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Coding in Grounded Theory Practice
紮根理論實踐中的編碼

The first analytic turn in our grounded theory journey brings us to coding. Grounded theory coding requires us to stop and ask analytic questions of the data we have gathered. These questions not only further our understanding of studied life but also help us direct subsequent data-gathering toward the analytic issues we are defining. Grounded theory coding consists of at least two phases: initial and focused coding. During initial coding we study fragments of datawords, lines, segments, and incidents-closely for their analytic import. From time to time, we may adopt our participants' telling terms as in vivo codes. While engaging in focused coding, we select what seem to be the most useful initial codes and test them against extensive data. Throughout the process, we compare data with data and then data with codes. We may follow special procedures to elaborate our codes or move to extant theoretical codes but only if indicated by our emerging analysis. Signposts and guides make our sojourn with coding accessible and ease our way around obstacles.
我們紮根理論之旅的第一個分析轉折將我們帶到了編碼。紮根理論編碼要求我們停下來,對我們收集的數據提出分析問題。這些問題不僅加深了我們對研究生活的理解,還有助於我們將後續的數據收集引導到我們正在定義的分析問題上。紮根理論編碼至少包括兩個階段:初始編碼和集中編碼。在初始編碼期間,我們仔細研究數據字、行、段和事件的片段,以了解它們的分析導入。有時,我們可能會採用參與者的講述術語作為體內代碼。在進行重點編碼時,我們選擇看似最有用的初始代碼,並根據大量數據對其進行測試。在整個過程中,我們將數據與數據進行比較,然後將數據與代碼進行比較。我們可能會遵循特殊程式來制定我們的代碼或轉向現有的理論代碼,但前提是我們的新分析表明瞭這一點。路標和指南使我們的編碼之旅變得觸手可及,並讓我們輕鬆繞過障礙。
Consider the following interview excerpt from Bonnie Presley, who had long known she had systemic lupus erythematosus and had recently learned that she also had discoid lupus erythematosus. At the time of this interview, Bonnie was 48 years old and divorced from her second husband. After leaving a partner with whom she had lived for several years, she lived alone with her three cats. During the past year, she had had several immobilizing episodes of illness; the first one had been life-threatening. Currently, she was attempting to regain her strength after being ill for almost three months. Bonnie's good friend and neighbor, Linda, was keeping a watchful eye on her. Linda was bringing Bonnie food and made her tea since Bonnie felt too weak to care for herself.
考慮以下邦妮·普雷斯利(Bonnie Presley)的採訪摘錄,她很早就知道自己患有系統性紅斑狼瘡,最近才知道自己也患有盤狀紅斑狼瘡。在接受採訪時,邦妮 48 歲,與第二任丈夫離婚。在離開了與她生活了幾年的伴侶後,她獨自帶著三隻貓生活。在過去的一年裡,她有幾次無法動彈的疾病發作;第一個是危及生命的。目前,她在病了近三個月後正試圖恢復體力。邦妮的好朋友兼鄰居琳達一直在監視她。琳達給邦妮帶來了食物,併為她泡了茶,因為邦妮覺得自己太虛弱了,無法照顧自己。
Although Bonnie's adult daughter, Amy, now lived in the area, their calls and Amy's visits remained sporadic. Years before, Amy could not understand how the mother she had known as a fitness buff could have become so sedentary. Bonnie's youthful physical appearance belied her health status because her symptoms remained invisible to an untrained eye. In the early years of her illness, Bonnie had found it difficult to tell Amy about her illness and its seriousness. Amy had moved away before Bonnie first became ill and Bonnie
雖然邦妮的成年女兒艾米現在住在該地區,但他們的電話和艾米的探訪仍然零星。幾年前,艾米無法理解她所認識的健身愛好者的母親怎麼會變得如此久坐不動。邦妮年輕的外表掩蓋了她的健康情況,因為她的癥狀對未經訓練的眼睛來說仍然看不見。在她生病的最初幾年,邦妮發現很難告訴艾米她的病情及其嚴重性。 艾米在邦妮第一次生病之前就搬走了,邦妮

had either understated what was happening or avoided telling Amy. Bonnie recounted her realization about how she had told Amy the news about her recent crisis:
要麼低估了正在發生的事情,要麼避免告訴艾米。邦妮講述了她如何告訴艾米關於她最近危機的消息的領悟:
She found out from Linda that I was, had been in bed for days and she called me up. 'You never tell me, and I have to find out from Linda,' and 'Why don't you tell me who you are and what's going on and ... Well, I don't know how long after that, but that Saturday the pain started right here and it, throughout the day it got worse and worse and worse. And she-I kept thinking that, well, I can deal with this, so I took some kind of a pain pill and nothing helped. And that was about one in the afternoon. Well, it got worse and worse so that every time I took a breath the pain was horrible, so by seven, eight o'clock that night, I was scared because I knew that if it got any worse I wasn't going to be able to breathe. So I called her and then I told her what was going on, that I was going to be driven to the doctor because they were going to try giving me shots of zylocain or something to try to locate a point to where maybe it would go in there and numb the pain for me so that I could breathe. Well, I called her and told her this. And I have a car phone. She says, 'Well, Mom l'll call you later or you call me.' Well, I didn't call her; she didn't call me. That was Saturday night. She didn't call me until-she called me about noon on Monday, and I finally said, 'Well look, this is why I don't tell you, because when I toid you Saturday night, you never called, you didn't care or anything and it really hurt my feelings. So that's why I don't tell you when I have this going on.' And she said to me, 'Well, Mom, you sounded perfectly fine.' And I said, 'Well, what do you expect me to do, become an emotional wreck or something?' I said, 'I have to keep everything still and quiet in me in order to control, because if I went into emotional frenzy, I would have not been able to breathe,' you know. So she started really trying to understand that just because I was scared to death. I was in horrible pain, but when i called her, I guess I was just a normal mom.
她從琳達那裡得知我在床上躺了好幾天,她打電話給我。“你從來不告訴我,我必須從琳達那裡知道,”和“你為什麼不告訴我你是誰,發生了什麼事......好吧,我不知道在那之後過了多久,但那個星期六的疼痛就從這裡開始了,一整天它變得越來越糟。她——我一直在想,好吧,我可以處理這個問題,所以我吃了某種止痛藥,但沒有任何説明。那大約是下午一點。嗯,情況越來越糟,以至於每次我呼吸時疼痛都非常可怕,所以到了那天晚上七、八點,我很害怕,因為我知道如果情況變得更糟,我將無法呼吸。所以我打電話給她,然後我告訴她發生了什麼事,我要開車去看醫生,因為他們會試著給我注射齊洛卡因或其他東西,試圖找到一個點,也許它會進入那裡,為我麻木疼痛,這樣我就可以呼吸了。好吧,我打電話給她,告訴她這件事。我有一部車載電話。她說,『好吧,媽媽一會兒給你打電話,或者你給我打電話。好吧,我沒有給她打電話;她沒有給我打電話。那是星期六晚上。她沒有給我打電話,直到星期一中午她給我打電話,我終於說,『好吧,這就是我不告訴你的原因,因為當我星期六晚上給你打電話時,你從來沒有打電話,你不在乎什麼,這真的傷害了我的感情。所以這就是為什麼我不告訴你什麼時候有這件事。她對我說,『嗯,媽媽,你聽起來很好。我說,『好吧,你希望我做什麼,成為一個情緒崩潰的人?“我說,'我必須保持一切靜止和安靜,才能控制,因為如果我陷入情緒狂熱,我就無法呼吸,”你知道的。所以她開始真正試圖理解這一點,只是因為我被嚇死了。我非常痛苦,但當我打電話給她時,我想我只是一個普通的媽媽。
What sense might we make of stories like Bonnie's? How do we synthesize hundreds of pages of interviews, fieldnotes, documents, and other texts to develop a grounded theory? Whether we have collected stories, scenes, or written statements, we study and define these materials to analyze what happened and what they might mean.
我們能從邦妮的故事中理解什麼?我們如何綜合數百頁的採訪、田野筆記、檔和其他文本來發展一個紮根的理論?無論我們收集了故事、場景還是書面陳述,我們都會研究和定義這些材料,以分析發生了什麼以及它們可能意味著什麼。
Qualitative coding, the process of defining what the data are about, is our first analytic step. Coding means naming segments of data with a label that simultaneously categorizes, summarizes, and accounts
定性編碼,即定義數據內容的過程,是我們分析的第一步。編碼意味著使用同時分類、匯總和帳戶的標籤來命名數據段

for each piece of data. Coding is the first step in moving beyond concrete statements in the data to making analytic interpretations. We aim to make an interpretative rendering that begins with coding and illuminates studied life.
對於每條數據。 編碼是超越數據中的具體陳述進行分析解釋的第一步。我們的目標是製作一種從編碼開始的解釋性渲染,並闡明所研究的生活。

