Second Language Acquisition(SLA) refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language(L2), even though it may actually be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also commonly called a target language(TL), which refers to any language that is the aim or goal of learning. The scope of SLA includes informal L2 learning that takes place in naturalistic contexts, formal L2 learning that takes place in classrooms, and L2 learning that involves a mixture of these settings and circumstances. 第二语言习得（SLA）既指对在幼儿时期学习第一种语言后学习一种语言的个人和群体的研究，也指学习该语言的过程。附加语言称为第二语言 （L2），即使它实际上可能是要学习的第三、第四或第十种语言。它通常也称为目标语言（TL），它指的是作为学习目的或目标的任何语言。SLA 的范围包括在自然环境中进行的非正式 L2 学习、在教室中进行的正式 L2 学习以及涉及这些环境和环境混合的 L2 学习。
In trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we are seeking to answer three basic questions: 在试图理解第二语言习得的过程时，我们试图回答三个基本问题：
What exactly does the L2 learner come to know? 二语学习者究竟知道什么？
How does the learner acquire this knowledge? 学习者如何获得这些知识？
Why are some learners more successful than others? 为什么有些学习者比其他学习者更成功？
What is a second language? 什么是第二语言？
Sometimes it is necessary for us to make further distinctions according to the function the L2 will serve in our lives, since this may significantly affect what we learn. These differences may determine the specific areas of vocabulary knowledge we need, the level of grammatical complexity we have to attain, and whether speaking or reading skills are more important. The following are distinctions commonly made in the literature: 有时，我们有必要根据L2在我们生活中的功能进行进一步的区分，因为这可能会显着影响我们的学习内容。这些差异可能决定了我们需要的词汇知识的具体领域，我们必须达到的语法复杂程度，以及口语或阅读技能是否更重要。以下是文献中常见的区别：
A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. 第二语言通常是教育、就业和其他基本目的所需的官方或社会主导语言。它通常由母语为另一种语言的少数群体成员或移民获得。
A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application. 外语是指在学习者的直接社会环境中未广泛使用的一门语言，可能用于未来的旅行或其他跨文化交流情况，或作为学校的课程要求或选修课学习，但没有直接或必要的实际应用。
A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners’ native tongue. 图书馆语言主要是一种通过阅读进一步学习的工具，特别是当所需研究领域的书籍或期刊通常不以学习者的母语出版时。
An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives. 辅助语言是学习者在直接政治环境中的某些官方职能中需要了解的语言，或者为了更广泛的交流而需要了解的语言，尽管他们的第一语言满足了他们生活中的大多数其他需求。
Other restricted or highly specialized functions for ‘second’ languages are designated language for specific purposes (such as French for Hotel Management, English for Aviation Technology), and the learning of these typically focuses only on a narrow set of occupation-specific uses and functions. “第二”语言的其他受限或高度专业化的功能是特定目的的指定语言（例如酒店管理的法语，航空技术的英语），这些语言的学习通常只集中在一组特定的特定职业用途和功能上。
Diversity in learning and learners 学习和学习者的多样性
What is learned in acquiring a second language, as well as how it is learned, is often influenced by whether the situation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immersion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often profoundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors affecting the status of both languages and learners. 在习得第二语言时学到什么，以及如何学习，往往受到以下因素的影响：情况是否涉及非正式地接触其他语言的使用者，沉浸在需要一门新语言来满足基本需求的环境中，或者在学校进行正式教学，而这些学习条件往往受到强大的社会因素的深刻影响。 影响语言和学习者地位的文化和经济因素。
The intriguing questions of why some L2 learners are more successful than others required us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguists may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself. 为什么一些二语学习者比其他学习者更成功，这些有趣的问题要求我们解开“学习者”这个宽泛的标签，以进行某些方面的讨论。语言学家可以区分学习者的类别，这些类别是由他们的 L1 和 L2 的身份和关系来定义的;心理语言学家可能会根据个人的二语学习能力、人格因素、动机的类型和强度以及不同的学习策略进行区分;社会语言学家可以在社会、经济和政治差异以及学习者在协商互动中的经验方面区分学习者;社会心理学家可能会根据学习者的群体身份和对目标语言使用者或对二语学习本身的态度对学习者进行分类。
L1 versus L2 learning L1 与 L2 学习
The brief comparison of L1 and L2 learning is divided into three phases. The first is the initial state, which many linguists and psychologists believe includes the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that is in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition. The second phase, the intermediate states, covers all stages of basic language development. This includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language (also interlanguage) . For this phase, we will compare processes of L1 and L2 development, and then compare the conditions which are necessary or which facilitate language learning. The third phase is the final state, which is the outcome of L1 and L2 learning. L1 和 L2 学习的简要比较分为三个阶段。首先是初始状态，许多语言学家和心理学家认为，初始状态包括学习者在L1或L2习得之初头脑中关于语言结构和原理的基本知识。第二阶段，中间状态，涵盖了基础语言发展的所有阶段。这包括在“儿童语法”中发生的成熟变化，以及被称为学习者语言（也称为跨语言）的 L2 发展序列。在这个阶段，我们将比较 L1 和 L2 的发展过程，然后比较必要或促进语言学习的条件。第三阶段是最终状态，这是 L1 和 L2 学习的结果。
Initial state 初始状态
The initial state of L1 is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence (prior knowledge of L1), world knowledge, and established skills for interaction (knowledge of means for accomplishing such interactional functions as requesting, commanding, and apologizing), which can be both an asset and an impediment. L1 的初始状态完全由与生俱来的语言习得能力组成，这种能力可能继续为 L2 提供，也可能不继续可用，或者可能仅以某些有限的方式提供。另一方面，二语学习的初始状态具有一语能力资源（一语的先验知识）、世界知识和既定的互动技能（了解完成请求、命令和道歉等互动功能的方法），这既可以是资产，也可以是障碍。
Intermediate states 中间状态
Both L1 and L2 learners go through intermediate states as they progress from their initial to their final state linguistic systems. There is similarity in that the development of bothL1 and L2 is largely systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1 and L2 learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not merely mimic what they have heard or been taught. L1 和 L2 学习者在从初始状态语言系统到最终状态的过程中都会经历中间状态。两者的相似之处在于，L1和L2的发展在很大程度上是系统的，包括每种语言中许多现象的可预测排序以及跨语言排序的一些相似性，以及L1和L2学习者在自己的语言发展中都发挥着创造性的作用，而不仅仅是模仿他们所听到或所教的内容。
Processes 过程
Development is a spontaneous and largely unconscious process in L1 child grammar, where it is closely correlated with cognitive maturation. In contrast, L2 learners have already reached a level of maturity where they can understand and produce complex utterances in their L1, and level of maturity is not language-specific. Processes other than maturation must be involved to explain development in SLA. 在L1儿童语法中，发展是一个自发的、基本上是无意识的过程，它与认知成熟密切相关。相比之下，二语学习者已经达到了一个成熟度，他们可以在一语中理解和产生复杂的话语，而且成熟度不是特定于语言的。必须涉及成熟以外的过程来解释 SLA 中的发展。
We cannot directly observe developmental processes, but we can infer from utterances which learners understand and produce at different stages what processes are possibly taking place. Cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or "correct" in the L2; and negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an "error". 我们无法直接观察发展过程，但我们可以从学习者在不同阶段理解和产生的话语中推断出可能正在发生的过程。跨语言影响，或先验知识从一语到二语的转移，是跨语言发展的过程之一。发生的两种主要类型的转移是：正向转移，当在 L2 话语中使用 L1 结构或规则并且该使用在 L2 中是适当的或“正确”的;以及负转移（或干扰），当在 L2 话语中使用 L1 结构或规则时，该使用不合适并被视为“错误”。
Cross-linguistic influence occurs in all levels of interlanguage: vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and all other aspects of language structure and use. In additional to L1 competence, older children and adults have access to world knowledge that has come with cognitive development and with experience, and this is also available for L2 use during the intermediate states. Many skills for social interaction which have developed in L1 also transfer to L2. 跨语言影响发生在跨语言的各个层面：词汇、发音、语法以及语言结构和使用的所有其他方面。除了 L1 能力外，年龄较大的儿童和成人还可以获得认知发展和经验带来的世界知识，这也可用于中间状态的 L2 使用。许多在一语中培养的社交技能也转移到了二语中。
Necessary conditions 必要条件
Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. In contrast, while reciprocal social interaction generally facilitates SLA, it is not a necessary condition. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text. 学习者的语言输入对于L1或L2学习的进行是绝对必要的。儿童还需要与他人互动才能进行 L1 学习。相比之下，虽然互惠的社会互动通常有助于SLA，但它不是必要条件。对于某些人来说，即使他们仅从广播、电视或书面文本等通常非互惠的来源输入，也有可能在 L2 方面达到相当高的熟练程度。
Facilitating conditions 便利条件
While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhibited by many social and individual factors. 虽然儿童的 L1 学习是在没有指导的情况下进行的，虽然 L1 的发展速度不会受到纠正不成熟形式或说话动机程度的显着影响，但 L2 的发展速度和最终水平都可以受到许多社会和个人因素的促进或抑制。
Some of the conditions are： 一些条件是：
feedback, including correction of L2 learners’ error; 反馈，包括纠正二语学习者的错误;
aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; 能力，包括记忆能力和分析能力;
motivation, or need and desire to learn; 动机，或学习的需要和欲望;
instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings. 教学，或学校环境中的明确教学。
Final state 最终状态
The final state of L1 development is native linguistic competence. The basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever language(s) children hear around them are essentially established by the age of about five or six years, along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate for fulfilling communicative functions. This is a universal human achievement, requiring no extraordinary aptitude or effort. L1 发展的最终状态是母语能力。儿童在周围听到的任何语言的基本语音和语法系统基本上都是在大约五六岁时建立起来的，同时具备足以实现交际功能的词汇知识和互动技能。这是一项普遍的人类成就，不需要非凡的才能或努力。
On the other hand, the final state of L2 development can never be totally native linguistic competence, and the level of proficiency which learners reach is highly variable. Some learners reach “near-native” or “native-like” competence in L2 along with native competence in L1, but many cease at some point to make further progress toward the learning target in response to L2 input, resulting in a final state which still includes instances of L1 interference or creative structures different from any that would be produced by a native speaker of the L2 (a “frozen” state of progress known as fossilization in SLA). The complex of factors which contribute to differential levels of ultimate multilingual development is of major interest for both SLA theory and second language teaching methods. 另一方面，二语发展的最终状态永远不可能是完全的母语能力，学习者达到的熟练程度是高度可变的。一些学习者在 L2 中达到“接近母语”或“类似母语”的能力，同时在 L1 中达到母语能力，但许多人在某个时候停止响应 L2 输入而朝着学习目标取得进一步进展，导致最终状态仍然包括 L1 干扰或创造性结构的实例，与 L2 母语人士产生的任何干扰或创造性结构不同（一种“冻结”的进步状态，在 SLA 中称为化石化）。导致最终多语言发展水平差异的复杂因素是SLA理论和第二语言教学方法的主要兴趣。
Part II Different disciplinary perspectives 第二部分 不同的学科视角
The Linguistics of Second Language Acquisition 第二语言习得的语言学
Error Analysis (EA) is the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2. 错误分析（EA）是研究SLA的第一种方法，其中包括对学习者构建语言的创造性能力的内部关注。它基于对 L2 中实际学习者错误的描述和分析。
The most influential publication launching Error Analysis as an approach in SLA was S. Pit Corder’s (1967) article on “The significance of learners’ errors”, which calls on applied linguists to focus on L2 learners’ errors not as “bad habits” to be eradicated, but as sources of insight into the learning processes. Corder claimed that errors provide evidence of the system of language which a learner is using at any particular point in the course of L2 development, and of the strategies or procedures the learner is using in his “discovery of the language”. In a sense, errors are windows into the language learner’s mind. In this approach, learner language is viewed as a target of analysis which is potentially independent of L1 or L2, and the state of learner knowledge is seen as transitional competence on the path of SLA. Further, Corder claimed that the making of errors is significant because it is part of the learning process itself: “a way the learner has of testing his hypothesis about the nature of the language he is learning.” This includes testing whether aspects of existing L1 knowledge can be used in the L2. Errors are thus a sign that the learner is (perhaps unconsciously) exploring the new system rather than just experiencing “interference” from old habits. S. Pit Corder（1967）在1967年发表的关于“学习者错误的意义”的文章是将错误分析作为SLA方法的最有影响力的出版物，该文章呼吁应用语言学家关注二语学习者的错误，而不是将其作为要根除的“坏习惯”，而是作为了解学习过程的来源。Corder声称，错误提供了学习者在L2发展过程中任何特定点使用的语言系统的证据，以及学习者在“发现语言”时使用的策略或程序的证据。从某种意义上说，错误是语言学习者思想的窗口。在这种方法中，学习者语言被视为可能独立于 L1 或 L2 的分析目标，而学习者知识的状态被视为 SLA 道路上的过渡能力。此外，科德声称，犯错误很重要，因为它是学习过程本身的一部分：“学习者可以测试他对所学语言性质的假设的一种方式。这包括测试现有 L1 知识的各个方面是否可以在 L2 中使用。因此，错误表明学习者正在（也许是无意识地）探索新系统，而不仅仅是经历旧习惯的“干扰”。
The procedure for analyzing learner errors includes the following steps: 分析学习者错误的过程包括以下步骤：
Collection of a sample of learner language. Most samples of learner language which have been used in EA include data collected from many speakers who are responding to the same kind of task or test. Some studies use samples from a few learners that are collected over a period of weeks, months, or even years in order to determine patterns of change in error occurrence with increasing L2 exposure and proficiency. 收集学习者语言样本。EA 中使用的大多数学习者语言样本都包括从许多对相同类型的任务或测试做出反应的说话者那里收集的数据。一些研究使用在数周、数月甚至数年内收集的少数学习者的样本，以确定随着 L2 暴露和熟练程度的增加，错误发生的变化模式。
Identification of errors. Corder distinguishes between systematic errors (which result from learners’ lack of L2 knowledge) and mistakes (the result from some kind of processing failure such as a lapse in memory), which he excludes from the analysis. 识别错误。Corder区分了系统性错误（由于学习者缺乏二语知识而导致）和错误（由于某种处理失败，例如记忆力下降）而导致的错误，他将其排除在分析之外。
Description of errors. For purposes of analysis, errors are usually classified according to language level (whether an error is phonological , morphological , syntactic , etc.), general linguistic category (e.g. passive sentences, negative constructions), or more specific linguistic elements (e.g. articles , verb forms) . 错误说明。出于分析目的，错误通常根据语言水平（错误是语音、形态、句法等）、一般语言类别（例如被动句、否定结构）或更具体的语言元素（例如冠词、动词形式）进行分类。
Explanation of errors. Accounting for why an error was made is the most important step in trying to understand the processes of SLA. Two of the most likely causes of L2 errors are interlingual (“between languages”)factors, resulting from negative transfer or interference from L1 and intralingual (“within language”) factors, not attributable to cross-linguistic influence. Intralingual errors are also considered developmental errors and often represent incomplete learning of L2 rules or overgeneralization of them. 错误解释。解释错误的原因是尝试理解 SLA 流程的最重要步骤。二语错误的两个最可能的原因是语际（“语言之间”）因素，由来自一语的负转移或干扰引起，以及语内（“语言内”）因素，不能归因于跨语言影响。舌内错误也被认为是发育错误，通常代表对 L2 规则的不完全学习或过度概括。
Evaluation of errors. This step involves analysis of what effect the error has on whoever is being addressed: e.g. how “serious” it is, or to what extent it affects intelligibility, or social acceptability. 评估错误。这一步涉及分析错误对被处理的人的影响：例如，它有多“严重”，或者它在多大程度上影响了可理解性或社会可接受性。
EA continues as a useful procedure for the study of SLA, but a number of shortcomings have been noted and should be kept in mind. These include: EA 仍然是研究 SLA 的有用程序，但已经注意到许多缺点，应牢记在心。这些包括：
Ambiguity in classification. It is difficult to say, for instance, if a Chinese L1 speaker who omits number and tense inflections in English L2 is doing so because of L1 influence or because of a universal developmental process which results in simplified utterances. 分类含糊不清。例如，很难说一个说英语第一语的人在英语第二语中省略了数字和时态变化，是因为第一语的影响，还是因为一个普遍的发展过程导致了简化的话语。
Lack of positive data. Focus on errors alone does not necessarily provide information on what the L2 learner has acquired; further, correct uses may be overlooked. 缺乏积极数据。仅仅关注错误并不一定能提供有关二语学习者所获得的信息;此外，正确的用法可能会被忽略。
Potential for avoidance. Absence of errors may result from learners’ avoidance of difficult structures, and this will not be revealed by EA. 避免的可能性。没有错误可能是由于学习者回避困难的结构造成的，EA 不会透露这一点。
Interlanguage 中间语言
Under the same influences from linguistics and psychology as Corder, and building on his concepts and procedures for EA, Larry Selinker (1972) introduced the term Interlanguage (IL) to refer to the intermediate states of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2. Selinker considered the development of the IL to be a creative process, driven by inner forces in interaction with environmental factors, and influenced both by L1 and by input from the target language. 在与Corder相同的语言学和心理学的影响下，并建立在他对EA的概念和程序的基础上，Larry Selinker（1972）引入了术语Interlanguage（IL）来指代学习者语言在向目标L2移动时的中间状态。Selinker认为IL的发展是一个创造性的过程，由内在力量与环境因素相互作用驱动，并受到L1和目标语言输入的影响。
An interlanguage has the following characteristics: 跨语言具有以下特征：
Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is governed by rules which constitute the learner’s internal grammar. 系统。在任何特定的发展点或阶段，IL都受到构成学习者内部语法的规则的约束。
Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes frequently, or is in a state of flux, resulting in a succession of interim grammars. Selinker views this change not as a steady progression along a continuum, but discontinuous progression “from stable plateau to stable plateau”. 动态。学习者脑海中的规则体系经常变化，或处于不断变化的状态，导致一系列的过渡语法。塞林克认为，这种变化不是沿着连续体的稳定进展，而是“从稳定的平台到稳定的平台”的不连续进展。
Variable. Although the IL is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use. 变量。尽管IL是系统的，但上下文的差异导致了不同的语言使用模式。
Reduced system, both in form and function. The characteristic of reduced form refers to the less complex grammatical structures that typically occur in an IL compared to the target language. The characteristic of reduced function refers to the smaller range of communicative needs typically served by an IL. 缩小系统，无论是在形式上还是在功能上。简化形式的特征是指与目标语言相比，IL 中通常出现的语法结构不太复杂。功能减退的特征是指 IL 通常满足的交流需求范围较小。
Selinker stresses that there are differences between IL development in SLA and L1 acquisition by children, including different cognitive processes involved: Selinker强调，SLA中的IL发展与儿童的L1习得之间存在差异，包括涉及的不同认知过程：
Language transfer from L1 to L2. 从 L1 到 L2 的语言转移。
Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taught. 培训转移，或如何教授 L2。
Strategies of second language learning, or how learners approach the L2 materials and the task of L2 learning. 第二语言学习的策略，或学习者如何处理二语材料和二语学习的任务。
Strategies of second language communication, or ways that learners try to communicate with others in the L2. 第二语言交流的策略，或学习者尝试在 L2 中与他人交流的方式。
Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic materials, in which L2 rules that are learned are applied too broadly. 目标语言材料的过度泛化，其中学习的 L2 规则应用过于广泛。
Also unlike L1 acquisition is the strong likelihood of fossilization for L2 learners – the probability that they will cease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage of time. This phenomenon relates to age of learning, with older L2 learners more likely to fossilize than younger ones, but also to factors of social identity and communicative needs. 与 L1 习得不同的是，L2 学习者很有可能被石化——尽管 L2 输入和时间流逝，但他们在达到目标语言规范之前在某些方面停止 IL 发展的可能性。这种现象与学习年龄有关，年长的二语学习者比年轻的学习者更容易化石，但也与社会认同和交际需求等因素有关。
Morpheme Order Studies 语素顺序研究
One important question in the study of SLA which the concept of IL highlighted during the1970s is whether there is a natural order (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners. 在1970年代，IL的概念强调了SLA研究中的一个重要问题是，在二语学习者的语法发展中是否存在自然顺序（或通用序列）。
English L1 and L2 Morpheme Acquisition Order 英语 L1 和 L2 语素采集顺序
English L1 英语L1
Morpheme 词素
Example 例
English L2 英语L2
1
Progressive-ing 渐进式 -ing
He is talking. 他在说话。
3
2
Plural -s 复数 -s
There are two cats. 有两只猫。
4
3
Past irregular 过去的不规则
We ate. 我们吃了。
7
4
Possessive -s 所有格 -s
The child’s toy 孩子的玩具
8
5
Articles a/the 第a/the条
The cat/a sunny day 猫/阳光明媚的日子
1
6
Past regular -ed 过去的常规 -ed
They talked. 他们说话了。
6
7
Third person -s 第三人称 -s
He sings. 他唱歌。
9
8
Copula be
He’s tall. 他个子很高。
2
9
Auxiliary be 辅助是
She’s singing. 她在唱歌。
5
Although not identical, the order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2. Further, the order was virtually the same in English L2 whether children were L1 speakers of Spanish or Chinese. The existence of such a “natural order” strengthened claims for internally driven acquisition processes, which Dulay and Burt (1973) labeled creative construction. They concluded that L2 learners are neither merely imitating what they hear nor necessarily transferring L1 structures to the new code, but (subconsciously) creating a mental grammar which allows them to interpret and produce utterances they have not heard before. 虽然不完全相同，但 L1 和 L2 中报告的语素习得顺序相似。此外，无论儿童是讲西班牙语还是中文的 L1 使用者，英语 L2 的顺序几乎相同。这种“自然秩序”的存在加强了对内部驱动的收购过程的主张，Dulay和Burt（1973）将其称为创造性构建。他们得出的结论是，二语学习者既不只是模仿他们听到的内容，也不一定要将一语结构转移到新代码中，而是（潜意识地）创造了一种心理语法，使他们能够解释和产生他们以前从未听过的话语。
The morpheme acquisition studies were followed by research which indicated that there are also regular sequences in acquisition of some syntactic constructions by both children and adults (e.g. negation, questions, and relative clauses). These findings form part of the basis for continuing speculation that innate mechanisms for language acquisition may not be limited to early childhood. 在语素习得研究之后，研究表明，儿童和成人在习得某些句法结构（例如否定、疑问和关系从句）时也存在规则序列。这些发现构成了继续推测语言习得的先天机制可能不仅限于儿童早期的部分基础。
Monitor Model 监视器模型
One of the last of the early approaches to SLA which has internal focus is the Monitor Model, proposed by Stephen Krashen (1978). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a language acquisition device(LAD), which is a metaphor Chomsky used for children’s innate knowledge of language. SLA的最后一种早期方法之一是由Stephen Krashen（1978）提出的监视器模型。它明确而基本上采用了语言习得装置（LAD）的概念，这是乔姆斯基用来描述儿童与生俱来的语言知识的隐喻。
Krashen’s approach is a collection of five hypotheses which constitute major claims and assumptions about how the L2 code is acquired. Caution is required, however, that Krashen’s model has frequently been criticized by researchers because many of its constructs (e.g. what constitutes comprehensible input) and the claimed distinction between learning and acquisition are vague and imprecise, and because several of its claims are impossible to verify. Krashen的方法是由五个假设的集合，这些假设构成了关于如何获得L2代码的主要主张和假设。然而，需要注意的是，Krashen的模型经常受到研究人员的批评，因为它的许多结构（例如，什么是可理解的输入）以及学习和习得之间的所谓区别是模糊和不精确的，并且因为它的一些主张是无法验证的。
The hypotheses forming the model are the following: 形成模型的假设如下：
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis. There is a distinction to be made between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is subconscious, and involves the innate language acquisition device which accounts for children’s L1. Learning is conscious and is exemplified by the L2 learning which takes place in many classroom contexts. 习得-学习假说。习得和学习是有区别的。习得是潜意识的，涉及先天的语言习得装置，它解释了儿童的L1。学习是有意识的，在许多课堂环境中进行的二语学习就是例证。
Monitor Hypothesis. What is “learned” is available only as a monitor, for purposes of editing or making changes in what has already been produced. 监视假设。“学到的”只能作为监视器使用，用于编辑或更改已经产生的内容。
Natural Order Hypothesis. We acquire the rules of language in a predictable order. 自然秩序假说。我们以可预测的顺序获得语言规则。
Input Hypothesis. Language acquisition takes place because there is comprehensible input. If input is understood, and if there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided. 输入假设。语言习得之所以发生，是因为有可理解的输入。如果输入被理解，并且有足够的输入，则自动提供必要的语法。
Affective Filter Hypothesis. Input may not be processed if the affective filter is “up”. 情感过滤器假说。如果情感过滤器为“向上”，则可能无法处理输入。
The early period for linguistic study of SLA which we have just reviewed ended with some issues in rather spirited debate among proponents of different approaches, but there was widespread consensus on some important points. These include: 我们刚才回顾了SLA语言学研究的早期阶段，在不同方法的支持者之间进行了相当激烈的辩论，但对一些重要问题达成了广泛的共识。这些包括：
What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule-governed” language system. 在SLA中获得的是“规则控制”的语言系统。
How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes. Development of both L1 and L2 follows generally predictable sequences, which suggests that L1 and L2 acquisition processes are similar in significant ways. SLA的发生方式涉及创造性的心理过程。L1 和 L2 的发育都遵循通常可预测的序列，这表明 L1 和 L2 的获取过程在显着方面相似。
Why some learners are more successful in SLA than others relates primarily to the age of the learner. 为什么有些学习者在SLA方面比其他学习者更成功，主要与学习者的年龄有关。
Universal Grammar 通用语法
Chomsky and his followers have claimed since 1950s that the nature of speaker-hearers’ competence in their native language can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. They argue that children (at least) come to the task of acquiring a specific language already possessing general knowledge of what all languages have in common, including constraints on how any natural language can be structured. What all languages have in common is Universal Grammar. One of the most important issues in a UG approach to the study of SLA has been whether this innate resource is still available to individuals who are acquiring additional languages beyond the age of early childhood. 自 1950 年代以来，乔姆斯基和他的追随者一直声称，说话者-听者母语能力的本质只能通过人类遗传赋予的先天知识来解释。他们认为，儿童（至少）开始学习一种特定的语言，他们已经掌握了所有语言的共同点，包括对任何自然语言如何构建的限制。所有语言的共同点是通用语法。在研究SLA的UG方法中，最重要的问题之一是，这种先天资源是否仍然适用于那些在幼儿期之后学习其他语言的人。
Principles and parameters 原理和参数
Since around 1980, the construct called Universal Grammar has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of all languages in the world. Some of these principles contain parameters, or points where there is a limited choice of settings depending on which specific language is involved. Because knowledge of principles and parameters is postulated to be innate, children are assumed to be able to interpret and unconsciously analyze the input they receive and construct the appropriate L1 grammar. This analysis and construction is considered to be strictly constrained and channeled by UG, which explains why L1 acquisition for children is relatively rapid and always successful. 自 1980 年左右以来，称为通用语法的结构已被概念化为一组原则，这些原则是世界上所有语言的属性。其中一些原则包含参数，或者根据所涉及的特定语言，设置选择有限的点。因为原理和参数的知识被认为是与生俱来的，所以假设儿童能够解释和无意识地分析他们收到的输入，并构建适当的 L1 语法。这种分析和构建被认为是由UG严格约束和引导的，这解释了为什么儿童的L1习得相对快速且总是成功的。
What is acquired in L1 acquisition is not UG itself; UG is already present at birth as part of the innate language faculty in every human being, although maturation and experience are required for the manifestation of this capacity. Child acquisition of a specific language involves a process of selecting from among the limited parametric options in UG those that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input. 在 L1 采集中获得的不是 UG 本身;UG在出生时就已经作为每个人与生俱来的语言能力的一部分而存在，尽管这种能力的体现需要成熟和经验。儿童对特定语言的习得涉及从UG中有限的参数选项中选择与语言输入中遇到的设置相匹配的参数选项的过程。
The acquisition of vocabulary has become much more important in Chomsky’s recent theory, because lexical items are thought to include rich specification of properties that are needed for parameter setting and other features of grammar, as well as for interpretation of semantic meaning. “Knowing” the verb chi in Chinese means knowing its pronunciation and meaning, that it is a verb and the head of a VP (verb phrase), and that it normally requires a direct object , often the “dummy object ” fan。 在乔姆斯基最近的理论中，词汇的习得变得更加重要，因为词汇项目被认为包括参数设置和语法其他特征以及语义解释所需的丰富的属性规范。“知”动词“chi”在汉语中的意思是知道它的发音和含义，知道它是一个动词，是VP（动词短语）的头，通常需要一个直接的宾语，通常是“虚拟宾语”。
UG and SLA UG 和 SLA
Three questions are of particular importance in the study of SLA from a UG perspective: 从UG的角度来看，在SLA研究中，有三个问题特别重要：
What is the initial state in SLA？ SLA 中的初始状态是什么？
What is the nature of interlanguage, and how does it change over time？ 跨语言的本质是什么，它如何随时间变化？
What is the final state in SLA？ SLA 中的最终状态是什么？
Initial state 初始状态
