of the basic building blocks of information design, an extension of the list through spatialization and the basis for database design. See also Field, Grid, Record. 信息设计的基本构建块之一，表格通过空间化扩展了列表，并为数据库设计提供了基础。另见字段、网格和记录。
Tacit Knowledge Unconscious, unarticulated, situation-specific knowledge that has been learned from experience although not explicitly. Tacit knowledge often forms a part of expert or veteran “know-how,” and it can be hard to capture by novices or in design interviews, since the knowledgeable person is not aware of drawing upon it. See also Intuitive. 隐性知识是指无意识、未明确表达的、特定情境下的知识，这种知识是通过经验获得的，但并未被明确说明。隐性知识通常是专家或资深人士的“诀窍”的一部分，对于新手或在设计访谈中很难捕捉，因为知识丰富的人往往没有意识到自己在运用这些知识。另见直觉。
Tag A descriptor used as metadata and attached to the whole or a part of a media object, such as a photograph or a heading in a web page as indexing, structural, or formatting terms. Indexing tags identify content, such as the place or date of a photograph. Formatting tags identify structural parts of a document, such as << heading >> or display <italics >>. 标签 A 描述符作为元数据，附加于整个或部分媒体对象，例如照片或网页中的标题，起到索引、结构或格式的作用。索引标签用于识别内容，如照片的地点或日期；格式标签则用于识别文档的结构部分，例如 << 标题 >> 或显示<斜体 >> 。
Tag Cloud A way of providing overview and access to an archive of media artifacts, such as online photo collections, by displaying metadata tags as an alphabetized array of tags whose size, color, or other visual characteristic indicates the quantity, popularity, recency, or other attribute of the tagged artifacts. Tag clouds can be automatically generated for expanding, unregulated collections’ user-generated tags, making them a popular interface strategy for folksonomy collections. 标签云是一种提供媒体文物档案概览和访问的方式，例如在线照片收藏。它通过将元数据标签以字母顺序排列的方式展示，标签的大小、颜色或其他视觉特征表示被标记文物的数量、受欢迎程度、最近性或其他属性。标签云可以自动生成，适用于不断扩展的、无监管的用户生成标签的集合，因此成为民间分类集合中一种流行的界面策略。
Taxonomy A consistent, standardized classification schema for dividing a complex set of elements into hierarchically organized, discrete categories and subcategories. A taxonomy is an attempt to account for all the elements in a particular knowledge set (such as all living things) without ambiguity, and to provide category divisions that reflect expert knowledge of the field (such as cellular and noncellular life). 分类法是一种一致且标准化的分类体系，用于将复杂的元素集合划分为层次分明的离散类别和子类别。它旨在无歧义地涵盖特定知识领域中的所有元素（如所有生物），并提供反映该领域专家知识的分类划分（例如细胞生命与非细胞生命）。
Template A fixed media format that provides slots for varying information, such as a job application form or a record in a database. Templates are important building blocks of information design and in object-oriented programming. See also Class, Instantiation, Schema, Structured Document, Substitution System. 模板 A 是一种固定的媒体格式，提供了用于不同信息的插槽，例如求职申请表或数据库记录。模板是信息设计和面向对象编程的重要基础。另见类、实例化、模式、结构化文档和替代系统。
Temporal Media Media that are time based, such as spoken language, audio, and video recordings. Temporal media in digital formats can be more difficult to search and to present in overview 时间媒体是指基于时间的媒体，例如口语、音频和视频录音。数字格式的时间媒体在搜索和概览展示时可能更具挑战性。
than text documents or arrays of still images. Information organization strategies for temporal media include transcripts, descriptive metadata, playback control with fast forward and rewind, and excerpting. 相较于文本文件或静态图像数组，时间媒体的信息组织策略包括转录、描述性元数据、快进和倒带的播放控制，以及摘录。
Thesaurus In general a thesaurus is a list of words and their synonyms. In information design, a thesaurus is a list of all the standardized descriptors in a controlled vocabulary, including guidance on the correct word to use when more than one refer to the same thing (e.g., “residence,” “house,” or “home”) and the relationships between terms, such as which broader terms are implicitly included in narrower ones (e.g., “sister” implicitly includes “sibling” which includes “family member”). 一般来说，词库是一个单词及其同义词的列表。在信息设计中，词库是一个受控词汇中所有标准化描述符的集合，提供了在多个词指代同一事物时选择正确词汇的指导（例如，“住所”、“房子”或“家”），以及术语之间的关系，比如哪些更广泛的术语隐含地包含在更狭义的术语中（例如，“姐妹”隐含地包括“兄弟姐妹”，而“兄弟姐妹”又包括“家庭成员”）。
Think-aloud Protocol A method for studying the responses of users to interactive artifacts, by asking them to articulate for the tester what they are thinking as they use the system. See also Iterative Design, Formative Evaluation, Usability. 思维大声协议是一种研究用户对交互产品反应的方法，要求用户在使用系统时向测试者表达他们的想法。另见迭代设计、形成性评估和可用性。
Thread A form of information organization convention used in online bulletin boards and discussion groups and later adopted for email that collocates items with the same subject line, usually by stringing them together in order of the time of posting. Some systems recognize subtopics and create hierarchies of discussion threads. 线程是一种信息组织方式，最初用于在线公告板和讨论组，后来被电子邮件采用。它将相同主题行的内容聚集在一起，通常按发布时间顺序排列。一些系统能够识别子主题，并创建讨论线程的层次结构。
Timeline A two-dimensional visual organizing framework for the presentation of information chronologically, usually in a left-to-right horizontal configuration. Timelines are useful for displaying dated artifacts in an archive or for displaying a changing, quantifiable phenomenon over time (such as occurrences of a particular proper name in the news), but the encyclopedic capacity of digital environments can make it difficult to display all the relevant items in a single line, a problem that is sometimes solved by providing a zoom feature for the timeline. Timelines have also been widely used as interfaces for so-called multimedia authoring environments, where they can sometimes reinforce unisequential structure and discourage interactivity. 时间线是一种二维视觉组织框架，用于按时间顺序呈现信息，通常以从左到右的水平方式排列。时间线非常适合展示档案中的有日期文物，或展示随时间变化的可量化现象（例如某个特定专有名词在新闻中的出现）。然而，数字环境的百科全书式容量可能使得在一条线上展示所有相关项目变得困难，这个问题有时可以通过为时间线提供缩放功能来解决。此外，时间线也被广泛用作多媒体创作环境的界面，在这些环境中，它们有时会强化单一顺序结构，抑制互动性。
Time Step A segment of time within a computer simulation in which the state of the system is recalculated. Often in simulation games the action is explicitly paused while players make resource allocation. Time steps are also perceptible in the updating of counters or other displays in control panels of simulations, and in scientific simulations processes may be recorded and graphed by time step. 时间步 在计算机模拟中指的是一个时间段，在这个时间段内系统的状态会被重新计算。在模拟游戏中，玩家进行资源分配时，游戏通常会暂停。时间步在控制面板的计数器或其他显示更新中也很明显，而在科学模拟中，过程可能会根据时间步进行记录和绘制图表。
Threshold Object An object in the real world, like a game controller, that has an effect in the virtual world, taking the interactor over the threshold from the real to the virtual, and increasing immersion by reinforcing belief in the virtual world (Murray 1997). 阈值对象 是指在现实世界中像游戏控制器这样的物体，它在虚拟世界中产生影响，将交互者从现实带入虚拟，并通过增强对虚拟世界的信念来提升沉浸感（Murray 1997）。
Tool Model One of the four models of interactivity discussed in part V. A tool is a found or created object that fits in and extends the power of the human hand, whose value lies in its instrumentality, that is, its usefulness in accomplishing a task. Design values for digital tools include direct manipulation, learnability, transparency, and expanded expression. See also Companion Model, Game Model, and Machine Model. 工具模型 是四种互动模型之一，在第五部分中讨论。工具是一个找到或创造的物体，能够适应并增强人手的能力，其价值在于其作为工具的功能，即在完成任务时的实用性。数字工具的设计价值包括直接操作、易于学习、透明性和更广泛的表达能力。另见伴侣模型、游戏模型和机器模型。
Tooltip Information that appears on rollover associated with an icon in an application program or game interface. 在应用程序或游戏界面中，鼠标悬停在图标上时显示的提示信息。
Transclusion A word coined by the hypertext visionary Ted Nelson, and a key feature of his proposed Xanadu hypertext system, referring to the inclusion of one text within another while maintaining a single unique copy of the original, which remains under authorial control. In Nelson’s design, the author would be able to make changes to a single original and have those changes appear in all the compound documents in which it was transcluded (Nelson 2007). 转引是超文本先驱泰德·尼尔森创造的一个术语，也是他提出的 Xanadu 超文本系统的一个重要特征。它指的是在保持原始文本唯一副本的情况下，将一个文本嵌入到另一个文本中，并保持作者的控制权。在尼尔森的设计中，作者可以对原始文本进行修改，这些修改会在所有包含该文本的复合文档中自动更新（尼尔森 2007）。
Transmedia A production and marketing strategy that distributes branded content over multiple existing platforms, such as a videogame or fan-driven website that is integrated into the same fictional universe as a television program (Jenkins 2006). 跨媒体是一种生产和营销策略，它通过多个现有平台分发品牌内容，例如与电视节目（Jenkins 2006）同一虚构宇宙相结合的视频游戏或粉丝网站。
Transmission With inscription and representation, one of the three components of a medium. Transmission is the transfer across space or time or both of a perceptible pattern based on a socially agreed upon schema like the alphabet or Morse code. See also Convention, Format, Genre. 传输是媒介的三个组成部分之一，包含铭文和表现。传输指的是在空间或时间之间，基于社会公认的模式（如字母表或摩尔斯电码）转移可感知的模式。另见惯例、格式和类型。
Transmission Model Describes all exchanges of meaning among animals, people, machines, or a combination of these as the transmission of a message from point A where the sender encodes it, through a channel that maximizes signal and minimizes noise to point B where the signal is decoded by the receiver, into the original message (Shannon and Weaver 1963). Also called information theory, and often contrasted with semiotic theory. 传输模型描述了动物、人与机器之间，或它们的组合之间所有意义的交流过程。这个过程将信息从 A 点的发送者编码，通过一个最大化信号并最小化噪声的通道传输到 B 点，在那里接收者解码信号，恢复成原始信息（香农和韦弗 1963）。这也被称为信息理论，常常与符号理论进行对比。
Transparency A desirable quality in a tool or interface, which is said to be transparent when it disappears from the awareness of the user, who focuses instead on the task itself. A touch-typist experiences the keyboard as transparent; a confident driver experiences the automobile controls as transparent. Transparency is achieved by direct manipulation, continuous feedback, ease of use, and familiarity. Transparency is thwarted by cumbersome input procedures, hidden and interruptive processes, and a steep learning curve, all of which make the interface opaque, obscuring the task at hand. 透明性是一种理想的工具或界面的特质，当用户的注意力集中在任务本身时，它被称为透明。触摸打字者会觉得键盘是透明的；自信的驾驶者会觉得汽车控制是透明的。透明性通过直接操作、持续反馈、易用性和熟悉感来实现。而繁琐的输入程序、隐藏和干扰的过程以及陡峭的学习曲线则会妨碍透明性，使界面变得不透明，遮蔽了当前的任务。