BOX 3.1 GROUNDED THEORY CODING EXAMPLE
框注 3.1 紮根理論編碼示例

Receiving second-hand news
接收二手新聞
Being left out; Accusing mother of repeated not telling; (questioning ethical stance?) Being confronted
被排除在外;指責母親一再不說;(質疑道德立場?被面對
Facing self and identity questions; Demanding self-disclosure and information
面對自我和身份問題;要求自我披露和提供資訊
Experiencing escalating pain Expecting to manage pain Inability to control pain
經歷不斷升級的疼痛 期望控制疼痛 無法控制疼痛
Rapid worsening of pain Having excruciating pain Becoming frightened; Foreseeing breathing crisis
疼痛迅速加重 疼痛難忍 變得害怕;預見呼吸危機
Breaking the news; Informing daughter of plan
突發新聞;通知女兒計劃

Explaining projected treatment
解釋預計的治療

Having access for making contact
可以進行聯繫
Leaving follow-up contact open-ended
讓後續聯繫保持開放式
No follow-up 沒有跟進
Ascertaining the time between contacts
確定接觸之間的時間
Explaining lack of disclosure Accusing daughter of not caring
解釋缺乏披露 指責女兒不關心
Expressing hurt; Assuming lack of caring; Making negative inferences (of a moral lapse?)
表達傷害;假設缺乏關懷;做出負面推論(道德失誤?
Accounting for not telling
不說的代價
Sounding fine 聽起來不錯
Questioning daughter's expectations
質疑女兒的期望
Explaining need for emotional control
解釋情緒控制的必要性
Seeing life-threatening risk of losing control
看到失去控制的危及生命的風險
Teaching that mode of telling does not reflect state of being
教導這種講述方式並不能反映存在狀態
Sounding like a 'normal' mom
聽起來像一個“正常”的媽媽

She found out from Linda that I was, had been in bed for days and she called me up, 'You never tell me, and ! have to find out from Linda,' and 'Why don't you tell me who you are and what's going on and ...' Well, I don't know how long after that, but that Saturday the pain started right here and it, throughout the day it got worse and worse and worse. And she-l kept thinking that, well, I can deal with this, so I took some kind of a pain pill and nothing helped. And that was about one in the afternoon. Well, it got worse and worse so that every time I took a breath the pain was horrible, so by seven, eight o'clock that night, I was scared because I knew that if it got any worse 1 wasn't going to be able to breathe. So I called her and then I told her what was going on, that I was going to be driven to the doctor because they were going to try giving me shots of zylocain or something to try to locate a point to where maybe it would go in there and numb the pain for me so that I could breathe. Well, called her and told her this. And I have a car phone. She says, 'Well, Mom l'll call you later or you call me.' Well. I didn't call her; she didn't call me. That was Saturday night. She didn't call me until-she called me about noon on Monday, and I finally said, 'Well look, this is why I don't tell you, because when I told you Saturday night, you never called, you didn't care or anything and it really hurt my feelings. So that's why I don't tell you when I have this going on.' And she said to me, 'Well, Mom, you sounded perfectly fine.' And I said, 'Well, what do you expect me to do, become an emotional wreck or something?' I said, 'I have to keep everything still and quiet in me in order to control, because if I went into emotional frenzy, I would have not been able to breathe,' you know. So she started really trying to understand that just because I was scared to death, I was in horrible pain, but when I called her, I guess I was just a normal mom.
她從琳達那裡得知我在床上躺了好幾天,她打電話給我,“你從來不告訴我,而且!必須從琳達那裡找出答案,“和”你為什麼不告訴我你是誰,發生了什麼事......”好吧,我不知道在那之後過了多久,但那個星期六的疼痛就從這裡開始了,一整天它變得越來越糟。她一直在想,好吧,我可以處理這個問題,所以我吃了某種止痛藥,但沒有任何説明。那大約是下午一點。嗯,情況越來越糟,以至於每次我呼吸時疼痛都很可怕,所以到了那天晚上七、八點,我很害怕,因為我知道如果情況變得更糟,我就無法呼吸了。所以我打電話給她,然後我告訴她發生了什麼事,我要開車去看醫生,因為他們會試著給我注射齊洛卡因或其他東西,試圖找到一個點,也許它會進入那裡,為我麻木疼痛,這樣我就可以呼吸了。好吧, 打電話給她並告訴她這個。我有一部車載電話。她說,『好吧,媽媽一會兒給你打電話,或者你給我打電話。井。我沒有給她打電話;她沒有給我打電話。那是星期六晚上。她沒有給我打電話,直到星期一中午她給我打電話,我終於說,『好吧,這就是我不告訴你的原因,因為當我星期六晚上告訴你時,你從來沒有打電話,你不在乎什麼,這真的傷害了我的感情。所以這就是為什麼我不告訴你什麼時候有這件事。她對我說,『嗯,媽媽,你聽起來很好。我說,『好吧,你希望我做什麼,成為一個情緒崩潰的人?“我說,'我必須保持一切靜止和安靜,才能控制,因為如果我陷入情緒狂熱,我就無法呼吸,”你知道的。所以她開始真正地試圖理解,僅僅因為我被嚇死了,我就感到非常痛苦,但當我打電話給她時,我想我只是一個普通的媽媽。
Our codes show how we select, separate, and sort data to begin an analytic accounting of them. Qualitative codes take segments of data apart, name them in concise terms, and propose an analytic handle to develop abstract ideas for interpreting each segment of data. As we code, we ask: which theoretical categories might these statements indicate?
我們的代碼顯示了我們如何選擇、分離和排序數據以開始對它們進行分析。定性代碼將數據段分開,用簡潔的術語命名它們,並提出一個分析句柄來開發用於解釋每個數據段的抽象想法。當我們編碼時,我們會問:這些陳述可能表明哪些理論類別?
You might have wondered what qualitative codes look like and how researchers construct them. A quick look at my codes of Bonnie Presley's story will give you an idea (see Box 3.1).
您可能想知道定性代碼是什麼樣子的,以及研究人員如何構建它們。快速流覽一下我對邦妮·普雷斯利(Bonnie Presley)故事的代碼會給你一個想法(見框3.1)。
The codes in Box 3.1 attempt to portray meanings and actions in Bonnie's story. We gain a sense of both Bonnie's and Amy's concerns, as Bonnie presents them. Her story shows how telling news can be fraught with problems. Misunderstandings and dilemmas arise. Hesitancies occur. Accusations ensue. Explanations follow. Telling the news can open the self to view, nisk emotional costs, and force questions about relationships. Not telling or delayed telling can also rent or rupture bonds. Familial failures, ethical slights, and moral claims accrue, from one or another person's view. Rhetorical styles may be meant-or misunderstood-as delivering fundamental judgments. For both Bonnie and Amy, disclosing illness became a contested area in which charged questions ignited about whom each was to the other. Events may force disclosure, as Bonnie's story indicates. What people tell, when they tell it, and how they tell it all matter. How Bonnie told her daughter affected how her daughter understood and acted on the news. Bonnie had concentrated on not risking loss of emotional control but later realized that her straightforward way of informing Amy may have understated the seriousness of the episode and fueled misunderstandings. By maintaining emotional control when informing her daughter, Bonnie's daughter thought she 'sounded perfectly fine,' like just a normal mom.'
方框3.1中的代碼試圖描繪邦妮故事中的意義和行為。當邦妮提出這些擔憂時,我們感受到了邦妮和艾米的擔憂。她的故事表明,講述新聞可能會充滿問題。誤解和困境隨之而來。猶豫不決。指控接踵而至。解釋如下。說新聞可以打開自我的視野,降低情感成本,並迫使人們質疑人際關係。不告訴或延遲告訴也可能使債券脫落或破裂。家庭的失敗、道德上的輕視和道德要求,都是從一個人或另一個人的角度來看的。修辭風格可能被理解或誤解為提供基本判斷。對於邦妮和艾米來說,披露疾病成為一個有爭議的領域,在這個領域中,關於彼此是誰的激烈問題被點燃了。正如邦妮的故事所表明的那樣,事件可能會迫使披露。人們說什麼,什麼時候說,以及如何說都很重要。邦妮告訴女兒的方式影響了女兒對新聞的理解和行動。邦妮一直專注於不冒失去情緒控制的風險,但後來意識到她直截了當地通知艾米的方式可能低估了事件的嚴重性並加劇了誤解。邦妮的女兒在通知女兒時保持情緒控制,認為她“聽起來很好”,就像一個普通的媽媽一樣。
Note that the codes stick closely to the data, show actions, and indicate how dilemmas surrounding disclosure arise. Certain codes, such as 'being left out,' 'facing self and identity questions,' 'demanding self-disclosure and information,' are central to analyzing Bonnie's story, as are those about accounting, explaining, and providing reasons. Other codes preserve events, suggest contexts, and portray viewpoints, such as 'receiving second-hand news,' 'expecting to manage pain,' and 'sounding like a "normal" mom.' Many of the codes are short. They also imply crucial relationships between telling and self, as defined by both self and other. Hence, the codes suggest building categories concerned with telling, disclosing, self, and identity. I placed two codes in parentheses because they are less firmly apparent here than others and represent ideas to look for in further data. Consistent with a grounded theory emphasis on emergence, questions about these codes arise from my reading of the data rather than emanating from an earlier frame applied to them.
請注意,這些代碼與數據密切相關,顯示操作,並指出圍繞披露的困境是如何產生的。某些準則,如“被排除在外”、“面對自我和身份問題”、“要求自我披露和資訊”,是分析邦妮故事的核心,關於會計、解釋和提供理由的準則也是如此。其他代碼保留了事件,暗示了上下文,並描繪了觀點,例如“接收二手新聞”,“期望控制疼痛”和“聽起來像一個”正常“的媽媽。許多代碼都很短。它們還暗示了講述和自我之間的重要關係,由自我和他人定義。因此,這些代碼建議建立與講述、披露、自我和身份有關的類別。我在括弧中放置了兩個代碼,因為它們在這裡不如其他代碼那麼明顯,並且代表了在進一步數據中尋找的想法。與強調湧現的紮根理論一致,關於這些代碼的問題源於我對數據的閱讀,而不是來自應用於它們的早期框架。