Learners already have knowledge of L1 at the point where L2 acquisition begins: they already have made all of the parametric choices that are appropriate for that L1, guided by UG. When L1 and L2 parameter settings for the same principle are the same, positive transfer from L1 to L2 is likely; when L1 and L2 parameter settings are different, negative transfer or interference might occur. L2 learners may still have access to UG in the initial state of SLA as well as knowledge of L1, but there is no agreement on this. 学习者在开始学习 L2 时就已经了解了 L2：在 UG 的指导下，他们已经做出了适合该 L1 的所有参数选择。当同一原理的 L1 和 L2 参数设置相同时，可能会从 L1 到 L2 进行正转移;当 L1 和 L2 参数设置不同时，可能会发生负传输或干扰。在SLA的初始状态下，L2学习者可能仍然可以访问UG以及L1知识，但对此没有达成一致。
Nature and development of interlanguage 跨语言的本质与发展
Interlanguage (IL) is defined in the Principles and Parameters perspective as intermediate states of L2 development. If at least some access to UG is retained by L2 learners, then the process of IL development is in large part one of resetting parameters on the basis of input in the new language. 在原理和参数视角中，跨语言 （IL） 被定义为 L2 开发的中间状态。如果二语学习者至少保留了对UG的一些访问，那么IL开发的过程在很大程度上是根据新语言的输入重置参数的过程之一。
Learners change the parameter setting (usually unconsciously) because the L2 input they receive does not match the L1 settings they have. If access to UG is still available, then that will limit their choices and their IL grammars will never deviate from structures that are allowed by UG. If learning principles that are part of the language faculty are also still available, then sufficient information to make these changes is available from the positive evidence they receive, i.e. the input that is provided from experiencing L2 in natural use or formal instruction. Negative evidence, including explicit correction, is often also provided to L2 learners (especially if they receive formal language instruction), and this probably plays a role in parameter resetting for older learners. 学习者更改参数设置（通常是无意识的），因为他们收到的 L2 输入与他们拥有的 L1 设置不匹配。如果仍然可以访问 UG，那么这将限制他们的选择，并且他们的 IL 语法永远不会偏离 UG 允许的结构。如果作为语言教师一部分的学习原则仍然可用，那么从他们收到的积极证据中可以获得足够的信息来做出这些改变，即在自然使用或正式教学中体验二语所提供的输入。负面证据，包括明确的纠正，通常也会提供给二语学习者（特别是如果他们接受正式的语言指导），这可能在年龄较大的学习者的参数重置中发挥作用。
Constructionism, an approach to SLA which has been formulated withinChomsky’s Minimalist Program, considers IL development as the progressive mastery of L2 vocabulary along with the morphological features that are part of lexical knowledge. The stages and variability which characterize IL development are accounted for because of initially incomplete specification of these features in learners’ competence. Failure to reach a state of full feature specification in the lexicon is seen as the primary reason that many L2 learners fossilize at an intermediate level of development without attaining near-native competence. Of particular relevance for L2 learners and teachers is the critical role of lexical acquisition in providing information for parameter (re)setting and other aspects of grammar in a UG approach. 建构主义是在乔姆斯基的极简主义计划中制定的一种 SLA 方法，将 IL 发展视为对 L2 词汇的逐步掌握以及作为词汇知识一部分的形态特征。IL发展的阶段和变异性是由于最初对学习者能力中的这些特征的不完整描述。未能达到词典中完整特征规范的状态被视为许多二语学习者在中等发展水平上僵化而没有达到接近母语能力的主要原因。与二语学习者和教师特别相关的是词汇习得在为UG方法中的参数（重新）设置和语法的其他方面提供信息方面的关键作用。
Final state 最终状态
While the question of why some learners are more successful than others is not relevant for basic L1 acquisition, the question is highly relevant for SLA. There are several possibilities within the UG framework. These include: 虽然为什么有些学习者比其他学习者更成功的问题与基本的 L1 习得无关，但这个问题与 SLA 高度相关。UG框架内有几种可能性。这些包括：
All learners may not have the same degree of access of UG. 并非所有学习者都具有相同程度的 UG 访问权限。
Different relationships between various L1s and L2s may result in differential transfer or interference. 各种 L1 和 L2 之间的不同关系可能会导致差分传输或干扰。
Some learners may receive qualitatively different L2 input from others. 一些学习者可能会收到与其他学习者截然不同的 L2 输入。
Some learners may be more perceptive than others of mismatches between L2 input and existing L1 parameter settings. 一些学习者可能比其他学习者更能察觉到二语输入与现有二语参数设置之间的不匹配。
Different degrees of specification for lexical features may be achieved by different learners. 不同的学习者可以达到不同程度的词汇特征规范。
Functional approaches 功能方法
Systemic Linguistics 系统语言学
Systemic Linguistics has been developed by M.A.K. Halliday, beginning in the late 1950s. Basic to the approach is the notion that language structures cannot be idealized and studied without taking into account the circumstances of their use, including the extralinguistic social context. 系统语言学由 M.A.K. Halliday 于 1950 年代后期开始发展。该方法的基本概念是，如果不考虑语言结构的使用环境，包括语言外的社会背景，就无法理想化和研究语言结构。
From this functional view, language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions. Learning one’s mother tongue is learning the uses of language, and the meanings, or rather the meaning potential, associated with them. The structures, the words and the sounds are the realization of this meaning potential. Learning language is learning how to mean. 从这种功能观点来看，语言习得需要被看作是对语言功能的掌握。学习一个人的母语就是学习语言的用途，以及与之相关的意义，或者更确切地说是意义潜力。结构、词语和声音是这种意义潜力的实现。学习语言就是学习如何表达意思。
To relate this notion to the question about what language learners essentially acquire, in Halliday’s view it is not a system of rules which govern language structure, but rather “meaning potential”: “what the speaker/hearer can, not what he knows”. The process of acquisition consists of “mastering certain basic functions of language and developing a meaning potential for each”. 为了将这个概念与语言学习者本质上获得什么的问题联系起来，在Halliday看来，它不是支配语言结构的规则系统，而是“意义潜力”：“说话者/听者能做什么，而不是他知道什么”。习得过程包括“掌握语言的某些基本功能并开发每种功能的意义潜力”。
Halliday describes the evolution of the following pragmatic functions in early L1 acquisition (he calls them “functions of language as a whole”), which are universal for children: Halliday描述了以下语用功能在早期L1习得中的演变（他称之为“语言作为一个整体的功能”），这些功能对儿童来说是普遍的：
Instrumental – language used as a means of getting things done (one of the first to be evolved): the “I want” function. 工具性 – 用作完成任务的手段的语言（最早发展的语言之一）：“我想要”功能。
Regulatory – language used to regulate the behavior of others: the “do as I tell you” function. 监管 – 用于规范他人行为的语言：“照我说的去做”功能。
Interactional – use of language in interaction between self and others: the “me and you” function. 互动 – 在自我与他人之间的互动中使用语言：“我和你”功能。
Personal – awareness of language as a form of one’s own identity: the “here I come” function. 个人 – 将语言视为自身身份的一种形式的意识：“我来了”功能。
Heuristic – language as a way of learning about things: the “tell me why” function. 启发式 – 语言作为学习事物的一种方式：“告诉我为什么”功能。
Imagination – creation through language of a world of one’s own making: the “let’s pretend” function. 想象力——通过语言创造一个自己创造的世界：“让我们假装”的功能。
Representational – means of expressing propositions, or communicating about something (one of the last to appear): the “I’ve got something to tell you” function. 表征 – 表达命题或交流某事的方式（最后出现的一种）：“我有话要告诉你”功能。
Linguistic structures which are mastered in the developmental process are “direct reflections” of the functions that language serves; their development is closely related to the social and personal needs they are used to convey. 在发展过程中掌握的语言结构是语言所服务功能的“直接反映”;他们的发展与他们用来传达的社会和个人需求密切相关。
One application of Halliday’s model to the study of SLA comes with seeing L2 learning as a process of adding multilingual meaning potential to what has already been achieved in L1. Second language acquisition is largely a matter of learning new linguistic forms to fulfill the same functions (as already acquired and used in L1) within a different social milieu. In studying children who had just arrived in the USA from several different countries, for instance, we found that all of them could accomplish a wide range of communicative functions even while they still had very limited English means at their disposal. What we observed and recorded over a period of several months for every child in our study was not the emergence of new functions, but emergence of new language structures to augment existing choices for expressing them. This structural emergence follows the same general sequence for each function. For example: Halliday模型在SLA研究中的一个应用是将L2学习视为在L1中已经实现的目标中增加多语言意义潜力的过程。第二语言习得很大程度上是学习新的语言形式，以在不同的社会环境中实现相同的功能（如在L1中已经习得和使用）。例如，在研究从几个不同国家刚抵达美国的孩子时，我们发现他们都可以完成广泛的交际功能，即使他们仍然拥有非常有限的英语手段。在几个月的时间里，我们对研究中的每个孩子进行观察和记录的不是新功能的出现，而是新语言结构的出现，以增加表达这些功能的现有选择。对于每个功能，这种结构涌现遵循相同的一般顺序。例如：
Nonlinguistic 非语言
Regulatory: （Hitting another child who is annoying） 监管：（打另一个讨厌的孩子）
Interactional: Unh？（Uttered as a greeting） 互动：Unh？（作为问候语说出来）
L2 formula or memorized routine L2 公式或记忆例程
Regulatory: Don’t do that! 监管：不要那样做！
Interactional: Hi! 互动：嗨！
Single L2 word 单个 L2 单词
Regulatory: He! （Pointing out another child’s offending behavior to a teacher.） 监管：呵呵！（向老师指出另一个孩子的冒犯行为。
Interactional: Me？（An invitation to play.） 互动：我？（玩的邀请。
L2 phrase or clause L2 短语或从句
Regulatory: That bad! 监管：太糟糕了！
Interactional: You me play？ 互动：你玩我？
Complex L2 construction 复杂的 L2 结构
Regulatory: The teacher say that wrong! 监管：老师说错了！
Interactional: I no like to play now. 互动：我现在不喜欢玩。
Functional Typology 功能类型学
Another approach within the functional framework is Functional Typology, which is based on the comparative study of a wide range of the world’s languages. This study involves the classification of languages and their features into categories (or “types”; hence “typology”), with a major goal being to describe patterns of similarities and differences among them, and to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution. 功能框架中的另一种方法是功能类型学，它基于对世界上各种语言的比较研究。这项研究涉及将语言及其特征分类为类别（或“类型”，因此称为“类型学”），其主要目标是描述它们之间的相似性和差异性，并确定哪些类型和模式出现频率更高/更低，或者在分布上具有普遍性。
Functional Typology has been applied to the study of SLA most fruitfully in accounting for developmental stages of L2 acquisition, for why some L2 constructions are more or less difficult than others for learners to acquire, and for the selectivity of crosslinguistic influence or transfer (i.e. for why some elements of L1 transfer to L2 and some do not). A particularly important concept which is tied to these accounts is markedness – the notion of markedness deals with whether any specific feature of a language is “marked” or “unmarked”. A feature is “unmarked” if it occurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, if it is less complex structurally or conceptually, or if it is more “normal” or “expected” along some other dimension. 功能类型学在SLA研究中得到了最有效的应用，它解释了二语习得的发展阶段，为什么一些二语结构比其他二语结构更难习得，以及跨语言影响或迁移的选择性（即为什么一语的某些元素转移到二语，而有些则不然）。与这些叙述相关的一个特别重要的概念是标记性——标记性的概念涉及一种语言的任何特定特征是“标记的”还是“无标记的”。如果一个特征比同一类别中的对比元素更频繁地出现，如果它在结构或概念上不那么复杂，或者如果它在其他维度上更“正常”或“预期”，则该特征是“无标记”的。
In accounting for order and relative difficulty for acquisition, unmarked elements are likely to be acquired before marked ones in children’s L1, and to be easier for a learner to master in L2. A markedness account of selective transfer from L1 to L2 predicts that unmarked features in L1 are more likely to transfer, as well as that marked features in L2 will be harder to learn. 考虑到习得的顺序和相对难度，在儿童的L1中，未标记的元素很可能在标记的元素之前获得，并且学习者在L2中更容易掌握。从 L1 到 L2 的选择性转移的标记性描述预测 L1 中未标记的特征更有可能转移，并且 L2 中的标记特征将更难学习。
Function-to-form mapping 函数到表单的映射
Another functional approach which has been applied to the description and analysis of interlanguage emphasizes function-to-form mapping in the acquisitional sequence. A basic concept from this perspective is that acquisition of both L1 and L2 involves a process of grammaticalization in which a grammatical function is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker. For example, if you ask a beginning learner of English what he did the day before he might say I play soccer, relying on context to convey the meaning of past time; a somewhat more advanced learner might say Yesterday I play soccer, using an adverb to convey the meaning of past; and a still more advanced learner might say I played soccer, using the grammatical inflection -ed. 另一种功能方法已应用于跨语言的描述和分析，强调习得序列中的功能到形式的映射。从这个角度来看，一个基本概念是，L1和L2的习得都涉及一个语法化的过程，在这个过程中，语法功能首先通过共享的语言外知识和基于语篇上下文的推理来传达，然后通过词汇词来传达，然后才通过语法标记来传达。例如，如果你问一个刚开始学习英语的人，他前一天做了什么，他可能会说我踢足球，依靠上下文来传达过去时间的意义;稍微高级一点的学习者可能会说昨天我踢足球，用副词来传达过去的意义;更高级的学习者可能会说我踢足球，使用语法变化 -ed。
According to this approach, language acquisition importantly involves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions. Grammaticalization is driven by communicative need and use and is related to the development of more efficient cognitive processing as part of language learning. 根据这种方法，语言习得涉及开发语言形式以实现语义或语用功能。语法化是由交际需求和使用驱动的，并且与作为语言学习的一部分的更有效的认知处理的发展有关。
Information organization 信息组织
Information organization refers to a functional approach which focuses on utterance structure, or “the way in which learners put their words together”. The task of studying SLA from this perspective includes describing the structures of interlanguage, discovering what organizational principles guide learners’ production at various stages of development, and analyzing how these principles interact with one another. 信息组织是指一种功能方法，侧重于话语结构，或“学习者将单词组合在一起的方式”。从这个角度研究SLA的任务包括描述跨语言的结构，发现哪些组织原则指导学习者在各个发展阶段的生产，并分析这些原则如何相互作用。
The evidence for this description and analysis comes primarily from the European Science Foundation project. Over a period of almost three years, Klein, Perdue, and other linguists regularly recorded the L2 production of speakers of six L1s who were learning five different L2s (native speakers of both Punjabi and Italian learning English, of Italian and Turkish learning German, of Turkish and Arabic learning Dutch, of Arabic and Spanish learning French, and of Spanish and Finnish learning Swedish). All of the learners were adult immigrants in Europe who needed to use the L2 to communicate but did not receive a significant amount of formal instruction in that language. 这种描述和分析的证据主要来自欧洲科学基金会项目。在将近三年的时间里，Klein、Perdue和其他语言学家定期记录了六个L1的L2使用者正在学习五种不同的L2（旁遮普语和意大利语的母语者学习英语，意大利语和土耳其语的母语者学习德语，土耳其语和阿拉伯语的母语者学习荷兰语，阿拉伯语和西班牙语的母语者学习法语，西班牙语和芬兰语的母语者学习瑞典语）。所有学习者都是欧洲的成年移民，他们需要使用L2进行交流，但没有接受大量该语言的正式教学。
Developmental levels 发展水平
All of the learners in this study, no matter what their L1 and L2, go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage. 本研究中的所有学习者，无论他们的 L1 和 L2 是什么，在他们的跨语言中都经历了非常相似的发展序列。
Nominal Utterance Organization (NUO). Learners generally begin with the seemingly unconnected naming of subjects and objects (i.e. with nouns and pronouns, or “nominal”). They may also use adverbs and adjectives or other elements but seldom use a verb to help organize an utterance. 名义话语组织 （NUO）。学习者通常从看似无关的主语和宾语命名开始（即使用名词和代词，或“名义”）。他们也可能使用副词和形容词或其他元素，但很少使用动词来帮助组织话语。
Italian L1: this man one idea from the window 意大利L1：这个人从窗户里得到一个想法
Infinite Utterance Organization (IUO). Learners increasingly add verbs to their utterances, but they seldom use grammatical morphemes to convey the meaning of tense, person, or number (i.e. the verb is uninflected, or “infinite”). There is also increasing use of grammatical relators such as prepositions. At this stage, learners have constructed an interlanguage grammar which is called Basic Variety. They may be able to express themselves adequately at this stage in some contexts, and not all continue development beyond this level. 无限话语组织 （IUO）。学习者越来越多地在他们的话语中添加动词，但他们很少使用语法语素来传达时态、人称或数字的含义（即动词是无屈折的，或“无限的”）。介词等语法关系词的使用也越来越多。在这个阶段，学习者已经构建了一种称为基本多样性的跨语言语法。在某些情况下，他们可能能够在这个阶段充分表达自己，但并非所有人都能继续发展超过这个水平。
Italian L1: the blonde friend tell other woman about the son 意大利语L1：金发朋友告诉其他女人关于儿子的事情
Finite Utterance Organization (FUO). Learners who continue interlanguage development beyond the IUO level next add grammatical morphemes to the verb (i.e. the verb becomes inflected, or “finite”). This is the process of progressive grammaticalization. 有限话语组织 （FUO）。在IUO水平之后继续跨语言发展的学习者接下来在动词中添加语法语素（即动词变为屈折或“有限”）。这是渐进语法化的过程。
Italian L1: he has finished the work 意大利语L1：他已经完成了工作
The sequence of structural development shows minimal crosslinguistic influence for the NUO and IUO levels; speakers of all languages follow the same pattern. More L1 transfer occurs as learners increase their L2 resources and produce more complicated utterances. 结构发展的顺序显示，对 NUO 和 IUO 级别的跨语言影响最小;所有语言的使用者都遵循相同的模式。随着学习者增加其 L2 资源并产生更复杂的话语，会发生更多的 L1 迁移。
Organizing principles 组织原则
There is a limited set of principles which learners make use of for organizing information. These interact, and the balance or weight of use among them shifts during the process of interlanguage development. These principles may be classified as: 学习者用来组织信息的原则有限。它们相互作用，在跨语言发展过程中，它们之间的使用平衡或权重发生了变化。这些原则可分为：
Phrasal constraints, or restrictions on the phrasal patterns which may be used. Once the verb has emerged, for examples, a basic pattern is noun phrase plus verb (NP+V), with a second NP after the verb possible. There are also restrictions on the composition and complexity of each phrasal category. For example, at one stage of development a noun phrase (NP) may consist only of a noun (N) or a pronoun. At the next stage of development it may consist of a determiner (e.g. the) plus noun (D+N) or an adjective plus noun (Adj. +N), but not D+Adj. +N. 短语约束，或对可能使用的短语模式的限制。例如，一旦动词出现，基本模式是名词短语加动词（NP+V），动词后面可能有第二个NP。每个短语类别的组成和复杂性也有限制。例如，在发展的一个阶段，名词短语（NP）可能仅由名词（N）或代词组成。在发展的下一个阶段，它可能由限定词（例如）加名词（D+N）或形容词加名词（Adj.+N）组成，但不包括D+Adj.+N。
Semantic constraints, or features of categories like NP which determine their position in a sentence and what case role they are assigned (e.g. agent or “doer” of the action, or patient or recipient of the action). When an utterance has more than one NP, learners use such semantic factors to decide which one should come first. The principle that learners follow is to put the agent first. 语义约束，或类别的特征，如NP，决定了它们在句子中的位置以及它们被分配的大小写角色（例如，动作的代理人或“执行者”，或动作的患者或接受者）。当一个话语有多个 NP 时，学习者会使用这样的语义因素来决定哪一个应该先出现。学习者遵循的原则是将代理放在首位。
Pragmatic constraints, including restrictions that relate to what has been said previously, or to what the speaker assumes that the hearer already knows. The general pragmatic principle is to put what is known first,and new information or what the speaker is focusing on last. 语用约束，包括与先前所说的话有关的限制，或与说话者假设听者已经知道的内容有关的限制。一般的实用原则是把已知的东西放在第一位，把新信息或说话者关注的东西放在最后。
While all learners follow essentially the same principles in organizing their utterances, there is individual variation, in part attributable to how the principles apply in their L1 and influence interlanguage use. These constraints are therefore not seen as deterministic, but as “something like ‘guiding forces’ whose interplay shapes the utterance”. 虽然所有学习者在组织他们的话语时都遵循基本相同的原则，但存在个体差异，部分原因是这些原则如何应用于他们的 L1 并影响跨语言使用。因此，这些约束不被视为确定性的，而是“类似于'指导力量'的东西，其相互作用塑造了话语”。
In summarizing results, Klein and Perdue offer four “bundles of explanations” for the sequence of acquisition they find, and for why some L2 learners are more successful than others: 在总结结果时，Klein 和 Perdue 为他们发现的习得顺序以及为什么一些二语学习者比其他学习者更成功提供了四个“解释包”：
Communicative needs. Discourse tasks push the organization of utterances, in part to overcome communicative inadequacies. Linguistic means are acquired to overcome limitations of earlier levels or stages of expression. 交际需求。话语任务推动了话语的组织，部分原因是为了克服交际的不足。语言手段的获得是为了克服早期表达水平或阶段的局限性。
Cross-linguistic influence. Influence from L1 affects rate of interlanguage development and ultimate level of success, although not order of acquisition. L1 influence is a factor in rate and achievement because it more or less facilitates learners’ analysis of L2 input and plays a role in their selection from among possible L2 organizational devices. 跨语言影响。来自L1的影响会影响跨语言发展的速度和最终的成功水平，尽管不是习得的顺序。L1 影响是影响成绩和成绩的一个因素，因为它或多或少地促进了学习者对 L2 输入的分析，并在他们从可能的 L2 组织设备中进行选择时发挥作用。
Extrinsic factors. Progress beyond the basic variety is dependent both on “propensity” factors such as attitudes and motivation, and on “environmental” factors such as extent and nature of learners’ exposure to L2. The everyday environment has more influence on progress at this level than does classroom learning. 外在因素。超越基本种类的进步既取决于态度和动机等“倾向”因素，也取决于学习者接触二语的程度和性质等“环境”因素。与课堂学习相比，日常环境对这一级别的进步影响更大。
Limits on processing. Learners’ current internalized interlanguage system must be ready to integrate new linguistic features or they cannot be put to immediate use in communication. Learners cannot attend to all communicative needs at the same time. 处理限制。学习者当前内化的跨语言系统必须准备好整合新的语言特征，否则它们就无法立即用于交流。学习者不能同时满足所有的交际需求。
Klein and Perdue conclude: Klein 和 Perdue 得出结论：
The emerging picture is one of a creative learner who does not try, item by item and as closely as possible, to replicate the various structural features of the input offered by the social environment, but rather draws on some of the materials from the input and uses it to construct his or her own language. This construction is permanently challenged – by the permanent influx of new input, on the one hand, and by various structural inadequacies, on the other. The extent to which the learner tackles these challenges, and the way in which it is done, depends on the particular learner and on the particular languages involved. 新出现的画面是一个创造性的学习者，他不会试图逐项地、尽可能地复制社会环境提供的输入的各种结构特征，而是从输入中吸取一些材料，并用它来构建他或她自己的语言。这种结构受到永久性的挑战——一方面是新投入的永久涌入，另一方面是各种结构上的不足。学习者应对这些挑战的程度以及完成这些挑战的方式取决于特定的学习者和所涉及的特定语言。
All of the functional approaches discussed here basically agree on the following: 这里讨论的所有功能方法基本上都同意以下几点：
What is being acquired in SLA is a system for conveying meaning. 在SLA中获得的是一个传达意义的系统。
How language is acquired importantly involves creative learner involvement in communication, and understanding of SLA processes is impossible if they are isolated from circumstances of use. 语言的习得方式涉及创造性学习者对交流的参与，如果将SLA过程与使用环境隔离开来，就不可能理解SLA过程。
The Psychology of Second Language Acquisition 第二语言习得心理学
Notions that particular locations in the brain may be specialized for language functions date back at least into the nineteen century. Paul Pierre Broca (1861, 1865) observed that an area in the left frontal lobe (Broca’s area) appeared to be responsible for the ability to speak and noted that an injury to the left side of the brain was much more likely to result in language loss than was an injury to the right side. Wernicke (1874) further identified a nearby area which is adjacent to the part of the cortex that processes audio input (Wernicke’s area) as also being central to language processing. Some exceptions have been found, but for the vast majority of individuals, language is represented primarily in the left half (or hemisphere) of the brain. Subsequent research has shown that many more areas of the brain are involved in language activity than was thought earlier: language activity is not localized, but core linguistic processes are typically housed in the left hemisphere. 大脑中特定位置可能专门用于语言功能的概念至少可以追溯到19世纪。保罗·皮埃尔·布罗卡（Paul Pierre Broca，1861年，1865年）观察到左额叶的一个区域（布罗卡区）似乎是说话能力的原因，并指出大脑左侧的损伤比右侧的损伤更有可能导致语言丧失。Wernicke（1874）进一步确定了与处理音频输入的大脑皮层部分（Wernicke区域）相邻的附近区域，该区域也是语言处理的核心。已经发现了一些例外，但对于绝大多数人来说，语言主要表现在大脑的左半部分（或半球）。随后的研究表明，参与语言活动的大脑区域比以前认为的要多得多：语言活动不是局部的，但核心语言过程通常位于左半球。
Such specialization of the two halves of the brain is known as lateralization, and is present to some extent even in infancy. There is increased specialization as the brain matures and has less plasticity: i.e. one area of the brain becomes less able to assume the functions of another in the event it is damaged. Lenneberg (1967) proposed that children had only a limited number of years during which they could acquire their L1 flawlessly if they suffered brain damage to the language areas; brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language would not be possible. This is the Critical period hypothesis. 大脑两半的这种特化被称为偏侧化，甚至在婴儿期也存在某种程度。随着大脑的成熟和可塑性的减少，专业化程度会增加：即大脑的一个区域在受损时变得不那么能够承担另一个区域的功能。Lenneberg（1967）提出，如果儿童在语言区域遭受脑损伤，他们只有有限的年数可以完美地获得L1;童年时期的大脑可塑性将允许大脑的其他区域接管受损区域的语言功能，但超过一定年龄，正常的语言将是不可能的。这就是关键期假说。
Principal communicative specializations of L and R hemispheres (Obler and Gjerlow 1999) L 和 R 半球的主要交际专业化（Obler 和 Gjerlow 1999）
Left hemisphere 左半球
Right hemisphere 右半球
Phonology 音韵学
Nonverbal (as babies’ cries) 非语言（如婴儿的哭声）
Morphology 形态学
Visuospatial information 视觉空间信息
Syntax 语法
Intonation 语调
Function words and inflections 功能词和屈折
Nonliteral meaning and ambiguity 非字面含义和歧义
Tone systems 音调系统
Many pragmatic abilities 许多务实的能力
Much lexical knowledge 丰富的词汇知识
Some lexical knowledge 一些词汇知识
Interests in how the brain might be organized for multiple languages also dates back to the nineteenth century. The initial questions arose from observing differing patterns for the interruption and recovery of languages following brain damage in multilinguals. Most individuals lose or recover multiple languages equally, but some recover one before the other, and some never recover use of one (either L1 or L2). These findings suggest that two or more languages may be represented in somewhat different locations in the brain and/or have different networks of activation. This possibility has stimulated observation and research on the topic for the past century. In spite of many years of research, some questions remain unanswered or answers remain controversial. Specific questions which have been explored are listed below, along with a brief summary of results from some of the research conducted on them. 对大脑如何组织多种语言的兴趣也可以追溯到19世纪。最初的问题源于对多语言者脑损伤后语言中断和恢复的不同模式的观察。大多数人会平等地丢失或恢复多种语言，但有些人会先恢复一种语言，而有些人永远不会恢复对一种语言的使用（L1 或 L2）。这些发现表明，两种或多种语言可能在大脑的不同位置表示和/或具有不同的激活网络。在过去的一个世纪里，这种可能性激发了对这一主题的观察和研究。尽管进行了多年的研究，但有些问题仍未得到解答，或者答案仍然存在争议。下面列出了已经探讨过的具体问题，并简要总结了对这些问题进行的一些研究的结果。
How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers? 多语种使用者的语言独立性如何？
There is no single answer to this question. It seems reasonable to conclude that multiple language systems are neither completely separate nor completely fused. 这个问题没有单一的答案。似乎可以合理地得出结论，多种语言系统既不是完全独立的，也不是完全融合的。
How are multiple language structures organized in relation to one another in the brain? Are both languages stored in the same areas? 在大脑中，多种语言结构是如何相互组织起来的？两种语言是否存储在相同的区域？
For at least some multilinguals, it appears that L1 and L2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, but both are predominantly in (probably overlapping) areas of the left hemisphere. However, the right hemisphere might be more involved in L2 than L1. 至少对于一些多语种的人来说，L1 和 L2 似乎存储在大脑的不同区域，但两者都主要位于左半球（可能重叠）区域。然而，右半球可能比 L1 更多地参与 L2。
Does the organization of the brain for L2 in relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition, how it is learned, or level of proficiency? L2 与 L1 相关的大脑组织是否随习得年龄、学习方式或熟练程度而异？