Tree See Branching Tree. 树看到分支的树。
Treemap An information visualization technique that allows for overview of a thickly branching hierarchical tree in a constrained space by nesting items within rectangular containers representing categories (such as sectors of the economy) whose relative size reflects an important measurement of the data (such as market capitalization). The proximities of items at the top level may or may not be semantic, since the mapping software tries to place all the boxes within a limited screen display. Treemaps were developed by Ben Shneiderman’s group at the University of Maryland (Shneiderman and Plaisant 2009). 树图是一种信息可视化技术，它通过将项目嵌套在代表不同类别（如经济部门）的矩形容器中，使我们能够在有限的空间内概览一个层次分明的树状结构。容器的相对大小反映了数据的重要指标（例如市值）。顶层项目之间的相对位置可能具有语义意义，也可能没有，因为映射软件会尽量将所有框放置在有限的屏幕空间内。树图是由马里兰大学的本·施奈德曼团队开发的（施奈德曼和普莱桑特 2009）。
Tuning When used by game designers, the process of iterative playtesting and redesign by which an almost finished game is made to support transparent interaction and to induce the experience of flow by being neither too difficult nor too easy. 调整 当游戏设计师使用时，通过迭代的游戏测试和重新设计过程，使几乎完成的游戏能够支持透明的互动，并通过适度的难度来引导流畅的体验。
Turing Test A hypothetical test suggested by cryptographer and mathematician Alan Turing for distinguishing between a computer and a human being in a conversation held as an online text exchange (Turing 1950). 图灵测试是由密码学家和数学家艾伦·图灵提出的假设性测试，旨在区分计算机与人类在在线文本交流中的表现（图灵 1950）。
Unisequential A more specific term than “linear” to describe media artifacts that are read, listened to, or viewed in a single authorized sequence, like the order of pages in a book or the temporal order of a film or podcast. Interactive documentaries and simulation games, by contrast, are multisequential, allowing the interactor to experience multiple coherent authorized sequences. 单序列是一个比“线性”更具体的术语，用于描述以单一授权顺序进行阅读、收听或观看的媒体作品，例如书籍的页面顺序或电影、播客的时间顺序。相对而言，互动纪录片和模拟游戏则是多序列的，允许用户体验多个连贯的授权序列。
URI Universal Resource Identifier. A standard format for referring to a networked resource of any kind, consisting of a protocol code like http:// or mailto: and a unique identifier. See URL, DOI. URI（通用资源标识符）是一种标准格式，用于引用任何类型的网络资源，包含像 http:// 或 mailto: 的协议代码以及唯一标识符。请参见 URL 和 DOI。
URL Universal Resource Locator, a form of URI that begins with the http:// protocol. A standard format for referring to sites on the World Wide Web. The confusion between the URI, the more general term, and the URL reflects the fact that a digital identifier can be either a name or a location or both. See DOI. URL（统一资源定位符）是一种以 http://协议开头的 URI 形式，是引用万维网上网站的标准格式。URI 这一更广泛的术语与 URL 之间的混淆，反映了数字标识符可以既是名称又是位置，或两者兼而有之的事实。请参见 DOI。
Usability A design goal that is closely related to specific empirical methods for creating and evaluating designs aimed at achieving the goal. Usability refers to the ease with which users of digital tools and informational resources can perform tasks. Usability methods emphasize empirical observation of users, explicit error messages, efficiency in task performance, lack of ambiguity, learnability, and formative evaluation through the measurement of task performance time, error rate, interface response time, and think-aloud protocols to capture frustrations and confusions in the user’s cognitive process. 可用性是一个设计目标，与特定的经验方法密切相关，这些方法用于创建和评估旨在实现该目标的设计。可用性指的是用户在使用数字工具和信息资源时执行任务的难易程度。可用性方法强调对用户的经验观察、清晰的错误信息、任务执行的效率、明确性、可学习性，以及通过测量任务执行时间、错误率、界面响应时间和思维大声说出协议来捕捉用户在认知过程中的挫折和困惑。
Use Case In a design document for a software application or other interactive artifact, a use case is a scenario describing a fictional but representative user, including the social context, goals, and steps the user would take in achieving the goals. The use case serves to focus design in the early stages of development and to explain the functionality to potential new users once the artifact is built. 在软件应用程序或其他交互式文档的设计文档中，使用案例是描述一个虚构但具有代表性的用户的场景，涵盖社会背景、目标以及用户为实现这些目标所采取的步骤。使用案例的目的是在开发的早期阶段集中设计，并在文档构建完成后向潜在新用户解释其功能。
User A common term for the human being who interacts with a digital artifact, which assumes a tool and task orientation, as compared with the player of a video game or the more inclusive interactor who may be playing or performing a task or perhaps following a multisequential story, or exploring a virtual world. 用户与数字产品互动的常用术语，强调工具和任务导向，这与视频游戏玩家或可能在进行游戏、执行任务、跟随多重故事情节或探索虚拟世界的更广泛互动者有所不同。
User Testing A crucial element of formative evaluation and iterative design for interactive artifacts. See also Agency, Usability. 用户测试是形成性评估和交互式产品迭代设计的重要组成部分。另见代理性和可用性。
Value, Value List Used in programming for the number or text in a container whose contents can change. Variables in programs have values, as do fields in databases, and attributes of elements in structured documents. Value lists are made for containers that have a fixed set of possible values (like provinces in Canada). 值和值列表在编程中用于表示一个容器中的数字或文本，其内容可以变化。程序中的变量、数据库中的字段以及结构化文档中元素的属性都有值。值列表是为那些具有固定可能值集合的容器创建的，例如加拿大的省份。
Variable A named unit of data specified in a computer program that can change its value during the execution of the code. Variables are “local” if they only can be read and modified by one part of a program and “global” if they can be read or modified by all parts of the program. The opposite of a variable is a constant, which has an unchanging value, such as the mathematical constant Pi. 变量 A 是计算机程序中指定的数据单位，其值可以在代码执行过程中发生变化。如果一个变量只能被程序的某一部分读取和修改，则称为“局部”变量；如果可以被程序的所有部分读取或修改，则称为“全局”变量。变量的对立面是常量，常量的值是固定不变的，例如数学常数π。
Vector Graphics Digital images that are represented within a computer system as a set of instructions for drawing the geometrical components (e.g., polygons, lines, points) for them rather than as a bitmap. A vector is a continuous rather than a fixed variable (a relative quantity rather than a specific number) so vector graphics can be resized without loss of information (the lines will always be drawn in the same relative proportions at the same angles no matter how long they are). 矢量图形是数字图像的一种表示方式，它在计算机系统中以绘制几何元素（如多边形、线条和点）的指令集形式存在，而不是以位图形式。矢量是一种连续的变量，而非固定的数值（相对数量而非具体数字），因此矢量图形可以在不损失信息的情况下进行缩放（无论长度如何，线条始终以相同的相对比例和角度绘制）。
Visibility The design value of making the processing of the computing machine clear to the interactor before, during, and after it takes place. See also Transparency, Machine Model. 可见性是指在计算机处理过程的前、中、后，让交互者清楚了解其运作的设计价值。另见透明性和机器模型。
Widget A simple program or applet that can be plugged into a common platform, like a web widget into an HTML page, and often into a proprietary platform like the Apple Dashboard. Widgets generally are limited in function and easy to plug in or delete from the host environment. 小部件是一个简单的程序或小应用，可以嵌入到公共平台中，例如将网页小部件嵌入到 HTML 页面，通常也可以嵌入到像 Apple Dashboard 这样的专有平台。小部件的功能通常有限，易于插入或从主机环境中删除。
WIMP Interface Acronym for the common desktop graphical user interface (GUI), standing for Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers. WIMP 接口是常见的桌面图形用户界面（GUI），代表 Windows、图标、菜单和指针。
Wireframe A schematic drawing of an interface, indicating the size and shape of key areas and the functionality of interactive elements, but lacking the actual graphic and textual content. Web wireframes are usually based on a grid and can be used to establish a style sheet or template to ensure uniformity in a multipage site. Wireframes can also be used as a focus of design team discussion and as the basis of paper-based user testing, in order to concretize thinking about interaction early in the design process. 线框图是界面的示意图，展示了关键区域的大小和形状以及交互元素的功能，但不包含实际的图形和文本内容。网页线框图通常基于网格，可以用来创建样式表或模板，以确保多页面网站的一致性。线框图还可以作为设计团队讨论的中心，并作为纸质用户测试的基础，以便在设计过程中早期明确交互的思考。
World Wide Web (WWW) The global information resource invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989-1990 when he proposed and implemented the now-standard protocols for addressing, displaying, and hyperlinking information over the Internet. Berners-Lee ensured continued open access and expanded shared standards of information transmission by setting up the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium), which is hosted at MIT. See also, HTML, Semantic Web, XML. 万维网（WWW）是由蒂姆·伯纳斯-李于 1989 年至 1990 年间发明的全球信息资源。他提出并实施了如今标准的互联网信息地址、显示和超链接协议。伯纳斯-李通过建立万维网联盟（W3C），确保了持续的开放访问和信息传输共享标准，该组织在麻省理工学院托管。另见 HTML、语义网和 XML。
WYSIWYG An acronym for “What You See Is What You Get” pronounced “wiz-ee-wig.” WYSIWYG interfaces replaced markup interfaces for word processing in the 1980s. Previously, word processors required the use of codes similar to HTML, so that an italicized word would have to be coded as WYSIWYG 是“所见即所得”的缩写，发音为“wiz-ee-wig”。在 1980 年代，WYSIWYG 界面取代了文字处理中的标记界面。之前，文字处理器需要使用类似 HTML 的代码，因此斜体字需要进行编码。
<i>Hello!</i> 你好呀！
instead of appearing on the screen as Hello!-just as it would in print. WYSIWYG interfaces in general are desirable because they allow for direct manipulation. 而不是在屏幕上显示为“你好！”——就像在印刷中一样。WYSIWYG 界面通常是受欢迎的，因为它们允许直接操作。
XML XML stands for Extensible Markup Language, a proposed successor to HTML developed by the W3C under the direction of Tim Berners-Lee as part of its effort to create a Semantic Web that would be better organized for information sharing and knowledge creation than the current World Wide Web. XML is a metalanguage, a format for creating metadata sets that form the basis of structured documents. XML 是可扩展标记语言的缩写，是 W3C 在蒂姆·伯纳斯-李的指导下开发的 HTML 的拟议继任者，旨在创建一个比当前万维网更有效的信息共享和知识创造的语义网。XML 是一种元语言，提供了一种创建元数据集的格式，这些元数据集构成结构化文档的基础。
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Image Credits 图片来源信息
0.1 Top row: Promotional image, Oster, and promotional image, Pop Art, from <http://gizmodo. com >>. Bottom row: Promotional image, Philips; promotional image, Ivo Vos, Toaster from Brunch collection, http://www.ivovos.com/brunch.php. 0.1 顶部：促销图片，Oster，以及促销图片，波普艺术，来自 < http://gizmodo.com >> . 底部：促销图片，Philips；促销图片，Ivo Vos，来自早午餐系列的烤面包机，http://www.ivovos.com/brunch.php.