Grounded Theory Coding 紮根理論編碼

Grounded theory coding generates the bones of your analysis. Theoretical integration will assemble these bones into a working skeleton. Thus, coding is more than a beginning; it shapes an analytic frame from which you build the analysis.
紮根理論編碼生成分析的骨架。理論整合將把這些骨骼組裝成一個工作骨架。因此,編碼不僅僅是一個開始;它塑造了一個分析框架,您可以從中構建分析。
I lay out coding strategies for developing the frame. Try them. See how they work for you. Grounded theory coding fosters studying action and processes, as you can see in the codes of Bonnie Presley's story.
我列出了開發框架的編碼策略。試試吧。了解它們如何為您工作。紮根理論編碼促進了對行動和過程的研究,正如您在邦妮·普雷斯利(Bonnie Presley)的故事代碼中看到的那樣。
Coding is the pivotal link between collecting data and developing an emergent theory to explain these data. Through coding, you
編碼是收集數據和開發解釋這些數據的新興理論之間的關鍵環節。通過編碼,您
Coding is the pivotal link between collecting data and developing an emergent theory to explain these data. Through coding, you define what is happening in the data and begin to grapple with what it means. define what is happening in the data and begin to grapple with what it means. The codes take form together as elements of a nascent theory that explains these data and directs further data-gathering. By careful attending to coding, you begin weaving two major threads in the fabric of grounded theory: generalizable theoretical statements that transcend specific times and places and contextual analyses of actions and events.
編碼是收集數據和開發解釋這些數據的新興理論之間的關鍵環節。通過編碼,您可以定義數據中正在發生的事情,並開始努力解決其含義。定義數據中正在發生的事情,並開始努力解決其含義。這些代碼共同形成為一個新生理論的元素,該理論解釋了這些數據並指導了進一步的數據收集。通過仔細關注編碼,你開始在紮根理論的結構中編織兩條主線:超越特定時間和地點的可推廣的理論陳述,以及對行動和事件的上下文分析。
Grounded theory coding consists of at least two main phases: 1) an initial phase involving naming each word, line, or segment of data followed by 2) a focused, selective phase that uses the most significant or frequent initial codes to sort, synthesize, integrate, and organize large amounts of data. While engaged in initial coding, you mine early data for analytic ideas to pursue in further data collection and analysis. Initial coding entails a close reading of the data as indicated by my codes of Bonnie Presley's story. During initial coding, the goal is to remain open to all possible theoretical directions indicated by your readings of the data. Later, you use focused coding to pinpoint and develop the most salient categories in large batches of data. Theoretical integration begins with focused coding and proceeds through all your subsequent analytic steps.
紮根理論編碼至少包括兩個主要階段:1)初始階段,包括命名每個單詞、行或數據段,然後是2)一個集中的、選擇性的階段,使用最重要或最頻繁的初始代碼來排序、合成、集成和組織大量數據。在進行初始編碼時,您可以挖掘早期數據以獲得分析思路,以便在進一步的數據收集和分析中追求。初始編碼需要仔細閱讀數據,如我對 Bonnie Presley 故事的代碼所示。在初始編碼期間,目標是對數據讀數所指示的所有可能的理論方向保持開放。稍後,您可以使用重點編碼來精確定位和開發大批量數據中最突出的類別。理論整合從集中編碼開始,然後進行所有後續分析步驟。
The actual research you conduct through analyzing your data likely differsat least somewhat-from what you may have planned earlier in a research or grant proposal. We learn through studying our data. Qualitative coding guides our leaming. Through it, we begin to make sense of our data. How we make sense of it shapes the ensuing analysis. Careful attention to coding furthers our attempts to understand acts and accounts, scenes and sentiments, stories and silences from our research participants' view. We want to know what is happening in the setting, in people's lives, and in lines of our recorded data. Hence, we try to understand our participants' standpoints and situations, as well as their actions within the setting.
您通過分析數據進行的實際研究可能至少與您之前在研究或資助提案中的計劃有所不同。我們通過研究數據來學習。定性編碼指導著我們的學習。通過它,我們開始理解我們的數據。我們如何理解它決定了隨後的分析。對編碼的仔細關注進一步推動了我們從研究參與者的角度理解行為和敘述、場景和情感、故事和沉默的嘗試。我們想知道在環境中、人們的生活中以及我們記錄的數據中發生了什麼。因此,我們試圖了解參與者的立場和情況,以及他們在環境中的行為。
The logic of grounded theory coding differs from quantitative logic that applies preconceived categories or codes to the data. As the example above illustrates, we create our codes by defining what we see in the data. Codes emerge as you scrutinize your data and define meanings within it. Through this active coding, you interact with your data again and again and ask many different questions of them. As a result, coding may take you into unforeseen areas and new research questions.
紮根理論編碼的邏輯不同於將先入為主的類別或代碼應用於數據的定量邏輯。如上面的範例所示,我們通過定義在數據中看到的內容來創建代碼。當您仔細檢查數據並定義其中的含義時,代碼就會出現。通過這種主動編碼,您可以一次又一次地與數據交互,並向他們提出許多不同的問題。因此,編碼可能會帶您進入不可預見的領域和新的研究問題。
Language plays a crucial role in how and what we code. Most fundamentally, the empirical world does not appear to us in some natural state apart from human experience. Rather we know the empirical world through language and the actions we take toward it. In this sense, no researcher is neutral because
語言在我們的編碼方式和內容中起著至關重要的作用。最根本的是,除了人類經驗之外,經驗世界並不以某種自然狀態出現在我們面前。相反,我們通過語言和我們對它採取的行動來了解經驗世界。從這個意義上說,沒有研究人員是中立的,因為

language confers form and meaning on observed realities. Specific use of language reflects views and values. We share one language with colleagues and perhaps another with friends; we attribute meanings to specific terms and hold perspectives. Our codes arise from the languages, meanings, and perspectives through which we learn about the empirical world, including those of our participants as well as our own. Coding impels us to make our participants' language problematic to render an analysis of it. Coding should inspire us to examine hidden assumptions in our own use of language as well as that of our participants.
語言賦予觀察到的現實形式和意義。語言的具體使用反映了觀點和價值觀。我們與同事共用一種語言,也許與朋友共用另一種語言;我們賦予特定術語意義並持有觀點。我們的代碼源於我們了解經驗世界的語言、意義和觀點,包括我們的參與者和我們自己的經驗世界。編碼促使我們讓參與者的語言有問題,以便對其進行分析。編碼應該激勵我們檢查我們自己和參與者使用語言中隱藏的假設。
We construct our codes because we are actively naming data-even when we believe our codes form a perfect fit with actions and events in the studied world. We may think our codes capture the empirical reality. Yet it is our view: we choose the words that constitute our codes. Thus we define what we see as significant in the data and describe what we think is happening. Coding consists of this initial, shorthand defining and labeling; it results from a grounded theorist's actions and understandings. Nonetheless, the process is interactive. We interact with our participants and subsequently interact with them again many times over through studying their statements and observed actions and re-envisioning the scenes in which we know them. As we define our codes and perhaps later refine them, we try to understand participants' views and actions from their perspectives. These perspectives usually assume much more than what is immediately apparent. We must dig into our data to interpret participants' tacit meanings. Close attention to coding helps us to do that.
我們構建代碼是因為我們積極地命名數據——即使我們相信我們的代碼與所研究世界中的行動和事件完美契合。我們可能認為我們的代碼捕捉了經驗現實。然而,我們的觀點是:我們選擇構成我們代碼的詞語。因此,我們定義了我們認為在數據中具有重要意義的內容,並描述了我們認為正在發生的事情。編碼包括這種初始的速記定義和標記;它源於紮根理論家的行動和理解。儘管如此,該過程是互動式的。我們與參與者互動,然後通過研究他們的陳述和觀察到的動作並重新構想我們認識他們的場景,再次與他們進行多次互動。當我們定義我們的代碼並可能在以後完善它們時,我們試圖從參與者的角度理解他們的觀點和行為。這些觀點通常假設的比眼前顯而易見的要多得多。我們必須深入研究我們的數據來解釋參與者的隱性含義。密切關注編碼有助於我們做到這一點。
Close attention to coding follows the first grounded theory mandate: Siudy your emerging data (Glaser, 1978).
對編碼的密切關注遵循第一個紮根理論任務:Siudy your emerging data (Glaser, 1978)。
From the beginning, you may sense that the process of coding produces certain tensions-between analytic insights and described events, whether spoken accounts or written observations, between static topics and dynamic processes, and between participants' worlds and professionals' meanings.
從一開始,你可能會感覺到編碼過程在分析見解和描述的事件之間產生了一定的緊張關係,無論是口頭描述還是書面觀察,靜態主題和動態過程之間,以及參與者的世界和專業人士的意義之間。