The answer is probably “yes” to all three. After reviewing research on lateralization in bilinguals, Vaid(1983) concludes that individuals who acquire L2 later in life show more right hemisphere involvement. Cook (1992) suggests that how people learn languages might be a factor: “second languages may be learnt by many means rather than the single means found in L1 acquisition and, consequently, may have a greater apparent hemispheric spread”. We know very little so far about how organization of knowledge in the brain might be related to level of proficiency in a second language, but it appears probable that the organization of L2 knowledge is more diffuse for lower levels of proficiency and more compact for highly fluent L2 users. 这三个人的答案可能都是“是”。Vaid（1983）在回顾了双语者偏侧化的研究后得出结论，在晚年获得L2的个体表现出更多的右半球受累。Cook（1992）认为，人们如何学习语言可能是一个因素：“第二语言可以通过多种方式学习，而不是通过L1习得中的单一方式学习，因此，可能具有更大的明显半球传播”。到目前为止，我们对大脑中知识的组织如何与第二语言的熟练程度相关知之甚少，但对于熟练程度较低的人来说，二语知识的组织似乎更加分散，而对于高度流利的二语用户来说，二语知识的组织可能更加紧凑。
Do two or more languages show the same sort of loss or disruption after brain damage? When there is differential impairment or recovery, which language recovers first? 两种或两种以上的语言在脑损伤后是否表现出相同类型的损失或中断？当存在差异性损伤或恢复时，哪种语言最先恢复？
Obler and Gjerlow (1999) conclude that a significant factor in initial recovery is which language was most used in the years prior to the incident which caused the damage, whether this is L1 or L2. Research on this question also shows that not only can different languages be affected differentially by brain damage, but different abilities in the same language may be differentially impaired: e.g. syntax versus vocabulary, production versus comprehension, or oral versus written modality. These observations have possible implications for claims that different elements of language are located in separate parts of the brain. Obler和Gjerlow（1999）得出结论，初始恢复的一个重要因素是在造成损害的事件发生前的几年中使用最多的语言，无论是L1还是L2。对这个问题的研究还表明，不仅不同的语言会受到脑损伤的不同影响，而且同一语言的不同能力也可能受到不同的损害：例如句法与词汇，生产与理解，或口语与书面形式。这些观察结果可能对语言的不同元素位于大脑不同部分的说法产生影响。
We may conclude that what is being added in the brain when a second language is acquired is not very different from, nor usually entirely separate from, what is already there for the first. But there are intriguing differences: some differences may be due to level of proficiency, some to circumstances of L2 learning, and some to the fact that our brains are not “wired” in exactly the same way. 我们可以得出结论，当习得第二种语言时，大脑中添加的内容与第一种语言已经存在的内容没有太大区别，或者通常完全分开。但也有有趣的差异：有些差异可能是由于熟练程度，有些是由于二语学习的情况，还有一些是由于我们的大脑没有以完全相同的方式“连接”。
Learning processes 学习过程
Psychology provides us with two major frameworks for the focus on learning processes: Information Processing (IP) and Connectionism. IP has had more influence on the study of SLA than any other psychological perspective. It makes the claim that learning language is essentially like learning other domains of knowledge. Learning is learning. The Connectionism framework also claims that “learning is learning”, but considers learning processes as a matter of increasing strength of associations rather than as the abstraction of rules or principles. 心理学为我们提供了两个主要的学习过程框架：信息处理（IP）和联结主义。知识产权对SLA研究的影响比任何其他心理学观点都大。它声称学习语言本质上就像学习其他知识领域一样。学习就是学习。联结主义框架也声称“学习就是学习”，但认为学习过程是增加联想强度的问题，而不是规则或原则的抽象。
Information Processing (IP) 信息处理 （IP）
Approaches based on IP are concerned with the mental processes involved in language learning and use. 基于知识产权的方法关注语言学习和使用所涉及的心理过程。
The information processing approach makes a number of assumptions (McLaughlin 1987): 信息处理方法做出了许多假设（McLaughlin 1987）：
Second language learning is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. In this respect language learning is like the acquisition of other complex skills. 第二语言学习是获得复杂的认知技能。在这方面，语言学习就像获得其他复杂技能一样。
Complex skills can be reduced to sets of simpler component skills, which are hierarchically organized. Lower-order component skills are prerequisite to learning of higher-order skills. 复杂的技能可以简化为一组更简单的组件技能，这些技能是分层组织的。低阶组件技能是学习高阶技能的先决条件。
Learning of a skill initially demands learners’ attention, and thus involves controlled processing. 学习一项技能最初需要学习者的注意力，因此涉及受控处理。
Controlled processing requires considerable mental “space”, or attentional effort. 受控处理需要相当大的心理“空间”或注意力努力。
Humans are limited-capacity processors. They can attend to a limited number of controlled processing demands at one time. 人类是容量有限的处理器。它们可以同时处理有限数量的受控处理需求。
Learners go from controlled to automatic processing with practice. Automatic processing requires less mental “space” and attentional effort. 通过练习，学习者从受控处理到自动处理。自动处理需要更少的精神“空间”和注意力。
Learning essentially involves development from controlled to automatic processing of component skills, freeing learners’ controlled processing capacity for new information and higher-order skills. 学习本质上涉及从受控到自动处理组件技能的发展，释放学习者对新信息和高阶技能的受控处理能力。
Along with development from controlled to automatic processing, learning also essentially involves restructuring or reorganization of mental representations. 随着从受控处理到自动处理的发展，学习本质上还涉及心理表征的重组或重组。
Reorganizing mental representations as part of learning makes structures more coordinated, integrated, and efficient, including a faster response time when they are activated. 作为学习的一部分，重新组织心理表征使结构更加协调、整合和高效，包括激活时更快的响应时间。
In SLA, restructuring of internal L2 representations, along with larger stores in memory, accounts for increasing levels of L2 proficiency. 在 SLA 中，内部 L2 表示的重构以及内存中更大的存储，是 L2 熟练程度不断提高的原因。
Our mental capacity requirements for controlled processing are obvious when we are beginning to learn a second language, as we need to concentrate our attention to comprehend or produce basic vocabulary and syntactic structures. It is only after these have been automatized that we can attend to more complex, higher-order features and content. Behaviors under attentional control are permeable, i.e. they are changeable; but once automatized, they are both more efficient and more difficult to change. In fact, one explanation for L2 fossilization from an IP perspective is that aspects of L2 may become automatized before they have developed to target levels, and positive input no longer suffices to lead to their improvement. 当我们开始学习第二语言时，我们对控制处理的心理能力要求是显而易见的，因为我们需要集中注意力来理解或产生基本的词汇和句法结构。只有在这些自动化之后，我们才能处理更复杂、更高阶的功能和内容。注意力控制下的行为是可渗透的，即它们是可变的;但一旦自动化，它们就会更有效率，也更难改变。事实上，从知识产权的角度来看，对 L2 化石化的一种解释是，L2 的各个方面可能在发展到目标水平之前就变得自动化了，而积极的投入不再足以导致它们的改进。
Information Processing has three stages. 信息处理分为三个阶段。
Input 输入
Central processing 集中处理
Output 输出
Perception 知觉
Controlled-automatic processing 可控自动加工
Production 生产
Restructuring 重组
Input for SLA is whatever sample of L2 that learners are exposed to, but it is not available for processing unless learners actually notice it: i.e. pay attention to it. Then it can become intake. It is at this point of perception of input where priorities are largely determined, and where attentional resources are channeled. Richard Schmidt (1990) lists the following features as likely contributors to the degree of noticing or awareness which will occur: SLA 的输入是学习者接触到的任何 L2 样本，但除非学习者真正注意到它，否则它不可用于处理：即注意它。然后它可以成为摄入量。正是在对投入的感知点上，优先事项在很大程度上被确定，注意力资源被引导。理查德·施密特（Richard Schmidt，1990）列出了以下特征，这些特征可能影响到将要发生的注意或意识程度：
Frequency of encounter with items 与物品相遇的频率
Perceptual saliency of items 项目的感知显著性
Instructional strategies that can structure learner attention 可以构建学习者注意力的教学策略
Individuals’ processing ability 个人处理能力
Readiness to notice particular items 准备注意到特定项目
Task demands, or the nature of activity the learner is engaged in 任务要求，或学习者所从事的活动的性质
In line with this IP approach to learning, developing and testing strategies to heighten learner awareness of input and to structure attention has been a major thrust in foreign language instructional design and pedagogy, so that successful intake can occur. 根据这种知识产权的学习方法，制定和测试策略，以提高学习者的输入意识和构建注意力，一直是外语教学设计和教学法的主要推动力，以便能够成功入学。
Output for SLA is the language that learners produce, in speech or in writing. Meaningful production practice helps learners by: SLA 的输出是学习者以语音或书面形式产生的语言。有意义的生产实践通过以下方式帮助学习者：
Enhancing fluency by furthering development of automaticity through practice 通过练习进一步发展自动化来提高流利度
Noticing gaps in their own knowledge as they are forced to move from semantic to syntactic processing, which may lead learners to give more attention to relevant information 当他们被迫从语义处理转向句法处理时，注意到自己知识的差距，这可能会导致学习者更加关注相关信息
Testing hypotheses based on developing interlanguage, allowing for monitoring and revision 基于开发跨语言的假设进行测试，允许监控和修订
Talking about language, including eliciting relevant input and (collaboratively) solving problems 谈论语言，包括引出相关意见和（协作）解决问题
Fluency is achieved in production both through use of automatized rule-based systems and through memory-based chunks which serve as exemplars or templates and are retrieved and used as wholes. 在生产中，通过使用基于规则的自动化系统和基于内存的块来实现流畅性，这些块作为示例或模板，并作为一个整体进行检索和使用。
Central processing is the heart of this model, where learning occurs. It is here that learners go from controlled to automatic processing, and where restructuring of knowledge takes place. 中央处理是这个模型的核心，学习发生的地方。正是在这里，学习者从受控处理到自动处理，以及知识重组发生的地方。
Restructuring involves qualitative changes, meaning that L2 development cannot be characterized as a seamless continuum along which new forms are added to old, but as a partially discontinuous plane along which there is regular systemic reorganization and reformulation. Two types of evidence from learners’ speech and writing are often cited. One is the sequence of acquisition which learners exhibit when they produce unanalyzed chunks of L2 correctly and then make errors as they restructure the elements they have processed in accord with newly formulated patterns and rules: i.e. an onset or increase of ungrammaticality in utterances is often an indicator of “progress” in SLA. A related type of evidence is found in U-shaped development: i.e. learners’ use of an initially correct form such as plural feet in English, followed by incorrect foots, eventually again appearing as feet. In this case, feetis first learned as an unanalyzed word, without recognition that it is a combination of foot plus plural. The later production of foots is evidence of systemic restructuring that takes place when the regular plural -s is added to the learner’s grammar. Feet reappears when the learner begins to acquire exceptions to the plural inflection rule. 重组涉及质的变化，这意味着L2的发展不能被描述为一个无缝的连续体，沿着这个连续体，新形式被添加到旧形式上，而是一个部分不连续的平面，沿着这个平面有规律地进行系统重组和重新制定。经常引用来自学习者言语和写作的两种证据。一个是学习者在正确生成未经分析的 L2 块时表现出的习得顺序，然后在他们根据新制定的模式和规则重组他们处理的元素时犯错误：即话语中不合语法的开始或增加通常是 SLA 中“进步”的指标。在U形发展中发现了一种相关的证据：即学习者使用最初正确的形式，例如英语中的复数脚，然后是不正确的脚，最终再次出现为脚。在这种情况下，feet 首先被学习为一个未经分析的单词，而没有认识到它是 foot 加复数的组合。脚的后期产生是系统性重组的证据，当常规复数 -s 被添加到学习者的语法中时，就会发生系统性重组。当学习者开始获得复数屈折规则的例外时，脚会重新出现。
Connectionist approaches 联结主义方法
Connectionist approaches to learning have much in common with IP perspectives, but they focus on the increasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses rather than on the inferred abstraction of “rules” or on restructuring. Indeed, from a connectionist perspective learning essentially is change in the strength of these connections. 联结主义的学习方法与知识产权观点有很多共同之处，但它们侧重于刺激和反应之间关联的强度增加，而不是“规则”的推断抽象或重组。事实上，从联结主义的角度来看，学习本质上是这些联结强度的变化。
The best-known connectionist approach within SLA is Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP). According to this viewpoint, processing takes place in a network of nodes (or “units”) in the brain that are connected by pathways. As learners are exposed to repeated patterns of units in input, they extract regularities in the patterns; probabilistic associations are formed and strengthened. These associations between nodes are called connection strengths or patterns of activation.The strength of the associations changes with the frequency of input and nature of feedback. SLA 中最著名的连接主义方法是并行分布式处理 （PDP）。根据这种观点，处理发生在大脑中通过通路连接的节点（或“单元”）网络中。当学习者在输入中接触到重复的单位模式时，他们会提取模式的规律性;概率关联的形成和加强。节点之间的这些关联称为连接强度或激活模式。关联的强度随着输入的频率和反馈的性质而变化。
Assumptions about processing from a connectionist/PDP viewpoint differ from traditional IP accounts in other important ways. 从连接主义/PDP 的角度来看，关于处理的假设在其他重要方面与传统 IP 帐户不同。
Attention is not viewed as a central mechanism that directs information between separate memory stores, which IP claims are available for controlled processing versus automatic processing. Rather, attention is a mechanism that is distributed throughout the processing systems in local patterns. 注意力不被视为在单独的内存存储之间引导信息的中央机制，IP 声明可用于受控处理而不是自动处理。相反，注意力是一种以局部模式分布在整个处理系统中的机制。
Information processing is not serial in nature: i.e. it is not a pipeline in which information is conveyed in a fixed serial order from one storage structure to the next. Instead, processing is parallel: many connections are activated at the same time. 信息处理本质上不是串行的：即它不是以固定的串行顺序将信息从一个存储结构传递到下一个存储结构的管道。相反，处理是并行的：同时激活多个连接。
Knowledge is not stored in memory or retrieved as patterns, but as “connection strengths” between units which account for the patterns being recreated. 知识不是存储在内存中或作为模式检索的，而是作为单元之间的“连接强度”，这些单元解释了正在重新创建的模式。
It is obvious that parallel processing is being applied when tasks simultaneously tap entirely different resources such as talking on a cell phone while riding a bicycle, but it also less obviously occurs within integrated tasks such as simply talking or reading, when encoding/decoding of phonology, syntactic structure, meaning, and pragmatic intent occur simultaneously. Many connections in the brain must be activated all at once to account for successful production and interpretation of language, and not processed in sequence (i.e. one after the other). 很明显，当任务同时利用完全不同的资源时，例如骑自行车时用手机通话，并行处理正在应用，但在集成任务（例如简单的说话或阅读）中，当音韵、句法结构、意义和语用意图的编码/解码同时发生时，它也不太明显。大脑中的许多连接必须同时被激活，才能成功地产生和解释语言，而不是按顺序（即一个接一个）处理。
Transfer from L1 to L2 occurs because strong associations already established in L1 interfere with establishment of the L2 network. 从 L1 转移到 L2 是因为 L1 中已经建立的强关联干扰了 L2 网络的建立。
Proponents of connectionist approaches to language acquisition note that while frequency is an all-pervasive causal factor, it interacts with other determinants, including how noticeable the language patterns are in the input learners receive, and whether the patterns are regular or occur with many variations and exceptions. 联结主义语言习得方法的支持者指出，虽然频率是一个普遍的因果因素，但它与其他决定因素相互作用，包括学习者接收的输入中语言模式的明显程度，以及这些模式是有规律的还是有许多变化和例外的。
Differences in learners 学习者的差异
Age
It is a common belief that children are more successful L2 learners than adults, but the evidence for this is actually surprisingly equivocal. One reason for the apparent inconsistency in research findings is that some studies define relative “success” as initial rate of learning (where, contrary to popular belief, older learners have an advantage) while other studies define it as ultimate achievement (where learners who are introduced to the L2 in childhood indeed do appear to have an edge). Also, some studies define “success” in terms of how close the learner’s pronunciation is to a native speaker’s, others in terms of how closely a learner approximates native grammaticality judgments, and still others in terms of fluency or functional competence. It is very important to keep evaluative criteria clearly in mind while judging conflicting claims. 人们普遍认为，儿童比成人更成功地学习二语，但事实证明，这方面的证据却出奇地模棱两可。研究结果明显不一致的一个原因是，一些研究将相对“成功”定义为初始学习率（与流行的看法相反，年龄较大的学习者具有优势），而其他研究则将其定义为最终成就（在童年时期被介绍到二语的学习者确实似乎确实具有优势）。此外，一些研究根据学习者的发音与母语人士的发音的接近程度来定义“成功”，另一些研究根据学习者与母语语法判断的接近程度来定义“成功”，还有一些研究根据流利度或功能能力来定义“成功”。在判断相互冲突的主张时，明确考虑评估标准非常重要。
The question of whether, and how, age affects L2 outcomes has been a major issue in SLA for several decades. Some of the advantages which have been reported for both younger and older learners are listed below: 几十年来，年龄是否以及如何影响 L2 结果的问题一直是 SLA 的一个主要问题。下面列出了针对年轻和年长学习者的一些优势：
Age differences in SLA SLA的年龄差异
Younger advantage 年轻优势
Older advantage 较老的优势
Brain plasticity 大脑可塑性
Learning capacity 学习能力
Not analytical 非分析性
Analytic ability 分析能力
Fewer inhibitions (usually) 较少的抑制（通常）
Pragmatic skills 务实的技能
Weaker group identity 较弱的群体身份
Greater knowledge of L1 更深入地了解 L1
Simplified input more likely 简化输入的可能性更大
Real-world knowledge 真实世界的知识
While most would agree that younger learners achieve ultimately higher levels of L2 proficiency, evidence is just as convincing that adolescents and adults learn faster in initial stages. While “brain plasticity” is listed as a younger learner advantage, older learners are advantaged by greater learning capacity, including better memory for vocabulary. Greater analytic ability might also be an advantage for older learners, at least in the short run, since they are able to understand and apply explicit grammatical rules. On the other hand, Newport (1990) suggests that “less is more” in this respect: one reason younger learners develop more native-like grammatical intuitions is that they are in a non-analytic processing mode. This calls for another qualification: younger learners are probably more successful in informal and naturalistic L2 learning contexts, and older learners in formal instructional settings. 虽然大多数人都同意，年轻的学习者最终会达到更高的二语水平，但有证据表明，青少年和成年人在初始阶段学习得更快。虽然“大脑可塑性”被列为年轻学习者的优势，但年长的学习者则具有更大的学习能力，包括更好的词汇记忆力。对于年龄较大的学习者来说，更强的分析能力也可能是一个优势，至少在短期内是这样，因为他们能够理解和应用明确的语法规则。另一方面，Newport（1990）认为，在这方面“少即是多”：年轻学习者发展出更像母语的语法直觉的一个原因是他们处于非分析处理模式。这需要另一种资格：年轻的学习者在非正式和自然的二语学习环境中可能更成功，而年长的学习者在正式的教学环境中可能更成功。
Other advantages that younger learners may have are being less inhibited than older learners, and having weaker feelings of identity with people (other than close family or caregivers) who speak the same native language. Children are also more likely to receive simplified language input from others, which might facilitate their learning. Other advantages that older learners may have include higher levels of pragmatic skills and knowledge of L1, which may transfer positively to L2 use; more real-world knowledge enables older learners to perform tasks of much greater complexity, even when their linguistic resources are still limited. 与年长的学习者相比，年轻学习者可能具有的其他优势是受到的抑制更少，并且对说相同母语的人（亲密的家人或照顾者除外）的认同感较弱。儿童也更有可能从他人那里获得简化的语言输入，这可能会促进他们的学习。年龄较大的学习者可能具有的其他优势包括更高水平的实用技能和第一语言知识，这可能会积极地转移到第二语言的使用中;更多的真实世界知识使年长的学习者能够执行更复杂的任务，即使他们的语言资源仍然有限。
Sex
Most research on the relation of learner sex and SLA has been concerned with cognitive style or learning strategies, or to issues of what variety of L2 is being acquired or opportunities for input and interaction. There is widespread belief in many western cultures that females tend to be better L2 learners than males, but this belief is probably primarily a social construct, based on outcomes which reflect cultural and sociopsychological constraints and influences. 大多数关于学习者性别与SLA关系的研究都与认知风格或学习策略有关，或者涉及正在获得哪种二语或输入和互动机会的问题。在许多西方文化中，人们普遍认为女性往往比男性更擅长学习二语，但这种信念可能主要是一种社会建构，基于反映文化和社会心理限制和影响的结果。
There do appear to be some sex differences in language acquisition and processing, but the research evidence is mixed. For example, women outperform men in some tests of verbal fluency (such as finding words that begin with a certain letter), and women’s brains may be less asymmetrically organized than men’s for speech. Of particular potential relevance to SLA are findings in relation to mental representations in the lexicon versus the grammar: females seem to be better at memorizing complex forms, while males appear to be better at computing compositional rules. 在语言习得和处理方面似乎确实存在一些性别差异，但研究证据好坏参半。例如，女性在一些语言流畅度测试中表现优于男性（例如找到以某个字母开头的单词），并且女性的大脑在言语方面的组织可能不如男性。与SLA特别相关的是与词典与语法中的心理表征相关的发现：女性似乎更擅长记忆复杂的形式，而男性似乎更擅长计算组成规则。
Aptitude 资质
The assumption that there is a talent which is specific to language learning has been widely held for many years. The following four components were proposed by Carroll (1965) as underlying this talent, and they constitute the bases for most aptitude tests: 多年来，人们普遍认为存在一种特定于语言学习的天赋。Carroll（1965）提出了以下四个组成部分作为这种天赋的基础，它们构成了大多数能力倾向测试的基础：
Phonemic coding ability 音素编码能力
Inductive language learning ability 归纳语言学习能力
Grammatical sensitivity 语法敏感度
Associative memory capacity 关联内存容量
Phonemic coding ability is the capacity to process auditory input into segments which can be stored and retrieved. If the hearer cannot analyze the incoming stream of speech into phonemes in order to recognize morphemes, input may not result in intake. 音素编码能力是将听觉输入处理成可以存储和检索的片段的能力。如果听者无法将传入的语音流分析为音素以识别语素，则输入可能不会导致摄入。
Inductive language learning ability and grammatical sensitivity are both concerned with central processing. They account for further processing of the segmented auditory input by the brain to infer structure, identify patterns, make generalizations, recognize the grammatical function of elements, and formulate rules. It is in central processing that restructuring occurs. 归纳语言学习能力和语法敏感性都与中枢处理有关。它们考虑了大脑对分段听觉输入的进一步处理，以推断结构、识别模式、进行概括、识别元素的语法功能并制定规则。正是在中央处理中，重组才发生。
Associative memory capacity is importantly concerned with how linguistic items are stored, and with how they are recalled and used in output. Associative memory capacity determines appropriate selection from among the L2 elements that are stored, and ultimately determines speaker fluency. 联想记忆容量与语言项目的存储方式以及它们在输出中的回忆和使用方式密切相关。联想记忆容量决定了从存储的 L2 元素中进行适当的选择，并最终决定了说话者的流畅性。
The concept of language-learning aptitude is essentially a hypothesis that possessing various degrees of these abilities predicts correlated degrees of success in L2 acquisition. Skehan (1998) concludes that individual ability may vary by factor: e.g. a learner who has a high level of grammatical sensitivity may have a poor associative memory or vice versa. Talent in all factors is not a requirement for success in L2 learning. Some good learners achieve success because of their linguistic-analytic abilities, and some because of their memory aptitude. 语言学习能力的概念本质上是一个假设，即拥有不同程度的这些能力可以预测二语习得的相关成功程度。Skehan（1998）得出结论，个人能力可能因因素而异：例如，具有高度语法敏感性的学习者可能具有较差的联想记忆，反之亦然。在所有因素中的天赋并不是二语学习成功的必要条件。一些优秀的学习者之所以成功，是因为他们的语言分析能力，而另一些人则是因为他们的记忆能力。
The findings that aptitude is an important predictor of differential success in L2 learning hold both for naturalistic contexts and for formal classroom instruction. It is not completely deterministic, however, and is but one of several factors which may influence ultimate L2 proficiency. 能力倾向是二语学习中差异成功的重要预测因素，这一发现既适用于自然主义环境，也适用于正式的课堂教学。然而，它并不是完全确定的，它只是可能影响最终 L2 熟练度的几个因素之一。
Motivation 赋予动机
Motivation largely determines the level of effort which learners expend at various stages in their L2 development, often a key to ultimate level of proficiency. 动机很大程度上决定了学习者在二语发展的各个阶段所付出的努力程度，这通常是最终熟练程度的关键。
Motivation is variously defined, but it is usually conceived as a construct which includes at least the following components (Oxford and Ehrman 1993): 动机的定义各不相同，但它通常被认为是一种结构，其中至少包括以下组成部分（Oxford and Ehrman 1993）：
Significant goal or need 重要目标或需求
Desire to attain the goal 实现目标的愿望
Perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need 认为学习二语与实现目标或满足需求有关
Belief in the likely success or failure of learning L2 相信学习 L2 可能的成功或失败
Value of potential outcomes/rewards 潜在结果/奖励的价值
The most widely recognized types of motivation are integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is based on interest in learning L2 because of a desire to learn about or associate with the people who use it, or because of an intention to participate or integrate in the L2-using speech community; in any case, emotional or affective factors are dominant. Instrumental motivation involves perception of purely practical value in learning the L2, such as increasing occupational or business opportunities, enhancing prestige and power, accessing scientific and technical information, or just passing a course in school. Neither of these orientations has an inherent advantage over the other in terms of L2 achievement. The relative effect of one or the other is dependent on complex personal and social factors. Other reported motivations include altruistic reasons, general communicative needs, desire to travel, and intellectual curiosity. 最广为人知的动机类型是综合动机和工具动机。综合动机基于对学习 L2 的兴趣，因为渴望了解或与使用它的人交往，或者因为有意参与或融入使用 L2 的语音社区;在任何情况下，情绪或情感因素都是占主导地位的。工具性动机涉及对学习二语的纯粹实用价值的感知，例如增加职业或商业机会、提高声望和权力、获取科学和技术信息，或只是在学校通过一门课程。就 L2 成就而言，这两种取向都比另一种取向没有先天优势。其中一种或另一种的相对影响取决于复杂的个人和社会因素。其他报告的动机包括利他主义原因、一般交际需求、旅行欲望和求知欲。
Does high motivation cause high L2 achievement, or is the satisfaction which results from successful L2 learning responsible for increasing motivation? In the process of language learning (which usually requires several years), there is probably a reciprocal effect. 高动机是否会导致高二语成就，还是成功的二语学习所产生的满足感会增加动力？在语言学习的过程中（通常需要几年的时间），可能会产生互惠效应。
The potential power of motivation can be seen in rare cases where even older learners may overcome the “odds” of not acquiring native-like pronunciation – if sounding “native” is perceived to be important enough. 在极少数情况下，即使是年龄较大的学习者也可以克服无法获得类似母语发音的“困难”，如果听起来“母语”被认为足够重要，那么动机的潜在力量就可见一斑。
Cognitive style 认知风格
Cognitive style refers to individuals’ preferred way of processing: i.e. of perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information. Whatever the relation of cognitive style to success, it involves a complex interaction with specific L2 social and learning contexts. Cognitive style is also closely related to and interacts with personality factors and learning strategies. 认知风格是指个人喜欢的处理方式：即感知、概念化、组织和回忆信息。无论认知风格与成功的关系如何，它都涉及与特定二语社交和学习环境的复杂互动。认知风格也与人格因素和学习策略密切相关并相互作用。
Categories of cognitive style are commonly identified as pairs of traits on opposite ends of a continuum; individual learners are rarely thought to be at one extreme or the other, but are located somewhere along the continuum between the poles. Some of the traits which have been explored are listed below: 认知风格的类别通常被识别为连续体两端的成对特征;个体学习者很少被认为处于一个极端或另一个极端，而是位于两极之间的连续体的某个地方。下面列出了一些已经探索过的特征：
Cognitive styles 认知风格
Field-dependent 与字段相关
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Field-independent 与字段无关
Global 全球
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Particular 特定
Holistic 整体
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Analytic 分析的
Deductive 推论的
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Inductive 归纳
Focus on meaning 关注意义
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Focus on form 注重形式
The field-dependent/field-independent (FD/FI) dimension is the one most frequently referred to in SLA-related research. Individuals who are FD are also considered more global and holistic in processing new information; individuals who are FI are considered more particularistic and analytic. FD learners are thought to achieve more success in L2 acquisition via highly contextualized interactive communicative experiences because that fits better with their holistic “cognitive style”, and FI learners to profit more from decontextualized analytic approaches and formal instruction. 场依赖性/场非依赖性 （FD/FI） 维度是 SLA 相关研究中最常提及的维度。FD 个人在处理新信息方面也被认为更具全球性和整体性;FI个体被认为更具特殊性和分析性。FD学习者被认为通过高度情境化的互动交际体验在二语习得方面取得更大的成功，因为这更符合他们的整体“认知风格”，而FI学习者则从去情境化的分析方法和正式教学中获益更多。
