SUBJECT ANALYSIS: SUBJECT HEADINGS
主题分析：主题词
DEFINITIONS 定义
The process of identifying the intellectual content of a work. It is displayed in a catalogue in the form of a word or phrase or terms which reflects the content of the document. Often referred to as subject headings or indexing terms or descriptors (in some online databases).
识别作品的智力内容的过程。它以反映文档内容的单词、短语或术语的形式显示在目录中。通常称为主题词或索引术语或描述符（在某些在线数据库中）。
WHY IS IT NECESSARY? 为什么有必要？
To help the researcher or persons looking for sources on a particular topic (not works by a particular author or title). Therefore assigning subject headings is an important part of the cataloguing process.
帮助研究人员或个人寻找特定主题的来源（不是特定作者或标题的作品）。因此，分配主题词是编目过程的重要组成部分。
PROCESS 过程
- Involves determining the subject content of the document in hand. Even when downloading records from an online cataloguing system such as OCLC, one still need to determine whether the subjects assigned are the most appropriate choices for your clientele needs.
涉及确定手头文档的主题内容。即使从 OCLC 等在线编目系统下载记录，您仍然需要确定分配的主题是否最适合您的客户需求。
- Assigning numbers, which represent the content (we will cover this later).
分配代表内容的数字（我们稍后将介绍这一点）。
- Translate contents into a single or a number of terminologies. These terminologies are picked from a subject-heading list. Most commonly used - LCSH (Library of Congress Subject Headings) and the Sears List of Subject Headings (Sears). Why is this practice necessary? Using rules and standards add order and uniformity to the catalogue. Most large libraries use the LCSH and the public or smaller libraries use Sears.
将内容翻译成单个或多个术语。这些术语是从主题标题列表中挑选出来的。最常用的 - LCSH（国会图书馆主题词）和 Sears 主题词列表 （Sears）。为什么这种做法是必要的？使用规则和标准可以提高目录的秩序和统一性。大多数大型图书馆使用 LCSH，而公共或较小的图书馆使用 Sears。
PURPOSE OF SUBJECT ANALYSIS
主题分析的目的
1. Enable the user find a book for which the subject is known
1. 使用户能够查找主题已知的书籍
In doing this, the librarian should consider user’s habitual way of looking for subject terms in a catalogue. This makes the assigning of subject headings an important and difficult task because one has to balance between identifying what terms one thinks the users would search under yet following closely the standard of terms used in a list used by libraries throughout the world.
在执行此操作时，图书馆员应考虑用户在目录中查找主题术语的习惯方式。这使得主题词的分配成为一项重要而艰巨的任务，因为必须在确定用户认为用户会搜索哪些术语与严格遵循世界各地图书馆使用的列表中使用的术语标准之间取得平衡。
2. To show what the library has on a given subject
2. 展示图书馆对给定主题的内容
The catalogue must bring under one heading all materials dealing with a particular subject. If a subject has more than one term, one must be chosen as the heading with see references from the others. The term chosen must be precise. The same goes with variant spellings of a term, where only one form of the subject term should be used. Ideally in the subject catalogue, one subject heading should represent a specific subject and used for many books, which cover the same subject.
目录必须将涉及特定主题的所有材料放在一个标题下。如果一个主题有多个术语，则必须选择一个作为标题，并查看其他术语的引用。选择的术语必须精确。术语的变体拼写也是如此，其中只应使用主题术语的一种形式。理想情况下，在主题目录中，一个主题词应该代表一个特定的主题，并用于涵盖同一主题的许多书籍。
3. To show affiliations or relations among subject fields.
3. 显示主题字段之间的隶属关系或关系。
The requirement is to choose the most specific heading. However a subject often co-exist with other subjects, which can be a narrower or broader term of a particular subject. The subject catalogue should reflect this to the user so users can strategize their search (to go narrower or try for a broader approach to ensure that they have not missed any relevant item. Using the “see” and “see also” references, it is possible to achieve this. In other words a hierarchical status of a subject is shown to the user.
要求是选择最具体的标题。但是，主题通常与其他主题共存，其他主题可以是特定主题的狭义或广义术语。主题目录应该向用户反映这一点，以便用户可以制定搜索策略（缩小范围或尝试更广泛的方法，以确保他们没有错过任何相关项目）。使用 “see” 和 “see also” 引用，可以实现此目的。换句话说，将向用户显示主题的分层状态。
DECISIONS TO BE ADOPTED 将要通过的决定
- Whether to adopt in depth analysis, i.e. extracting all main concepts dealt by an item (Main topics and subtopics), i.e. list all subjects which the item cover
是否采用深入分析，即提取一个项目涉及的所有主要概念（主要主题和子主题），即列出该项目涵盖的所有主题
- Whether to give only the main subject (i.e.summarise the content).
是否只给出主要主题（即总结内容）。
No hard and fast rule. Depends on your place of work. Depends on whether you have an automated system or are still maintaining the card catalogue system. For those using cards a limit of three - four subject headings is usually imposed upon. For online catalogues staff are encourage to assign as many headings as deemed necessary.