Initial Coding 初始編碼

The Logic of Initial Coding
初始編碼的邏輯

When grounded theorists conduct initial coding, we remain open to exploring whatever theoretical possibilities we can discern in the data. This initial step in coding moves us toward later decisions about defining our core conceptual categories. Through comparing data with data, we learn what our research participants view as problematic and begin to treat it analytically. During initial coding, we ask:
當紮根理論家進行初始編碼時,我們仍然願意探索我們可以在數據中辨別出的任何理論可能性。編碼的這一初始步驟將推動我們稍後做出有關定義核心概念類別的決定。通過將數據與數據進行比較,我們瞭解研究參與者認為有問題的地方,並開始分析性地對待它。在初始編碼期間,我們會問:
  • 'What is this data a study of?' (Glaser, 1978: 57; Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
    “這些數據研究的是什麼?”(格拉澤,1978:57;Glaser&Strauss,1967)
  • What does the data suggest? Pronounce?
    數據表明了什麼?發音?
  • From whose point of view?
    從誰的角度來看?
  • What theoretical category does this specific datum indicate? (Glaser, 1978)
    這個特定基準表示什麼理論類別?(格拉澤,1978)
Initial coding should stick closely to the data. Try to see actions in each segment of data rather than applying preexisting categories to the data. Attempt to code
初始編碼應與數據緊密結合。嘗試查看每個數據段中的操作,而不是將預先存在的類別應用於數據。嘗試編碼

with words that reflect action. At first, invoking a language of action rather than of topics may feel strange. Look closely at actions and, to the degree possible, code data as actions. This method of coding curbs our tendencies to make conceptual leaps and to adopt extant theories before we have done the necessary analytic work.
用反映行動的言語。起初,調用一種行動語言而不是主題語言可能會讓人感到奇怪。仔細查看操作,並盡可能將數據編碼為操作。這種編碼方法抑制了我們在完成必要的分析工作之前進行概念飛躍和採用現有理論的傾向。
Students often believe that they must rely on earlier concepts and invoke them before they begin coding to make their qualitative research legitimate. They make statements like, 'T'm going to use Max Weber's concept of routinization,' or 'My advisor wants me to use Anselm Strauss's concept of "negotiations".' Such approaches preclude ideas from emerging as you code events. The openness of initial coding should spark your thinking and allow new ideas to emerge. Earlier grounded theory rules prescribed conducting initial coding without having preconceived concepts in mind (Glaser, 1978, 1992). I agree with Glaser's approach of keeping initial coding open-ended yet acknowledge that researchers hold prior ideas and skills. As Dey (1999: 251) states, 'There is a difference between an open mind and an empty head.' Try to remain open to seeing what you can learn while coding and where it can take you. In team research, several individuals may code data separately and then compare and combine their different codings.
學生們通常認為,他們必須依賴早期的概念,並在開始編碼之前調用它們,以使他們的定性研究合法化。他們說,“我打算使用馬克斯·韋伯(Max Weber)的”規則化“概念,或者”我的導師希望我使用安塞姆·施特勞斯(Anselm Strauss)的“談判”概念。這種方法會阻止在編寫事件代碼時出現想法。初始編碼的開放性應該激發您的思考並允許新想法出現。早期的紮根理論規則規定在沒有先入為主的概念的情況下進行初始編碼(Glaser,1978,1992)。我同意格拉澤的方法,即保持初始編碼的開放性,但承認研究人員擁有先驗的想法和技能。正如Dey(1999:251)所說,“開放的思想和空虛的頭腦是有區別的。試著保持開放的態度,看看你在編碼時能學到什麼,以及它可以把你帶到哪裡。在團隊研究中,幾個人可能會分別對數據進行編碼,然後比較和組合他們不同的編碼。
Initial codes are provisional, comparative, and grounded in the data. They are provisional because you aim to remain open to other analytic possibilities and create codes that best fit the data you have. You progressively follow up on codes that indicate that they fit the data. Then you gather data to explore and fill out these codes.
初始代碼是臨時的、比較的,並以數據為基礎。它們是臨時的,因為您的目標是對其他分析可能性保持開放態度,並創建最適合您擁有的數據的代碼。您逐步跟進指示它們符合數據的代碼。然後,收集數據以瀏覽和填寫這些代碼。
Initial grounded theory coding can prompt you to see areas in which you lack needed data. Realizing that your data have gaps-or holes-is part of the analytic process. It is inevitable when you adopt an emergent method of conducting research. After all, making 'discoveries' about the worlds you study and pursuing these discoveries to construct an analysis is what grounded theory is about. Such discoveries reflect what you learn and how you conceptualize it. The advantage of grounded theory strategies is that you may learn about gaps and holes in your data from the earliest stages of research. Then you can locate sources of needed data and gather them. Hence, simultaneous data collection and analysis can help you go further and deeper into the research problem as well as engage in developing categories.
初始紮根理論編碼可以提示您查看缺少所需數據的領域。意識到您的數據存在差距或漏洞是分析過程的一部分。當您採用緊急研究方法時,這是不可避免的。 畢竟,對你所研究的世界進行“發現”,並追求這些發現來構建分析,這就是紮根理論的意義所在。這些發現反映了你學到了什麼,以及你如何概念化它。紮根理論策略的優勢在於,您可以從研究的最早階段了解數據中的差距和漏洞。然後,您可以找到所需資料的來源並收集它們。因此,同時收集和分析數據可以説明您更深入地研究問題,並參與開發類別。
Codes are also provisional in the sense that you may reword them to improve the fit. Part of the fit is the degree to which they capture and condense meanings and actions. Compelling codes capture the phenomenon and grab the reader.
代碼也是臨時的,因為您可以重新措辭以改善適合度。契合度的一部分是它們捕捉和濃縮意義和行動的程度。引人入勝的代碼捕捉到了這種現象並抓住了讀者。

Initial Coding Practices
初始編碼實踐

Speed and spontaneity help in initial coding. Working quickly can spark your thinking and spawn a fresh view of the data. Some codes fit the data and grab the reader immediately. You can revise others to improve the fit. My original code of the first line of Bonnie Presley's story above was 'receiving news indirectly.' It condensed the statement but the neutral wording drained the incident
速度和自發性有助於初始編碼。快速工作可以激發您的思維,併產生對數據的新檢視。有些代碼適合數據並立即抓住閱讀器。您可以修改其他內容以改善貼合度。上面邦妮·普雷斯利(Bonnie Presley)故事的第一行的原始代碼是“間接接收新聞”。它濃縮了聲明,但中立的措辭耗盡了事件