0.2 Promotional image, <http//flipboard.com>, accessed June 15, 2011. 0.2 的宣传图片，来源于 ，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
0.3 Interaction feature, Catan: The First Island for iPhone, exozet games. 0.3 互动功能，《卡坦岛：第一座岛屿》，iPhone 版，exozet 游戏。
0.4 Author’s photograph of TV broadcast, June 2009, ABC7 Los Angeles. 0.4 作者在 2009 年 6 月拍摄的洛杉矶 ABC7 电视广播照片。
0.5 From Leisner, G., and Vera Leisner (1951). Antas do Concelho de Reguengos de Monsaraz. Lisbon, Uniarch. Available at http://research2.its.uiowa.edu, the ESPRIT archive, compiled by Katina Lilios. Courtesy of Katina Lilios. 0.5 来自 Leisner, G.和 Vera Leisner（1951 年）的《雷根戈斯·德·蒙萨拉斯的安塔斯》。出版于里斯本，Uniarch。可在 http://research2.its.uiowa.edu 的 ESPRIT 档案中找到，由 Katina Lilios 编纂，特此感谢 Katina Lilios。
0.6 Interaction feature from http://nytimes.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 2011 年 6 月 15 日访问的 http://nytimes.com 网站上的 0.6 互动特征。
1.1 Interaction feature from http://landsend.com, accessed August 27, 2010. 来自 http://landsend.com 的互动功能，访问日期为 2010 年 8 月 27 日。
1.2 Interaction feature from http://macys.com, accessed October 26, 2010. 来自 http://macys.com 的 1.2 互动功能，访问时间为 2010 年 10 月 26 日。
1.3 Interaction feature from http://macys.com, accessed May 31, 2010. 来自 http://macys.com 的 1.3 互动功能，访问时间为 2010 年 5 月 31 日。
1.4 Interaction feature from http://landsend.com, accessed May 31, 2010. 来自 http://landsend.com 的 1.4 互动功能，访问日期为 2010 年 5 月 31 日。
1.5 Mary Flanagan’s [giant Joystick] (2006), courtesy of Mary Flanagan. See <http:// maryflanagan.com/giant-joystick>, accessed June 15, 2011. 1.5 玛丽·弗拉纳根的[巨型操纵杆]（2006），由玛丽·弗拉纳根提供。请访问，最后访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
1.6 Left: Promotional image of Clay tablet from <http://christianimageresource.org/catalog7. html>. Right: Promotional image, http://perceptivepixel.com, founded by Jefferson Y. Han of NYU, <http://cs.nyu.edu/ jhan/ftirtouch>, all accessed June 15, 2011. 1.6 左侧：来自 的泥板宣传图。右侧：宣传图，来自 http://perceptivepixel.com，由纽约大学的杰斐逊·汉创立，，以上链接均于 2011 年 6 月 15 日访问。
1.7 Promotional image from http://apple.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 1.7 来自 http://apple.com 的宣传图片，访问日期为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
1.8 Douglas Engelbart’s Mouse, composite made by author from U.S. Government Patent 3,541,541and still frame from recording of demonstration “A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect,” December 1968, available at http://dougengelbart.org, accessed August 27, 2010 . 1.8 道格拉斯·恩格尔巴特的鼠标，作者根据美国政府专利 3,541,541 以及 1968 年 12 月“增强人类智力的研究中心”演示的静态画面制作的合成图，网址：http://dougengelbart.org，访问时间：2010 年 8 月 27 日。
2.1 Interaction feature from Adobe Flash. Adobe Flash 的 2.1 交互功能。
2.2 Interaction feature from http://facebook.com, accessed August 27, 2010. 2.2 互动功能，来源于 http://facebook.com，访问日期为 2010 年 8 月 27 日。
2.3 Interaction feature from http://amazon.com, accessed August 27, 2010. 2.3 互动功能来源于 http://amazon.com，访问日期为 2010 年 8 月 27 日。
2.4 Interaction feature from Google Map Street View, accessed October 26, 2010. 2010 年 10 月 26 日访问的谷歌地图街景互动功能 2.4。
2.5 Interaction feature from http://youtube.com, accessed June 13, 2010. 2.5 互动功能来源于 http://youtube.com，访问时间为 2010 年 6 月 13 日。
2.6 Promotional images from BBCTV, accessed August 27, 2010. 2010 年 8 月 27 日访问的 BBC 电视的宣传图片。
2.7 Promotional image, Microsoft Corporation. 2.7 微软公司的宣传图片。
2.8 GPS System, promotional image, Sanyo. 2.8 GPS 系统，宣传图片，三洋。
2.9 Promotional images for http://yelp.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 2011 年 6 月 15 日访问的 http://yelp.com 上的促销图片。
2.10 Images by Artemesia, courtesy of Celia Pearce, reprinted from Communities of Play: Emergent Cultures in Multiplayer Games and Virtual Worlds (MIT Press 2009). 2.10 由 Artemesia 提供的图像，感谢 Celia Pearce，转载自《游戏社区：多人游戏与虚拟世界中的新兴文化》（麻省理工学院出版社，2009 年）。
2.11 The Sensual Evaluation Instrument (SEI) from (Isbister et al. 2007), courtesy of Katherine Isbister. 2.11 感官评估工具（SEI），出自（Isbister 等，2007），由 Katherine Isbister 提供。
2.12 My Life Bits project documentation by Gordon Bell, from PowerPoint, Auto Digital Diary Using Location (2007), available from <http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/ Auto_Digital_Diary_using_location.ppt>, accessed October 26, 2010. 2.12 我的生活片段项目文档，戈登·贝尔撰写，来源于 PowerPoint，自动数字日记使用位置（2007），可在获取，最后访问时间为 2010 年 10 月 26 日。
2.13 Interaction feature illustrating Google Books, from http://books.google.com, accessed August 27, 2010. 2.13 互动功能展示谷歌图书，来源于 http://books.google.com，访问日期为 2010 年 8 月 27 日。
2.14 Image of Xerox Star taken from http://digibarn.com, where it appears thanks to Dave Curbow. Digibarn curator is Bruce Damer. Used under Creative Commons AttributionNoncommercial 3.0 license, accessed June 15, 2011. 2.14 从 http://digibarn.com 获取的 Xerox Star 图像，感谢 Dave Curbow 的贡献。Digibarn 的策展人是 Bruce Damer。该图像根据创意共享署名非商业性 3.0 许可证使用，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
2.15 Images illustrating interaction feature of Lisa Office System version 3.1. Courtesy of J. Musheneaux, who created the screenshot, and Nathan Linebeck, creator of Toasty Tech website, http://toastytech.com/guis/lisaos3.html, accessed June 15, 2011. 2.15 图像展示了 Lisa Office System 3.1 版本的交互功能。特别感谢 J. Musheneaux 提供的截图，以及 Toasty Tech 网站的创始人 Nathan Linebeck，网址为 http://toastytech.com/guis/lisaos3.html，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
2.16 Interactive features from Apple Macintosh, image from Wikipedia, source unknown. Operating system copyright Apple Computer. 来自苹果麦金塔的互动功能，图片来源于维基百科，具体来源不详。该操作系统的版权归苹果公司所有。
2.17 Interaction feature from Spacewar! (1962), programmed by Steve Russell, Martin Graetz, and Wayne Witaenem at MIT on the DEC PDP-1. 1962 年《太空战争！》中的 2.17 互动功能，由史蒂夫·拉塞尔、马丁·格雷茨和韦恩·维塔内姆在麻省理工学院的 DEC PDP-1 计算机上编写。
2.18 Aspen Interactive Movie Map (1978), created by the Architecture Machine Group at MIT, the forerunner of the MIT Media Lab. Image courtesy of Andrew Lippman. 2.18 阿斯彭互动电影地图（1978 年），由麻省理工学院建筑机器组创作，是麻省理工学院媒体实验室的前身。图片由安德鲁·利普曼提供。
2.19 Still image from promotional video (2008), copyright material from Disney World and Google Earth, available from YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wmdCeFUQH4, accessed August 28, 2010. 2008 年宣传视频中的静态图像，版权归迪士尼乐园和谷歌地球所有，视频可在 YouTube 上观看，链接为 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wmdCeFUQH4，访问时间为 2010 年 8 月 28 日。
2.20 Santa Barbara Allospere, still image from informational video at <http://www.allosphere. ucsb.edu>, accessed September 7, 2010. 2.20 圣巴巴拉全息空间，来自信息视频的静态图像，网址为 ，访问日期为 2010 年 9 月 7 日。
2.21 Interactive feature from Amazon.com, accessed June 3, 2010. 2010 年 6 月 3 日访问的亚马逊网站的互动功能 2.21。
2.22 Interactive feature from Visual Dictionary Online, http://visual.merriam-webster.com, accessed August 28, 2010. 2.22 来自视觉词典在线的互动功能，网址：http://visual.merriam-webster.com，访问时间：2010 年 8 月 28 日。
2.23 Charles Joseph Minard, Figurative chart of the successive losses in men by the French army in the Russian campaign 1812-1813 (1869). Public Domain. 2.23 查尔斯·约瑟夫·米纳尔，法国军队在 1812-1813 年俄罗斯战役中士兵损失的图示（1869 年）。公有领域。
2.24 Interactive feature, British Heart Foundation, designed by Sennep, from <http://www.bhf. org.uk/annualreview2008/#/home>, accessed June 15, 2011. 2.24 互动功能，英国心脏基金会，由 Sennep 设计，来源于，访问日期：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
3.1 Graph of Wikimedia growth, from Wikipedia Commons, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ History_of_wikipedia>, accessed June 15, 2011. 维基媒体增长图，来源于维基百科共享，，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