Another partially related dimension is preference for deductive or inductive processing. Deductive processing begins with a prediction or rule and then applies it to interpret particular instances of input. Inductive processing begins with examining input to discover some pattern and then formulates a generalization or rule that accounts for it and that may then in turn be applied deductively. An inductive cognitive style is related to the linguistic-analytic ability discussed above as one component of language aptitude, which does appear to contribute to success in L2 learning in either naturalistic or instructed circumstances. 另一个部分相关的维度是对演绎或归纳处理的偏好。演绎处理从预测或规则开始，然后应用它来解释输入的特定实例。归纳处理从检查输入开始，以发现某种模式，然后制定一个概括或规则来解释它，然后可以反过来应用演绎。归纳认知风格与上面讨论的语言分析能力有关，语言分析能力是语言能力的一个组成部分，这似乎确实有助于在自然或指导环境中成功进行二语学习。
Some evidence can also be found for differential success in relation to relative focus on meaning versus focus on form. In a study of exceptionally talented L2 learners, Novoa, Fein, and Obler (1988) found that they possess a cognitive style whereby subjects are able to focus on form perhaps better than meanings (but certainly in conjunction with meaning). 还可以找到一些证据，证明相对关注意义与关注形式的差异成功。在一项针对特别有天赋的二语学习者的研究中，Novoa、Fein和Obler（1988）发现，他们拥有一种认知风格，即受试者能够专注于形式，也许比意义更好（但肯定与意义相结合）。
Another difference in cognitive style may be related to age. Ellen Bialystok (1997) suggests that L2 learners have two options when adapting their existing categories of linguistic structure to adequately represent the structure of the new language. One option is extending the exiting categories to include new instances from L2. The second option is creating new categories. Bialystok claims that adults tend to extend existing categories (i.e. not notice small differences), while children notice differences and tend to create new categories accordingly. She suggests that this difference in cognitive style, rather than a critical period, may account for why many people consider children to be superior in L2 learning. 认知风格的另一个差异可能与年龄有关。Ellen Bialystok（1997）认为，二语学习者在调整其现有的语言结构类别以充分表示新语言的结构时有两种选择。一种选择是扩展现有类别以包括来自 L2 的新实例。第二种选择是创建新类别。比亚韦斯托克声称，成年人倾向于扩展现有的类别（即不注意到微小的差异），而儿童则注意到差异并倾向于相应地创建新的类别。她认为，这种认知风格的差异，而不是一个关键时期，可能解释了为什么许多人认为孩子在二语学习中更胜一筹。
Another dimension sometimes considered as a matter of cognitive style is sensory preference for processing input: visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement-oriented), or tactile (touch-oriented). Apparently no one means of processing has an inherent advantage over others, but L2 learners reportedly feel more comfortable when teachers’ instructional strategies are congruent with their sensory preference. This dimension may also age-related, with younger learners showing more preference for kinesthetic and tactile modalities. 另一个有时被认为是认知风格的维度是对处理输入的感官偏好：视觉、听觉、动觉（面向运动）或触觉（面向触觉）。显然，没有一种处理方式比其他处理方式具有先天优势，但据报道，当教师的教学策略与他们的感官偏好一致时，二语学习者会感到更自在。这个维度也可能与年龄有关，年轻的学习者对动觉和触觉模式表现出更多的偏好。
While cognitive style is interesting, and is ultimately likely to prove significant in some way in explaining differential L2 learning outcomes, we must be cautious in drawing conclusions at the present time. 虽然认知风格很有趣，并且最终可能在某种程度上证明在解释二语学习结果的差异方面具有重要意义，但我们目前在得出结论时必须谨慎。
Personality 个性
Personality factors are sometimes added to cognitive style in characterizing more general learningstyle. Speculation and research in SLA has included the following factors, also often characterized as endpoints on continua. As with cognitive styles, most of us are somewhere in between the extremes. 人格因素有时会被添加到认知风格中，以表征更一般的学习风格。SLA的推测和研究包括以下因素，这些因素通常也被描述为连续的终点。与认知风格一样，我们大多数人都介于两个极端之间。
Personality traits 人格特质
Anxious 焦虑
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Self-confident 自信
Risk-avoiding 规避风险
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Risk-taking 冒险精神
Shy
—
Adventuresome 冒险
Introverted 内向
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Extroverted 外向
Inner-directed 内向
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Other-directed 其他导向
Reflective 反射
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Impulsive 脉冲
Imaginative 富有 想象力
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Uninquisitive 好奇心不强
Creative 创造性
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Uncreative 没有创意
Empathetic 善 解 人意
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Insensitive to others 对他人麻木不仁
Tolerant of ambiguity 容忍歧义
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Closure-oriented 面向闭合
Anxiety correlates negatively with measures of L2 proficiency including grades awarded in foreign language classes, meaning that higher anxiety tends to go with lower levels of success in L2 learning. In addition to self-confidence, lower anxiety may be manifested by more risk-taking or more adventuresome behaviors. 焦虑与二语熟练度的衡量标准呈负相关，包括外语课程的成绩，这意味着较高的焦虑往往伴随着较低的二语学习成功水平。除了自信之外，较低的焦虑可能表现为更多的冒险或更多的冒险行为。
We need to keep some complex issues in mind when we read about or interpret research on anxiety: 当我们阅读或解释关于焦虑的研究时，我们需要牢记一些复杂的问题：
The direction of cause and effect is uncertain. Lower anxiety levels might very well facilitate language learning; conversely, however, more successful language learners might feel less anxious in situations of L2 learning and use, and thus be more self-confident. 因果关系的方向是不确定的。较低的焦虑水平可能会很好地促进语言学习;然而，相反，更成功的语言学习者在学习和使用二语的情况下可能会感到不那么焦虑，从而更加自信。
Instructional context or task influences anxiety level. For example, foreign language classes or tests which require oral performance normally generate more anxiety than do those in which production is in writing. Small-group performance generates less anxiety than whole-class activity. 教学环境或任务会影响焦虑水平。例如，要求口语表演的外语课程或考试通常比那些以书面形式进行学习的课程或考试会产生更多的焦虑。与全班活动相比，小组表演产生的焦虑更少。
Although personality factors are defined as individual traits, systematic cultural differences are found between groups of learners. For example, oral performance in English classes generates relatively more anxiety for Korean students than for Turkish students. This may be because of cultural differences in concepts of “face”, or because of cultural differences in classroom practices and experiences. 虽然人格因素被定义为个体特征，但在学习者群体之间发现了系统的文化差异。例如，英语课上的口语表现比土耳其学生更容易给韩国学生带来焦虑。这可能是因为“面子”概念的文化差异，或者是因为课堂实践和经验的文化差异。
Low anxiety and high self-confidence increase student motivation to learn, and make it more likely that they will use the L2 outside of the classroom setting. It is therefore not clear whether more successful learning is directly due to lower anxiety, or to a higher level of motivation and more social interaction. 低焦虑和高自信心增加了学生的学习动力，使他们更有可能在课堂之外使用二语。因此，目前尚不清楚更成功的学习是直接归因于较低的焦虑，还是更高的动机和更多的社交互动。
On a partially related personality dimension, introverts generally do better in school and extroverts talk more. Some SLA researchers have hypothesized that extroverts would be more successful language learners, but there is no clear support for the advantage of either trait. 在部分相关的人格维度上，内向者通常在学校表现更好，而外向者则说得更多。一些SLA研究人员假设外向的人会成为更成功的语言学习者，但没有明确的支持这两种特质的优势。
Little study has been carried out on other personality factors in relation to differences in L2 outcomes, but there is some evidence that being imaginative or creative, empathetic, and tolerant of ambiguity is advantageous. 很少有人格因素与 L2 结果的差异相关，但有一些证据表明，富有想象力或创造力、同理心和容忍歧义是有利的。
Learning strategies 学习策略
Differential L2 outcomes may also be affected by individuals’ learning strategies: i.e. the behaviors and techniques they adopt in their efforts to learn a second language. Selection from among possible strategies is often a conscious choice on the part of learners, but it is strongly influenced by the nature of their motivation, cognitive style, and personality, as well as by specific contexts of use and opportunities for learning. The other variables we considered earlier in this section – age, sex, and aptitude – also play a role in strategy selection. Many learning strategies are culturally based:individuals learn how to learn as part of their socialization experiences, and strategies they acquire in relation to other domains are commonly transferred to language learning, which may take place under very different circumstances, sometimes within a foreign educational system. 不同的二语结果也可能受到个人学习策略的影响：即他们在努力学习第二语言时所采用的行为和技术。从可能的策略中进行选择通常是学习者的有意识的选择，但它受到他们的动机、认知风格和个性的性质以及特定的使用环境和学习机会的强烈影响。我们在本节前面讨论的其他变量——年龄、性别和能力——也在策略选择中发挥作用。许多学习策略都是基于文化的：个人学习如何学习作为其社会化经验的一部分，而他们在其他领域获得的策略通常被转移到语言学习中，这可能在非常不同的情况下进行，有时是在外国教育系统中。
Not all strategies are equal: some are inherently more effective than others, and some more appropriate in particular contexts of learning or for individuals with differing aptitudes and learning styles. One goal in SLA research has been to identify which strategies are used by relatively good language learners, with the hope that such strategies can be taught or otherwise applied to enhance learning. 并非所有策略都是平等的：有些策略本质上比其他策略更有效，有些策略更适合特定的学习环境或具有不同才能和学习风格的个人。SLA研究的一个目标是确定相对优秀的语言学习者使用哪些策略，希望可以教授或以其他方式应用这些策略来增强学习。
A typology of language-learning strategies which is widely used in SLA was formulated by O’Malley and Chamot (1987): O'Malley和Chamot（1987）提出了SLA中广泛使用的语言学习策略类型学：
Metacognitive strategies are those which attempt to regulate language learning by planning and monitoring: e.g. previewing a concept or principle in anticipation of a learning activity; deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of input; self-monitoring of progress and knowledge state. 元认知策略是那些试图通过计划和监控来调节语言学习的策略：例如，在预期学习活动时预览一个概念或原则;事先决定关注投入的具体方面;进度和知识状态的自我监控。
Cognitive strategies make use of direct analysis or synthesis of linguistic material: e.g. repeating after a language model; translating from L1; guessing meanings of new material through inferencing. 认知策略利用语言材料的直接分析或综合：例如，在语言模型之后重复;从 L1 翻译;通过推理猜测新材料的含义。
Social/affective strategies involve interaction with others: e.g. seeking opportunities to interact with native speakers; working cooperatively with peers to obtain feedback or pool information; asking questions to obtain clarification; requesting repetition, explanation, or examples. 社交/情感策略涉及与他人的互动：例如，寻求与母语人士互动的机会;与同行合作，获取反馈或汇集信息;提出问题以获得澄清;要求重复、解释或示例。
Age can have an influence on learning strategies; for example, children tend to use more repetition whereas adults use more synthesis. Similarly the sex of learners can be significant, as females tend to use relatively more social/affective strategies than males, as well as more metacognitive strategies in listening tasks. A range of findings show “good learners” to have the following major traits (Ellis 1994): 年龄会影响学习策略;例如，儿童倾向于使用更多的重复，而成年人则使用更多的综合。同样，学习者的性别也很重要，因为女性倾向于比男性使用相对更多的社交/情感策略，以及在听力任务中使用更多的元认知策略。一系列研究结果表明，“优秀的学习者”具有以下主要特征（Ellis 1994）：
Concern for language form (but also attention to meaning) 关注语言形式（但也关注意义）
Concern for communication 关注沟通
Active task approach 主动任务方法
Awareness of the learning process 对学习过程的认识
Capacity to use strategies flexibly in accordance with task requirements 根据任务要求灵活使用策略的能力
As with other correlational research, it is difficult to establish causality, or even directionality: for example, “good learners” may approach language tasks more actively because they are more proficient (not more proficient because they are more active), or because they are more self-confident. 与其他相关研究一样，很难建立因果关系，甚至很难确定方向性：例如，“好的学习者”可能更积极地处理语言任务，因为他们更熟练（而不是因为他们更活跃而更熟练），或者因为他们更自信。
Inclusion of strategy training for SLA is generally viewed positively, with the reasonable expectation that heightened awareness of strategic possibilities will beneficially inform L2 learners and may empower them to take control of their own learning. A danger is that a researcher or instructor may have preconceived ideas as to “what works”, and disrupt a student’s successful strategy by imposing or encouraging a different one. 人们普遍认为，将战略培训纳入SLA是积极的，人们有理由认为，提高对战略可能性的认识将有益地为二语学习者提供信息，并可能使他们能够控制自己的学习。一个危险是，研究人员或教师可能对“什么有效”有先入为主的想法，并通过强加或鼓励不同的策略来破坏学生的成功策略。
Social Contexts of Second Language Acquisition 第二语言习得的社会背景
From a social perspective, the notion of linguistic competence is inadequate to account for what is being acquired in any language that is going to be used for communicative purposes. The concept of communicative competence became a basic tenet in the then-emerging field of sociolinguistics, and was soon adopted as well by many specialists in the field of SLA and language teaching. This term can be defined simply as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”. It involves knowing not only the vocabulary, phonology, grammar, and other aspects of linguistic structure but also when to speak (or not), what to say to whom, and how to say it appropriately in any given situation. Further, it involves the social and cultural knowledge speakers are presumed to have which enables them to use and interpret linguistic forms. 从社会的角度来看，语言能力的概念不足以解释任何将用于交际目的的语言所获得的内容。交际能力的概念成为当时新兴的社会语言学领域的基本原则，并很快被SLA和语言教学领域的许多专家所采用。该术语可以简单地定义为“说话者需要知道什么才能在特定语言社区中进行适当的交流”。它不仅涉及了解词汇、音韵学、语法和语言结构的其他方面，还涉及何时说话（或不说话）、对谁说什么以及如何在任何特定情况下适当地说。此外，它还涉及假定说话者具有的社会和文化知识，使他们能够使用和解释语言形式。
It is important at this point to return to the distinction among second language learning, foreign language learning, and auxiliary language learning. This is relevant to differential considerations not only of what is being learned in the process of SLA from social perspectives, but of how it is being learned, and of why some learners are more successful than others. 在这一点上，重要的是要回到第二语言学习、外语学习和辅助语言学习之间的区别。这不仅与从社会角度对SLA过程中学到什么的差异考虑有关，而且与如何学习以及为什么某些学习者比其他学习者更成功有关。
The content of “what a speaker needs to know”, as well as judgments of relative success in attaining that knowledge, depend on the social context within which he or she learns and is using the language. “说话者需要知道什么”的内容，以及在获得该知识方面相对成功的判断，取决于他或她学习和使用该语言的社会背景。
Microsocial factors 微观社会因素
Variation in learner language 学习者语言的变化
One defining characteristic of L2 learner language is that it is highly variable. Some of the variability is due to changes that occur in what learners know and can produce as they progressively achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency. However, there is also considerable variation in learners’ L2 production at every stage along the way that we can attribute to their social context. 二语学习者语言的一个决定性特征是它具有高度可变性。一些可变性是由于学习者在逐渐达到更高水平的 L2 熟练程度时所知道和可以产生的变化。然而，学习者在学习过程中的每个阶段的二语生产也存在相当大的差异，我们可以将其归因于他们的社会环境。
One of the most important contributions of sociolinguistics (beginning with Labov 1965) has been the demonstration that much of what earlier linguists had considered unsystematic irregularity in language production can be seen to follow regular and predictable patterns, when treated as variable features. These are multiple linguistic forms which are systematically or predictably used by different speakers of a language, or by the same speakers at different times, with the same (or very similar) meaning or function. They occur at every linguistic level: vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse; they include both standard (“correct”) and nonstandard options; and they are characteristic of all natural language production, whether L1 or L2. 社会语言学最重要的贡献之一（从Labov 1965开始）是证明，早期语言学家认为语言生产中的许多非系统性不规则性的东西，当被视为可变特征时，可以被视为遵循规则和可预测的模式。这些是多种语言形式，由一种语言的不同使用者或同一语言使用者在不同时间系统地或可预测地使用，具有相同（或非常相似）的含义或功能。它们发生在每个语言层面：词汇、音韵学、形态学、句法、话语;它们包括标准（“正确”）和非标准选项;它们是所有自然语言生产的特征，无论是 L1 还是 L2。
Which variable feature occurs in the production of any one speaker (native or language learner) depends largely on the communicative contexts in which it has been learned and is used. Some relevant contextual dimensions are: 在任何一个说话者（母语或语言学习者）的生产中出现哪种可变特征在很大程度上取决于学习和使用它的交际环境。一些相关的上下文维度是：
Linguistic contexts: elements of language form and function associated with the variable element. 语言语境：与变量元素相关的语言形式和功能的元素。
Psychological contexts: factors associated with the amount of attention which is being given to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task. 心理情境：与生产过程中对语言形式的关注程度、处理过程中的自动性与控制程度或特定任务的智力需求相关的因素。
Microsocial contexts: features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated. These include level of formality and participants’ relationship to one another, and whether the interaction is public or intimate. 微观社会语境：与语言产生、解释和协商的交际事件相关的环境/情境和互动的特征。这些包括正式程度和参与者之间的关系，以及互动是公开的还是亲密的。
Macrosocial factors may also influence linguistic variation. These include features of the larger political setting within which language learning and use takes place, including the social position and role of users (e.g. whether immigrant, international student, visiting dignitary), societal attitudes toward specific languages and multilingualism in general, and institutional organization (e.g. patterns of education, employment, and political participation). 宏观社会因素也可能影响语言变异。这些包括语言学习和使用所处的更大政治环境的特征，包括使用者的社会地位和角色（例如，无论是移民、国际学生还是来访的政要）、社会对特定语言和一般使用多种语言的态度，以及机构组织（例如教育、就业和政治参与的模式）。
A substantial amount of research on the effect of microsocial contexts has been based on the framework of Accommodation Theory. Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simplify their language when they are talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends. 关于微观社会情境影响的大量研究都是基于住宿理论的框架。说话者（通常是无意识的）会改变他们的发音，甚至改变他们用来听起来更像他们正在和谁说话的句子的语法复杂性。这在一定程度上解释了为什么母语人士在与不流利的二语学习者交谈时倾向于简化他们的语言，以及为什么二语学习者在有不同的朋友时可能会获得不同种类的目标语言。
Some variation in IL production (called free variation) remains even after accounting for linguistic, psychological, and social contexts as much as possible, and it can shed particularly important insights on processes of development. Indeed, Ellis suggests “that free variation constitutes an essential stage in the acquisition of grammatical structures” (1997). He hypothesizes that the nature of variability changes during the process of L2 development in the following stages: 即使在尽可能多地考虑了语言、心理和社会背景之后，IL生产中的一些变化（称为自由变化）仍然存在，它可以为发展过程提供特别重要的见解。事实上，埃利斯认为“自由变化构成了获得语法结构的一个重要阶段”（1997）。他假设，在 L2 发展过程中，变异性的性质会发生变化，分为以下几个阶段：
A single form is used for a variety of functions. 单个表单用于各种功能。
Other forms have been acquired but are initially used interchangeably (i.e. in “free variation”). 其他形式已经获得，但最初是互换使用的（即在“自由变化”中）。
The variant forms begin to be used systematically (e.g. depending on the amount of attention to form or the situational context). 变体形式开始被系统地使用（例如，取决于对形式或情境的关注程度）。
The non-target forms are eliminated. Removal of free variability is making the IL more efficient. 消除了非目标形式。去除自由变异性使 IL 更有效。
Summarizing the sociolinguistic perspective, then: (1) what is acquired in L2 includes variable linguistic structures and knowledge of when to use each; (2) the process of acquisition includes progress through stages in which different types of variability are evident; and (3) reasons why some learners are more successful than others include how well they can perceive and align their own usage in accord with the target system. 总结社会语言学的观点，那么：（1）在二语中获得的东西包括可变的语言结构和何时使用每种语言结构的知识;（2）获取过程包括通过不同类型的可变性明显的阶段的进展;（3）一些学习者比其他学习者更成功的原因包括他们如何根据目标系统感知和调整自己的用法。
Input and interaction 输入和交互
Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place, but the nature of its role is in dispute. Within the social approaches surveyed in this section, some researchers consider input primarily as “data” for essentially innate linguistic and/or cognitive processes, but others claim a more important role for input in determining what features of language are learned, and how. From a social perspective , interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which isrequired for internal processing, in focusing learner attention on aspects of their L1 which differ from target language norms or goals, and in providing collaborative means for learners to build discourse structures and express meanings which are beyond the current level of their linguistic competence. 学习者的语言输入对于L1或L2学习的发生是绝对必要的，但其作用的性质存在争议。在本节调查的社会方法中，一些研究人员认为输入主要作为本质上先天语言和/或认知过程的“数据”，但其他人则声称输入在决定学习语言的哪些特征以及如何学习方面发挥着更重要的作用。从社会的角度来看，互动通常被认为是必不可少的，为学习者提供内部处理所需的外部语言输入的数量和质量，将学习者的注意力集中在与目标语言规范或目标不同的第一语言方面，以及为学习者提供协作手段来建立话语结构和表达超出其当前语言能力水平的意义。
Nature of input modifications 输入修改的性质
Language addressed by L1 speakers to L2 learners frequently differs in systematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers. In speech, the modified variety is called foreigner talk. 第一语言使用者对二语学习者的语言往往与母语或非常流利的语言有系统性差异。在言语中，修改后的品种称为外国人谈话。
Characteristics of foreigner talk 外国人谈话的特点
Simple vocabulary, using high-frequency words and phrases 简单的词汇，使用高频单词和短语
Long pauses 长时间停顿
Slow rate of speech 语速慢
Careful articulation 仔细衔接
Loud volume 音量大
Stress on key words 强调关键词
Simplified grammatical structures 简化的语法结构
Topicalization (topic at the beginning, then a comment about it) 主题化（主题在开头，然后对它发表评论）
More syntactic regularity 更规范的句法规律性
Retention of full forms (e.g. less contraction, fewer pronouns) 保留完整形式（例如，较少的收缩，较少的代词）
The types of adaptations that are found in speech to L2 learners are similar in some ways to the “baby talk” used with young children in many languages. Some of the linguistic modifications appear to aid comprehension at early stages of learning: e.g. high frequency phrases may be memorized as chunks of speech which can be processed automatically; pauses at appropriate grammatical junctures can help listeners recognize constituent structures; a slow rate of speech allows more time for information retrieval and controlled processing; and topicalization helps in identifying what a sentence is about and what part of it contains new information.On the other hand, the common practice of speaking louder to an L2 learner probably does no good at all, and “simplification” of sentence structure may actually impair comprehension to the extent that it reduces redundancy. 在对二语学习者的言语中发现的适应类型在某些方面类似于许多语言中幼儿使用的“婴儿谈话”。一些语言上的修改似乎有助于在学习的早期阶段进行理解：例如，高频短语可以被记忆为可以自动处理的语音块;在适当的语法交汇处停顿可以帮助听众识别组成结构;较慢的语速允许有更多时间进行信息检索和受控处理;主题化有助于确定句子的内容以及句子的哪些部分包含新信息。另一方面，对二语学习者大声说话的常见做法可能根本没有好处，句子结构的“简化”实际上可能会损害理解力，从而减少冗余。
Modification of written input for L2 learners also typically includes controlled vocabulary and shorter, simpler sentence structure. 对二语学习者的书面输入的修改通常还包括控制词汇和更短、更简单的句子结构。
Modifications in academic texts 学术文本的修改
Frequent organization markers, such as headings and linking devices 频繁的组织标记，例如标题和链接设备
Clear topic statements 清晰的主题陈述
Highlighting of key terms and inclusion of synonyms and paraphrase 突出显示关键术语并包含同义词和释义
Bulleted or numbered lists of main points 要点的项目符号或编号列表
Elaboration of sections which require culture-specific background knowledge 详细阐述需要特定文化背景知识的部分
Visual aids, such as illustrations and graphs 视觉辅助工具，例如插图和图表
Explicit summations at regular intervals 定期显式求和
Questions which can be used for comprehension checks 可用于理解检查的问题
As in oral input, “simplification” of sentence structure alone is of questionable value in enhancing the comprehensibility of written text. More important for interpretive processing are the provision of relevant background knowledge and modifications which assist readers in focusing on important terms and concepts. 与口头输入一样，单靠“简化”句子结构在提高书面文本的可理解性方面的价值值得怀疑。对于解释性处理来说，更重要的是提供相关的背景知识和修改，以帮助读者专注于重要的术语和概念。
In the nature of input modifications, then, we find both similarities and differences for L1 and L2 learners. Some of the oral modifications may make acquisition easier, but all L1 and many L2 learners can succeed without them. Modifications in written input which improve comprehension are similar for L2 and L1 students, but research on their effectiveness for SLA is quite limited. 因此，在输入修改的本质中，我们发现了 L1 和 L2 学习者的相似之处和不同之处。一些口语修改可能会使习得更容易，但所有 L1 和许多 L2 学习者都可以在没有它们的情况下取得成功。对于L2和L1学生来说，提高理解力的书面输入的修改是相似的，但对其SLA有效性的研究非常有限。
Nature of interactional modifications 交互修饰的性质
Along with input, social interaction is also essential for L1 acquisition: no children can learn their initial language by merely listening to recordings, radio broadcasts, or television programs. In contrast, many L2 learners do acquire at least some level of competence without interacting with speakers of the target language, and for at least some highly motivated and/or talented learners, that level may be very high. 除了输入之外，社交互动对于第一语言的习得也是必不可少的：没有孩子可以仅仅通过听录音、广播或电视节目来学习他们的第一语言。相比之下，许多二语学习者确实在不与目标语言使用者互动的情况下获得了至少一定程度的能力，并且至少对于一些积极性和/或有才华的学习者来说，这种水平可能非常高。
Interactional modifications made by L1 speakers in discourse with L2 learners appear to provide even more significant help than do the modifications of oral input. Some useful types of modifications include those listed below: 第一语言使用者在与第二语言学习者的对话中所做的互动修改似乎比口头输入的修改提供了更重要的帮助。一些有用的修改类型包括下面列出的修改类型：
Comprehension check and request for clarification 理解检查和澄清请求
NS: Subtract, and write the remainder here. NS：减去，然后写在这里。
NNS: What is “remain”? NNS：什么是“剩余”？
Repetition by native speakers (NSs) of part or all of their previous utterances allows nonnative speakers (NNSs) more time for processing and an opportunity to confirm or correct perception; paraphrase by NSs allows NNSs to cast a wider net for words they recognize and may increase their vocabulary store; expansion and elaboration by NSs provide models of contextually relevant utterances which may exceed NNSs’ immediate ability to produce; sentence completion and frames for substitution provide NNSs with words or chunks of language from NSs which they can use in subsequent turns of talk; and vertical constructions allow NNSs to construct discourse sequences beyond their current independent means. 母语人士 （NS） 重复他们以前的部分或全部话语，使非母语人士 （NNS） 有更多时间进行处理，并有机会确认或纠正感知;NS 的释义使 NNS 能够为他们识别的单词撒下更广泛的网，并可能增加他们的词汇量;NS 的扩展和阐述提供了上下文相关话语的模型，这些话语可能超出 NNS 的直接生成能力;句子补全和替换框架为 NNS 提供了来自 NS 的单词或语言块，他们可以在随后的谈话中使用这些单词或语言块;垂直结构允许 NNS 构建超出其当前独立手段的话语序列。
Comprehension checks and requests for clarification by NSs focus NNSs’ attention on segments of sentences which are unclear, and such checks and requests by NNSs inform NSs where repetition, paraphrase, or additional background information is required. These are important devices in the negotiation of meaning between NSs and NNSs which help in preventing or repairing breakdowns in communication. Other devices include selecting topics that the other is familiar with, and switching topics to repair conversational breakdowns which do occur. NS 的理解检查和澄清请求将 NNS 的注意力集中在不清楚的句子片段上，NNS 的此类检查和请求会告知 NS 哪里需要重复、释义或其他背景信息。这些是 NS 和 NNS 之间意义协商的重要设备，有助于防止或修复通信中断。其他设备包括选择对方熟悉的主题，以及切换主题以修复确实发生的对话中断。
Feedback 反馈
Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNSs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receive such negative evidence in L1, and don’t require it to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal. 其他类型的交互可以增强SLA，包括来自NS的反馈，它使NNS意识到它们的使用在某种程度上是不可接受的，并为“正确性”提供了一个模型。虽然儿童在 L1 中很少收到这样的负面证据，并且不需要它来达到完全的母语能力，但纠正性反馈在 L2 中很常见，并且对于大多数学习者来说可能确实是必要的，当这是期望的目标时，最终达到类似母语的熟练程度。
Negative feedback to L2 learner may be in the form of direct correction, including explicit statements like That is the wrong word; directives concerning what “cannot” or “must” be said; and explanations related to points of grammar and usage. Or the negative feedback may come as indirect correction, which includes several of the same interactional modification forms which were mentioned above, but here they have a different function. For example: 对二语学习者的负面反馈可能以直接纠正的形式出现，包括明确的陈述，如“这是错误的词;关于“不能”或“必须”说什么的指令;以及与语法和用法要点相关的解释。或者负反馈可能是间接校正，其中包括上面提到的几种相同的交互修饰形式，但在这里它们具有不同的功能。例如：
What appears at a literal level to be a comprehension check or request for clarification may actually be intended to mean that the NNS utterance was incorrect. 从字面上看，似乎是理解检查或澄清请求，实际上可能意味着 NNS 话语不正确。
NNS: I can’t assist class. NNS：我不能帮忙上课。
NS: You can’t what? (Meaning “You’ve got the wrong word. Try again.”) NS：你不能什么？（意思是“你说错了词。再试一次。
Rising intonation questions by NSs which repeat part or all of a NNS’s utterance often mean that the utterance was wrong. NS 重复部分或全部 NNS 话语的语调问题不断上升，通常意味着该话语是错误的。
NNS: John goed to town yesterday. NNS：约翰昨天去了镇上。
NS: John goed to town? (Meaning “The word goed is wrong.”) NS：约翰去镇上了吗？（意思是“goed这个词是错误的。
Paraphrase of an NNS utterance by NSs may be intended merely to provide an alternative way to say the same thing without overtly suggesting that an error has been made, but what might appear to be a paraphrase is often a recast which substitutes a correct element for one that was incorrect. NS 对 NNS 话语的释义可能只是为了提供一种替代方式来表达同样的事情，而不会明显暗示犯了错误，但看似释义的通常是重铸，它用正确的元素代替不正确的元素。
NNS: John goed to town yesterday. NNS：约翰昨天去了镇上。
NS (correcting): Yes, John went shopping. NS（更正）：是的，约翰去购物了。
One potential problem for L2 learners is that they sometimes do not recognize when indirect feedback is corrective in intent. It does not help that the English phrases OK and all right (when followed by pauses) are often used as discourse markers to preface corrections and not to convey that the prior utterance is actually “OK” or “all right” in form or content. 对于二语学习者来说，一个潜在的问题是，他们有时没有意识到间接反馈何时是纠正意图的。英语短语OK和allright（当后面跟着停顿时）经常被用作话语标记，以在更正前言之前，而不是传达先前的话语在形式或内容上实际上是“OK”或“all right”，这无济于事。
To summarize the interactionist perspective, then: what is acquired in L2 includes only that portion of L2 input which is assimilated and fed into the IL system; L2 is acquired in a dynamic interplay of external input and internal processes, with interaction facilitating SLA; and the reasons that some learners are more successful than others include their degree of access to social experiences which allow for negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback. 总结一下交互主义的观点，那么：在 L2 中获得的东西只包括 L2 输入的那部分，它被同化并输入到 IL 系统中;L2 是在外部输入和内部过程的动态相互作用中获得的，交互促进了 SLA;一些学习者比其他学习者更成功的原因包括他们获得社会经验的程度，这些经验允许就意义进行谈判和纠正性反馈。
Interaction as the genesis of language 互动是语言的起源
An alternative view of the role of interaction in SLA is based on Sociocultural (S-C) Theory (Vygotsky 1962). A key concept in this approach is that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition; further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings. 关于互动在SLA中的作用的另一种观点是基于社会文化（S-C）理论（Vygotsky 1962）。这种方法的一个关键概念是，互动不仅促进了语言学习，而且是习得的致病力量;此外，所有的学习本质上都被视为一个基于社会文化环境的社会过程。
According to S-C Theory, learning occurs when simple innate mental activities are transformed into “higher order”, more complex mental functions. This transformation typically involves symbolic mediation, which is a link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is provided primarily by language. This is considered the usual route to learning, whether what is being learned is language itself or some other area of knowledge. The results of learning through mediation include learners’ having heightened awareness of their own mental abilities and more control over their thought processes. 根据S-C理论，当简单的先天心理活动转化为“更高阶”、更复杂的心理功能时，就会发生学习。这种转换通常涉及符号中介，这是人当前心理状态与主要由语言提供的高级功能之间的联系。这被认为是通常的学习途径，无论所学的是语言本身还是其他知识领域。通过中介学习的结果包括学习者对自己的心理能力有了更高的认识，并更好地控制了自己的思维过程。
Interpersonal interaction 人际交往
So far we are using the term “interaction” to mean interpersonal interaction: i.e. communicative events and situations which occur between people. One important context for symbolic mediation is such interpersonal interaction between learners and experts (“experts” include teachers and more knowledgeable learners). Vygotsky calls the level where much of this type of mediation occurs the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance. According to S-C Theory, mental functions that are beyond an individual’s current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently. 到目前为止，我们使用“互动”一词来表示人际互动：即人与人之间发生的交流事件和情况。符号调解的一个重要背景是学习者和专家之间的人际互动（“专家”包括教师和知识渊博的学习者）。维果茨基将大部分此类调解发生的水平称为近端发展区（ZPD）。这是一个潜在的发展领域，学习者只有在帮助下才能发挥这种潜力。根据 S-C 理论，超出个人当前水平的心理功能必须与其他人合作执行，然后才能独立实现。
One way in which others help the learner in language development within the ZPD is through scaffolding. This includes the “vertical constructions” mentioned above as a type of modified interaction between NSs and NNSs, in which experts commonly provide learners with chunks of talk that the learners can then use to express concepts which are beyond their independent means. This type of mediation also occurs when peers collaborate in constructing language which exceeds the competence of any individual among them. More generally, the metaphor of “scaffolding” refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them individually. Very importantly, scaffolding is not something that happens to a learner as a passive recipient, but happens with a learner as an active participant. 其他人在 ZPD 中帮助学习者进行语言发展的一种方式是通过脚手架。这包括上面提到的“垂直结构”，作为 NS 和 NNS 之间的一种改进的交互，其中专家通常为学习者提供大块的谈话，然后学习者可以使用这些谈话来表达超出其独立能力的概念。当同龄人合作构建超出他们中任何个人能力的语言时，也会发生这种类型的调解。更一般地说，“脚手架”的隐喻是指专家为帮助学习者执行任何特定任务而提供的口头指导，或者同伴的口头协作以执行对他们中的任何一个人来说都太困难的任务。非常重要的是，脚手架不是发生在作为被动接受者的学习者身上的事情，而是发生在作为主动参与者的学习者身上。
For L2 learners, L1 as well as L2 can provide helpful mediation. Talk between peers who are collaborating in tasks is often in their common L1, which provides an efficient (and sometimes essential) medium for problem-solving and can enhance learning of both L2 and any academic subjects students are studying in the second language. Symbolic mediation can be interactional without involving face-to-face communication: reading actually involves an interaction between the individual and the author(s) of a text or book, resulting in an altered state of knowledge. Symbolic mediation need not even necessarily involve language but can also be achieved with such nonlinguistic symbols as gestures, diagrams and illustrations and algebraic symbols. 对于二语学习者来说，一语和二语可以提供有用的调解。在任务中合作的同龄人之间的谈话通常是在他们的共同语言中进行的，这为解决问题提供了一种有效（有时是必不可少的）媒介，并且可以增强二语和学生正在用第二语言学习的任何学术科目的学习。符号中介可以是互动的，而不涉及面对面的交流：阅读实际上涉及个人与文本或书籍的作者之间的互动，导致知识状态的改变。符号中介甚至不一定涉及语言，但也可以通过手势、图表和插图以及代数符号等非语言符号来实现。
Intrapersonal interaction 人际交往
In addition to interpersonal interaction, S-C Theory requires consideration of intrapersonal interaction: i.e. communication that occurs within an individual’s own mind. This is also viewed by Vygotsky as a sociocultural phenomenon. 除了人际互动之外，S-C理论还要求考虑人际互动：即发生在个人自身思想中的交流。维果茨基也将其视为一种社会文化现象。
When reading, for example, we engage in intrapersonal as well as interpersonal activity: “we draw interactively on our ability to decode print, our stored knowledge of the language we are reading and the content schemata through which our knowledge of the world is organized” (Ellis 1999). 例如，在阅读时，我们从事人际活动和人际活动：“我们以互动的方式利用我们解码印刷品的能力，我们正在阅读的语言的存储知识以及组织我们对世界的知识的内容图式”（Ellis 1999）。
A second type of intrapersonal interaction that occurs frequently in beginning stages of L2 learning – and in later stages when the content and structure of L2 input stretches or goes beyond existing language competence – makes use of L1 resources. This takes place through translation to oneself as part of interpretive problem-solving processes. 第二种类型的人际互动经常发生在二语学习的开始阶段，以及在二语输入的内容和结构延伸或超出现有语言能力的后期阶段，利用一语资源。这是通过翻译给自己来实现的，作为解释性问题解决过程的一部分。
Yet another type is private speech. This is the self-talk which many children engage in that leads to the inner speech that more mature individuals use to control thought and behavior. Study of private speech when it is audible provides a “window into the mind” of sorts for researchers, through which we can actually observe intrapersonal interaction taking place and perhaps discover its functions in SLA. 另一种类型是私人言论。这是许多孩子参与的自我对话，导致更成熟的人用来控制思想和行为的内心言语。对可听见的私人言语的研究为研究人员提供了一个“心灵之窗”，通过它，我们可以实际观察发生的人际互动，并可能发现它在SLA中的功能。
Saville-Troike (1988) was intrigued by this possibility, and recorded children over a period of several weeks while they were just beginning to learn English. For the youngest children, English was largely something to play with. For example (three- and four-year-old Chinese L1 brothers): Saville-Troike（1988）对这种可能性很感兴趣，并在儿童刚刚开始学习英语的几周内记录了他们。对于最小的孩子来说，英语在很大程度上是可以玩的。例如（三岁和四岁的中国 L1 兄弟）：
For somewhat older children, English was used more to comment about ongoing events. They displayed a higher level of mental activity related to L2 learning by focusing on grammar as well as on the sound of their utterances. For example (a five-year-old Japanese L1 boy): 对于年龄稍大的孩子来说，英语更多地用于评论正在进行的事件。他们通过关注语法和话语的声音，表现出与二语学习相关的更高水平的心理活动。例如（一个五岁的日本 L1 男孩）：
I finished. I have finished. I am finished. I’m finished. 我说完了。 我说完了。 我说完了。 我说完了。
I want. I paper. Paper. Paper. I want paper. 我想要。还有纸。纸。纸。我想要纸。
The oldest children focused on L2 form but added self-guiding language more frequently than did the younger learners. For example (an eight-year-old Chinese L1 girl): 年龄最大的孩子专注于二语形式，但比年幼的学习者更频繁地添加自我指导语言。例如（一个八岁的中国L1女孩）：
I see a, elephant. E, L, E, P, H, A, N, T. 我看到一头大象。E、L、E、P、H、A、N、T。
I see a elephant. I see a elephant nose? 我看到一头大象。我看到大象的鼻子了吗？
Private speech by these children provides good evidence that even when they were not interacting with others, they were not merely passively assimilating L2 input; they were using intrapersonal interaction in an active process of engagement with the input they heard, practicing to build up their competence. Similar audible evidence would be more difficult to obtain from older learners (partly because of the inhibiting effects of social constraints on talking to oneself in public), but many report repetition and experimentation strategies in their inner speech, and some report continuing private speech (often reduced to muttering) when not within hearing range of others. 这些孩子的私人言语提供了很好的证据，即使他们没有与他人互动，他们也不仅仅是被动地吸收二语输入;他们在积极参与他们听到的输入的过程中使用人际互动，练习以建立他们的能力。类似的听觉证据将更难从年长的学习者那里获得（部分原因是社会限制对在公共场合自言自语的抑制作用），但许多人报告了他们内心言语中的重复和实验策略，有些人报告说，当不在其他人的听力范围内时，他们继续进行私人言语（通常减少为喃喃自语）。
Audible private speech may continue among adult learners in specialized, socially sanctioned settings where imitation or other controlled response to linguistic input is considered “normal” behavior. The social constraints that determine which type of symbolic mediation is appropriate in a specific situation underscore its nature as a sociocultural as well as a mental phenomena. 在专门的、社会认可的环境中，成人学习者可能会继续使用可听见的私人言语，在这些环境中，对语言输入的模仿或其他受控反应被认为是“正常”行为。决定哪种类型的象征性调解适合于特定情况的社会限制强调了其作为社会文化和心理现象的性质。
A common intrapersonal activity that is closely related to private speech is “private writing”, in which individuals record language forms and other meaningful symbols on paper in order to help store items in memory, organize thought, solve problems, or such, without intent to communicate with others. 与私人言语密切相关的一种常见的人际活动是“私人写作”，在这种活动中，个人在纸上记录语言形式和其他有意义的符号，以帮助存储记忆中的物品、组织思想、解决问题等，而无意与他人交流。
Overall, Sociocultural Theory claims that language is learned through socially mediated activities. The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their level of access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from experts or peers, and because of how well they make use of that help. 总体而言，社会文化理论声称语言是通过社会媒介活动学习的。S-C框架支持这样一种观点，即一些学习者可能比其他学习者更成功，因为他们进入或参与学习社区的程度，或者因为他们从专家或同行那里得到的调解量，以及他们利用这种帮助的能力。
Macrosocial factors 宏观社会因素
The macrosocial factors we will consider are at several levels in the ecological context of SLA: 在SLA的生态背景下，我们将考虑的宏观社会因素在几个层面上：
Global and national status of L1 and L2 L1 和 L2 的全球和国家地位
Boundaries and identities 边界和身份
Institutional forces and constraints 体制力量和制约因素
Social categories 社交类别
Circumstances of learning 学习环境
At a global and national level, influences on SLA involve the power and status of learners’ native and target languages, whether overtly stated in official policies or covertly realized in cultural values and practices. Social boundaries that are relevant to SLA may coincide with national borders, but they also exist within and across them as they function to unify speakers as members of a language community and to exclude outsiders from membership; influences on SLA at this level often involve the relationship between native and target language groups, as well as the openness and permeability of community boundaries. Within nations, institutional forces and constraints often affect the use and knowledge of L2 in relation to such things as social control, political and religious practices, and economic and educational opportunities. Age, gender, and ethnicity are factors of social group membership which may potentially be relevant to SLA. Finally, circumstances of learning can influence SLA, such as learners’ prior educational experiences, whether the L2 learning process is informal or formal, and (if formal) the type of educational model learners have access to and the pedagogical orientation of their teachers and administrators. 在全球和国家层面，对SLA的影响涉及学习者的母语和目标语言的权力和地位，无论是在官方政策中公开说明，还是在文化价值观和实践中隐蔽地实现。与SLA相关的社会边界可能与国界重合，但它们也存在于国界内部和国界之间，因为它们的作用是将说话者统一为语言社区的成员，并将外来者排除在成员之外;在这个层面上，对SLA的影响往往涉及母语群体和目标语言群体之间的关系，以及社区边界的开放性和渗透性。在国家内部，制度力量和制约因素往往会影响到二语的使用和知识，如社会控制、政治和宗教实践以及经济和教育机会。年龄、性别和种族是社会群体成员身份的因素，可能与 SLA 相关。最后，学习环境会影响SLA，例如学习者以前的教育经历，L2学习过程是非正式的还是正式的，以及（如果正式）学习者可以使用的教育模式类型以及教师和管理人员的教学方向。
No individual factors in the macrosocial context of SLA can be isolated from others. Circumstances of learning are related to the nation that the learner lives in and its history, culture, and geopolitical position, and to social and economic categorizations within the society, which in turn are related to historical, institutional, and political forces and constraints, all of which are related to and reflect or determine the status of the languages involved. All of these factors powerfully influence the microsocial contexts of learning, determining who does and does not have opportunities for L2 input and interaction and of what sort, and what the outcomes of L2 learning are likely to be. The individual learner often has few or no choices in the matter of whether an L2 will be available for formal study, what language it will be, how it will be taught and at what levels, the level of proficiency that will be expected or required, and what the consequences or advantages of learning or not learning will be. The accident of one’s birth may determine what L2s will be available or expected for informal acquisition, and what value or significance they will have in affecting one’s life chances. These various factors are beyond the control of the individual, but whether options are available or not, one’s L1 and possible L2(s) can have profound effects on the course of one’s life. SLA的宏观社会背景下的任何单个因素都不能与其他因素隔离开来。学习环境与学习者所居住的国家及其历史、文化和地缘政治地位有关，也与社会中的社会和经济分类有关，而这些分类又与历史、制度和政治力量和限制有关，所有这些都与所涉及的语言的地位有关，并反映或决定了所涉及的语言的地位。所有这些因素都强烈地影响着学习的微观社会环境，决定了谁有机会和没有机会进行二语输入和互动，以及二语学习的类型和结果可能是什么。对于L2是否可用于正式学习，它将是什么语言，如何教授以及在什么水平上，期望或要求的熟练程度，以及学习或不学习的后果或好处，个人学习者通常很少或根本没有选择。一个人出生的意外可能会决定哪些 L2 将可用于或预期用于非正式获得，以及它们在影响一个人的生活机会方面将具有什么价值或意义。这些不同的因素超出了个人的控制范围，但无论是否有选择，L1和可能的L2都会对一个人的人生轨迹产生深远的影响。
The definition of communicative competence introduced in last section is broadly inclusive in scope: “everything that a speaker needs to know in order to communicate appropriately within a particular community.”This construct combines the knowledge of language which defines linguistic competence, knowledge of the specific components and levels of a language, and knowledge that is required for their appropriate use in communicative activities. Accounting for competence in this broader sense also requires considering “encyclopedic” cultural knowledge concerning the content of what is written or talked about, and recognizing the social significance of the context within which language use takes place. Knowledge of culture includes content, context, and linguistic elements in important respects, as well as an understanding of the wider societal structures and practices that influence norms and conventions of language interpretation and usage. 上一节介绍的交际能力的定义在范围上具有广泛的包容性：“说话者为了在特定社区内进行适当的交流而需要知道的一切”这种结构结合了定义语言能力的语言知识、语言的特定组成部分和层次的知识，以及在交际活动中适当使用它们所需的知识。在这种更广泛的意义上考虑能力还需要考虑关于所写或谈论的内容的“百科全书式”文化知识，并认识到语言使用发生的环境的社会意义。文化知识包括重要方面的内容、背景和语言元素，以及对影响语言解释和使用的规范和惯例的更广泛的社会结构和实践的理解。
The ability to use language appropriately includes pragmatic competence. This can be defined as what people must know in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situations: knowledge that accounts for “the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction, and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the acts of communication” (Crystal 1997). 适当使用语言的能力包括语用能力。这可以定义为人们为了在交际情境中解释和传达意义而必须知道的知识：这些知识解释了“他们做出的选择，他们在社会互动中使用语言时遇到的限制，以及他们使用语言对交际行为中其他参与者的影响”（Crystal 1997）。
The relationship of knowledge among domains of content, context, culture, language form and structure, and language use is dynamic, interactive, and constitutive. It would be a mistake to think of language use merely as the product of the other domains, since use plays an essential role in their very creation, maintenance, and change. 知识在内容、语境、文化、语言形式和结构以及语言使用等领域之间的关系是动态的、互动的和构成性的。如果仅仅把语言的使用看作是其他领域的产物，那就大错特错了，因为语言的使用在语言的创造、维护和变化中起着至关重要的作用。
The knowledge that an L2 learner begins with includes everything that he or she has previously acquired as part of his or her general cognitive development and prior social experience, as well as in his or her acquisition of L1. This prior knowledge partly explains the advantages that older L2 learners such as college students typically have over children in expressing and understanding the information content of L2 writing and speech, in perceiving writer/speaker intent, and in fulfilling interactional and instrumental goals of communication. It also accounts in part for the interference which may occur when prior knowledge of content, context, and culture (as well as L1 linguistic elements) is inappropriately applied to situations of L2 use. 二语学习者开始学习的知识包括他或她以前作为他或她的一般认知发展和先前社会经验的一部分以及他或她获得一语时所获得的一切。这种先验知识在一定程度上解释了大学生等年龄较大的二语学习者在表达和理解二语写作和演讲的信息内容、感知作者/说话者意图以及实现互动和工具流目标方面通常比儿童具有优势。这也在一定程度上解释了当内容、语境和文化（以及 L1 语言元素）的先验知识不恰当地应用于 L2 使用情况时可能发生的干扰。
Academic vs. interpersonal competence 学术能力与人际交往能力
In considering the purposes for which people learn second languages, we must make a distinction between at least two fundamental types of communicative competence: academic competence and interpersonal competence. Academic competence would include the knowledge needed by learners who want to use the L2 primarily to learn about other subjects, or as a tool in scholarly research, or as a medium in a specific professional or occupational field. Learners with such a goal should concentrate above all on acquiring the specific vocabulary of their field or subject area, and on developing knowledge that enables them to read relevant texts fluently in that subject area. If language learners plan to study the subject at an L2-medium university, beyond specific vocabulary knowledge and reading ability, they must also put a high priority on processing oral L2 input during lectures and class discussions: i.e. on developing the ability to engage successfully in academic listening. Further, they are likely to need proficiency in L2 academic writing in order to display their knowledge on examinations that may be required for university admission and to earn academic degrees. Many students need to develop L2 writing proficiency for the academic purposes of producing term papers or theses, and researchers may need to do so for publishing articles for international information exchange. Developing L2 academic reading, listening, and writing proficiency, however, does not necessarily require fluent speaking ability, particularly for learners studying the L2 in a foreign language context. 在考虑人们学习第二语言的目的时，我们必须区分至少两种基本类型的交际能力：学术能力和人际交往能力。学术能力将包括希望主要使用二语学习其他学科，或作为学术研究的工具，或作为特定专业或职业领域的媒介的学习者所需的知识。有这种目标的学习者应该首先专注于获得其领域或学科领域的特定词汇，并发展使他们能够流利地阅读该学科领域的相关文本的知识。如果语言学习者计划在二语大学学习该科目，除了特定的词汇知识和阅读能力外，他们还必须高度重视在讲座和课堂讨论中处理二语口语输入：即培养成功参与学术听力的能力。此外，他们可能需要熟练掌握二语学术写作，以便在大学入学和获得学位可能需要的考试中展示他们的知识。许多学生需要培养二语写作能力，以达到撰写学期论文或论文的学术目的，研究人员可能需要这样做才能发表文章以进行国际信息交流。然而，培养二语学术阅读、听力和写作能力并不一定需要流利的口语能力，特别是对于在外语环境中学习二语的学习者。
Interpersonal competence encompasses knowledge required of learners who plan to use the L2 primarily in face-to-face contact with other speakers. As with academic competence, vocabulary is the most important level of language knowledge for these learners to acquire, although the domains of vocabulary involved are likely to be very different. Knowledge which enables them to participate in listening and speaking activities merit the highest priority for interpersonal contexts; they must be able to process language rapidly “online” (without the opportunity to review or revise text that is possible in reading and writing), as well as possess strategies for achieving clarification and negotiation of meaning during the course of face-to-face interaction. Depending on the situation, the level of language to be used may be formal or informal. Writing and reading activities are required in some interpersonal situations, but speaking and listening are much more likely to play dominant roles in interpersonal production and interpretation. 人际交往能力包括计划主要在与其他演讲者面对面接触中使用二语的学习者所需的知识。与学术能力一样，词汇是这些学习者需要获得的最重要的语言知识水平，尽管所涉及的词汇领域可能非常不同。使他们能够参与听力和口语活动的知识在人际关系中值得优先考虑;他们必须能够快速“在线”处理语言（没有机会复习或修改阅读和写作中可能出现的文本），并拥有在面对面互动过程中实现意义澄清和协商的策略。根据具体情况，使用的语言水平可以是正式的，也可以是非正式的。在一些人际交往的情况下，写作和阅读活动是必需的，但口语和听力更有可能在人际关系的产生和解释中发挥主导作用。
Components of language knowledge 语言知识的组成部分
Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis: 传统上，语言学家将语言分为以下五个部分，以便进行描述和分析：
Vocabulary (lexicon) 词汇（词典）
Morphology (word structure) 形态学（词结构）
Phonology (sound system) 音韵学（音响系统）
Syntax (grammar) 语法（语法）
Discourse (ways to connect sentences and organize information) 话语（连接句子和组织信息的方法）
Even the most highly educated adult native speakers can never expect to have mastery of all the potential resources of a community’s language, and such an expectation for the vast majority of any L2 learners would be completely unrealistic. Especially in contexts where a second language is going to be needed for only a limited range of functions, deciding on priorities for what needs to be learned is an important step for teachers and learners to take. Determining the specific L2 needs of any group of learners involves identifying what subset of linguistic elements is associated with the varieties of a language that are used in particular situations. 即使是受过高等教育的成年母语人士，也永远无法指望掌握社区语言的所有潜在资源，而对于绝大多数二语学习者来说，这种期望是完全不现实的。特别是在只有有限范围的功能需要第二语言的情况下，确定需要学习的内容的优先级是教师和学习者必须采取的重要步骤。确定任何学习者群体的特定二语需求涉及确定哪些语言元素子集与特定情况下使用的语言变体相关联。
Vocabulary 词汇
Vocabulary is the most important level of L2 knowledge for all learners to develop – whether they are aiming primarily for academic or interpersonal competence, or for a broader scope of communicative competence that spans the two. There is a core of high-frequency words in a language that everyone needs to learn, but beyond that, which specific vocabulary elements learners are most likely to need depends on whether the L2 is going to be used primarily for academic or interpersonal functions. 词汇是所有学习者需要发展的最重要的二语知识水平——无论他们主要是为了学术或人际交往能力，还是为了跨越两者的更广泛的交际能力。在一门语言中，每个人都需要学习高频词的核心，但除此之外，学习者最可能需要哪些特定的词汇元素取决于二语是主要用于学术还是人际交往功能。
The core vocabulary in every language includes function words, a limited set of terms that carry primarily grammatical information. For example, in English the most frequently used words include: the, this, that, to, of, for, and, but, I, it, he, she, you, is/was/be, have/has/had. 每种语言的核心词汇都包括功能词，这是一组主要携带语法信息的有限术语。例如，在英语中，最常用的单词包括：the、this、that、to、of、for、and、but、I、it、he、she、you、is/was/be、have/has/had。
The most frequently used words in spoken English include interjections yeah, oh; contractions it’s, that’s, don’t; and verbs expressing personal opinion or felling know, like, think. 英语口语中最常用的单词包括感叹词yes，oh;收缩它，那是，不要;和表达个人意见或砍伐知道、喜欢、思考的动词。
English words that occur with high frequency in a wide range of academic contexts include modifiers such as analytical, explanatory, and implicit, as well as names for scientific concepts such as data, hypotheses, and correlation. Many technical terms must be learned for any specialized field, such as lexicon, morphology, phonology, and discourse for linguistics. Beginning students in a field (whether L1 or L2 speakers) typically encounter such subject-specific terms during introductory coursework along with the concepts they represent. Part of the vocabulary challenge for advanced L2 students and scholars in a field is learning L2 labels for concepts they may have already acquired in their L1. 在广泛的学术环境中出现频率较高的英语单词包括分析、解释和隐式等修饰语，以及数据、假设和相关性等科学概念的名称。对于任何专业领域，都必须学习许多技术术语，例如语言学的词典、形态学、音韵学和话语学。一个领域的初学者（无论是 L1 还是 L2 使用者）通常会在入门课程中遇到此类特定学科的术语以及它们所代表的概念。对于一个领域的高级二语学生和学者来说，词汇挑战的一部分是学习他们可能已经在一语中习得的概念的二语标签。
Interpersonal situations can be subdivided into those which have primarily affective (interactional) purposes, and those which are task-oriented (transactional). Each specific context determines priorities for vocabulary learning beyond the most frequent core. Beyond common greetings, leave-takings, invitations, refusals, and warning, the necessary vocabulary and phraseology is likely to differ drastically between, say, going on a swimming party at the beach and following instructions on how to repair an automobile engine. And social context may dictate register differences as great as How are you today? vs. How’re yadoin’? Or I’m fine, thank you vs. Just great or some current slang-determined response. Regional differences are likely to be greatest at the informal interactional level, and least at more formal and more academic levels. 人际关系情境可以细分为主要以情感（互动）为目的的情境和以任务为导向的情境（交易型）。每个特定的上下文都决定了词汇学习的优先级，超出了最常见的核心。除了常见的问候、请假、邀请、拒绝和警告之外，必要的词汇和措辞可能会有很大不同，例如，在海滩上参加游泳派对和遵循有关如何修理汽车发动机的说明。社会背景可能决定了寄存器差异，就像你今天好吗？vs. 你好吗？或者我很好，谢谢你 vs. 只是很棒或一些当前的俚语决定的回应。在非正式的互动层面上，地区差异可能最大，在更正式和更学术的层面上，地区差异可能最小。