of its intensity and importance. Changing the code to 'receiving second-hand news' suggested the reduced value of the news, implied the receiver's diminished status, and alluded to her angry response.
它的強度和重要性。將代碼更改為「接收二手新聞」暗示了新聞的價值降低,暗示了接收者的地位下降,並暗示了她的憤怒反應。
Comparing incidents of the same order between data spurs you to think analytically about them. Bonnie Presley revealed a reluctance to tell her daughter, delayed in telling her, and imparted difficult news in a matter-of-fact manner. Yet, from time to time, she and Amy talked about their problems in giving and getting news about Bonnie's illness. Because Bonnie no longer had much contact with her own mother, dilemmas of disclosure did not arise with her. No disclosures occurred. Bonnie's grandmother, of whom she was very fond, had partly raised her. Bonnie protected her grandmother from worry by treating her situation lightly and by minimizing the implications of her symptoms. My data included other cases of inter-generational tensions. Several other single women I studied who had no children and few close family ties had conflicted relationships with their aging mothers. As geographical and emotional distance increased, these women correspondingly curtailed sharing their news. From the data and brief descriptions above, avoiding disclosure, delaying disclosure, and controlling information all emerged as salient codes.
比較數據之間相同順序的事件會刺激您對它們進行分析思考。邦妮·普雷斯利(Bonnie Presley)透露,她不願意告訴女兒,遲遲不告訴她,並以實事求是的方式傳達了困難的消息。然而,她和艾米時不時地談論他們在提供和獲得有關邦妮病情的消息方面遇到的問題。因為邦妮不再與自己的母親有太多聯繫,所以她沒有出現披露的困境。沒有發生任何披露。邦妮的祖母非常喜歡她,她撫養了她。邦妮通過輕描淡寫地對待她的情況並盡量減少她癥狀的影響來保護她的祖母免於擔心。我的數據包括其他代際緊張的案例。我研究的其他幾位單身女性沒有孩子,也很少有親密的家庭關係,她們與年邁的母親關係衝突。隨著地理和情感距離的增加,這些女性相應地減少了分享她們的消息。從上面的數據和簡要描述來看,避免披露、延遲披露和控制資訊都成為突出代碼。
Glaser (1978) shows how coding with gerunds helps you detect processes and stick to the data. Think of the difference in imagery between the following gerunds and their noun forms: describing versus description, stating versus statement, and leading versus leader. We gain a strong sense of action and sequence with gerunds. The nouns turn these actions into topics. Staying close to the data and, when possible, starting from the words and actions of your respondents, preserves the fluidity of their experience and gives you new ways of looking at it. These steps encourage you to begin analysis from their perspective. That is the point. If you ignore, gloss over, or leap beyond participants' meanings and actions, your grounded theory will likely reflect an outsider's, rather than an insider's view. Outsiders often import an alien professional language to describe the phenomenon. If your data are thin and if you don't push hard in coding, you may mistake routine rationales for analytic insights. Thus, accepting participants' orchestrated impressions at face value can lead to outsider analyses.
Glaser (1978) 展示了使用動名詞編碼如何説明您檢測過程並堅持數據。想想以下動名詞和它們的名詞形式在意象上的差異:描述與描述,陳述與陳述,領導與領導。我們獲得了強烈的動名詞動作感和順序感。名詞將這些動作變成主題。貼近數據,並在可能的情況下,從受訪者的言行出發,可以保持他們體驗的流動性,併為您提供新的看待方式。這些步驟鼓勵您從他們的角度開始分析。這就是重點。如果你忽視、掩蓋或超越參與者的意義和行為,你的紮根理論可能會反映局外人的觀點,而不是局內人的觀點。局外人經常用一種外來的專業語言來描述這種現象。如果你的數據很薄,如果你不努力編碼,你可能會把常規的基本原理誤認為是分析見解。因此,從表面上接受參與者精心策劃的印象可能會導致局外人分析。
Picking up general terms from an interview such as 'experience' or 'event' and calling them codes tells you little about the participant's meaning or action. If general terms seem significant, qualify them. Make your codes fit the data you have rather than forcing the data to fit them.
從採訪中挑選出諸如「經驗」或“事件”之類的一般術語並稱它們為代碼,幾乎無法告訴您參與者的意義或行為。如果一般術語看起來很重要,請對其進行限定。使你的代碼適合你擁有的數據,而不是強迫數據適合它們。
A code for coding:
編碼代碼:
  • Remain open 保持開放
  • Stay close to the data
    密切關注數據
  • Keep your codes simple and precise
    保持代碼簡單準確
  • Construct short codes 構造短代碼
  • Preserve actions 保留操作
  • Compare data with data
    將數據與數據進行比較
  • Move quickly through the data.
    快速瀏覽數據。
In short, remain open to what the material suggests and stay close to it. Keep your codes short, simple, active and analytic. The first two guidelines above reflect your stance toward coding. The remaining guidelines suggest how to do coding.
簡而言之,對材料的建議保持開放態度並貼近它。保持代碼簡短、簡單、活躍和分析。上面的前兩個準則反映了你對編碼的立場。其餘的指南建議如何進行編碼。

Word-by-Word Coding 逐字編碼

The size of the unit of data to code matters. Some grounded theorists conduct nuanced coding and move through their data word by word. This approach may be particularly helpful when working with documents or certain types of ephemera, such as Internet data. Word-by-word analysis forces you to attend to images and meanings. You may attend to the structure and flow of words, and how both affect the sense you make of them, as well as their specific content.
要編碼的數據單位的大小很重要。一些紮根的理論家進行細緻入微的編碼,並逐字逐句地瀏覽他們的數據。在處理文件或某些類型的臨時數據(如 Internet 數據)時,此方法可能特別有用。逐字分析迫使您關注圖像和含義。你可以關注單詞的結構和流動,以及兩者如何影響你對它們的理解,以及它們的具體內容。

Line-by-Line Coding 逐行編碼

For many grounded theorists, line-by-line coding is the first step in coding (see Box 3.2). Line-by-line coding means naming each line of your written data (Glaser, 1978). Coding every line may seem like an arbitrary exercise because not every line contains a complete sentence and not every sentence may appear to be important. Nevertheless, it can be an enormously useful tool. Ideas will occur to you that had escaped your attention when reading data for a general thematic analysis.
對於許多紮根理論家來說,逐行編碼是編碼的第一步(見框注3.2)。逐行編碼意味著命名寫入數據的每一行(Glaser,1978)。對每一行進行編碼似乎是一種隨意的練習,因為並非每一行都包含一個完整的句子,也不是每個句子看起來都很重要。 儘管如此,它可能是一個非常有用的工具。在閱讀數據進行一般主題分析時,您會想到一些沒有引起注意的想法。
Line-by-line coding works particularly well with detailed data about fundamental empirical problems or processes whether these data consist of interviews, observations, documents, or ethnographies and autobiographies. For example, if you plan to study how older women who have been full-time homemakers handle divorce, you have identified an area to explore about which you may hear stories in interviews, support groups, and job training programs that take on vivid meanings when studied line by line.
逐行編碼特別適用於有關基本經驗問題或過程的詳細數據,無論這些數據包括訪談、觀察、檔、民族志和自傳。例如,如果您打算研究全職家庭主婦的老年婦女如何處理離婚,那麼您已經確定了一個需要探索的領域,您可能會在面試、支援小組和職業培訓計劃中聽到這些故事,這些故事在逐行研究時具有生動的意義。
Detailed observations of people, actions, and settings that reveal visibly telling and consequential scenes and actions lend themselves to line-by-line coding. Generalized observations such as 'the meeting droned on' give you little substance to code.
對人物、動作和場景的詳細觀察,揭示了明顯有說服力和後果性的場景和動作,有助於逐行編碼。諸如「會議繼續進行」之類的廣義觀察幾乎沒有給代碼提供任何實質內容。
Fresh data and line-by-line coding prompt you to remain open to the data and to see nuances in it. When you code early in-depth interview data, you gain a close look at what participants say and, likely, struggle with. This type of coding can help you to identify implicit concerns as well as explicit statements. Engaging in line-by-line coding helps you to refocus later interviews. The following flexible strategies help you code:
新鮮數據和逐行編碼會提示您對數據保持開放狀態並查看其中的細微差別。當您對早期深入的訪談數據進行編碼時,您可以仔細了解參與者所說的話,並且可能會遇到困難。這種類型的編碼可以説明您識別隱式關注點和顯式陳述。進行逐行編碼可以説明您重新調整以後的採訪重點。以下靈活的策略可幫助您進行編碼:
  • Breaking the data up into their component parts or properties
    將數據分解為它們的組成部分或屬性
  • Defining the actions on which they rest
    定義它們所依賴的操作
  • Looking for tacit assumptions
    尋找隱性假設
  • Explicating implicit actions and meanings
    解釋隱性動作和意義
  • Crystallizing the significance of the points
    明確要點的意義
  • Comparing data with data
    將數據與數據進行比較
  • Identifying gaps in the data.
    識別數據中的差距。
By using these strategies flexibly and following leads in your data, coding leads to developing theoretical categories, some of which you may define in your initial codes. Stick with what you define in your data. Build your analysis step-by-step from the ground up without taking off on theoretical flights of fancy. Having a credible amount of data that speaks to your research topic further strengthens the foundation of your study.
通過靈活地使用這些策略並跟蹤數據中的線索,編碼可以開發理論類別,其中一些可以在初始代碼中定義。堅持您在資料中定義的內容。從頭開始逐步構建您的分析,而無需在理論上花哨地起飛。擁有與你的研究主題相關的可靠數據可以進一步加強你的研究基礎。
Your research participants' actions and statements teach you about their worlds, albeit sometimes in ways they may not anticipate. Studying your data through line-by-line coding sparks new ideas for you to pursue. Hence, the grounded theory method itself contains correctives that reduce the likelihood that researchers merely superimpose their preconceived notions on the data. Line-by-line coding provides an early corrective of this type.
你的研究參與者的行為和陳述教會你了解他們的世界,儘管有時他們可能沒有預料到。通過逐行編碼研究數據會激發您追求的新想法。因此,紮根理論方法本身包含校正措施,減少了研究人員僅僅將先入為主的觀念疊加在數據上的可能性。逐行編碼提供了這種類型的早期糾正。
In the examples of line-by-line coding in Box 3.2 , my interest in time and selfconcept comes through in the first two codes in Excerpt 1. Note how I kept the codes active and close to the data. Initial codes often range widely across a variety of topics. Because even a short statement or excerpt may address several points, it could illustrate several different categories. I could use the excerpt in Box 3.2 to show how avoiding disclosure serves to control identity. I could also use it either to show how a respondent learns that other people see his or her illness as inexplicable or how each day is unpredictable. Having multiple interviews of the same individuals allows me to see how social and emotional isolation begins and progresses.
在方框 3.2 中的逐行編碼示例中,我對時間和自我概念的興趣體現在摘錄 1 的前兩個代碼中。請注意我如何使代碼保持活動狀態並接近數據。初始代碼通常涉及各種主題。因為即使是簡短的陳述或摘錄也可能涉及幾個要點,它可以說明幾個不同的類別。我可以使用方框3.2中的摘錄來說明避免披露如何有助於控制身份。我也可以用它來展示受訪者如何瞭解到其他人認為他或她的疾病是莫名其妙的,或者每一天都是不可預測的。對同一個人進行多次採訪,讓我看到了社會和情感上的孤立是如何開始和發展的。
The logic of 'discovery' becomes evident as you begin to code data. Line-byline coding forces you to look at the data anew. Compare what you see when you read a set of fieldnotes or an interview as an entire narrative with what you gain when you do word-by-word, line-by-line, or incident-by-incident coding on the same document. Entire narratives may net several major themes. Wordby-word, line-by-line, segment-by-segment, and incident-by-incident coding may generate a range of ideas and information. Therefore, you 'discover' ideas on which you can build.
當您開始對數據進行編碼時,「發現」的邏輯變得顯而易見。逐行編碼迫使您重新查看數據。將閱讀一組田野筆記或採訪作為完整敘述時所看到的內容與對同一文檔進行逐字、逐行或逐個事件編碼時所獲得的內容進行比較。整個敘事可能涉及幾個主要主題。逐字、逐行、逐段和逐事件編碼可能會產生一系列想法和資訊。因此,您可以“發現”可以構建的想法。
Initial codes help you to separate data into categories and to see processes. Line-by-line coding frees you from becoming so immersed in your respondents' worldviews that you accept them without question. Then you fail to look at your data critically and analytically. Being critical about your data does not necessarily mean being critical of your research participants. Instead, being critical forces asking yourself questions about your data. These questions help you to see actions and to identify significant processes. Such questions include:
初始代碼可説明您將數據分類並查看流程。逐行編碼使您免於沉浸在受訪者的世界觀中,以至於您毫無疑問地接受他們。那麼你就無法批判性地和分析性地看待你的數據。對你的數據持批評態度並不一定意味著對你的研究參與者持批評態度。相反,成為關鍵力量,問自己有關數據的問題。這些問題可説明您查看操作並確定重要流程。此類問題包括:
  • What process(es) is at issue here? How can I define it?
    這裡有哪些流程存在問題?我該如何定義它?
  • How does this process develop?
    這個過程是如何發展的?
  • How does the research participant(s) act while involved in this process?
    研究參與者在參與這一過程時如何行動?
  • What does the research participant(s) profess to think and feel while involved in this process? What might his or her observed behavior indicate?
    研究參與者在參與這個過程時自稱有什麼想法和感受?他或她觀察到的行為可能表明什麼?
  • When, why, and how does the process change?
    該過程何時、為什麼以及如何改變?
  • What are the consequences of the process?
    這個過程的後果是什麼?
Through coding each line of data, you gain insights about what kinds of data to collect next. Thus, you distill data and direct further inquiry early in the
通過對每一行數據進行編碼,您可以深入瞭解接下來要收集哪些類型的數據。因此,您可以在早期提取數據並指導進一步的查詢