没有硬性规定。取决于您的工作地点。取决于您是否拥有自动化系统或仍在维护卡片目录系统。对于那些使用卡片的用户，通常限制 3 - 4 个主题词。对于在线目录，我们鼓励工作人员根据需要分配尽可能多的标题。
PROBLEMS 问题
In the process of assigning or evaluating terms, 4 main problems will be faced.
在分配或评估术语的过程中，将面临 4 个主要问题。
(a) Your limited acquaintance with the whole human knowledge (you may not be familiar with the subject matter);
（a） 您对整个人类知识的了解有限（您可能不熟悉该主题）;
(b) Difficult to determine the author’s intentions;
（b） 难以确定作者的意图;
© The work may cover several subjects;
© 这项工作可能涵盖几个主题;
(d) Difficult to determine from which point of view the user might approach his search for subject which the work covers
（d） 难以确定用户可能会从哪个角度进行搜索，以搜索作品所涵盖的主题
(e) Distinguish between content and form. Previous practice have emphasised on not assigning subject headings to works in terms of its form. e.g. Runaway children – Fiction <-- previously not allowed (Is it about the coverage of runaway children in fiction (treaties) OR a fiction about runaway children?).
（e） 区分内容和形式。以前的实践强调不根据作品的形式为作品分配主题词。例如，离家出走的孩子 – 小说 <-- 以前不允许（是关于小说（条约）中对离家出走儿童的报道，还是关于离家出走儿童的小说？
To allow for greater accessibility during retrieval LC have now assigned these form headings, thus sanctioning their use by other libraries. These subject headings appear in the normal subject area in the library catalogue. Thus someone interested in fictional works covering certain topics can search under;
为了在检索过程中提供更大的可访问性，LC 现在分配了这些表单标题，从而批准了其他库对它们的使用。这些主题词显示在图书馆目录中的常规主题区域中。因此，对涵盖某些主题的虚构作品感兴趣的人可以在下面搜索;
[Topic] - Fiction [主题] - 小说
METHODS USED TO ASSIGN SUBJECTS
用于分配主题的方法
- Purposive method – Try to understand what the author is trying to describe by looking for his objective statements. This involves browsing purposively through the title page, dust jacket, preface; introduction ; tables of contents. In other words need you to develop the knack of quickly browsing through the parts mentioned above without having to read the entire book or watch the whole video/filmstrip. Don’t try to give subjects just by looking at the title alone. Titles can be misleading!
目的性方法 – 尝试通过寻找作者的客观陈述来理解作者试图描述的内容。这包括有目的地浏览扉页、防尘套、序言;介绍;目录。换句话说，需要您培养快速浏览上述部分的诀窍，而无需阅读整本书或观看整个视频/幻灯片。不要试图仅通过查看标题来给出主题。标题可能会产生误导！
- Figure ground method – Figure out the dominant subject by figuring the references made frequently by the author or identifying the points that stands out in the item. This is however less objective because what catches one’s eyes may not be of interest to the another
图接地法 – 通过弄清楚作者经常引用的参考文献或确定项目中突出的点来找出主要主题。然而，这不太客观，因为吸引一个人眼球的东西可能对另一个人不感兴趣
- Objective method — Count the number of references to a particular topic. main concepts are identified by counting textual references to them. This method is too tedious and therefore seldom adopted.
Objective method （目标方法） — 计算对特定主题的引用数。通过计算对主要概念的文本引用来识别它们。这种方法太乏味，因此很少采用。
PRINCIPLES OF CHOOSING TERMS
选择术语的原则
1. Examine the item selectively
1. 有选择地检查项目
Focus on the reader. The heading adopted should be that which the reader will seek in the catalogue (making an assumption that the reader will look under those headings). The reader will usually base his search on what is evident to him about the document. As such subject headings must involve selective examination of parts of the item in hand. These include;
专注于读者。采用的标题应该是读者将在目录中寻找的标题（假设读者会在这些标题下查看）。读者通常会根据他对文档的明显信息进行搜索。因此，主题标题必须涉及对手头物品的某些部分进行选择性检查。这些包括;
(a) the title page. Information to look out for here are the titles, the authors, publishers (which may throw some light on the subject coverage).
（a） 扉页。这里需要注意的信息是标题、作者、出版商（这可能会对主题覆盖范围有所了解）。
(b) any page preceding the title page which may contain series titles;
（b） 标题页之前可能包含系列标题的任何页面;
© The verso of the title page;
© 扉页的反面;
(d) the dust jacket (Publisher may include short write-up about the books contents;
（d） 护套（出版商可以附上关于书籍内容的简短说明;
(e) the tables of contents (suggests subject coverage) and;
（e） 目录（建议主题覆盖范围）以及;
(f) introductory chapters (further infor).