Besides individual vocabulary items (single words and compounds), other lexical elements which vary in frequency by domain include idioms, metaphors, and other multiple word combinations that commonly occur together (collocations). These “chunks” of language are typically memorized as holistic units, and often without recognition of individual words or analysis of how they are combined. 除了单个词汇项目（单个单词和复合词）外，其他因领域而异的词汇元素包括成语、隐喻和其他通常一起出现的多个单词组合（搭配）。这些语言的“块”通常被记忆为整体单元，并且通常无法识别单个单词或分析它们如何组合。
Vocabulary knowledge is acquired to different degrees, with learners first recognizing words they see or hear, then producing them in limited contexts, and ultimately (perhaps) fully controlling their accurate and appropriate use. L2 speakers may never acquire complete knowledge of some words that nevertheless become part of their productive repertoire. Among the last types of word knowledge to be mastered are collocational behavior (what words go together), metaphorical uses, connotations associated with synonyms, and stylistic register constraints. 词汇知识的习得程度各不相同，学习者首先识别他们看到或听到的单词，然后在有限的上下文中产生它们，并最终（也许）完全控制它们的准确和适当的使用。说二语的人可能永远无法完全了解一些单词，但这些单词却成为他们富有成效的曲目的一部分。最后要掌握的单词知识类型包括搭配行为（单词组合在一起）、隐喻用法、与同义词相关的内涵和文体寄存器约束。
The number of words that L2 speakers learn, as well as the degrees of their vocabulary knowledge, depends on their ability to “pick up” this information from contexts (both oral and written) in which the words are used as well as from explicit instruction. The following types of knowledge contribute to effective use of context for vocabulary: 说二语的人学习的单词数量，以及他们的词汇知识程度，取决于他们从使用单词的上下文（口头和书面）以及明确的指导中“获取”这些信息的能力。以下类型的知识有助于有效利用词汇的上下文：
Linguistic knowledge: syntactic information; constraints on possible word meanings; patterns in word structure; meanings of surrounding words. 语言知识：句法信息;对可能的词义的限制;词语结构模式;周围单词的含义。
World knowledge: understanding of the concepts which the words represent; familiarity with related conceptual frameworks; awareness of social associations. 世界知识：理解词语所代表的概念;熟悉相关概念框架;对社会协会的认识。
Strategic knowledge: control over cognitive resources. 战略知识：对认知资源的控制。
Beyond knowledge of words, fluent use of language requires a level of automaticity that allows processing their structures and meanings in real time. This is an incremental achievement upon which effective engagement in all language activities ultimately depends. 除了对单词的了解之外，流利地使用语言还需要一定程度的自动化，以便实时处理其结构和含义。这是一项渐进式的成就，有效参与所有语言活动最终取决于此。
Morphology 形态学
L2 learning at the level of morphology can be very important for vocabulary development as well as for achieving grammatical accuracy. This level is highly significant for learning English, for instance, where thousands of words are formed by compounding smaller words or by adding prefixes and suffixes (called derivational morphology) that can create new meanings (e.g. un- + kind = unkind) or change part of speech (e.g. friend + -ly = friendly). Again using English as an example, words used for academic communication (especially in writing) are characteristically longer than words used for interpersonal communication (especially in speech), and using them requires knowledge of such word-forming elements and processes. 形态学层面的二语学习对于词汇发展和语法准确性非常重要。这个水平对于学习英语非常重要，例如，通过复合较小的单词或添加前缀和后缀（称为派生形态）来形成数千个单词，这些单词可以创造新的含义（例如un- + kind = unkind）或改变词性（例如friend + -ly = friendly）。再次以英语为例，用于学术交流（尤其是写作）的单词通常比用于人际交流的单词（尤其是演讲）长，使用它们需要了解这些构词元素和过程。
Grammatical accuracy in many languages requires knowledge of the word parts that carry meanings such as tense, aspect, and number (called inflectional morphology), as in English kicked, coming, and books. Inflectional morphology, and related phenomena like gender and number agreement may long remain problematic for L2 learners in part because the information these carry is often redundant in actual contexts of language use, and thus not essential for the interpretation of meaning (especially in face-to-face interaction). The logical unnecessariness of most inflectional morphology is shown by the fact that languages like Chinese and Thai dispense with it almost entirely. However, in those languages which have it accuracy in production of morphology is usually expected as part of advanced academic language competence, and in the interpersonal competence of L2 speakers who want or need to project an image of being well educated, or who want to be fully accepted as an in-group member. 许多语言的语法准确性需要了解带有时态、方面和数字等含义的单词部分（称为屈折形态），如英语中的踢、来和书。对于二语学习者来说，屈折形态以及性别和数字一致性等相关现象可能长期存在问题，部分原因是这些现象所携带的信息在实际语言使用环境中往往是多余的，因此对于意义的解释（尤其是在面对面的互动中）不是必不可少的。大多数屈折形态的逻辑不必要性表现在汉语和泰语等语言几乎完全放弃了它。然而，在那些具有形态学能力的语言中，形态学的准确性通常被期望为高级学术语言能力的一部分，以及希望或需要投射出受过良好教育的形象或希望被完全接受为群体内成员的二语使用者的人际交往能力。
Phonology 音韵学
As a component of academic competence, proficiency in phonological perception is required for listening if learners are studying other subjects through the medium of L2, and at least intelligible pronunciation is needed for speaking in most educated settings. A much higher level of proficiency in production is required if researchers or students are using the second language to teach others or for participating orally in professional conferences, but the relative priority of pronunciation otherwise remains low compared to vocabulary and syntax. 作为学术能力的一个组成部分，如果学习者通过二语媒介学习其他科目，则听力需要熟练的语音感知，并且在大多数受过教育的环境中说话至少需要可理解的发音。如果研究人员或学生使用第二语言来教授他人或口头参加专业会议，则需要更高水平的生产熟练程度，但与词汇和句法相比，发音的相对优先级仍然较低。
As a component of interpersonal competence, proficiency in phonological perception and intelligible production are essential for successful spoken communication, but a significant degree of “foreign accent” is acceptable in most situations as long as it is within the bounds of intelligibility. Native or near-native pronunciation is usually needed only when learners want to identify socially with the L2 language community for affective purposes, or when their communicative goals require such identification by hearers. 作为人际交往能力的一个组成部分，语音感知和可理解的产生能力对于成功的口语交流至关重要，但在大多数情况下，只要在可理解的范围内，一定程度的“外国口音”是可以接受的。通常只有当学习者出于情感目的想要在社会上认同 L2 语言社区时，或者当他们的交际目标需要听者进行这种认同时，才需要母语或接近母语的发音。
The following aspects of the sound systems are likely to differ for L1 and L2: L1 和 L2 音响系统的以下方面可能会有所不同：
Which speech sounds are meaningful components of the phonological systems (phonemes) 哪些语音是语音系统（音素）的有意义的组成部分
Possible sequences of consonants and vowels 辅音和元音的可能序列
Which speech sounds can and cannot occur in combination with one another, in which syllable and word positions 哪些语音可以和不能相互组合出现，音节和单词的位置
Intonation patterns (stress, pitch, and duration) 语调模式（重音、音高和持续时间）
Rhythmic patterns (pauses and stops) 节奏模式（停顿和停止）
Transfer from L1 to L2 phonology occurs in both perception and production, and is thus a factor in both listening and speaking. Particularly at early stages of acquisition，L2 learners are likely to perceive L2 pronunciation in terms of the L1 phonemic categories which have already been established. 从L1到L2音韵学的转移发生在感知和生产中，因此是听力和口语的一个因素。特别是在习得的早期阶段，二语学习者可能会根据已经建立的二语音素类别来感知二语发音。
Transfer can also be found for other aspects of phonological systems, including syllable structure. Intonation often conveys important elements of meaning such as speaker intent which can be lost or misidentified across languages, and patterns of stress in words and phrases, which provide information for segmenting speech into grammatical units, may not be perceived or produced accurately. 语音系统的其他方面也可以找到迁移，包括音节结构。语调通常传达重要的意义元素，例如说话者的意图，这些元素在语言中可能会丢失或错误识别，而单词和短语中的重音模式（为将语音分割为语法单位提供信息）可能无法准确感知或产生。
The concept of phonemes as “bundles” of distinctive features is also still relevant in accounts of why L2 speech sounds are perceived in terms of L1 categories. On this account, each phoneme in a language consists of a unique “bundles” of distinctive features which make it perceptibly different from other phonemes to speakers of that language. The possible set of features is a universal; those features which distinguish phonemes in any L1 or L2 are a subset. Some analysts argue that it is these features, rather than the phonemes per se, which influence perception. 音素作为独特特征的“束”的概念在解释为什么 L2 语音被感知为 L1 类别时仍然相关。因此，一种语言中的每个音素都由独特的“捆绑”组成，这些特征使其与该语言使用者的其他音素明显不同。可能的特征集是通用的;区分任何 L1 或 L2 音素的特征是一个子集。一些分析家认为，影响感知的是这些特征，而不是音素本身。
Syntax 语法
Depending on the theoretical linguistic perspective one takes, acquiring the syntax of another language may be seen as an issue of internalizing new construction patterns, generative rules, different parameters for innate principles, or collocational probabilities and constraints. Whatever the analysis, the process begins with recognizing that sentences are more than just combinations of words, and that every language has specific limits and requirements on the possible orders and arrangements of elements. 根据人们所采取的理论语言学观点，获得另一种语言的语法可以被视为内化新的结构模式、生成规则、先天原则的不同参数或搭配概率和约束的问题。无论分析如何，这个过程首先要认识到句子不仅仅是单词的组合，每种语言对元素的可能顺序和排列都有特定的限制和要求。
A first step is realizing that certain aspects of language are universal, but how they are expressed may vary greatly. All languages have structures for making statements, asking questions, and denying assertions. Sentences in all languages consist of a subject and a predicate, and predicates consist of a verb, or a verb and one or two objects, plus other possible phrases expressing such things as time, place, frequency, manner, goal, source, or purpose. But the order of elements, and degree of flexibility in their order, may differ radically. 第一步是认识到语言的某些方面是通用的，但它们的表达方式可能会有很大差异。所有语言都有用于陈述、提出问题和拒绝断言的结构。所有语言的句子都由一个主语和一个谓语组成，谓语由一个动词、一个动词和一个或两个宾语组成，再加上其他可能的短语，表达诸如时间、地点、频率、方式、目标、来源或目的。但是元素的顺序，以及它们顺序的灵活性程度，可能会有根本的不同。
For Chinese speakers, having to mark plurals on nouns in English will be a challenge, since this is not done in Chinese, which also do not distinguish gender (except artificially in writing) or subject/object function in pronouns. English speakers, on the other hand, while finding Chinese pronouns simple to acquired (though they must, conversely, learn not to use them much of the time), will have to internalize a completely different system of gender, one based primarily on the shape of things, e.g.: a book (yibenshu), a table (yizhangzhuozi), a pen (yizhi bi). 对于说中文的人来说，必须在英语名词上标记复数将是一个挑战，因为这在汉语中是没有的，汉语也不区分性别（除非人为地在书面上）或代词中的主宾功能。另一方面，说英语的人虽然发现汉语代词很容易获得（尽管相反，他们必须学会在很多时候不使用它们），但必须内化一个完全不同的性别系统，一个主要基于事物形状的系统，例如：一本书（yiben shu）、一张桌子（yizhang zhuozi）、一支笔（yizhi bi）。
These are only a few examples of the kinds of grammatical issues that face speakers of different L1s acquiring an L2 within simple sentences. But academic competence requires processing much longer and more complicated sentences than does interpersonal competence. Academic sentences are often grammatically complex, involving various types of subordination. In addition, passive constructions are much more likely to be used in order to foreground objects and results and to background agents of actions. The general need to provide specific content information in academic discourse results in different forms of linguistic expansion and elaboration, including the use of more prepositional phrases and relative clauses to modify nouns. The impersonal nature of much academic writing and speaking leads to the use of more abstract expressions, emphasizing states rather than expressing actions. 这些只是不同 L1 的说话者在简单句子中获得 L2 时面临的语法问题的几个例子。但是，学术能力需要处理比人际交往能力更长、更复杂的句子。学术句子通常语法复杂，涉及各种类型的从属关系。此外，被动结构更有可能用于前景对象和结果以及动作的后台代理。在学术话语中提供特定内容信息的一般需求导致了不同形式的语言扩展和阐述，包括使用更多的介词短语和关系从句来修饰名词。许多学术写作和演讲的非个人性质导致使用更抽象的表达方式，强调状态而不是表达行动。
One way this is achieved in English is through the use of nominalizations, by which whole sentences are transformed into fillers for noun phrase positions. E.g. 在英语中实现这一点的一种方法是使用名词化，通过该名词化，将整个句子转换为名词短语位置的填充物。例如：
Edison 爱迪生 invented the phonograph. 发明了留声机。Edison 迪森’s invention of the phonograph 留声机的发明
I analyzed the report. 分析了报告。My analysis of the report y 报告分析
Bacteria 细菌exist 存在in the mouth. 在嘴里。The existence of bacteria in the mouth 口腔中存在细菌
This process allows several simple sentences to be combined into one, and increases the density of information transmitted. E.g. 这个过程允许将几个简单的句子组合成一个，并增加传输的信息密度。例如：
Scientists were working in a laboratory. 科学家们正在实验室工作。
The laboratory was in Chicago. 实验室在芝加哥。
Scientists discovered something. 科学家们发现了一些东西。
Bacteria exist in the mouth. 细菌存在于口腔中。
This is what they discovered. 这就是他们发现的。
Someone reported this event last month. 上个月有人报道了这一事件。
The discovery of the existence of bacteria in the mouth by scientists in a laboratory in Chicago was reported last month. 上个月，芝加哥一个实验室的科学家发现了口腔中存在细菌的报道。
In contrast, grammatical structures used for interpersonal functions are much more likely to be short, simple sentences. Often they are not complete sentences at all, but fragments like OK, Right, and Me too. Contracted forms such as I’m, it’s, and don’t are common, and questions and directives are more frequent sentence types. Language used for affective purposes often serves to express a speaker’s point of view rather than to transmit referential information: this functional difference accounts for a high frequency of such verb constructions as is going to, is supposed to, needs to, and wants to, and verbs like know, think, and say. 相比之下，用于人际交往功能的语法结构更有可能是简短、简单的句子。通常它们根本不是完整的句子，而是像 OK、Right 和 Me too 这样的片段。I'm、its 和 don't 等缩略形式很常见，questions 和 directives 是更常见的句子类型。用于情感目的的语言通常用于表达说话者的观点，而不是传递参考信息：这种功能差异解释了诸如将要、应该、需要和想要等动词结构以及知道、思考和说等动词结构的频率很高。
Because many of the grammatical structures common to interpersonal communication are different from those found in written academic texts, even the development of considerable fluency for everyday interactive purposes does not guarantee that a learner will acquire the syntactic knowledge that is necessary for the advanced literacy that full academic competence requires. Nor does proficiency in processing the formal, complex structures of academic writing guarantee a learner’s ability to participate appropriately in informal conversations which are characterized by sentence fragments and contractions, rapid give-and-take, and “everyday” vocabulary. Beyond very basic common structures, the syntactic knowledge required for either domain required extensive input that is specific to the intended context of use. 由于人际交往中常见的许多语法结构与书面学术文本中的语法结构不同，因此即使出于日常互动目的发展相当流利的程度，也不能保证学习者将获得完全学术能力所需的高级读写能力所必需的句法知识。熟练处理学术写作的正式、复杂结构也不能保证学习者能够适当地参与非正式对话，这些对话的特点是句子片段和收缩、快速的让步和“日常”词汇。除了非常基本的通用结构之外，任何一个领域所需的句法知识都需要针对预期使用上下文的大量输入。
Discourse 话语
Linguistic elements at the level of discourse function beyond the scope of a single sentence. At a microstructural discourse level these include sequential indicators, logical connectors, and other devices to create cohesion. At a macrostructural discourse level we go beyond linguistic elements to knowledge of organizational features that are characteristic of particular genres, and of interactional strategies. Both microstructural and macrostructural levels are sensitive to the relationship between language forms and the communicative situations within which they are used, requiring an essential interface of linguistic knowledge with content, culture, and context. 话语层面的语言要素的功能超出了单个句子的范围。在微观结构话语层面上，这些包括顺序指标、逻辑连接器和其他创造凝聚力的设备。在宏观结构话语层面上，我们超越了语言元素，了解了特定流派和互动策略所特有的组织特征。微观结构和宏观结构层面都对语言形式与使用它们的交际情境之间的关系很敏感，需要语言知识与内容、文化和语境的基本接口。
Sequential indicators are linguistic elements that connect phrases, clauses, or longer units of written or spoken text to signal the order in which events take place. 顺序指示器是连接短语、从句或较长的书面或口头文本单位以指示事件发生顺序的语言元素。
Logical connectors occur between clauses or other grammatical constituents to indicate such relations between them as cause-effect, contrast, and addition of information. Academic written English typically prefers overt verbal expression of the connections, but many other languages often prefer to express such relationships by juxtaposition of clauses rather than with added linguistic elements. 逻辑连接器出现在从句或其他语法成分之间，以指示它们之间的关系，如因果关系、对比和信息添加。学术书面英语通常更喜欢公开的口头表达联系，但许多其他语言通常更喜欢通过从句的并列而不是添加语言元素来表达这种关系。
Cohesion devises link one element of discourse to another, integrating them into a unified text. They include many of the sequential indicators and logical connectors, but also such ties as pronominal and lexical reference, substitution, and ellipsis. Some of these devises are illustrated in the following paragraph: 凝聚力设计将话语的一个元素与另一个元素联系起来，将它们整合到一个统一的文本中。它们包括许多顺序指示符和逻辑连接器，还包括代词和词汇引用、替换和省略号等联系。以下段落说明了其中一些设计：
Students who acquire second languages do so in many social contexts. For example, they may learn L2s in formal classroom, or [ ] in informal interaction with native speakers. Language learners may profit from either setting, but of course not all will have equal success. In the end, motivation as well as aptitude and opportunity isa critical variable. 学习第二语言的学生在许多社会环境中都是这样做的。例如，他们可能在正式课堂上学习 L2，或者在与母语人士的非正式互动中学习 [ ]。语言学习者可以从任何一种环境中获益，但当然并非所有人都能获得同等的成功。归根结底，动机、能力和机会是一个关键变量。
Both academic and interpersonal domains involve conventionalized categories and types of discourse, called genres. Different genres are typically characterized by having different functions within a language community, involving different topics, and requiring different language styles and organization. Academic genres include research papers, lectures, and book reviews; interpersonal genres include conversations, service encounters, and letters. Genres are “conventionalized” categories of discourse in the sense that knowledge of their nature and regularities is shared by members of a language community as part of the cultural component of communicative competence. 学术领域和人际领域都涉及约定俗成的话语类别和类型，称为体裁。不同的流派通常具有在语言社区中具有不同的功能，涉及不同的主题，并且需要不同的语言风格和组织。学术类型包括研究论文、讲座和书评;人际交往类型包括对话、服务遭遇和信件。体裁是“约定俗成”的话语类别，从某种意义上说，关于其性质和规律的知识是由语言社区成员共享的，作为交际能力的文化组成部分的一部分。
L2 learners of a language often have to learn new organizational features for a relevant genre as well as new linguistic elements when they wish to join the community that uses it. For example, academic research reports that are written in English commonly follow the following sequence: 一门语言的二语学习者在希望加入使用它的社区时，通常必须学习相关流派的新组织特征以及新的语言元素。例如，用英语撰写的学术研究报告通常遵循以下顺序：
Statement of the problem under investigation and its potential significance 对正在调查的问题及其潜在意义的陈述
Specific research questions or hypotheses 具体的研究问题或假设
Review of related research 相关研究综述
Description of data collection and analytic procedures 数据收集和分析程序说明
Presentation of findings 二. 调查结果的介绍
Discussion of results 结果讨论
Conclusion (often including mention of limitations and suggestions for future research) 结论（通常包括提及局限性和对未来研究的建议）
Examples of conventional features that L2 learners must acquire for interpersonal genres include politeness and turn-taking strategies for conversations. Some general rules for politeness have been suggested, such as “Do not impose” and “Help the other person save face”, but similar communicative behaviors may be interpreted differently in different cultures. Essentially the same act may be perceived as “friendly” in one setting but “rude” in another (e.g. asking a casual acquaintance about their religious views, or whether they have children). Appropriate conversational turn-taking in some cultures involves interruptions, overlaps, or simultaneous speaking; some cultures require several seconds of silence before another speaker may begin, with a shorter interval again considered “rude” or overly aggressive. 二语学习者在人际交往方面必须具备的传统特征包括礼貌和轮流对话策略。已经提出了一些礼貌的一般规则，例如“不要强加”和“帮助对方挽回面子”，但类似的交际行为在不同的文化中可能会有不同的解释。从本质上讲，同样的行为在一种情况下可能被认为是“友好的”，但在另一种情况下是“粗鲁的”（例如，向一个偶然的熟人询问他们的宗教观点，或者他们是否有孩子）。在某些文化中，适当的对话轮流涉及中断、重叠或同声对话;有些文化需要几秒钟的沉默，然后另一位演讲者才能开始，较短的间隔再次被认为是“粗鲁”或过于咄咄逼人。
Transfer of politeness and turn-taking conventions from L1 to L2 in cases where such contrasts exist may not interfere with expression and interpretation of the referential content of messages but can contribute to instances of serious misunderstanding of speaker intent and message tone. 在存在这种对比的情况下，将礼貌和轮流惯例从 L1 转移到 L2 可能不会干扰对信息参考内容的表达和解释，但可能导致对说话者意图和信息语气的严重误解。
Development of the ability to use elements of L2 discourse appropriately is not unlike the development of other elements of interlanguage. It takes place gradually and systematically, and many errors in production can be attributed to either transfer of L1 knowledge in using the L2 or to developmental patterns within the L2. And as with the other elements, the nature and amount of input to learners largely determines the degree of proficiency that they will attain. The development of academic discourse competence requires reading and hearing an ample number of academic texts within meaningful contexts, and it benefits from feedback on the appropriateness of written production. Development of interpersonal discourse competence requires opportunity for social interaction and the input and feedback that it produces. 适当使用二语话语要素的能力的发展与跨语言其他要素的发展没有什么不同。它是逐步和系统地发生的，生产中的许多错误可以归因于使用L2时L1知识的转移或L2内部的发展模式。与其他要素一样，对学习者的投入的性质和数量在很大程度上决定了他们将达到的熟练程度。学术话语能力的发展需要在有意义的语境中阅读和聆听大量学术文本，并且受益于对书面写作适当性的反馈。人际话语能力的发展需要社会互动的机会以及由此产生的输入和反馈。
Receptive activities 接受活动
The labeling of reading and listening as “receptive” activities does not imply that L2 learners perform them passively and without effort. Learners must actively participate in creating meaning from L2 input. Successful SLA requires active engagement. 将阅读和听力标记为“接受性”活动并不意味着二语学习者被动地、不费吹灰之力地执行这些活动。学习者必须积极参与从二语输入中创造意义。成功的 SLA 需要积极参与。
Comprehension of written or spoken language involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing requires prior knowledge of the language system and interpretation of physical (graphic and auditory) cues. Knowledge of vocabulary is needed to recognize words and to understand what they mean; knowledge of morphology is needed to interpret complex lexical elements, as well as to perceive grammatical information that is carried by inflections; knowledge of phonology is needed to recognize spoken words, to segment speech into grammatical units, and to relate written symbols to their spoken form; knowledge of syntax is needed to recognize how words relate to one another, and how they are constituted as phrases and clauses; knowledge of discourse structure is needed to interpret stretches of language that are longer than a single sentence. 书面或口头语言的理解涉及自下而上和自上而下的处理。自下而上的处理需要对语言系统的先验知识和对物理（图形和听觉）线索的解释。需要词汇知识来识别单词并理解它们的含义;需要形态学知识来解释复杂的词汇元素，以及感知屈折所携带的语法信息;需要音韵学知识来识别口语单词，将语音细分为语法单位，并将书面符号与其口语形式联系起来;需要语法知识来识别单词之间的关系，以及它们如何构成短语和从句;需要了解话语结构来解释比单个句子更长的语言段。
At early stages of learning, bottom-up processing is limited to visual or auditory recognition of the limited set of words and word combinations that have been acquired thus far, and of simple grammatical sequences. When L2 input significantly exceeds these limits, understanding is likely to be fragmentary. 在学习的早期阶段，自下而上的处理仅限于视觉或听觉识别迄今为止获得的有限单词和单词组合，以及简单的语法序列。当 L2 输入明显超过这些限制时，理解可能是零碎的。
Top-down processing can compensate for linguistic limitations to some extent by allowing learners to guess the meaning of words they have not encountered before, and to make some sense out of larger chunks of written and oral text. For both L1 and L2 speakers, top-down processing utilizes prior knowledge of content, context, and culture. 自上而下的处理可以在一定程度上弥补语言上的局限性，让学习者猜测他们以前没有遇到过的单词的含义，并从更大的书面和口头文本中理解一些意义。对于 L1 和 L2 使用者，自上而下的处理利用了内容、上下文和文化的先验知识。
Content knowledge is background information about the topic that is being read about or listened to; new information is perceived and interpreted in relation to this base. For example, when early reading in an academic text is related to subject matter that L2 learners have already studied in their L1, that prior content knowledge provides a “scaffold” for understanding new terms and integrating new information in a coherent conceptual framework. 内容知识是有关正在阅读或收听的主题的背景信息;新信息被感知和解释与这个基础有关。例如，当学术文本的早期阅读与二语学习者已经在一语中学习的主题相关时，先前的内容知识为理解新术语和将新信息整合到一个连贯的概念框架中提供了一个“脚手架”。
Context knowledge includes information learned from what has already been read or heard in a specific text or situation, as well as an understanding of what the writer’s or speaker’s intentions are, and the overall structure of the discourse pattern being used; it allows prediction of what is likely to follow, and how the information is likely to be organized. 语境知识包括从特定文本或情境中已经阅读或听到的内容中学到的信息，以及对作者或说话者的意图的理解，以及所使用的话语模式的整体结构;它允许预测可能发生的事情，以及信息可能如何组织。
Culture knowledge subsumes content and context in many ways but also includes an understanding of the wider social setting within which acts of reading and listening take place. 文化知识在许多方面包含内容和背景，但也包括对阅读和聆听行为发生的更广泛的社会环境的理解。
Reading 读数
Reading is the most important area of activity for individuals to engage in for the development of L2 academic competence, and it is important as well for interpersonal functions and for merely “getting along” in any literate society. For many learners, reading is the primary channel for L2 input and a major source of exposure to associated literature and other aspects of the L2 culture. In the case of a language that is used for wider communication, reading also provides significant input related to technological developments, world news, and scientific discoveries. Reading ability in general is needed not only for access to printed resources such as books and journals but may also be needed for access to computers and the Internet. Non-academic situations which require reading range from those which involve interpreting directions on signs and product labels to those which involve receiving news from friends in letters or e-mail. 阅读是个人参与的最重要的活动领域，以发展二语学术能力，对于人际交往功能和在任何有文化的社会中仅仅“相处”也很重要。对于许多学习者来说，阅读是二语输入的主要渠道，也是接触相关文献和二语文化其他方面的主要来源。对于用于更广泛交流的语言，阅读还提供了与技术发展、世界新闻和科学发现相关的重要信息。一般来说，阅读能力不仅需要访问书籍和期刊等印刷资源，而且可能需要访问计算机和互联网。需要阅读的非学术情况包括涉及解释标志和产品标签上的指示的情况，以及涉及通过信件或电子邮件从朋友那里接收消息的情况。
Beginning L2 reading 开始二语阅读
Learners whose L1 is written in a different orthographic system from their L2 need to be able to recognize symbols in the target language as an early step. Different types of writing systems are illustrated below: L1 与 L2 不同的正字法系统书写的学习者需要能够识别目标语言中的符号作为早期步骤。不同类型的书写系统如下图所示：
Writing systems of the world 世界书写系统
Alphabets 字母
English 英语
She went to the market. 她去了市场。
Greek 希腊语
πιγσιιναγορα.