BOX 3.2 INITIAL CODING: LINE-BY-LINE CODING
框注3.2 初始編碼:逐行編碼

Excerpt 1 Christine Danforth, age 37, lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome, back injuries
摘錄 1 Christine Danforth,37 歲,紅斑狼瘡、乾燥綜合征、背部受傷
Shifting symptoms, having inconsistent days
癥狀變化,日子不一致
interpreting images of self given by others
解讀他人給予的自我形象
Avoiding disclosure 避免披露
Predicting rejection 預測拒絕
Keeping others unaware 讓別人不知情
Seeing symptoms as connected
將癥狀視為關聯
Having others unaware 讓別人不知情
Anticipating disbelief 預料到難以置信
Controlling others views
控制他人檢視
Avoiding stigma 避免汙名化
Assessing potential losses and risks of disclosing
評估披露的潛在損失和風險

Meaning of the CVA
CVA的含義

Feeling forced to live one day at a time
感覺被迫一天一天地生活
Having a worried past
有憂心忡忡的過去

Earlier losses 早前的損失

Difficulty in living one day at a time; concentrating on today Giving up future orientation Managing emotions through living one day at a time Reducing life-threatening risk
難以一次生活一天;專注於今天 放棄未來的方向 通過一天一天的生活來管理情緒 減少危及生命的風險

Lupus erythematosus is a systemic, inflammatory autoimmune disease of the connective tissue that affects vital organs as well as joints, muscles, and nerves. Sjögren's syndrome is a related autoimmune inflammatory disease characterized by dry mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth.
紅斑狼瘡是一種結締組織的全身性炎症性自身免疫性疾病,影響重要器官以及關節、肌肉和神經。乾燥綜合征是一種相關的自身免疫性炎症性疾病,其特徵是眼睛和口腔粘膜乾燥。
If you have lupus, I mean one day it's my liver, one day it's my joints; one day it's my head, and it's like people really think you're a hypochondriac if you keep complaining about different ailments ... It's like you don't want to say anything because people are going to start thinking, you know, 'God, don't go near her, all she is-is complaining about this.' And I think that's why I never say anything because I feel like everything I have is related one way or another to the lupus but most of the people don't know I have lupus, and even those that do are not going to believe that ten different ailments are the same thing. And I don't want anybody saying, you know, [that] they don't want to come around me because I complain.
如果你得了狼瘡,我的意思是有一天是我的肝臟,有一天是我的關節;有一天,它是我的頭,如果你一直抱怨不同的疾病,人們真的會認為你是一個疑病症患者......這就像你什麼都不想說,因為人們會開始想,『上帝,不要靠近她,她只是在抱怨這件事。我想這就是為什麼我從不說什麼,因為我覺得我所擁有的一切都與狼瘡有關,但大多數人都不知道我患有狼瘡,即使是那些知道的人也不會相信十種不同的疾病是一回事。我不希望任何人說,你知道,他們不想因為我抱怨而圍著我。
Excerpt 2 Joyce Marshall, age 60, minor heart condition, recent small CVA (stroke)
摘錄 2 喬伊斯·馬歇爾(Joyce Marshall),60 歲,輕微心臟病,近期小 CVA(中風)
In her case, the stroke left her with weakness, fatigue, and slowed responses when tired.
在她的情況下,中風使她感到虛弱、疲勞,並且在疲倦時反應遲鈍。
I have to see it [her CVA] as a warning. I can't let myself get so anxious. I have to live one day at a time.
我必須把它(她的簡歷)看作是一個警告。我不能讓自己這麼焦慮。我必須一次活一天。
I've been so worried about John [her husband who had had life-threatening heart attacks and lost his job three years before retirement] and preparing to get a job ther first in 38 years] ... It's just so hard with all this stress ... to concentrate on what I can do today. I always used to look to the future. I can't now; it upsets me too much. I have to live one day at a time now or else there may not be any me.
我一直很擔心約翰(她的丈夫,他患有危及生命的心臟病發作,在退休前三年失去了工作),並準備找到一份38年來的第一份工作]......所有這些壓力實在是太難了......專注於我今天能做的事情。我總是展望未來。我現在不能;這讓我太難過了。我現在必須一次活一天,否則可能就沒有我了。

data collection. Line-by-line coding gives you leads to pursue. If, for example, you identify an important process in your fifteenth interview, then you can return to earlier respondents and see if that process explains events and experiences in their lives. If not, you can seek new respondents who can illuminate this process. Hence, your data collection becomes more focused, as does your coding.
數據採集。逐行編碼為您提供了追求的線索。例如,如果你在第十五次訪談中發現了一個重要的過程,那麼你可以回到早期的受訪者那裡,看看這個過程是否解釋了他們生活中的事件和經歷。如果沒有,您可以尋找可以闡明此過程的新受訪者。因此,您的數據收集變得更加集中,您的編碼也是如此。