（f） 介绍性章节（进一步信息）。
(g) list of references （g） 参考文献列表
2. Works with more than one subjects and order the headings
2. 处理多个主题并对标题进行排序
(a) Give subject headings that predominates first.
（a） 首先给出占主导地位的主题词。
(b)If no subject is predominant, then note the subject mentioned first in the book.
（二）如果没有主题占主导地位，则记下书中首先提到的主题。
©If the book covers three or more subjects, either opt to give a broad subject term which encompasses all three subjects and provide cross ref from the three terms not used or give access to all subjects covered.
©如果这本书涵盖了三个或更多主题，要么选择给出一个涵盖所有三个主题的广泛主题术语，并提供三个未使用的术语的交叉引用，要么允许访问涵盖的所有主题。
3. Establish unity and quality control in the terms chosen
3. 在所选术语中建立统一和质量控制
The one heading chosen must be adopted for all documents on the same subject. The use of this heading must be consistent, whatever the term used by the author of a particular book and whatever the varying terms applied to it at different times.
所选的单标题必须适用于同一主题的所有文件。无论特定书籍的作者使用什么术语，也无论在不同时间应用了什么不同的术语，这个标题的使用都必须保持一致。
:beauty shop"; “beauty parlor” ; “beauty salon” may be used by different authors. Check LCSH or Sears – choose the heading suggested and provide cross ref from the headings not used to used headings
：beauty shop“;“美容院” ;“beauty salon” 可能由不同的作者使用。检查 LCSH 或 Sears – 选择建议的标题，并从不习惯的标题中提供交叉引用
The term chosen must not be ambiguous or must not overlap in meaning with other headings.
所选术语不得含糊不清，或不得与其他标题在含义上重叠。
4. Choose term which suits your clientele
4. 选择适合您客户的术语
The term chosen must be commonly used by the user or commonly used by the class of readers for which the material is intended. Hence prefer the popular term instead of the scientific term if one is in a public library.
所选术语必须为用户常用，或为材料所针对的读者类别常用。因此，如果一个人在公共图书馆中，则更喜欢流行术语而不是科学术语。
“Orchids” rather than “Orchidaceae”
“Orchids” 而不是 “Orchidaceae”
5. Prefer specificity. 5. 首选特异性。
The headings chosen must be as specific as possible. Cutter --> Enter a work under its subject heading, not under the heading of the class which encompasses the subject. e.g. A book on “cats” --> use Cats not Zoology or Mammals or Domestic animals
选择的标题必须尽可能具体。Cutter --> 在其主题标题下输入作品，而不是在包含该主题的类的标题下。例如，一本关于 “cats” 的书 --> 使用 Cats 而不是 Zoology 或 Mammals or Domestic animals
6.Selections from synonymous terms.
6.选自同义词。
Choose one subject term from among several synonymous terms.
从多个同义词中选择一个主题词。
- Prefer the more formal terms amongst synonymous terms
在同义词中更喜欢更正式的术语
“Frankfurters” rather than “Hot dogs”
“法兰克福香肠”而不是“热狗”
- Term chosen must be the most familiar to the user. Common vs scientific terms.
所选术语必须是用户最熟悉的术语。常用术语与科学术语。
“Frankfurters” rather than “Hot dogs”
“法兰克福香肠”而不是“热狗”
e.g. LCSH —> Arachnida 例如 LCSH —> 蛛形纲
NT Spiders NT 蜘蛛
SEARS—> Arachnida SEARS—> 蛛形纲
USE Spiders 使用蜘蛛
- Terms chosen must be commonly used in other catalogues. This will allow smooth migration by users from one library to another with ease.
所选术语必须在其他目录中常用。这将允许用户轻松地从一个库平滑迁移到另一个库。
- Avoid ambiguous terms. 避免使用模棱两可的术语。
- When selecting a phrase (compound or inverted terms)
选择短语（复合词或倒词）时
This question must be asked. Should a heading always be transcribed in the order of the natural language or should it be modified & transposed. Check LCSH or SEARS under both terms in compound words & follow practices adopted.
这个问题必须被问到。标题应该总是按照自然语言的顺序转录，还是应该被修改和换位。在这两个词的复合词下检查LCSH或SEARS，并遵循采用的做法。
8. Number of headings to be given
8. 要给出的标题数量
Depends on the type of catalogue. Card catalogues will probably impose on limits because: limitless subject headings will bulk up the catalogue ; not economical, more subject heading will increase the cost.
取决于目录的类型。卡片目录可能会施加限制，因为：无限的主题词会使目录变大;不经济，更多的主题词会增加成本。
Online catalogues usually impose less limits as it is less expensive in terms of effort and time. Previous studies on online catalogues have indicated that there is an increasing trend in users searching under subjects.
在线目录通常施加较少的限制，因为它在精力和时间方面更便宜。以前对在线目录的研究表明，用户在主题下搜索的趋势越来越多。
9. Plural vs Singular 9. 复数 vs 单数
Prefer the plural of a term denoting a tangible object or entity
首选表示有形物体或实体的术语的复数形式