3.2 Earliest Wikipedia entry, from Wikipedia Commons, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Wikipedia:UuU>, accessed June 15, 2011. 3.2 最早的维基百科条目，来源于维基共享资源，< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Wikipedia:UuU>，访问日期：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
3.12 Promotional image for Pac-Man (Namco 1980), designed by Toru Iwatani. 3.12 《吃豆人》（南梦宫 1980）的宣传图，由岩谷彻设计。
3.13 Interaction feature from http://unam.com, accessed November 6, 2009. 2009 年 11 月 6 日访问的 http://unam.com 网站上的 3.13 互动功能。
4.1 Vacuum tube image from Wikimedia Commons, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ibmtube.jpg, contributed by Dave Fischer, accessed June 15, 2011. 4.1 真空管图像来源于维基共享资源，< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ibmtube.jpg，由 Dave Fischer 贡献，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
4.2 Promotional image, from http://innovision-group.net, accessed June 15, 2011. 4.2 宣传图片，来源于 http://innovision-group.net，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
4.3 Promotional image, Intel Tukwila (later called Itanium) chip. 4.3 宣传图，英特尔图克维拉（后称伊坦尼姆）芯片。
4.6 Still image from video available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxENKlcs2Tw, from http://www.zutopedia.com (accessed August 29, 2010). 视频中的静态图像可在 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxENKlcs2Tw 找到，来源于 http://www.zutopedia.com（访问于 2010 年 8 月 29 日）。
4.7 Interaction feature from Apple operating system. 苹果操作系统的 4.7 版交互功能。
4.9 Excerpts from Will Wright’s notes dated January 23, 1997, scanned and posted by Don Hopkins, available at http://www.donhopkins.com/drupal/node/148, in “The Soul of the Sims,” posted February 10, 2008, accessed March 5, 2011. Used by permission of Will Wright. 4.9 摘自威尔·赖特 1997 年 1 月 23 日的笔记，这些笔记由唐·霍普金斯扫描并发布，链接为 http://www.donhopkins.com/drupal/node/148，发表于 2008 年 2 月 10 日，2011 年 3 月 5 日访问。经威尔·赖特授权使用。
4.10 Promotional image for Super Mario Brothers, Nintendo DS version. 4.10 任天堂 DS 版《超级马里奥兄弟》的宣传图。
5.1 Promotional image, World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2004), image retrieved 2010. 5.1 宣传图，《魔兽世界》（暴雪娱乐，2004 年），该图像于 2010 年获取。
5.2 Promotional image, Facade (2005), by Michael Mateas and Andrew Stern. 5.2 宣传图，外立面（2005），由迈克尔·马提亚斯和安德鲁·斯特恩制作。
5.4 Promotional image, Sim City 2000 (Maxis). 5.4 《模拟城市 2000》的宣传图（Maxis）。
5.5 Interaction features, Lemonade Stand games. Screenshots: left from the Yahoo Games Lemonade Tycoon; upper right from iPhone app Lemonade Stand; lower right from <http:// lemonadestandgame.com> web-based game, accessed June 15, 2011. 5.5 互动功能，柠檬水摊游戏。截图：左侧为雅虎游戏的《柠檬水大亨》；右上角为 iPhone 应用的《柠檬水摊》；右下角为的网页游戏，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
5.6 Still image from animated gif made by Rodrigo Silveira Camargo on March 10, 2008, for Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gospers_glider_gun.gif, accessed June 15,2011 . Public domain. 5.6 这是罗德里戈·西尔维拉·卡马尔戈于 2008 年 3 月 10 日为维基共享资源制作的动画 GIF 中的静态图像，链接为 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gospers_glider_gun.gif，最后访问日期为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。属于公有领域。
5.7 Promotional image, Darfur is Dying, designed by Susana Ruiz <http://www.darfurisdying. com>, accessed June 15, 2011. 5.7 宣传图，达尔富尔正在消亡，由苏萨娜·鲁伊斯设计 ，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
5.8 Interaction feature, Madrid (2004), by Gonzalo Frasca, <http://www.newsgaming.com/ newsgames.htm>, accessed June 15, 2011. 5.8 互动特征，马德里（2004），冈萨洛·弗拉斯卡创作，< http://www.newsgaming.com/ newsgames.htm>，最后访问于 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
5.9 Interaction feature, Madrid (2004), by Gonzalo Frasca, <http://www.newsgaming.com/ newsgames.htm>, accessed June 15, 2011. 5.9 互动特征，马德里（2004），冈萨洛·弗拉斯卡创作，< http://www.newsgaming.com/ newsgames.htm>，最后访问于 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
5.10 Promotional image, Peacemaker (Impact Games 2006), <http://www.peacemakergame. com>, accessed June 15, 2011. 5.10 宣传图片，《和平使者》（影响游戏 2006），< http://www.peacemakergame.com >，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
5.11 Oil God by Persuasive Games (2006), available at http://www.persuasivegames.com, accessed June 15, 2011. Image courtesy of Ian Bogost. 5.11 油神，作者：Persuasive Games（2006），可在 http://www.persuasivegames.com 上获取，访问日期：2011 年 6 月 15 日。图片由 Ian Bogost 提供。
6.1 Interaction features from Apple operating system. 6.1 苹果操作系统的交互功能
6.2 Interaction features from http://www.risd.edu, http://nsf.gov, http://nytimes.com, and http://washingtonpost.com, accessed September 11, 2010. 2010 年 9 月 11 日访问的交互特征，来源于 http://www.risd.edu、http://nsf.gov、http://nytimes.com 和 http://washingtonpost.com。
6.3 Promotional image of FlipBoard from http://flipboard.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.3 来自 http://flipboard.com 的 FlipBoard 宣传图片，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.4 Interaction feature, Google’s Chrome Browser. 6.4 交互功能，谷歌 Chrome 浏览器。
6.5 Shiftbrowse (2009), Georgia Tech Digital Media Masters Project, used by permission of creator Abhishek Gupta. 6.5 Shiftbrowse（2009），乔治亚理工学院数字媒体硕士项目，已获得创作者阿比谢克·古普塔的许可使用。
6.6 Interaction feature from http://tsquare.gatech.edu, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.6 互动功能来源于 http://tsquare.gatech.edu，访问日期为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.7 Promotional image, Red Dead Redemption (Rockstar Games 2010). 6.7 宣传图，《荒野大镖客：救赎》（Rockstar Games，2010 年）。
6.8 Promotional images, Second Life. 6.8 促销图片，第二人生。
6.9 Interaction features, BBC Archive online at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive>>, accessed October 29, 2010 . 6.9 互动特征，BBC 档案在线，访问链接为
6.10 Zork Map, created by Steven Roy, published in The DEC Professional, November 1982, scanned and reproduced widely on Internet. 6.10 Zork 地图，由 Steven Roy 创作，发表于 1982 年 11 月的《DEC 专业人士》，在互联网上被广泛扫描和传播。
6.11 Interaction feature, Akamai, <http://www.akamai.com/html/technology/visualizing_ akamai.html>, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.11 交互功能，Akamai，，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.12 Interaction feature, http://maps.panedia.com, accessed December 18, 2009. 6.12 互动功能，网址：http://maps.panedia.com，访问时间：2009 年 12 月 18 日。
6.13 Interaction feature, http://bandittracker.com/map, accessed December 18, 2009. 6.13 互动功能，网址：http://bandittracker.com/map，访问时间：2009 年 12 月 18 日。
6.14 Interaction feature, http://nytimes.com, published April 2, 2010. 6.14 互动功能，来源于 http://nytimes.com，发布于 2010 年 4 月 2 日。
6.15 Social network diagram from Wikimedia Commons, created with public domain graph visualization software, Guess, http://graphexploration.cond.org, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.15 社交网络图来自维基共享资源，使用公共领域的图形可视化软件 Guess 创建，网址为 http://graphexploration.cond.org，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.16 Promotional image, Myst (Broderbund 1993), by Robyn and Rand Miller. 6.16 宣传图，游戏《神秘岛》（Broderbund 1993），由罗宾和兰德·米勒制作。
6.17 Promotional image, Legend of Zelda (Nintendo 1986), by Shigeru Miyamoto. 6.17 宣传图，塞尔达传说（任天堂 1986），由宫本茂设计。
6.18 Zelda: The Ocarina of Time (Nintendo 1998), by Shigeru Miyamoto, fair use, from Wikipedia, <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: ZELDA_OCARINA_OF_TIME.jpg>, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.18 塞尔达传说：时之笛（任天堂 1998），由宫本茂创作，属于合理使用，来源于维基百科，，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.19 Promotional image, Grand Theft Auto III (Rockstar Games 2001). 6.19 宣传图，侠盗猎车手 III（Rockstar Games 2001）。