Coding Incident to Incident
事件到事件的編碼

Whether or not you conduct line-by-line coding depends on the type of data you have collected, their level of abstraction, the stage of the research process, and your purpose for collecting these data. Grounded theorists often conduct a close cousin of line-by-line coding through a comparative study of incidents. Here you compare incident with incident, then as your ideas take hold, compare incidents to your conceptualization of incidents coded earlier. That way you can identify properties of your emerging concept.
您是否進行逐行編碼取決於您收集的數據類型、它們的抽象級別、研究過程的階段以及您收集這些數據的目的。紮根理論家經常通過對事件的比較研究來進行逐行編碼的近親。在這裡,您將事件與事件進行比較,然後隨著您的想法的確立,將事件與之前編碼的事件概念化進行比較。這樣,您就可以識別新興概念的屬性。
A similar logic applies to observational data. Making comparisons between incidents likely works better than word-by-word or line-by-line coding, in part because the fieldnotes already consist of your own words (see, for example, Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001). Compare incident to incident. Concrete, behavioristic descriptions of people's mundane actions may not be amenable to line-by-line coding, particularly when you observed a scene but do not have a sense of its context, its participants, and did not interact with them. Students often think observing behavior in public places is the easiest type of qualitative research to conduct. Not so. Both the researcher's data and analytic approach make a difference. Few novices have the eye and ear to record nuances of action and interaction. More likely, they record concrete behaviors in a general way and gradually learn to make more acute observations.
類似的邏輯也適用於觀測數據。對事件進行比較可能比逐字或逐行編碼效果更好,部分原因是田野筆記已經由你自己的話組成(例如,參見Charmaz&Mitchell,2001)。將事件與事件進行比較。對人們平凡行為的具體、行為主義描述可能不適合逐行編碼,特別是當你觀察一個場景,但不瞭解它的背景、參與者,也沒有與他們互動時。學生們通常認為觀察公共場所的行為是最容易進行的定性研究類型。並非如此。研究人員的數據和分析方法都會有所不同。很少有新手有眼睛和耳朵來記錄動作和互動的細微差別。更有可能的是,他們以一般的方式記錄具體行為,並逐漸學會進行更敏銳的觀察。
Still, detailed observations alone do not guarantee creating an insightful theoretical analysis although they may generate excellent description. The mode of analysis matters. Comparative methods help you to see and make sense of observations in new, analytic ways. Conducting a line-by-line coding of one observation after another of people's actions in a public place may not spark fresh ideas. Instead, making comparisons between observations gives you clues to follow if not immediate ideas. If the people you study bring you into their world, for example, you may record all kinds of incidents in anecdotes, conversations, and observations in your fieldnotes that abound with meaning. You may see first-hand how your participants manage daily life without them telling you-and you may learn much more.
儘管如此,僅靠詳細的觀察並不能保證做出有見地的理論分析,儘管它們可能會產生出色的描述。分析模式很重要。比較方法可説明您以新的分析方式查看和理解觀察結果。對人們在公共場所的行為進行逐行編碼可能不會激發新的想法。相反,在觀察結果之間進行比較會為您提供線索,即使不是直接的想法。例如,如果你研究的人把你帶入他們的世界,你可能會在你的田野筆記中記錄軼事、對話和觀察中的各種事件,這些事件充滿了意義。您可能會親眼目睹您的參與者如何在他們不告訴您的情況下管理日常生活 - 您可能會學到更多。
The more unproblematic-that is, routine, familiar, and ordinary-observed events seem to you, the more problematic creating an original conceptual analysis of them will be. Breaking through the ordinariness of routine events takes effort. To gain analytic insights from observations of routine actions in ordinary settings, first compare and code similar events. Then you may define subtle patterns and significant processes. Later, comparing dissimilar events may give you further insights.
在你看來,例行公事、熟悉和普通觀察到的事件越沒有問題,對它們進行原始的概念分析就越有問題。突破常規事件的平凡需要付出努力。要從對普通環境中的常規操作的觀察中獲得分析見解,首先要比較和編碼類似事件。然後,您可以定義微妙的模式和重要的過程。稍後,比較不同的事件可能會為您提供進一步的見解。

Using Comparative Methods
使用比較方法

Whatever unit of data you begin coding in grounded theory, you use 'constant comparative methods' (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to establish analytic distinctionsand thus make comparisons at each level of analytic work. At first, you compare data with data to find similarities and differences. For example, compare interview statements and incidents within the same interview and compare statements and incidents in different interviews. Making sequential comparisons helps. Compare data in earlier and later interviews of the same individual(s) or compare observations of events at different times and places. When you conduct observations of a routine activity, compare what happens on one day with the same activity on subsequent days.
無論你在紮根理論中開始編碼什麼數據單位,你都使用“恆定比較方法”(Glaser&Strauss,1967)來建立分析區別,從而在分析工作的每個層面上進行比較。首先,將數據與數據進行比較,以查找相似之處和不同之處。例如,比較同一訪談中的訪談陳述和事件,並比較不同訪談中的陳述和事件。進行順序比較會有所説明。比較早期和後期對同一個人的採訪數據,或比較不同時間和地點對事件的觀察。當您對日常活動進行觀察時,請將一天發生的情況與隨後幾天的相同活動進行比較。
If your codes define another view of a process, action or belief than your respondent(s) hold, note that. Your observations and ideas do matter. Do not dismiss your own ideas if they do not mirror the data. Your ideas may rest on covert meanings and actions that have not entirely surfaced yet. Such intuitions form another set of ideas to check. Our task is to make analytic sense of the material, which may challenge taken-for-granted understandings.
如果你的準則定義了與你的受訪者所持的另一種過程、行動或信念的觀點,請注意這一點。你的觀察和想法確實很重要。如果自己的想法沒有反映數據,請不要忽視它們。你的想法可能建立在尚未完全浮出水面的隱蔽意義和行動之上。這種直覺形成了另一套需要檢查的想法。我們的任務是對材料進行分析,這可能會挑戰理所當然的理解。
What you see in your data relies in part upon your prior perspectives. Rather than seeing your perspectives as truth, try to see them as representing one view among many. That way, you may gain more awareness of the concepts that you employ and might impose on your data. To illustrate, you might already possess a repertoire of psychological concepts that you ordinarily invoke to understand behavior. Invoking these concepts in your codes can lead you to prejudge what is happening. Try to avoid assuming that respondents, for example, repress or deny significant 'facts' about their lives. Instead, look for how they understand their situations before you judge their attitudes and actions through your own assumptions. Seeing the world through their eyes and understanding the logic of their experience brings you fresh insights. Afterwards, if you still enlist disciplinary terms as codes, you will use them more consciously rather than automatically. Thus, you can elect to use only those terms that fit your data.
您在數據中看到的內容在一定程度上取決於您之前的觀點。與其把你的觀點看作是真理,不如試著把它們看作是眾多觀點中的一種。這樣,你可能會更深入地瞭解你所使用的概念,並可能強加給你的數據。舉例來說,你可能已經擁有一系列心理學概念,你通常會援引這些概念來理解行為。在代碼中調用這些概念可能會導致您預先判斷正在發生的事情。例如,盡量避免假設受訪者壓抑或否認有關他們生活的重要“事實”。相反,在你通過自己的假設判斷他們的態度和行為之前,先看看他們是如何理解他們的處境的。通過他們的眼睛看世界,理解他們經驗的邏輯,會給你帶來新的見解。之後,如果您仍然將紀律術語作為代碼,您將更有意識地而不是自動使用它們。因此,您可以選擇僅使用適合您的數據的術語。

Advantages of Initial Coding
初始編碼的優點

From the start, careful word-by-word, line-by-line, incident-by-incident coding moves you toward fulfilling two criteria for completing a grounded theory analysis: fit and relevance. Your study fits the empirical world when you have constructed codes and developed them into categories that crystallize participants' experience. It has relevance when you offer an incisive analytic framework that interprets what is happening and makes relationships between implicit processes and structures visible.
從一開始,仔細的逐字、逐行、逐個事件的編碼會促使您滿足完成紮根理論分析的兩個標準:適合性和相關性。當你構建了代碼並將它們發展成將參與者的經驗具體化的類別時,你的研究就適合經驗世界。當你提供一個精闢的分析框架來解釋正在發生的事情並使隱性過程和結構之間的關係可見時,它就具有相關性。
Careful coding also helps you to refrain from imputing your motives, fears, or unresolved personal issues to your respondents and to your collected data. Some years ago, a young man in my seminar conducted research on adaptation to disability. He had become paraplegic himself when he was hit by a car while bicycling. Stories of courage, hope, and innovation filled his ten in-depth interviews. Narratives of grief, anger, and loss permeated his analysis of them. After I noted that his analysis did not reflect his collected material, he realized how
仔細編碼還可以説明您避免將您的動機、恐懼或未解決的個人問題歸咎於您的受訪者和您收集的數據。幾年前,在我的研討會上,一位年輕人進行了關於適應殘疾的研究。他自己在騎自行車時被車撞倒,導致截癱。勇氣、希望和創新的故事充斥著他的十次深度採訪。悲傷、憤怒和失落的敘述滲透到他對它們的分析中。在我注意到他的分析沒有反映他收集的材料之後,他意識到如何