Syllabary 音节文字
Japanese 日语
かのじょがマ—ヶットにぃきました。 他来到了市场。
Logographic 标识
Chinese 中文
她去了市场。
English L1 learners of Spanish or French L2 share the same Roman alphabet and thus already know the symbols that are used to represent the consonant and vowel sounds of those languages. In contrast, English L1 learners of Greek or Lao must learn rather different sets of alphabetic symbols to relate to consonants and vowels in those languages; learners of Japanese must learn different sets of symbols to relate to larger syllabic (consonant + vowel) units; and learners of Chinese must learn a logographic system in which symbols relate holistically to word meanings. The task is made more difficult when the “same” symbols take different forms in print and handwriting, in upper and lower case, or in initial and final word position, and when they occur in both “simplified” and “unsimplified” variants. Another difference in writing systems which may be encountered at an early stage is directionality. 西班牙语或法语 L2 的英语 L1 学习者使用相同的罗马字母，因此已经知道用于表示这些语言的辅音和元音的符号。相比之下，希腊语或老挝语的英语一语学习者必须学习相当不同的字母符号集，才能与这些语言中的辅音和元音相关联;日语学习者必须学习不同的符号集，以与更大的音节（辅音+元音）单位相关联;汉语学习者必须学习一个符号系统，在这个系统中，符号与词义有整体的联系。当“相同”符号在印刷和手写、大写和小写或首尾和末尾单词位置中采用不同的形式时，以及当它们同时出现在“简化”和“非简化”变体中时，任务变得更加困难。在早期阶段可能遇到的书写系统的另一个区别是方向性。
Learning a new system of graphic representation also requires learning to recognize and interpret new conventions of punctuation. Punctuation provides information about the scope of grammatical constituents within sentences and how they are related, and often signals aspects of meaning that carried by intonation in spoken language. There are also different conventions for whether punctuation should be used at all, and whether blank spaces should occur between words. 学习新的图形表示系统还需要学习识别和解释新的标点符号约定。标点符号提供有关句子中语法成分的范围以及它们之间的关系的信息，并且通常表示口语中语调所承载的意义方面。对于是否应该使用标点符号，以及单词之间是否应该出现空格，也有不同的约定。
What is acquired in beginning L2 reading is essentially learning how to relate knowledge of different levels of language to graphic representation, along with developing the ability to compensate for limitations in linguistic knowledge through top-down processing. How this is accomplished is largely by transfer of L1 reading processes; transfer is greatly facilitated by selection of content topics which learners have already experienced. 在开始二语阅读时所获得的基本上是学习如何将不同语言水平的知识与图形表示联系起来，同时培养通过自上而下的处理来弥补语言知识局限性的能力。这在很大程度上是通过 L1 阅读过程的转移来实现的;通过选择学习者已经体验过的内容主题，极大地促进了转移。
Academic reading 学术阅读
Grabe (1991) reviews research on fluent academic reading in terms of six component abilities and types of knowledge that are involved in the activity. Grabe（1991）从活动涉及的六种组成能力和知识类型的角度回顾了对流利学术阅读的研究。
Automatic recognition ability. Automatic word perception and identification is necessary for fluency. There is also some evidence that lower-level automaticity is important (e.g. at feature and letter levels), as well as automatic recognition of syntactic structures. 自动识别能力。自动单词感知和识别对于流利是必要的。还有一些证据表明，较低层次的自动性很重要（例如，在特征和字母层面），以及句法结构的自动识别。
Vocabulary and structural knowledge.Fluent reading requires a large recognition vocabulary and a sound knowledge of grammatical structure. 词汇和结构知识。流利的阅读需要大量的识别词汇和对语法结构的扎实知识。
Formal discourse structure knowledge. Good readers know how a text is organized, including (culture-specific) logical patterns of organization for such contrasts as cause-effect and problem-solution relations. 正式话语结构知识。好的读者知道文本是如何组织的，包括（特定于文化的）组织逻辑模式，例如因果关系和问题解决方案关系。
Content/world background knowledge. Good readers have both more prior cultural knowledge about a topic and more text-related information than those who are less proficient. 内容/世界背景知识。与不太熟练的读者相比，优秀的读者对某个主题有更多的先验文化知识和更多与文本相关的信息。
Synthesis and evaluation processes/strategies. Fluent readers evaluate information in texts and compare it with other sources of knowledge; they go beyond merely trying to comprehend what they read. 综合和评估过程/策略。流利的读者评估文本中的信息，并将其与其他知识来源进行比较;他们不仅仅是试图理解他们所读的内容。
Metacognitive knowledge and comprehension monitoring. Fluent readers have [unconscious] knowledge about knowledge of language and about using appropriate strategies for understanding texts and processing information. Monitoring involves both recognizing problems that occur in the process of interpreting information in a text, and awareness of non-comprehension. 元认知知识和理解监控。流利的读者对语言知识以及使用适当的策略来理解文本和处理信息有[无意识的]知识。监控既包括识别在解释文本中信息的过程中出现的问题，也包括对不理解的认识。
Fluency in reading takes time to develop in either L1 or L2, but it is an essential aspect of academic competence. Most L2 learners have already learned to read their L1 and thus do not need to begin acquiring this ability anew: there is significant transfer of knowledge and ability from reading in one language to reading in another. The basic concept of deriving meaning from abstract written/printed symbols is the same in most languages, and the same top-down strategies for making inferences, using prior knowledge, and reasoning are applicable. Indeed, level of L1 reading ability is a very strong predictor of how successful students will be in learning to read L2. This is true even when the L1 is represented in a different symbolic writing system, as when L1 readers of Japanese transfer reading skills to English L2. Content knowledge which is applied in the top-down processing of text is not language-specific for the most part. Concepts that are learned through the medium of one language still exist in the mind when access to them is triggered through the medium of another. (Of course it is always possible that differences might exist in the structure or content of a concept as it was learned in an L1 and as it is presented or assumed in the L2; the conflict, which may go unnoticed, can lead to misunderstanding or confusion. This conflict can exist as well between varieties of an L1, particularly in the application of vocabulary labels.) 流利的阅读能力需要时间才能在 L1 或 L2 中发展，但这是学术能力的一个重要方面。大多数二语学习者已经学会了阅读他们的二语，因此不需要重新开始学习这种能力：从一种语言的阅读到另一种语言的阅读，知识和能力有很大的转移。从抽象的书面/印刷符号中获取含义的基本概念在大多数语言中是相同的，并且适用相同的自上而下的推理策略，使用先验知识和推理。事实上，L1 阅读能力水平是学生学习阅读 L2 成功程度的一个非常有力的预测指标。即使 L1 以不同的符号书写系统表示，例如日语的 L1 读者将阅读技能转移到英语 L2 时也是如此。应用于自上而下文本处理的内容知识在很大程度上不是特定于语言的。通过一种语言的媒介学习的概念，当通过另一种语言的媒介触发对它们的访问时，它们仍然存在于脑海中。（当然，在L1中学习的概念和在L2中呈现或假设的概念的结构或内容上总是可能存在差异;这种冲突可能被忽视，可能导致误解或混淆。这种冲突也可能存在于 L1 的变体之间，尤其是在词汇标签的应用中。
Developing fluency in reading requires acquiring sufficient knowledge of the new language elements (especially vocabulary, but also grammar and discourse structure) for these to be recognized and interpreted automatically, without conscious attention. Achieving automatic recognition requires extensive practice: as is true in many other fields of activity, one learns to read by reading. 提高阅读的流利度需要获得足够的新语言元素知识（尤其是词汇，还有语法和话语结构），以便自动识别和解释这些元素，而无需有意识地注意。实现自动识别需要广泛的练习：就像在许多其他活动领域一样，人们通过阅读来学习阅读。
Purposeful academic reading is possible even during the beginning and intermediate states of L2 learning, since reading for different purposes does not necessarily require the same level of background linguistic knowledge nor automaticity. Grabe (2002) lists the following functions for reading in academic settings, which are listed here in order of their likely difficulty for L2 learners: 即使在二语学习的开始和中间阶段，也有可能进行有目的的学术阅读，因为出于不同目的的阅读不一定需要相同水平的背景语言知识或自动性。Grabe（2002）列出了以下在学术环境中阅读的功能，这些功能按二语学习者可能遇到的困难顺序列出：
Reading to find information: scan or search text for a specific topic, word, or phrase 阅读以查找信息：扫描或搜索特定主题、单词或短语的文本
Reading for general understanding: get the main ideas and at least some supporting ideas and information 为一般理解而阅读：获取主要思想和至少一些支持性思想和信息
Reading to learn: understand the main ideas and store meanings and supporting details in a coherent organizational frame 阅读学习：理解主要思想，并在连贯的组织框架中存储含义和支持细节
Reading to critique and evaluate: in addition, reflect on text content, integrate it with prior knowledge, and judge quality and appropriateness of texts in relation to what is already known about the topic 阅读批评和评估：此外，反思文本内容，将其与先前的知识相结合，并根据对主题的已知知识来判断文本的质量和适当性
Development of advanced academic reading proficiency requires extensive exposure to written text. Because vocabulary, grammar, and discourse structures differ in the kind of language used for academic versus interpersonal purposes, and in written versus oral channels, academic text material provides the most appropriate source of language input for this purpose. Texts about subjects in the target content area ensure exposure to maximally relevant vocabulary selection and additionally add to the background knowledge that readers can use in top-down processing for meaning. Explicit instruction about language structure is useful in achieving advanced academic reading proficiency in an L2, especially if the instruction includes focus on the more complex grammatical forms that characterize this writing and on ways in which information is organized that may differ from L1 texts. Exclusive focus on conversational L2 usage and simplified written text does not adequately prepare learners to accomplish advanced academic goals. 提高高级学术阅读能力需要广泛接触书面文本。由于词汇、语法和话语结构在用于学术目的与人际目的的语言类型以及书面与口头渠道方面存在差异，因此学术文本材料为此目的提供了最合适的语言输入来源。关于目标内容领域主题的文本确保了接触最相关的词汇选择，并额外增加了读者可以在自上而下的意义处理中使用的背景知识。关于语言结构的明确指导有助于在二语中实现高级学术阅读能力，特别是如果该指导包括关注这种写作的更复杂的语法形式以及可能与一语文本不同的信息组织方式。只关注会话 L2 使用和简化的书面文本并不能充分为学习者完成高级学术目标做好准备。
Once advanced reading proficiency has been attained, it can often be maintained at a high level without help from a teacher and even if there is minimal opportunity for exposure to face-to-face interaction or other sources of continuing L2 input. 一旦达到高级阅读能力，通常可以在没有老师帮助的情况下保持在高水平，即使接触面对面互动或其他持续二语输入来源的机会很少。
Listening 注意的
Listening is a critically important activity both for learners who want or need to participate in oral interpersonal communication and for learners who want or need to receive information from such oral sources as lectures and media broadcasts. 对于想要或需要参与口头人际交流的学习者以及想要或需要从讲座和媒体广播等口头来源接收信息的学习者来说，听力都是一项至关重要的活动。
One way to classify listening tasks is on a continuum from reciprocal to non-reciprocal communication. Participation in face-to-face interpersonal interaction is at the reciprocal end of this continuum, and listening to radio or TV news broadcasts is at the non-reciprocal end. Listening to academic lectures or conference presentations has the potential to be relatively more or less reciprocal depending on whether listeners have the opportunity to ask questions of the speaker and participate in discussion. Reciprocal communication requires learners to speak as well as to listen, and to collaborate in the negotiation of meaning. Non-reciprocal communication places heavier requirements on the listener for processing input and constructing meaning “online” or in real time, without being able to request repetition or clarification. 对听力任务进行分类的一种方法是从互惠到非互惠沟通的连续统一体。参与面对面的人际互动是这个连续体的互惠端，而收听广播或电视新闻广播是非互惠端。聆听学术讲座或会议演讲有可能相对或多或少地相互影响，这取决于听众是否有机会向演讲者提问并参与讨论。互惠交流要求学习者既要说，也要听，并在意义的谈判中合作。非互惠交流对听众提出了更高的要求，要求他们“在线”或实时地处理输入和构建意义，而无法要求重复或澄清。
Another way to classify listening activities is according to whether they require general or selective listening. General listening requires only that listeners get the general gist of the message, while selective listening requires perception and comprehension of important details. The latter type of task is common for academic lectures in which students are expected to note facts such as names, places, and dates, but also occurs in reciprocal interpersonal conversations such as when the listener is invited to be in a certain place at a particular time. 对听力活动进行分类的另一种方法是根据它们是否需要一般或选择性听力。一般的倾听只需要听众了解信息的一般要点，而选择性倾听则需要感知和理解重要的细节。后一种类型的任务在学术讲座中很常见，在学术讲座中，学生需要注意姓名、地点和日期等事实，但也发生在互惠的人际对话中，例如当听众被邀请在特定时间出现在某个地方时。
Beginning L2 listening 开始二语听力
Speech in a foreign language is initially perceived as merely a stream of noise. The first step in making sense of what people say is recognizing patterns in recurring sequences of sounds and attaching meaning to them. This begins the process of segmenting the stream of speech into meaningful units: sounds that form words, words that form phrases, and phrases that constitute clauses or sentences. Segmenting speech requires not only perceiving sound, but noticing patterns in relation to a context which allows interpretation. This requires the active engagement of learners. 外语的语音最初被认为只是一种噪音流。理解人们所说的话的第一步是识别重复出现的声音序列中的模式，并为它们赋予意义。这开始了将语音流分割成有意义的单元的过程：形成单词的声音、形成短语的单词以及构成从句或句子的短语。分割语音不仅需要感知声音，还需要注意与允许解释的上下文相关的模式。这需要学习者的积极参与。
Beginning L2 learners can begin to create sense from auditory input most easily if: 如果满足以下条件，二语初学者可以最容易地从听觉输入中创造意义：
They know in advance what the speaker is going to be talking about. 他们事先知道演讲者将要谈论什么。
Key words and phrases are learned as recognition vocabulary elements before they are encountered in connected speech. 关键词和短语在连接语音中遇到之前，作为识别词汇元素进行学习。
Speakers pause frequently at boundaries between parts of sentences. 说话者经常在句子各部分之间的边界处停顿。
Auditory messages are supported by visual images (including writing). 听觉信息由视觉图像（包括书写）支持。
The communicative situation is a reciprocal one that allows the listener to seek repetition and clarification, or to ask the speaker to slow down. 交际情境是一种互惠的情境，允许听众寻求重复和澄清，或要求说话者放慢速度。
Many nonlinguistic factors also influence comprehensibility in beginning L2 listening. Interference can be caused by: 许多非语言因素也会影响开始二语听力的可理解性。干扰可能由以下原因引起：
Poor signal quality 信号质量差
Background noise 背景噪音
Any distraction of the listener’s attention 任何分散听众注意力的行为
Affective features such as anxiety 情感特征，如焦虑
Speaker pronunciation is also a factor that influences listener comprehension. Many learners report that they find it easier to understand L2 utterances produced by speakers of their own L1 than by native speakers of the L2, presumably because the speakers’ accent is closer to their own phonological perceptual system. However, research on this topic suggests that familiarity with the accent is even more important. In universities where different native regional varieties of speech are found among instructors, students can improve their comprehension by recording classroom proceedings for subsequent “ear-tuning” (or familiarization), as well as for providing opportunities for review of linguistic structures and content. 说话者的发音也是影响听众理解的一个因素。许多学习者报告说，他们发现由自己的 L1 说话者比以 L2 为母语的人更容易理解 L2 话语，这可能是因为说话者的口音更接近他们自己的语音感知系统。然而，关于这个话题的研究表明，熟悉口音更为重要。在教师中发现不同母语地区语言的大学中，学生可以通过记录课堂程序来提高他们的理解力，以便随后进行“耳朵调整”（或熟悉），并提供复习语言结构和内容的机会。
Academic listening 学术听力
Academic listening requires much of the same L2 linguistic knowledge as was listed for academic reading: a larger recognition vocabulary of both basic and subject-specific terms; complex sentence structure; and organizational features at sentence and discourse levels that distinguish new from old information and highlight important content. In addition, academic listening often requires ability to process pronunciation by speakers of different native and nonnative varieties of the language which can be especially challenging for L2 learners. Recording lectures and other relatively non-reciprocal listening activities is useful for advanced as well as beginning students in such context, both for “ear-tuning” and for content review. It often takes several weeks for even advanced L2 learners to understand all the input they need from lectures and other oral events if they have not had recent extensive experience with listening activities; recordings allow for recovery of information that might otherwise be lost, and for recontextualization of key vocabulary that has been noted for subsequent definition or elaboration. 学术听力需要与学术阅读相同的二语语言知识：基本术语和特定学科术语的更多识别词汇;复杂的句子结构;以及句子和话语层面的组织特征，区分新旧信息并突出重要内容。此外，学术听力通常需要能够处理不同母语和非母语语言的说话者的发音，这对二语学习者来说尤其具有挑战性。在这种情况下，录制讲座和其他相对非互惠的听力活动对高级学生和初级学生都很有用，无论是“耳朵调整”还是内容复习。即使是高级二语学习者，如果他们最近没有丰富的听力活动经验，也往往需要几周的时间才能理解他们从讲座和其他口头活动中需要的所有输入;录音允许恢复可能丢失的信息，并重新将已注意到的关键词汇重新语境化，以便随后进行定义或阐述。
As with reading, development of advanced academic listening proficiency requires extensive exposure to oral, academic text. Unlike reading, listening proficiency can usually not be maintained at a high level without continuing L2 oral input. 与阅读一样，高级学术听力能力的发展需要广泛接触口头学术文本。与阅读不同，如果不继续进行二语口语输入，听力水平通常无法保持在高水平。
Productive activities 生产活动
Productive activities for language use involve essentially the same top-down and bottom-up processes as those for reception. Production of written or spoken language requires prior knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, phonology, syntax, and discourse structure to access words and combine them into phrases, clauses, and longer units of text. The relatively limited knowledge of L2 learners at early language learning levels can cause problems in production of meaning. In top-down processing, prior knowledge of content is the substance of information that a writer or speaker wishes to communicate; knowledge of context accounts for writers’ and speakers’ ability to select from potential linguistic options those which are appropriate to a specific communicative situation, including what should (or should not) to be written or said next; prior knowledge of culture includes cultural conventions for language use. 语言使用的生产活动与接受活动基本上涉及相同的自上而下和自下而上的过程。书面或口头语言的产生需要词汇、形态学、音韵学、句法和话语结构的先验知识，才能访问单词并将它们组合成短语、从句和更长的文本单元。二语学习者在早期语言学习阶段的知识相对有限，这可能会导致意义产生问题。在自上而下的处理中，对内容的先验知识是作者或演讲者希望传达的信息的实质;对语境的了解决定了作者和说话者从潜在的语言选项中选择适合特定交际情境的语言选项的能力，包括接下来应该（或不应该）写什么或说什么;文化的先验知识包括语言使用的文化习俗。
Writing ordinarily presumes ability to read, and speaking usually occurs in contexts which also involve listening and in which appropriateness of what is said requires understanding of what others have said and prediction of how they will respond. The knowledge of language that can be accessed for production is only a subset of what may be used for interpretation of language that is used by others; i.e. receptive competence always exceeds productive competence. 写作通常假定具有阅读能力，而说话通常发生在也涉及倾听的环境中，并且所说的话的适当性需要理解他人所说的话并预测他们将如何回应。可用于生产的语言知识只是可用于解释他人使用的语言知识的一个子集;也就是说，接受能力总是超过生产能力。
Some learners consider writing to be the easier of these two skills to acquire because it allows them time to consciously access and edit language elements at different levels, but many learners find speaking easier at least in part because it allows them to seek clarification and other types of interactional support from cooperative partners in communication. 一些学习者认为写作是这两种技能中更容易获得的，因为它让他们有时间有意识地访问和编辑不同级别的语言元素，但许多学习者发现说话更容易，至少部分原因是它允许他们在沟通中寻求澄清和其他类型的互动支持来自合作伙伴。
Writing 写作
Writing is the most important productive activity for L2 learners to develop if they will use the language for academic purposes, or in certain types of service functions (e.g. providing reports to supervisors or clients). Functions of L2 writing may include composing informal letters and e-mail if learners want or need to communicate with speakers of the language outside of an immediate interactional context, and daily life in some highly literate societies may necessitate at least limited L2 writing ability. 写作是二语学习者最重要的生产活动，如果他们将语言用于学术目的，或在某些类型的服务职能中（例如，向主管或客户提供报告）。如果学习者想要或需要在直接的互动环境之外与语言使用者交流，二语写作的功能可能包括撰写非正式信件和电子邮件，并且在一些高文化水平的社会中，日常生活可能需要至少有限的二语写作能力。
In addition to fulfilling academic and interpersonal functions, the process of writing itself is potentially important because of how it may contribute to successful L2 learning. Meaningful language output facilitates SLA in several ways. These notably include: 除了履行学术和人际交往功能外，写作过程本身也很重要，因为它可能有助于成功的二语学习。有意义的语言输出以多种方式促进 SLA。这些主要包括：
Generating input. 生成输入。
Enhancing fluency by furthering development of automaticity through practice. 通过练习进一步发展自动性来提高流利度。
Helping learners notice gaps in their own knowledge as they are forced to visibly encode concepts in L2 forms, which may lead them to give more attention to relevant information. 帮助学习者注意到自己知识的差距，因为他们被迫以二语形式明显地编码概念，这可能会导致他们更加关注相关信息。
Allowing learners to test hypotheses they have formulated as part of their developing linguistic systems, with opportunity for monitoring and revision. 允许学习者测试他们作为发展语言系统的一部分而制定的假设，并有机会进行监测和修改。
Providing opportunities for others to comment on problems and give corrective feedback. 为他人提供对问题发表评论和提供纠正反馈的机会。
Because writers must express ideas without recourse to objects and events in their own immediate physical environment or that of their reader(s), or to gestures and other nonverbal means of communication, and without reliance on immediate feedback or hearer cooperation to fill in gaps, writing can potentially push learners closer to the limits of their current level of linguistic knowledge than can speech. It seems likely that pushing the limits of linguistic knowledge in written production contributes to SLA by stimulating syntactic development. 由于作者必须表达想法，而不求助于他们自己或读者的直接物理环境中的物体和事件，或手势和其他非语言交流方式，并且不依赖即时反馈或听众合作来填补空白，写作可能会使学习者比语言更接近他们当前语言知识水平的极限。在书面制作中突破语言知识的极限似乎可以通过刺激句法发展来促进SLA。
The need for interaction of other domains of communicative competence with language knowledge is evident when we consider some of the steps that are involved in proficient writing: 当我们考虑熟练写作所涉及的一些步骤时，其他交际能力领域与语言知识相互作用的必要性是显而易见的：
Formulating mental concepts that are to be expressed centrally requires content knowledge. 制定要集中表达的心理概念需要内容知识。
Recognizing what content will be relevant for intended readers, and what will be shared versus new information, requires context knowledge. 识别哪些内容与目标读者相关，哪些内容将与新信息共享，需要上下文知识。
Constructing text within socially defined conventions of expression (including selecting linguistic forms and organization patterns that are appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience) also requires other aspects of culture knowledge. 在社会定义的表达惯例中构建文本（包括选择适合主题、目的和受众的语言形式和组织模式）还需要文化知识的其他方面。
Knowledge of content, context, and culture can partially compensate for limited knowledge of L2 language elements in writing. However, writing is probably the most dependent of the four language activities on linguistic knowledge. 对内容、背景和文化的了解可以部分弥补写作中对二语语言元素的有限了解。然而，写作可能是四种语言活动中对语言知识最依赖的。
Beginning L2 writing 开始 L2 写作
As is the case for developing reading ability, learners whose L1 is represented in a different orthographic system from the L2 need to learn symbols for encoding the target language as an early step in acquisition. Adding ability to use a new alphabetic system, a new syllabic system, or a new logographic system requires extensive practice to develop automaticity. Some learners begin with the low-level task of copying (even tracing over) words and phrases that they recognize by sight, or recording graphically something that they hear spoken. Knowledge of what symbols should be used to represent specific words is part of vocabulary knowledge, along with the meaning, pronunciation, and grammatical features of words. 与发展阅读能力的情况一样，L1 以与 L2 不同的正字法系统表示的学习者需要学习用于编码目标语言的符号，作为习得的早期步骤。增加使用新字母系统、新音节系统或新标识系统的能力需要大量练习来发展自动性。一些学习者从低级任务开始，即复制（甚至追踪）他们通过视觉识别的单词和短语，或以图形方式记录他们听到的口语。了解应该使用哪些符号来表示特定单词是词汇知识的一部分，以及单词的含义、发音和语法特征。
Transfer of effective language-specific writing processes that have been acquired in L1 to L2 is not possible until a threshold level of L2 structural knowledge has been reached. However, the content knowledge for formulating concepts to be expressed and the context knowledge for deciding relevance and appropriateness are not language-specific and thus may be accessed even when knowledge of L2 linguistic elements is very limited. More complex thinking can be involved in composition if these domains are initially associated with L1 linguistic structure and then encoded into L2. This allows attention to be focused on content and context, and then shifted consciously to L2 forms of expression. 在达到 L2 结构知识的阈值水平之前，不可能将 L1 获得的有效特定语言写作过程转移到 L2。然而，用于表述要表达的概念的内容知识和用于确定相关性和适当性的上下文知识不是针对特定语言的，因此即使对二语语言要素的了解非常有限，也可以获得。如果这些领域最初与 L1 语言结构相关联，然后编码到 L2 中，则会涉及更复杂的思维。这使得注意力集中在内容和上下文上，然后有意识地转移到二语表达形式上。