6.20 Interaction feature. 6.20 交互功能。
6.21 Promotional image, Virtual Iraq, from Virtually Better, <http://www.virtuallybetter.com/ IraqOverview.html>, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.21 宣传图片，虚拟伊拉克，来自 Virtually Better，，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.22 Promotional image from http://www.virtusphere.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.22 来自 http://www.virtusphere.com 的宣传图片，访问日期为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.23 Promotional image from Cisco, <http://www.cisco.com/en/US/netsol/ns669/networking_ solutions_solution_segment_home.html>, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.23 思科的宣传图片，，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.24 Interaction Feature, Baby Name Voyager (2005). 6.24 互动功能，宝宝名字探索器（2005 年）。
6.25 Interaction Feature, SIMILE Timeline. 6.25 互动功能，SIMILE 时间轴。
6.26 Treemap created by Jean-Daniel Fekete and Catherine Plaisant (2002), used by permission of the creators. 由让-丹尼尔·费凯特和凯瑟琳·普莱桑特于 2002 年创建的 6.26 树图，已获得创作者的许可使用。
6.27 Interaction feature, http://newsmap.jp. 6.27 互动功能，网址：http://newsmap.jp。
6.28 Promotional image from Zylab, http://www.zylab.com/Solutions/visualization.html, accessed October 31, 2010. 6.28 Zylab 的宣传图像，网址：http://www.zylab.com/Solutions/visualization.html，访问时间：2010 年 10 月 31 日。
6.29 Interaction feature from JavaScript InfoVis Toolkit, http://thejit.org, accessed September 12, 2010. 6.29 来自 JavaScript 信息可视化工具包的交互功能，网址：http://thejit.org，访问日期：2010 年 9 月 12 日。
6.30 Promotional image, visualization made by Martin Krzwinski’s Schemaball, <http://mkweb. bcgsc.ca/schemaball>, accessed June 15, 2011. 6.30 宣传图像，由马丁·克日温斯基的 Schemaball 制作，访问链接：，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
6.31 Interaction feature, http://nytimes.com, published December 15, 2007. 6.31 互动特征，来源于 http://nytimes.com，发表于 2007 年 12 月 15 日。
7.1 From Understanding MARC, Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb, accessed November 5, 2010. 7.1 来自美国国会图书馆的 MARC 理解，网址：http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 5 日。
7.2 Adapted from Understanding MARC, Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb, accessed December 4, 2010. 7.2 该内容改编自美国国会图书馆的《理解 MARC》，网址：http://www.loc.gov/marc/umb，访问时间为 2010 年 12 月 4 日。
7.3 Adapted from Library of Congress wsite, <http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/mods-outline. html>, accessed November 5, 2010. 7.3 来源于国会图书馆网站，< http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/mods-outline.html>，最后访问于 2010 年 11 月 5 日。
7.4 Adapted from Library of Congress website, http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/mods-outline.html\#typeOfResource, accessed November 5, 2010. 7.4 本内容改编自国会图书馆网站，网址为 http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/mods-outline.html\#typeOfResource，最后访问时间为 2010 年 11 月 5 日。
7.5 Interaction elements from Duke Online Papyrus Archive, Magical Handbook fragment (Item 749v) in Duke Rare Books, Manuscripts, and Special Collections Library, <http://scriptorium.lib. duke.edu/papyrus/images/150dpi/729v-at150.gif>, accessed September 2, 2010. Used by permission of Duke University. 7.5 互动元素摘自杜克大学在线纸草档案中的魔法手册片段（项目 749v），该档案位于杜克大学稀有书籍、手稿和特别收藏图书馆，，访问日期为 2010 年 9 月 2 日。经杜克大学许可使用。
7.6 Screenshot of interaction feature with promotional image, http://amazon.com, accessed October 31, 2010. 7.6 互动功能的截图及促销图片，访问链接：http://amazon.com，访问时间：2010 年 10 月 31 日。
7.7 Screenshot of interaction feature from ACM Digital Library, http://portal.acm.org, Beta version of interface, accessed September 3, 2010. 7.7 来自 ACM 数字图书馆的交互功能截图，网址：http://portal.acm.org，界面的测试版，访问时间为 2010 年 9 月 3 日。
7.8 Excerpted from Google Maps, http://maps.google.com, accessed July 4, 2010. 摘自谷歌地图，网址：http://maps.google.com，访问时间：2010 年 7 月 4 日。
7.9 Excerpted from MIT Campus Map, http://mit.edu, accessed July 4, 2010. 7.9 摘自麻省理工学院校园地图，网址：http://mit.edu，访问时间：2010 年 7 月 4 日。
7.10 Excerpted from Library of Congress online catalog, http://catalog.loc.gov, accessed November 5, 2010. 7.10 摘自美国国会图书馆在线目录，网址：http://catalog.loc.gov，访问日期：2010 年 11 月 5 日。
7.11 Author’s photograph of sign at Georgia Aquarium, July 2010. 2010 年 7 月在乔治亚水族馆拍摄的标志照片。
7.12 Chart from public information. Dewey Decimal system is administered by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), http://www.oclc.org/dewey. 7.12 图表来源于公共信息。杜威十进制分类法由在线计算机图书馆中心（OCLC）管理，网址：http://www.oclc.org/dewey。
7.13 Chart of public information from Library of Congress, http://loc.gov, accessed June 15, 2011 . 7.13 国会图书馆的公共信息图表，网址：http://loc.gov，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
7.14 Interaction feature, AOL Web Portal Services, http://aol.com, accessed December 4, 2010 . 7.14 互动功能，AOL 网络门户服务，网址：http://aol.com，访问时间：2010 年 12 月 4 日。
7.15 Interaction feature, Yahoo Web Portal Services List, http://yahoo.com, accessed December 4,2010 7.15 互动功能，雅虎网络门户服务列表，网址：http://yahoo.com，访问时间：2010 年 12 月 4 日
7.16 Interaction feature, http://MSNBC.com, accessed September 3, 2010. 7.16 互动功能，来源于 http://MSNBC.com，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 3 日。
7.17 Interaction feature, http://nytimes.com, accessed October 31, 2010. 7.17 互动功能，来源于 http://nytimes.com，访问时间：2010 年 10 月 31 日。
7.18 Interaction feature, Library of Congress, http://loc.gov, accessed November 5, 2010. 7.18 互动功能，国会图书馆，网址：http://loc.gov，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 5 日。
7.19 Interaction feature, Washington Post http://washingtonpost.com, accessed November 5, 2010 . 7.19 互动功能，华盛顿邮报（http://washingtonpost.com），访问时间：2010 年 11 月 5 日。
7.20 Interaction feature, Wikipedia, Analytic Philosophy entry, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Analytical_philosophy>, accessed November 5, 2010. 7.20 互动特征，维基百科，分析哲学条目，，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 5 日。
8.1 Interaction feature, Palm Desktop. 8.1 交互特性，Palm Desktop。
8.2 Promotional image, http://www.hudl.com, accessed September 3, 2010. 8.2 宣传图片，网址：http://www.hudl.com，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 3 日。
8.3 Promotional image for Lev Manovich’s Soft Cinema: Navigating the Database (2005). 8.3 Lev Manovich 的《软影院：数据库导航》（2005）的宣传图片。
8.4 Interaction feature, Georgia Tech online system for faculty, http://oscar.gatech.edu, accessed December 13, 2009. 8.4 互动功能，乔治亚理工学院为教师提供的在线系统，网址：http://oscar.gatech.edu，访问时间：2009 年 12 月 13 日。
8.5 Interaction feature, http://www.smartmoney.com/map-of-the-market, accessed September 3, 2010 . 8.5 互动功能，网址：http://www.smartmoney.com/map-of-the-market，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 3 日。
8.6 Interaction feature of gapminder software, <available at http://gapminder.com>, using composite of still images from Hans Rosling’s talk “200 years that changed the world,” available at http://gapminder.com and http://youtube.com, accessed September 3, 2010. 8.6 gapminder 软件的互动功能，<可在 http://gapminder.com 获取>，使用汉斯·罗斯林的演讲“改变世界的 200 年”中的静态图像合成，<可在 http://gapminder.com 和 http://youtube.com 获取>，访问时间为 2010 年 9 月 3 日。
8.7 Interaction feature of Guardian Data Store and Data Blog from <http://www.guardian.co.uk/ data-store> and http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog, accessed September 11, 2010. 8.7 Guardian 数据存储与数据博客的交互功能，来源于和 http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog，访问时间为 2010 年 9 月 11 日。