his feelings had colored his perceptions of other people's disabilities. His was an important realization. However, he might have arrived at it before he handed in his paper had he done more assiduous coding. Line-by-line coding might have changed his ideas about his date early in the analysis.
他的感受影響了他對他人殘疾的看法。他是一個重要的領悟。然而,如果他做更勤奮的編碼,他可能會在提交論文之前就已經到達了。逐行編碼可能在分析的早期改變了他對日期的看法。
Coding forces you to thirik about the material in new ways that may differ from your research participants' interpretations. Your analytic eye and disciplinary background lead you to look at their statements and actions in ways that may not have occurred to them. By studying the data, you may make fundamental processes explicit, render hidden assumptions visible, and give participants new insights. Thomas (1993) says that a researcher must take the familiar, routine, and mundane and make it unfamiliar and new. Think of seeing a once-familiar landscape with a fresh eye after a long absence. You see familiar landmarks with acuity unlike days past when they blurred together. Word-by-word and line-by-line coding help you to see the familiar in new light. Incident coding aids you in discovering patterns and contrasts. You may gain surprising insights about how people's actions fit together or come into conflict. You also gain distance from your preconceptions and your participants' taken-for-granted assumptions about the material so that you can see it in new light.
編碼迫使你以新的方式對材料進行瞭解,這些方式可能與你的研究參與者的解釋不同。你的分析眼光和學科背景使你以他們可能沒有想到的方式看待他們的言論和行為。通過研究數據,您可以明確基本流程,使隱藏的假設可見,併為參與者提供新的見解。湯瑪斯(Thomas,1993)說,研究者必須把熟悉的、常規的、平凡的,變成陌生的、新的。想想在久違之後以全新的眼光看待曾經熟悉的風景。你看到熟悉的地標,就像過去它們模糊在一起的日子一樣。逐字和逐行編碼可説明您以新的眼光看待熟悉的事物。事件編碼可幫助您發現模式和對比。你可能會獲得令人驚訝的見解,瞭解人們的行為如何結合在一起或發生衝突。你也與你的先入之見和你的參與者對材料的理所當然的假設保持距離,這樣你就可以以新的眼光看待它。

In Vivo Codes 體內代碼

Grounded theorists generally refer to codes of participants' special terms as in vivo codes. Their specialized terms provide a useful analytic point of departure. In vivo codes help us to preserve participants' meanings of their views and actions in the coding itself. Pay attention to language while you are coding. In vivo codes serve as symbolic markers of participants' speech and meanings. Whether or not they provide useful codes in the later more integrated analysis depends on how you treat them analytically. Like any other code, they need to be subjected to comparative and analytic treatment. Although the terms may be catchy, in vivo codes do not stand on their own in a robust grounded theory; these codes need to be integrated into the theory. When you scrutinize them carefully, three kinds of in vivo codes prove to be useful:
紮根理論家通常將參與者的特殊術語代碼稱為體內代碼。他們的專業術語提供了一個有用的分析出發點。體內代碼幫助我們在編碼本身中保留參與者對他們的觀點和行為的含義。編碼時要注意語言。體內代碼可作為參與者言語和含義的符號標記。它們是否在以後更集成的分析中提供有用的代碼取決於您如何分析它們。與任何其他代碼一樣,它們需要進行比較和分析處理。儘管這些術語可能很吸引人,但體內代碼在強大的紮根理論中並不獨立存在;這些代碼需要整合到理論中。當您仔細檢查它們時,三種體內代碼被證明是有用的:
  • Those general terms everyone 'knows' that flag condensed but significant meanings
    那些每個人都“知道”的通用術語,這些術語具有濃縮但重要的含義
  • A participant's innovative term that captures meanings or experience
    參與者捕捉含義或體驗的創新術語
  • Insider shorthand terms specific to a particular group that reflect their perspective.
    特定於特定群體的內部簡寫術語,反映了他們的觀點。
In vivo codes that condense meanings consist of widely used terms that participants assume everyone shares. In contrast, take participants' usage as problematic rather than reproducing it. Hence, we look for their implicit meanings and attend to how they construct and act upon these meanings. In doing so, we can ask, what analytic category(ies) does this code suggest? Unpacking such terms not only gives you a great opportunity to understand implicit meanings and actions but also to make comparisons between data and with your emerging categories.
濃縮含義的體內代碼由參與者假設每個人都共用的廣泛使用的術語組成。相反,將參與者的使用視為有問題,而不是複製它。因此,我們尋找它們的隱含含義,並關注它們如何構建和作用於這些含義。在這樣做時,我們可以問,這段代碼建議了什麼分析類別?解開這些術語不僅為您提供了一個很好的機會來理解隱含的含義和行為,而且還可以在數據之間以及與新興類別進行比較。
Today, everyone knows what the general term 'battered woman' means; however, certain groups assume specific meanings when they use the term. Donileen Loseke (1992) discovered that claims-makers' use of the term depicted a particular set of characteristics that did not fit all women who suffered physical abuse. For claims-makers, a battered woman meant an economically and emotionally dependent mother who suffered repeated, escalating physical abuse, had low self-esteem and poor coping skills, could not rely on informal help or formal services, and had no piace to go. These claims-makers then acted on their meanings when deciding who would receive services and what these services should include. An older, affluent woman without children would not fit their definition, despite having been beaten.
今天,每個人都知道「受虐婦女」這個通用術語的含義;但是,某些群體在使用該術語時會具有特定的含義。Donileen Loseke(1992)發現,索賠者對這一術語的使用描繪了一組特定的特徵,這些特徵並不適合所有遭受身體虐待的婦女。對於索賠者來說,被毆打的婦女意味著在經濟和情感上依賴的母親,她遭受反覆的、不斷升級的身體虐待,自尊心低下,應對能力差,不能依賴非正式的説明或正式服務,也沒有皮亞克可去。然後,這些索賠者在決定誰將獲得服務以及這些服務應包括哪些內容時,根據其含義採取行動。一個沒有孩子的年長、富裕的女人,儘管被毆打過,也不符合他們的定義。
Some in vivo codes simultaneously reflect condensed meanings of a general term and reveal an individual's fresh perspective. After suffering a sudden onset of a serious chronic condition, one man said he intended to pursue 'making a comeback' (Charmaz, 1973). By borrowing a term from once-successful celebrities, he defined his stance toward dealing with chronic illness. Other participants' actions and statements indicated that they shared this stance, although they did not invoke this vivid term.
一些體內代碼同時反映了一般術語的濃縮含義,並揭示了個體的新視角。在突然患上嚴重的慢性病後,一名男子說他打算「捲土重來」(Charmaz,1973)。通過借用曾經成功的名人的一個術語,他定義了自己處理慢性病的立場。其他出席者的行動和發言表明,他們贊同這一立場,儘管他們沒有援引這個生動的術語。
In vivo codes are characteristic of social worlds and organizational settings. For example, Calvin Morrill's (1995: 263-268) glossary of executives' terms in one corporation included both general terms and specific labels that no doubt furthered his understanding of how they dealt with conflict. Executives imbued some terms, such as 'bozo,' 'roadblock,' or 'jumping ship,' with meanings that echoed ordinary parlance, although many terms assumed specific meanings within the organization and evoked metaphors of combat, violence, and violation. Morrill includes among them:
體內代碼是社會世界和組織環境的特徵。例如,Calvin Morrill(1995:263-268)的高管術語表既包括一般術語,也包括特定標籤,這無疑加深了他對他們如何處理衝突的理解。高管們給一些術語注入了與普通用語相呼應的含義,例如“bozo”、“roadblock”或“jumping ship”,儘管許多術語在組織內部具有特定的含義,並喚起了戰鬥、暴力和侵犯的隱喻。莫里爾包括:
BLACK KNIGHT 黑騎士

一個經常對對手採取秘密行動的高管,在糾紛中不支援他的部門內同事......(在收購意象中,黑騎士從被收購公司的角度指的是不友好的收購者)。“(第263頁)
An executive who often engages in covert action
against opponents, does not support his intra-
departmental colleagues in disputes ... (in take-
over imagery, black knight refers to an unfriendly
acquirer from the perspective of an acquired
firm). (p. 263)
FLYING LOW 低空飛行

不面對對他們的行為長期不滿的罪犯。“(第265頁)
Not confronting an offender with longstanding
grievances against their behavior. (p. 265)
RAPE

高管允許自己受到他人的公開批評,而不要求挑戰者。“(第266頁)
An executive's allowing himself or herself to be
publicly criticized by another without calling out
the challenger. (p. 266)
SMALL BURSTS OF FIRE Short public criticisms of a colleague delivered in rapid succession. (p. 267)
小爆發的火力 對同事的簡短公開批評接連不斷。“(第267頁)
VAPORIZING Terminating an executive from the company or creating the conditions under which an executive resigns from the corporation. (p. 267)
蒸發 解僱公司高管或創造高管從公司辭職的條件。“(第267頁)
At organizational or collective levels of analysis, in vivo codes reflect assumptions, actions, and imperatives that frame action. Studying these codes and exploring leads in them allows you to develop a deeper understanding of what is
在組織或集體分析層面,體內代碼反映了構成行動的假設、行動和命令。研究這些代碼並探索其中的線索可以讓您更深入地了解什麼是