Many L2 learners feel more secure if they are given a model to follow in early stages of writing, so that they only need to make minimal linguistic changes and substitutions in what someone else has produced to construct their “own” text. This type of tightly controlled writing exercise has some value in developing automaticity in accessing and producing mechanical elements, but it does not push learners to the limits of their current level of linguistic knowledge in a way that is likely to benefit interlanguage development, and it may create an overreliance on following models which inhibits individual expression at later stages of development. 如果在写作的早期阶段给他们一个可以遵循的模型，许多二语学习者会感到更安全，这样他们只需要对别人制作的内容进行最小的语言更改和替换，就可以构建他们自己的“自己的”文本。这种严格控制的写作练习在发展获取和产生机械元素的自动性方面有一定的价值，但它不会以一种可能有利于跨语言发展的方式将学习者推向他们当前语言知识水平的极限，并且可能会造成对以下模式的过度依赖，从而抑制个人在后期发展阶段的表达。
Academic writing 学术写作
Effective academic writing requires considerable knowledge of linguistic elements at levels of vocabulary, morphology and syntax, mechanics of orthographic representation and punctuation, and conventions related to style and organization of presentation that are appropriate for the target genre. Command of a relatively formal register is needed, and accuracy in production is usually very important. 有效的学术写作需要对词汇、形态和句法层面的语言元素、正字表示和标点符号的机制以及与适合目标体裁的风格和表达组织相关的惯例有相当多的了解。需要对相对正式的寄存器进行指挥，生产中的准确性通常非常重要。
The relatively formal register needed for most academic writing may conflict with the relatively informal register that is often emphasized in “communicative” language teaching. This underlines the need for teachers and students to consider why an additional language is needed before determining priorities for what must be learned. It is probably in the best interest of most English L2 learners of the world to aim for a formal register before an informal one. It is perfectly possible to become proficient in writing a language well with little experience in either hearing it or speaking it. 大多数学术写作所需的相对正式的语记录可能与“交际”语言教学中经常强调的相对非正式的语记录相冲突。这突出表明，教师和学生在确定必须学习的内容的优先次序之前，需要考虑为什么需要额外的语言。对于世界上大多数英语二语学习者来说，在非正式注册之前进行正式注册可能符合最佳利益。完全有可能熟练地写出一门语言，而对听或说它几乎没有经验。
Speaking 说
Speaking is a very important area of activity for L2 learners if they will be using the language for interpersonal purposes, whether these are primarily social or instrumental. 对于二语学习者来说，口语是一个非常重要的活动领域，如果他们将语言用于人际交往目的，无论这些主要是社交还是工具。
The language knowledge involved in bottom-up processes for speech production includes appropriate vocabulary, features of pronunciation, grammatical patterns that will convey intended meaning, and understanding of discourse structures that will provide cohesion and coherence within a conversation or other spoken communicative event. The top-down processes simultaneously involved in speech production require content knowledge about a topic, cultural knowledge that informs determination of proprieties and provides macrosocial context for expression, and knowledge of microsocial context such as the significance of the immediate communicative activity, speaker role and relationship to addressees, and appropriateness conditions (e.g. what must be said, what may be said, and what should be left unsaid). 自下而上的语音生成过程中涉及的语言知识包括适当的词汇、发音特征、传达预期含义的语法模式，以及对话语结构的理解，这些结构将在对话或其他口语交际活动中提供凝聚力和连贯性。同时涉及言语生产的自上而下的过程需要关于一个主题的内容知识，文化知识，为礼仪的确定提供信息，并为表达提供宏观社会背景，以及微观社会背景的知识，如直接交际活动的意义、说话者的角色和与收件人的关系，以及适当性条件（例如，必须说什么，可以说什么， 以及应该不说的话）。
As with listening, speaking tasks can be classified on a continuum from reciprocal to non-reciprocal communication. Participation in face-to-face interpersonal interaction is at the reciprocal end of this continuum, and delivering lectures of conference presentations is close to the non-reciprocal end. Reciprocal communication requires learners to listen as well as to speak, and to collaborate in the negotiation of meaning. Unlike listening, non-reciprocal spoken communication places lighter requirements on the speaker for processing “online” or in real time than reciprocal, since there is usually time for preplanning. 与听力一样，口语任务可以按从互惠到非互惠交流的连续统一体进行分类。参与面对面的人际互动是这个连续体的互惠端，而发表会议演讲则接近于非互惠端。互惠交流要求学习者既要听又要说，并在意义谈判中合作。与听力不同，非互惠口语交流对说话者“在线”或实时处理的要求比互惠更轻，因为通常有时间进行预先计划。
Speech acts 言语行为
Language use accomplishes speaker goals by means of utterances which request something, apologize, promise, deny, express emotion, compliment, complain, and so forth. Utterances which fulfill such functions are speech acts, and they constitute most of what is said by people in the course of interpersonal communication. The same acts can be accomplished in the use of any language with others who understand that language, but the actual forms and conventions that can be used are of course language-specific. Learning how to perform these acts in the L2 is central to language learning, and knowing when to deploy them is basic to what we have called pragmatic competence. 语言使用通过要求某事、道歉、承诺、否认、表达情感、赞美、抱怨等话语来实现说话者的目标。履行这些功能的话语是言语行为，它们构成了人们在人际交往过程中所说的大部分内容。在与理解该语言的其他人一起使用任何语言时，可以完成相同的行为，但可以使用的实际形式和惯例当然是特定于语言的。学习如何在二语中执行这些行为是语言学习的核心，知道何时部署它们是我们所谓的语用能力的基础。
A variety of linguistic forms may be selected to accomplish any one speaker goal, with appropriate choice for a particular situation requiring cultural and contextual knowledge. For example, a student who wishes to borrow another student’s notes to study for a test might say: 可以选择各种语言形式来实现任何一个说话者的目标，并针对需要文化和背景知识的特定情况进行适当的选择。例如，一个学生如果想借用另一个学生的笔记来学习考试，可能会说：
Give me your notes. 把你的笔记给我。
Please let me make a copy of your notes. 请让我复印你的笔记。
You are a much better note-taker than I. Would you help me prepare for this test? 你比我好多了，你能帮我准备这个测试吗？
Could I take a little peek at your notes before the test? 考试前我可以看一下你的笔记吗？
Appropriate selection from among these and other possibilities depends on the relative social status of the speaker and addressee, the closeness or distance of their relationship, and the degree of imposition the request involves. Conditions do not receive the same weight in different cultures and do not receive the same interpretation, so the appropriate L2 selection of linguistic form is not a simple translation from what would be appropriate in L1. Acquisition of this aspect of L2 communicative competence requires adding new knowledge of culture and context. 从这些可能性和其他可能性中做出适当的选择取决于说话者和收件人的相对社会地位，他们关系的密切程度或距离，以及请求所涉及的强加程度。条件在不同的文化中没有得到相同的权重，也没有得到相同的解释，因此适当的 L2 语言形式的选择不是从 L1 中合适的语言形式进行简单的翻译。获得二语交际能力的这一方面需要增加新的文化和背景知识。
Other aspects of speaking competence 口语能力的其他方面
Other aspects of communicative competence which need to be acquired especially for successful participation in conversational speech activities include the following: 交际能力的其他方面，特别是为了成功参与会话演讲活动，需要获得的方面包括：
Knowledge of conversational structure. Possible differences in rules for turn-taking were discussed above in the section on Discourse: some languages consider interruptions, overlaps, and simultaneous speaking to be appropriate; some consider a period of silence between speakers to be a necessary condition for “polite” interaction. There are also linguistic and cultural differences in the sequence in which turns of talk are expected to occur (e.g. according to age or social status), and in production of back-channel signals. Conversational structure also involves rules for topic maintenance and shift, and for which utterances should be tied as adjacency pairs. 了解会话结构。上文关于话语的一节讨论了轮流发言规则的可能差异：一些语言认为打断、重叠和同声传言是合适的;有些人认为说话者之间的沉默是“礼貌”互动的必要条件。在预期谈话轮流发生的顺序（例如，根据年龄或社会地位）以及反向信道信号的产生方面也存在语言和文化差异。会话结构还涉及主题维护和转移的规则，以及应将话语绑定为邻接对的规则。
Knowledge of contextualization cues. Contextualization cues are elements of communication that allow people to express and interpret meaning beyond the referential meaning that the surface structure of messages provides. Cues may involve any of the linguistic knowledge we have considered, including speaker selection of vocabulary and pronunciation, prosody (intonation and stress), and rhythmic patterns (pauses and stops). Beyond this level, they involve sociocultural knowledge that matches linguistic forms to culture-specific expectations and allows appropriate interpretation of meaning within the contexts of use. People rely on such cues to make inferences about what is not explicitly said, and to identify speakers’ expressive overtones. Because knowledge of contextualization cues depends on cultural and communicative experience, this is a potential minefield of significant misunderstanding for L2 learners and others they are interacting with. Successful acquisition is most likely to be realized in situations where learners have opportunity for feedback from culturally sensitive native speakers, since the cues cannot be described abstractly and are elusive targets for formal instruction. 了解情境化线索。情境化线索是交流的元素，它允许人们表达和解释信息表面结构提供的参考意义之外的意义。提示可能涉及我们考虑过的任何语言知识，包括说话者对词汇和发音的选择、韵律（语调和重音）和节奏模式（停顿和停止）。在此级别之外，它们涉及社会文化知识，这些知识使语言形式与特定文化的期望相匹配，并允许在使用环境中对含义进行适当的解释。人们依靠这些线索来推断未明确说出的内容，并识别说话者的表达性暗示。由于情境化线索的知识取决于文化和交际经验，因此对于二语学习者和他们正在与之互动的其他人来说，这是一个潜在的重大误解雷区。在学习者有机会从对文化敏感的母语人士那里获得反馈的情况下，最有可能实现成功的习得，因为这些线索无法抽象地描述，并且是正式教学难以捉摸的目标。
Knowledge of communication strategies. A final aspect of communicative competence we will consider here is learner knowledge of how to compensate for limitations in their linguistic resources, or communication strategies. This includes knowledge of how to assess and repair misunderstanding, how to make use of interlocutor collaboration, and how to sustain interpersonal interaction. The types of strategies that were suggested by Elaine Tarone (1977),along with a brief description of each, is given below: 了解沟通策略。我们在这里要考虑的交际能力的最后一个方面是学习者如何弥补其语言资源或沟通策略的局限性的知识。这包括如何评估和修复误解、如何利用对话者协作以及如何维持人际互动的知识。Elaine Tarone（1977）提出的策略类型以及每种策略的简要描述如下：
Typology of communication strategies 沟通策略的类型学
1 Avoidance 1 回避
Topic avoidance 话题回避
Avoiding reference to a subject for which the learner lacks necessary vocabulary 避免提及学习者缺乏必要词汇的主题
Message abandonment 消息放弃
Giving up on a topic because it is too difficult to talk about 放弃一个话题，因为它太难谈论了
2 Paraphrase 2 释义
Approximation 近似值
Using a word that is not correct, but that refers to a similar object or event 使用不正确的词，但指的是类似的对象或事件
Word coinage 文字创造
Making up a new word or phrase to describe an object or event 编造一个新词或短语来描述一个对象或事件
Circumlocution 包皮术
Describing an object or event instead of using an appropriate vocabulary item 描述对象或事件，而不是使用适当的词汇项
3 Conscious transfer 3 有意识的转移
Literal translation 直译
Translating word for word from the L1 从 L1 逐字翻译
Language switch 语言切换
Inserting L1 words or phrases into L2 在 L2 中插入 L1 单词或短语
4 Appeal for assistance 4 求助
Asking a native speaker, looking a word up in a dictionary, or consulting some other authority 询问母语人士，在字典中查找单词，或咨询其他权威机构
5 Mime 5 哑剧
Using gestures or other nonverbal means to refer to an object or event 使用手势或其他非语言方式来指代物体或事件
Knowledge of communication strategies is particularly important for early L2 learners who want and need to participate in speaking activities because they allow talk to continue in a situation when it might otherwise cease. Continuation of talk, in turn, provides learners with more input, more practice, and more opportunity for collaborative construction of meaning. 沟通策略的知识对于想要并需要参与口语活动的早期二语学习者尤为重要，因为它们允许在可能停止的情况下继续进行口语。反过来，继续谈话为学习者提供了更多的输入、更多的练习和更多的合作建构意义的机会。
What exactly does the L2 learner come to know? 二语学习者究竟知道什么？
A system of knowledge about a second language which goes well beyond what could possibly have been taught. There is significant overlap with first language knowledge, especially (1) in underlying rules or principles that languages have in common and (2) in the potentials of language to make meaning. The L2 system is never exactly like the learner’s L1, however, nor is it ever exactly the same as that of its native speakers. 关于第二语言的知识体系，远远超出了可能教授的内容。与第一语言知识有很大的重叠，特别是（1）在语言具有共同的基本规则或原则上，以及（2）在语言创造意义的潜力上。然而，L2 系统永远不会与学习者的 L1 完全相同，也不会与母语人士的系统完全相同。
Patterns of recurrent elements that comprise components of L2-specific knowledge: vocabulary (lexicon), morphology (word structure), phonology (sound system), syntax (grammar), and discourse (ways to connect sentences and organize information). The amount of overlap with L1 language depends on the genetic or typological relationship of the two languages and on whether there has been borrowing or other influence between them. Exactly which elements are acquired within each of these components depends in large measure on learner motivation and on other circumstances of learning. 构成 L2 特定知识组成部分的循环元素模式：词汇（词典）、形态（单词结构）、音韵学（声音系统）、句法（语法）和话语（连接句子和组织信息的方法）。与L1语言的重叠程度取决于两种语言的遗传或类型关系，以及它们之间是否存在借用或其他影响。在这些组成部分中究竟获得了哪些要素，在很大程度上取决于学习者的动机和其他学习环境。
How to encode particular concepts in the L2, including grammatical notions of time, number of referents, and the semantic role of elements (e.g. whether subject or object). 如何在 L2 中对特定概念进行编码，包括时间的语法概念、指称的数量和元素的语义角色（例如，无论是主语还是宾语）。
Pragmatic competence, or knowledge of how to interpret and convey meaning in contexts of social interaction. 语用能力，或如何在社会互动环境中解释和传达意义的知识。
Means for using the L2 in communicative activities: listening, speaking, reading, writing. Many learners develop only an oral channel, or only a written channel, without the other; neither channel is a necessary precondition for the other, though they may reinforce one another. Minimally, language learning requires means for participation in at least one receptive activity; otherwise, necessary input for SLA would not be available. 在交际活动中使用二语的方法：听、说、读、写。许多学习者只发展一个口头渠道，或者只发展一个书面渠道，而没有其他渠道;任何一个渠道都不是另一个渠道的必要先决条件，尽管它们可以相互加强。最低限度，语言学习需要参与至少一项接受活动的手段;否则，SLA 的必要输入将不可用。
How to select among multiple language systems, and how to switch between languages in particular social contexts and for particular purposes. What is acquired thus includes a system of knowledge about how to process multiple languages: understanding of multilingual language processing is also highly relevant to our understanding of how languages are learned. 如何在多种语言系统之间进行选择，以及如何在特定的社会环境和特定目的的语言之间切换。因此，所获得的包括一个关于如何处理多种语言的知识系统：对多语言语言处理的理解也与我们对语言学习方式的理解高度相关。
Communicative competence: all of the above, plus social and cultural knowledge required for appropriate use and interpretation of L2 forms. Inclusion and definition of communicative competence as a goal or outcome of L2 learning is highly variable, depending on macrosocial contexts of learning as well as on linguistic, psychological, and interactional factors. 交际能力：以上所有，以及正确使用和解释二语形式所需的社会和文化知识。交际能力作为二语学习的目标或结果的纳入和定义是高度可变的，这取决于学习的宏观社会背景以及语言、心理和互动因素。
How does the learner acquire L2 knowledge? 学习者如何获得二语知识？
Innate capacity.While there is disagreement over whether capacity for language learning is basically different from learning any other complex domain of knowledge, it is clear that some innate capacity must be posited to account for learning. Language learners are not merely passive recipients of “stimuli”. There is a creative force involved in language development which must be an innate endowment. 与生俱来的能力。虽然对于语言学习能力是否与学习任何其他复杂知识领域基本不同存在分歧，但很明显，必须假设某种先天能力来解释学习。语言学习者不仅仅是“刺激”的被动接受者。语言发展中涉及一种创造性的力量，这种创造力必须是一种与生俱来的禀赋。
Application of prior knowledge.The initial state of L2 includes knowledge of L1 (and language in general), and the processes of SLA include interpretation of the new language in terms of that knowledge. There is also application of what has been acquired as part of general cognitive development, as well as of all prior social experience. 先验知识的应用。L2 的初始状态包括 L1（以及一般语言）的知识，而 SLA 的过程包括根据该知识对新语言的解释。作为一般认知发展的一部分，以及所有先前的社会经验，也有应用。
Processing of language input. The critical need for L2 input in SLA is agreed on, although its roles in acquisition receive differential definition and weight in accounts from alternative perspectives and orientations. The processing of input in itself is a necessary factor in acquisition. 语言输入的处理。SLA 中对 L2 输入的迫切需求是一致的，尽管它在获取中的作用从不同的角度和方向在账户中获得了不同的定义和权重。输入的处理本身就是获取的必要因素。
Interaction.Processing of L2 input in interactional situations is facilitative, and some think also causative, of SLA. Benefits come from collaborative expression, modified input, feedback (including correction), and negotiation of meaning. SLA is likely to be greatly inhibited if learners are isolated from opportunities for use. Social perspectives generally hold that SLA benefits from the active engagement of learners in interaction, or participation in communicative events. 互动。在交互情况下处理 L2 输入是 SLA 的促进因素，有些人认为也是 SLA 的因果关系。好处来自协作表达、修改输入、反馈（包括纠正）和意义协商。如果学习者与使用机会隔离开来，SLA 可能会受到极大的抑制。社会观点普遍认为，SLA受益于学习者积极参与互动或参与交际活动。
Restructuring of the L2 knowledge system. SLA occurs progressively through a series of systematic stages. Development of L2 knowledge does not manifest itself in a smooth cline of linguistic performance, but rather in one which sometimes shows abrupt changes in the interlanguage system. This indicates reorganization takes place from time to time during the process of SLA, presumably as perceived L2 input cannot be accommodated within the learners’ existing system of knowledge. This restructuring is a creative process, driven by inner forces in interaction with environmental factors, and motivated both by L1 knowledge and by input from the L2. L2知识体系的重组。SLA通过一系列系统阶段逐步发生。二语知识的发展并不表现为语言表现的平滑曲线，而是表现为语言间系统有时突然变化的曲线。这表明在SLA过程中不时会发生重组，大概是因为感知到的L2输入无法适应学习者的现有知识系统。这种重组是一个创造性的过程，由内在力量与环境因素相互作用所驱动，并受到L1知识和L2输入的推动。
Mapping of relationships or associations between linguistic functions and forms. L2 acquisition involves increasing reliance on grammatical structure and reduced reliance on context and lexical items. This development is driven by communicative need and use, as well as by awareness of the probability that a particular linguistic form represents a particular meaning. 映射语言功能和形式之间的关系或关联。二语习得涉及增加对语法结构的依赖，减少对上下文和词汇项目的依赖。这种发展是由交际需求和使用驱动的，也是由对特定语言形式代表特定含义的可能性的认识驱动的。
Automatization.While simplistic notions of habit formation are no longer accepted as explanations for language acquisition, frequency of input as well as practice in processing input and output are widely recognized determinants of L2 development. Frequency and practice lead to automaticity in processing, and they free learners’ processing capacity for new information and higher-order performance needs. Automatization is an incremental achievement upon which efficient and effective engagement in all language activities ultimately depends. 自动化。虽然习惯养成的简单概念不再被接受为语言习得的解释，但输入频率以及处理输入和输出的实践是公认的二语发展的决定因素。频率和练习导致处理的自动化，它们释放了学习者的处理能力，以满足新信息和更高阶的表现需求。自动化是一项渐进式的成就，所有语言活动的高效和有效参与最终取决于此。
Why are some learners more successful than others? 为什么有些学习者比其他学习者更成功？
Social context.Features of social context which affect degree of success include the status of L1 and L2, boundary and identity factors within and between the L1 and L2 speech communities, and institutional forces and constraints. These macrosocial factors influence L2 learning primarily because of their impact on attitude and opportunity. They also determine whether the L2 is being learned as a second language, a foreign language, an auxiliary language, or a language for specific purposes. 社会背景。影响成功程度的社会环境特征包括L1和L2的地位，L1和L2语言社区内部和之间的边界和身份因素，以及制度力量和约束。这些宏观社会因素影响二语学习主要是因为它们对态度和机会的影响。它们还确定 L2 是作为第二语言、外语、辅助语言还是用于特定目的的语言来学习。
Social experience. Quantity and quality of L2 input and interaction are determined by social experience, and both have significant influence on ultimate success in L2 learning. Because social variables are complex and often impossible to control, there is very little experimental evidence to support this conclusion. However, correlational and anecdotal evidence abounds, and it is quite convincing. 社会经验。二语输入和互动的数量和质量由社会经验决定，两者都对二语学习的最终成功有重大影响。由于社会变量很复杂，而且往往无法控制，因此很少有实验证据支持这一结论。然而，相关和轶事证据比比皆是，而且非常有说服力。
Relationship of L1 and L2. All languages are learnable, but not all L2s are equally easy for speakers of particular L1s to acquire. Knowledge of L1 is an important component of all L2 competence in its initial state, but the genetic, typological, and historical relationships of L1 and L2 will yield differential possibilities for positive transfer of parameter settings and surface-level features, including vocabulary and writing system. L1 和 L2 的关系。所有语言都是可以学习的，但并非所有的 L2 都同样容易获得特定 L1 语言的人。L1 的知识是所有 L2 能力在其初始状态的重要组成部分，但 L1 和 L2 的遗传、类型和历史关系将为参数设置和表层特征（包括词汇和书写系统）的积极转移产生不同的可能性。
Age.There is a common belief that children are more successful L2 learners than adults, but as we noted, the evidence for this is equivocal. Younger learners generally have an advantage in brain plasticity, in not being so analytical, in (usually) having fewer inhibitions and weaker group identity, and in having more years to learn the language before ultimate proficiency is judged. Older learners generally have an advantage in learning capacity, in analytic ability, in pragmatic skills, in greater knowledge of their L1, and in real-world knowledge. It is possible for older learners to achieve near-native competence in an L2, but less likely. 年龄。人们普遍认为，儿童比成人更成功，但正如我们所指出的，这方面的证据是模棱两可的。年轻的学习者通常在大脑可塑性方面具有优势，分析能力不强，（通常）抑制较少，群体认同感较弱，并且在判断最终熟练程度之前有更多的时间来学习语言。年龄较大的学习者通常在学习能力、分析能力、语用技能、更多的 L1 知识和现实世界知识方面具有优势。年龄较大的学习者有可能在二语中达到接近母语的能力，但可能性较小。
Aptitude.Learners differ in capacity to discriminate and process auditory input, to identify patterns and make generalizations, and to store linguistic elements in memory. We may conclude that aptitude is an important predictor of differential success in L2 learning, but it is not completely deterministic. 资质。学习者在辨别和处理听觉输入、识别模式和进行概括以及将语言元素存储在记忆中的能力不同。我们可以得出结论，能力倾向是二语学习中差异成功的重要预测因素，但它并不完全是确定性的。
Motivation.Motivation largely determines the level of effort which learners expend at various stages in their L2 development, and it is often a key to ultimate level of proficiency. No particular type of motivation appears to have any inherent advantage over the other in terms of L2 achievement. 赋予动机。动机很大程度上决定了学习者在二语发展的各个阶段所付出的努力程度，而这往往是最终熟练程度的关键。就 L2 成就而言，似乎没有一种特定类型的动机比其他动机具有任何先天优势。
Instruction.Quality of instruction clearly makes a difference in formal contexts of L2 learning. What is known from linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA, however, does not strongly support any one instructional approach over others, despite the claims of proponents. The array of social circumstances and individual learner factors which we have explored indeed suggests that there can be no one “best” method that will fit all, and a combination of different methods is undoubtedly the wisest approach. 指令。在二语学习的正式环境中，教学质量显然会有所不同。然而，从语言学、心理学和社会学的角度来看，SLA的已知情况并没有强烈支持任何一种教学方法优于其他教学方法，尽管支持者声称。我们所探讨的一系列社会环境和个人学习者因素确实表明，没有一种“最佳”方法适合所有人，不同方法的组合无疑是最明智的方法。
Implications for L2 learning and teaching 对二语学习和教学的影响
Although we have seen that knowledge of L2 goes well beyond what can be consciously learned and taught, we have also seen that L2 acquisition usually requires intentional effort, and that a number of individual and social factors strongly affect ultimate outcomes. We cannot control most of these factors, but recognizing them can contribute to efficiency and effectiveness in second language development. As a starting point, our findings about SLA suggest the following general guidelines for L2 learning and teaching: 虽然我们已经看到，二语知识远远超出了有意识地学习和教授的范围，但我们也看到，二语的习得通常需要有意识的努力，而且许多个人和社会因素会强烈影响最终结果。我们无法控制这些因素中的大多数，但认识到它们可以提高第二语言发展的效率和有效性。作为起点，我们关于SLA的发现提出了以下二语学习和教学的一般准则：
Consider the goals that individuals and groups have for learning an additional language. 考虑个人和团体学习其他语言的目标。
Set priorities for learning/teaching that are compatible with those goals. 设定与这些目标相符的学习/教学的优先事项。
Approach learning/teaching tasks with an appreciation of the multiple dimensions that are involved: linguistic, psychological, and social. 在处理学习/教学任务时，要了解所涉及的多个维度：语言、心理和社会。
Understand the potential strengths and limitations of particular learners and contexts for learning, and make use of them in adapting learning/teaching procedures. 了解特定学习者和学习环境的潜在优势和局限性，并利用它们来调整学习/教学程序。
Be cautious in subscribing to any instructional approach which is narrowly focused or dogmatic. There is no one “best” way to learn or teach a second language. 在订阅任何狭隘或教条的教学方法时要谨慎。学习或教授第二语言没有一种“最佳”方法。
Recognize achievement in incremental progress. And be patient. Learning a language takes time. 承认渐进式进步的成就。并要有耐心。学习一门语言需要时间。
沉浸式翻译