8.8 Census Form, U.S. Government, 2010. 2010 年美国政府的 8.8 号人口普查表。
8.9 Interaction feature, http://theyrule.net, accessed July 112009. 8.9 互动功能，网址：http://theyrule.net，访问时间：2009 年 7 月 11 日。
9.1 Promotional image for Ted Nelson’s Xanadu system, http://www.xanadu.com.au, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.1 Ted Nelson 的 Xanadu 系统宣传图，网址：http://www.xanadu.com.au，访问日期：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.2 Interaction feature, http://gnu.org, accessed July 21, 2009. 9.2 互动功能，网址：http://gnu.org，访问时间：2009 年 7 月 21 日。
9.3 Interaction feature, http://www.architecture.org, accessed July 21, 2009. 9.3 互动功能，网址：http://www.architecture.org，访问时间：2009 年 7 月 21 日。
9.4 Interaction feature, http://twitter.com, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.4 互动功能，网址：http://twitter.com，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.5 Interaction feature, tag cloud from http://flickr.com, accessed March 11, 2007. 9.5 互动功能，来源于 http://flickr.com，访问日期为 2007 年 3 月 11 日。
9.6 Interaction feature, tag cloud from http://delicious.com, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.6 交互功能，来自 http://delicious.com 的标签云，访问日期为 2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.7 MARC record from the Library of Congress, <http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/ examples.html#motion>, accessed March 4, 2011. 2011 年 3 月 4 日访问的国会图书馆 9.7 MARC 记录，。
9.8 Dublin Core Metadata Element Set 1.1, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces and http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-type-vocabulary, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.8 都柏林核心元数据元素集 1.1，网址：http://dublincore.org/documents/dces 和 http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-type-vocabulary，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.9 Interaction feature, http://craigslist.org, November 1, 2010. 9.9 互动功能，网址：http://craigslist.org，日期：2010 年 11 月 1 日。
9.10 Wikipedia disambiguation page for “Force,” accessed November 1, 2010. 2010 年 11 月 1 日访问的“力”维基百科消歧义页面。
9.11 Interaction features from http://google.com, http://yahoo.com, and <http://bing. com>, accessed November 1, 2010. 2010 年 11 月 1 日访问的 9.11 互动特征，来源于 http://google.com、http://yahoo.com 和。
9.12 Interaction feature, http://google.com, accessed November 1, 2010. 9.12 互动功能，访问网址：http://google.com，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 1 日。
9.13 Interaction feature, http://yahoo.com, accessed November 1, 2010. 9.13 互动功能，访问网址：http://yahoo.com，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 1 日。
9.14 Interaction feature, http://bing.com, accessed November 1, 2010. 9.14 互动功能，访问网址：http://bing.com，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 1 日。
9.15 Interaction feature, http://nytimes.com, July 152010. 9.15 互动功能，来源于 http://nytimes.com，2010 年 7 月 15 日。
9.16 Interaction feature, http://nytimes.com, July 152010. 9.16 互动功能，来源于 http://nytimes.com，2010 年 7 月 15 日。
9.17 Interaction feature, Flamenco search engine, designed by Marti Hearst, <http://orange.sims. berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/flamenco.cgi/nobel/Flamenco>, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.17 互动功能，弗拉门戈搜索引擎，由马尔蒂·赫斯特设计，访问链接：，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.18 Interaction feature from <http://deadline.com, http://gizmodo.com, <http:// huffpost.com>, http://allisonwinnscotch.blogspot.com, http://injennifershead.com, <http:// timbeyers.com>, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.18 互动特征来源于 , http://allisonwinnscotch.blogspot.com, http://injennifershead.com, ，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.19 Interaction element, http://Wikipedia.com, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.19 互动元素，来源于 http://Wikipedia.com，最后访问时间：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
9.20 Policies and guidelines, http://Wikipedia.com, accessed September 4, 2010. 9.20 政策与指南，网址：http://Wikipedia.com，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 4 日。
10.1 Promotional image, Sony Corporation. 10.1 促销图片，索尼公司。
10.2 Promotional image, Brookstone. 10.2 Brookstone 的宣传图片。
10.3 Promotional image, iPad, Apple computer. 10.3 促销图片，iPad，苹果电脑。
10.4 Text Rain (1999), by Camille Utterback and Romy Achituv. Interactive installation and screen view, courtesy of Camille Utterback. 10.4 文本雨（1999），由卡米尔·乌特巴克和罗米·阿奇图夫创作。互动装置及屏幕展示，感谢卡米尔·乌特巴克的支持。
10.5 Promotional Image for Minority Report (2002), directed by Steven Spielberg, Dreamworks/ Twentieth Century Fox. 2002 年《少数派报告》的宣传图，由史蒂文·斯皮尔伯格执导，梦工厂与二十世纪福克斯联合出品。
10.6 Emmanuel Moreno, Jay Bolter, and Blair MacIntyre, Augmented Alice Project (2001), images courtesy of the developers. 10.6 埃曼纽尔·莫雷诺、杰伊·博尔特和布莱尔·麦金泰尔，增强现实爱丽丝项目（2001），图片由开发者提供。
10.7 Promotional image, IRISCOM system (2009), <http://www.iriscom.org/webant/english. htm >>, accessed December 14, 2010. 10.7 宣传图像，IRISCOM 系统（2009），< http://www.iriscom.org/webant/english.htm >> ，访问时间：2010 年 12 月 14 日。
10.8 Promotional image, Brain Ball (2001), Interactive Institute, Sweden, project leader Magnus Jonsson, http://www.mindball.se, accessed December 14, 2010. 10.8 宣传图，脑球（2001），互动学院，瑞典，项目负责人马格努斯·约翰逊，网址：http://www.mindball.se，访问时间：2010 年 12 月 14 日。
10.9 Promotional image, Mindflex. 10.9 Mindflex 宣传图。
10.10 Interaction element, Photoshop CS2. 10.10 交互元素，Photoshop CS2。
10.11 Interaction feature, Microsoft Word 2008. 10.11 互动功能，微软 Word 2008。
10.12 Interaction feature, Chrome browser 9.0 (2010). 10.12 交互特性，Chrome 浏览器 9.0（2010 年）。
10.13 Promotional image, EA Mobile version of the The Sims. 10.13 促销图像，EA Mobile 版《模拟人生》。
10.14 Promotional image, SONY DualShock 3 game controller. 10.14 宣传图片，索尼 DualShock 3 游戏手柄。
10.15 Interaction feature, Heavy Rain (Quantic Dream 2010). 10.15 互动功能，《重雨》（量子梦 2010）。
10.16 Promotional image, Twiddler, http://www.handykey.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 10.16 宣传图片，Twiddler，网址：http://www.handykey.com，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
10.17 Promotional image, iPad, Apple computer. 10.17 的宣传图，iPad 和苹果电脑。
10.18 Promotional image, http://perceptivepixel.com, founded by Jefferson Y. Han of NYU, <http://cs.nyu.edu/ jhan/ftirtouch>, accessed June 15, 2011. 10.18 宣传图像，网址：http://perceptivepixel.com，由纽约大学的杰斐逊·汉创立，访问链接：，访问时间为 2011 年 6 月 15 日。
10.19 Sketchtop, Multitouch Table project, created by Paul Clifton, Ali Mazalek, Jon Sanford at Georgia Tech, courtesy of developers. 10.19 Sketchtop，多点触控桌项目，由保罗·克利夫顿、阿里·马扎莱克和乔恩·桑福德在乔治亚理工学院开发，感谢所有开发者。
10.20 Image from research documentation video, MIT Media Lab, Pattie Maes and Pranav Mistry, Sixth Sense from http://www.pranavmistry.com/projects/sixthsense/\#VIDEOS, accessed November 1, 2010. 来自麻省理工学院媒体实验室的研究文档视频，Pattie Maes 和 Pranav Mistry 的“第六感”，网址为 http://www.pranavmistry.com/projects/sixthsense/#VIDEOS，访问时间为 2010 年 11 月 1 日。
10.21 Egg’s Journey (2007), created by Ozge Samanci, Yanfeng Chen, and Ali Mazalek, <http:// synlab.gatech.edu>, accessed June 15, 2011. Stills from documenting video. 10.21 蛋的旅程 (2007)，由 Ozge Samanci、Yanfeng Chen 和 Ali Mazalek 制作，，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。来自记录视频的静态画面。
11.3 Interaction feature, Microsoft Word 2008 for Mac (2010). 11.3 交互特性，适用于 Mac 的 Microsoft Word 2008（2010 年版）。
11.4 Promotional image from Rookie Guide, World of Warcraft, http://www.wow.com/rooki, accessed November 2, 2010. 11.4 来自《魔兽世界》新手指南的宣传图片，网址：http://www.wow.com/rooki，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 2 日。
11.5 Interaction feature, http://tsquare.gatech.edu, accessed July 17, 2010. 11.5 互动特性，网址：http://tsquare.gatech.edu，访问时间：2010 年 7 月 17 日。
11.6 Promotional image from Fetch Softworks, http://fetchsoftworks.com, accessed August 4, 2008 . 11.6 来自 Fetch Softworks 的宣传图片，网址：http://fetchsoftworks.com，访问日期：2008 年 8 月 4 日。
11.7 Photograph by author of TiVo interaction element. 作者拍摄的 TiVo 交互元素照片。
11.8 Interaction feature, Adobe Photoshop CS2. 11.8 交互特性，Adobe Photoshop CS2。
11.9 Interaction feature, Adobe Photoshop CS2. 11.9 交互特性，Adobe Photoshop CS2。
11.10 Promotional image, World of Warcraft (2004), Blizzard Entertainment, published with review in http://pc.gamespy.com/pc/world-of-warcraft/571585p4.html, accessed November 2, 2010 . 11.10 宣传图，《魔兽世界》（2004），由暴雪娱乐制作，发布于 http://pc.gamespy.com/pc/world-of-warcraft/571585p4.html，访问日期：2010 年 11 月 2 日。
11.11 Interaction element, Microsoft Word 2008 for the Mac. 11.11 交互元素，适用于 Mac 的 Microsoft Word 2008。
11.12 Interaction element, Adobe Photoshop CS2. 11.12 交互元素，适用于 Adobe Photoshop CS2。
11.13 Promotional image, Amazon Kindle. 11.13 亚马逊 Kindle 的宣传图片。
11.14 iPhone 4.2 Widgets screen capture (2010). 2010 年 11.14 iPhone 4.2 小部件的屏幕截图。
11.15 Promotional images from CoMotion, produced by General Dynamics <http://www.gdc4s. com/content/detail.cfm?item=32341561-76f9-40f8-8ad5-0f0d66dd240e>, accessed November 2, 2010 . 来自 CoMotion 的宣传图片，由通用动力公司制作，链接：，访问日期为 2010 年 11 月 2 日。
12.1 Promotional image, Guitar Hero (RedOctane 2005). 12.1 吉他英雄的宣传图（红色八角，2005 年）。
12.2 Public domain, Wikimedia Commons, 20th Century RCA trademark derivative of painting by British artist Francis Barraud entitled “His Late Master’s Voice.” 12.2 公共领域，维基共享资源，20 世纪 RCA 商标源自英国艺术家弗朗西斯·巴拉德的画作《他已故主人的声音》。
12.3 Promotional image, iPod, Apple Computer. 12.3 促销图片，iPod，苹果电脑。
12.4 Interaction element with promotional images, http://netflix.com, accessed September 5, 2010 . 12.4 互动元素与促销图片，访问网址：http://netflix.com，访问时间：2010 年 9 月 5 日。
12.5 Interaction element with promotional images, http://amazon.com, accessed November 2,2010 . 12.5 互动元素与促销图片，访问链接：http://amazon.com，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 2 日。
12.6 Interaction element with promotional images, from <http://gmail.com>>, accessed September 5,2010 . 12.6 具有促销图像的交互元素，来源于 < http://gmail.com >> ，访问时间为 2010 年 9 月 5 日。
12.7 Images of two robots created by Cynthia Breazeal of MIT. Kismet photograph (2005) from Wikimedia commons, taken by Jared C. Benedict; Leonardo photo from project documentation at http://robotic.media.mit.edu, accessed August 2008. 12.7 两个机器人图像，由麻省理工学院的辛西娅·布雷兹尔创作。Kismet 照片（2005 年）来自维基共享，拍摄者是贾里德·C·本尼迪克特；莱昂纳多的照片来自项目文档，网址为 http://robotic.media.mit.edu，访问时间为 2008 年 8 月。
12.8 Promotional image, Microsoft corporation; promotional image, Fetch Softworks, accessed September 5, 2010 12.8 宣传图片，微软公司；Fetch Softworks 的宣传图片，访问时间为 2010 年 9 月 5 日
12.9 Promotional image, Microsoft corporation. 12.9 微软公司的宣传图片。
12.10 Promotional image, Microsoft corporation. 12.10 微软公司的宣传图片。
12.11 Promotional image, Torchlight (Runic Games 2009). 12.11 火炬之光（Runic Games 2009）宣传图。
12.12 Still image from promotional video, Apple Computer (1987), <http://video.google.com/ videoplay?docid=-5144094928842683632#>, accessed November 2, 2010. 12.12 来自苹果电脑（1987 年）宣传视频的静态图像，< http://video.google.com/ videoplay?docid=-5144094928842683632#>，访问日期：2010 年 11 月 2 日。
12.13 Still image from promotional video, Microsoft Corporation, research by Dan Bohus and Eric Horvitz, Medical Baysian Kiosk, Situated Interaction Project, <http://research.microsoft.com/ enus/um/people/horvitz/Medical_Bayesian_Kiosk.wmv>, accessed July 29, 2010. 12.13 来自微软公司宣传视频的静态图像，丹·博胡斯和埃里克·霍维茨的研究，医学贝叶斯亭，情境互动项目，< http://research.microsoft.com/ enus/um/people/horvitz/Medical_Bayesian_Kiosk.wmv>，访问时间：2010 年 7 月 29 日。
12.14 Logo of search engine, http://ask.com, accessed March 10, 2008. 12.14 搜索引擎的标志，网址：http://ask.com，访问时间：2008 年 3 月 10 日。
12.15 Promotional image, Roomba, http://irobot.com, accessed June 15, 2011. 12.15 Roomba 宣传图片，网址：http://irobot.com，访问时间：2011 年 6 月 15 日。
12.17 Interaction element, http://google.com, accessed July 22, 2010. 12.17 互动元素，网址：http://google.com，访问时间：2010 年 7 月 22 日。
12.18 Interaction element, Microsoft Word 2008 for Mac. 12.18 交互元素，适用于 Mac 的 Microsoft Word 2008。
13.1 Promotional image, Pac-Man (Namco 1980), designed by Toru Iwatani. 13.1 宣传图，吃豆人（南梦宫 1980），设计者为岩谷彻。
13.2 Interaction feature, Donkey Kong (Nintendo 1981), designed by Shigeru Miyamoto; still image from video of tool-assisted speedrun of NES version, played by Phil Coté, available at http://tasvideos.org and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qr351cwtieI, accessed October 28, 2010 13.2 互动特性，唐老鸭（任天堂 1981），由宫本茂设计；这是 Phil Coté播放的 NES 版本工具辅助速通视频中的静态图像，视频可在 http://tasvideos.org 和 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qr351cwtieI 上观看，访问时间为 2010 年 10 月 28 日
13.3 Promotional screenshot for Super Mario 3 on the Wii (2007), <http://media.wii.ign.com/ media/950/950868/imgs_1.html>, accessed November 2, 2010. 2007 年 Wii 平台上的《超级马里奥 3》促销截图，，访问日期：2010 年 11 月 2 日。
13.4 Interaction Features, WarioWare (Nintendo 2003). 13.4 互动特性，《WarioWare》（任天堂，2003 年）。
13.5 Chart courtesy of Chaim Gingold. From C. Gingold (2005), “What WarioWare can teach us about Game Design,” Game Studies 5(1). 13.5 图表由 Chaim Gingold 提供。摘自 C. Gingold (2005) 的文章“WarioWare 能教我们什么关于游戏设计的”，刊登于《游戏研究》第 5 卷第 1 期。
13.6 Promotional image, Jason Rohrer’s Passage (2007), <http://hcsoftware.sourceforge.net/ jason-rohrer>, accessed March 4, 2011. 13.6 宣传图，杰森·罗赫的《通道》（2007），< http://hcsoftware.sourceforge.net/ jason-rohrer>，访问时间：2011 年 3 月 4 日。
13.7 Promotional image of experimental game Braid (2008), created by Jonathan Blow, available at http://braid-game.com, accessed December 30, 2009. 13.7 实验性游戏《Braid》（2008）的宣传图，由乔纳森·布洛创作，网址为 http://braid-game.com，最后访问时间为 2009 年 12 月 30 日。
13.8 Promotional image for Improv everywhere MP3 Experiment 7 (2010), videos available at http://improveverywhere.com or on YouTube channel, accessed November 2, 2010. 13.8 Improv Everywhere MP3 Experiment 7（2010）的宣传图片，视频可在 http://improveverywhere.com 或 YouTube 频道观看，访问日期为 2010 年 11 月 2 日。
13.9 Promotional image, FarmVille (Zynga 2009). 13.9 农场大亨的宣传图（Zynga 2009）。
13.10 Taken from http://members.cox.net/brucemohler/D\&D/odnd.HTML, where it is described as part of the original Dungeons and Dragons rules, public domain, accessed August 6,2009 . 13.10 来源于 http://members.cox.net/brucemohler/D\&D/odnd.HTML，描述为原版《龙与地下城》规则的一部分，属于公有领域，访问时间为 2009 年 8 月 6 日。
13.11 Image of D&D dice from Wikimedia Commons, contributed by franganghi, <http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dice_in_DnD_session.jpg>, accessed August 6, 2009. 13.11 来自维基共享资源的 D&D 骰子图片，由 franganghi 提供，，访问日期为 2009 年 8 月 6 日。
13.12 Promotional image, World of Warcraft, Blizzard, <http://www.wowarmory.com/talent-calc. xml?c=Rogue>, accessed December 27, 2009. 13.12 宣传图，魔兽世界，暴雪，< http://www.wowarmory.com/talent-calc.xml?c=Rogue>，访问时间：2009 年 12 月 27 日。
13.13 Liquid Time-Tokyo (2000-2002), by Camille Utterback, interactive installation view, courtesy of the artist. 13.13 液态时间-东京 (2000-2002)，由卡米尔·阿特巴克创作，互动装置展示，感谢艺术家的支持。
13.14 Machine for Taking Time (2001-2004), by David Rokeby, video documentation at <http:// homepage.mac.com/davidrokeby/machine.html>, accessed June 15, 2011. Image courtesy of the artist. 13.14 时间机器（2001-2004），作者大卫·罗基比，视频文档可见于 ，访问日期：2011 年 6 月 15 日。图片由艺术家提供。
13.15 Royal Game of Ur, in the British Museum, image available through Wikimedia Commons, accessed July 24, 2010. 13.15 乌尔的皇家游戏，现藏于大英博物馆，相关图像可通过维基共享资源查看，访问日期为 2010 年 7 月 24 日。
13.16 Promotional image for Goban application for playing Go online, <http://www.sente.ch/ software/goban>, accessed November 3, 2010. 13.16 Goban 应用程序的宣传图像，供在线下围棋使用，，访问时间：2010 年 11 月 3 日。
13.17 Sarah Cooper, Reliving Last Night (2001), masters project, Georgia Tech Graduate Program in Information Design and Technology, Georgia Tech. Image courtesy of Sarah Cooper. 13.17 Sarah Cooper，《重温昨夜》（2001），硕士项目，乔治亚理工学院信息设计与技术研究生项目，乔治亚理工学院。图片由 Sarah Cooper 提供。
Index 目录
Page numbers in italics indicate figures or tables. 斜体的页码表示图表或表格。
AAAI (Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence), 365 AAAI（人工智能促进协会），第 365 期
Abstractions, 19, 52, 71, 301 抽象，19，52，71，301
of behaviors as discrete models, 135-136 行为的离散模型，135-136
expressing cultural values in procedural, 157-158157-158 在程序中体现文化价值， 157-158157-158
layers, 105, 130, 259 层次, 105, 130, 259
of processes into flow charts and 过程的流程图与
pseudocode, 112-119 伪代码，第 112 到 119 行
pseudocode, 133-134 伪代码，第 133-134 行
state of complex systems, 134-135 复杂系统的状态，134-135 页
using binary codes for symbolic, 132-133 使用二进制代码进行符号表示，132-133
of the world into objects and methods, 155-156155-156 将世界转化为对象和方法， 155-156155-156
Abstract spaces, 182-184, 185-188, 190 抽象空间，页码 182-184，185-188，190
Access, intellectual, 69-70, 159, 225, 247 访问，智力，69-70，159，225，247
Accessibility, 70 可达性，70
Accompaniment, 347, 352-353, 373-374 陪伴，347，352-353，373-374
Achituv, Romy, 295, 296 阿基图夫，罗米，第 295 页，第 296 页
ACM (Association for Computing Machinery), 199-200, 218, 316 ACM（计算机协会），第 199-200 页，第 218 页，第 316 页
Active creation of belief, 24 积极建立信念，24
Adobe Adobe 公司
Acrobat, 301 Acrobat，301
Flash, 54 闪光，54 页
Photoshop, 103, 299, 301, 305, 330, 331, 333 Photoshop，103，299，301，305，330，331，333
Adventure (game), 175, 188-189 冒险（游戏），第 175 页，第 188-189 页
Affordances, 2, 9, 19, 23, 25, 112, 224. See also Encyclopedic affordance; Participatory affordance; Procedural affordance; Spatial affordance 可供性，2，9，19，23，25，112，224。另见百科全书中的可供性；参与性可供性；程序性可供性；空间可供性
brainstorming and, 93-94, 96, 97 头脑风暴，93-94，96，97
explorations for maximizing digital, 103 数字化最大化的探索，103
grid, 87-96, 103 网格，87 到 96，103
HCI concepts and conventions and, 59-61 人机交互的概念与规范，59-61
information science concepts and conventions and, 68-70 信息科学的概念与规范，68-70
mapping, 89-91, 95-96, 98 映射，页码 89 至 91，95 至 96，98
shaping and satisfying interactors’ 形成并满足互动者的需求
expectations through, 96-100 通过 96 到 100 的期望
Agency, 12-13, 23, 159, 184, 221, 291 机构，页码：12-13，23，159，184，221，291
active creation of belief and, 24 积极地建立信念，24
designing for immersion and, 100-103 设计沉浸体验，100-103
frustration of, 102 挫败感，102
games and, 380 游戏和 380
visual design and, 79 视觉设计与 79
Agents, automated processes as, 281 代理和自动化流程，281
Aggregation of information, 191-194 信息汇总，191-194
Algorithms, 49, 53, 81, 88, 105 算法，49 页，53 页，81 页，88 页，105 页
pseudocode and, 114-118 伪代码，第 114 至 118 行
scripting behaviors, 121-122121-122 脚本行为， 121-122121-122
thinking of processes in terms of, 134 从过程的角度进行思考
Allosphere, 76 全息空间，76
Alternate reality games, 394-395 替代现实游戏，页码 394-395 Amazon.com, 49, 57, 77, 78, 155, 199, 210, 335, 349, 352 亚马逊网站, 49, 57, 77, 78, 155, 199, 210, 335, 349, 352
Ambiguity in databases, 242-247 数据库中的模糊性，242-247
Analog 类比
technology, 299-300 技术，页码 299-300
television, 34 34 寸电视
Anthropology, social, 62 人类学与社会，62
Game of Life, 147-148, 156 《生命游戏》，第 147-148 页，第 156 页
Games, 20 20 款游戏
agency and immersion in, 101 机构与沉浸，101
alternate reality and pervasive, 394-395 替代现实与普遍性，394-395
casual, 398-399 休闲，398-399 页
cognition and, 397-400 认知，页码 397-400
cultural values reflected in, 148-155 文化价值观的体现，148-155
design explorations, 405-408 设计探索，页码 405 至 408
designing coherent behaviors and, 80-82 设计一致的行为，80-82
exploratory navigation in, 175 在 175 中的探索性导航
expressivity in, 309-311 第 309-311 页的表达性
individual experiences with interactive environments in, 65 个人在互动环境中的体验
joysticks, 29, 30 摇杆，29 号，30 号
landscapes, 167-169 风景，167 至 169 页
making meaning with expressive game mechanics, 407-408 通过表现性游戏机制来构建意义，407-408
making meaning with replayability, 407 通过可重玩性赋予意义，407
massively multiplayer online role-playing, 64 大型多人在线角色扮演游戏
mechanic is the message in, 402-404 机械师在信息中，402-404
mechanics, 382, 385-390 机械学，382 页，385 至 390 页
media conventions and, 390-397 媒体规范，390-397
models, 289 模型编号 289
patterns as building blocks for interaction design, 379-385 作为交互设计构建模块的模式，379-385
pointing, grabbing, and expressive gestures in, 295-297 指向、抓取和表现性手势，295-297
recognizing the conventions and structure of, 405-406 识别惯例和结构，405-406
replay as repetition with variation in, 400-401 作为带有变化的重复回放，400-401
scripting the interactors in, 82-83 在 82-83 页中编写交互者的脚本
simulation, 399-400 模拟，页码 399-400
simulations of complex systems in, 143-147 复杂系统的模拟，页码 143-147
spatial affordances in, 73-75 空间的可用性，73-75
state distinctions in, 125-127 州的差异，125-127
substitution systems in, 139-141 替代系统，139-141 页
synchronization in, 347 在 347 处的同步
translating legacy game mechanics into procedural computer code in, 406-407 tuning, 381 将传统游戏机制转化为程序代码，406-407 调整，381
video of sports, 230, 231 体育比赛视频，230，231
violent, 151-152 暴力，151-152 页
Game theory, 403-404 游戏理论，第 403-404 页
Gates, Bill, 360 比尔·盖茨，360 度
Geertz, Clifford, 1 克利福德·吉尔茨，1
General Dynamics, 337 通用动力公司，337 号
Genres, 12, 23, 26, 68, 88, 379 类型：12、23、26、68、88、379
conventions of older media, 38-39 旧媒体的惯例，38-39
in mature media, 37 在成熟的媒体环境中，37
participatory, 56 参与度，56
of representation, 33, 36, 114 表示内容，33，36，114
Gentle slope systems, 305 平缓坡度系统，305
learning curves, 289 学习曲线，第 289 页
Gestures, expressive, 291-302 手势与表现力，291-302
GGG (Giant Global Graph), 283 GGG（全球巨型图），283
GIGO (“garbage in, garbage out”), 147, 246 输入垃圾，输出垃圾，147，246
Go (game), 398-399, 399 围棋（游戏），第 398-399 页，399 页
Goffman, Erving, 137 厄尔文·高夫曼，137 页
Google, 49, 83 谷歌，49 和 83
Book Project, 284 书籍项目，第 284 页
Books, 218 书籍，第 218 页
Book Search Library Project, 68-69 图书搜索图书馆项目，第 68-69 页
Chrome, 371 谷歌浏览器，版本 371
Earth, 75 地球，75 岁
four affordances and, 88-89, 91, 92 四种可用的功能，88-89，91，92
Guess-the-, 284 猜这个，284
image labeler, 284 图像标签工具，284
mail, 353 邮件编号 353
Maps, 173 地图，第 173 页
Map Street View, 58, 73 地图街景，58 号，73 号
News, 186 186 号新闻
Scholar, 218, 316 学者，第 218 页，第 316 页
search engine design, 88-89, 91, 263-265, 268-269, 371 搜索引擎设计，页码 88-89，91，263-265，268-269，371
GPS (global positioning system), 63, 312-313, 353-354 全球定位系统，63，312-313，353-354
Grabbing technologies, 292-302, 312, 314 抓取技术，页码 292-302，312，314
extending the function of human hands, 315 增强人手的功能，315
Grand Theft Auto, 149, 175, 178 侠盗猎车手，149，175，178
Granularity, 68, 221, 223, 225 粒度，68，221，223，225
Graphical user interface (GUI), 37, 71, 72-73, 162, 293, 324 图形用户界面 (GUI)，37，71，72-73，162，293，324
Graphic design concepts and conventions, 75-79,8075-79,80 图形设计的概念与规范， 75-79,8075-79,80
Grid, affordance, 87-96, 103 网格，功能性，87-96，103
Grid(s), 34, 75 网格，34，75
Grinding, 380 研磨，380
Guardian newspaper, 240 《卫报》，第 240 期
Guess-the-Google (game), 284 猜猜谷歌（游戏），284
Guitar Hero (game), 347, 348 吉他英雄（游戏），347，348
Hackers, 324 黑客，324 页
Hamlet on the Holodeck, 100 《哈姆雷特》在全息剧场，100
Hands, human, extending the function of, 315 人类的手，扩展了功能，315
Haptic feedback, 317 触觉反馈，317 页
