Tog's paradox Tog 的悖論
Tog’s Paradox (also known as The Complexity Paradox or Tog’s Complexity
Paradox) is an observation that products aiming to simplify a task for users tend to
inspire new, more complex tasks. It’s one of the key reasons for the
symptom of requirements changing after delivery in enterprise software
products, and for feature creep in consumer products. Tog’s Paradox also
explains why it’s futile to try to completely nail down requirements for a
software product, as the product itself will have an impact on the users,
causing them to demand new functions.
Tog's Paradox（也稱為 Tog's Complexity Paradox）是一種觀察，即旨在為使用者簡化任務的產品往往會啟發新的、更複雜的任務。這是造成企業軟體產品交付後需求改變的症狀，以及消費性產品功能爬升的主要原因之一。Tog 的悖論也解釋了為什麼嘗試完全鎖定軟體產品的需求是徒勞無功的，因為產品本身會對使用者產生影響，導致他們要求新的功能。
[when] we reduce the complexity people experience in a given task, people will take on a more challenging task.
[當]我們降低人們在特定任務中體驗到的複雜性時，人們就會接受更具挑戰性的任務。– Bruce Tognazzini, The Complexity Paradox
- Bruce Tognazzini，複雜性悖論。
- Loophole in Tesler’s law Tesler 法則的漏洞
- Examples of Tog’s Paradox
Tog's Paradox 的範例 - Tog’s paradox explains why requirements always change
Tog 的悖論解釋了為什麼需求總是在變
Loophole in Tesler’s law Tesler 法則的漏洞
Bruce Tognazzini formulated the paradox as a loophole in Tesler’s Law, which
states that inherent complexity in a user task does not change (but it can be
shifted from a user to an application or the other way around). Tognazzini
suggested instead that the task complexity does not stay the same, but increases.
Bruce Tognazzini 將這個悖論表述為 Tesler 定律中的一個漏洞，即使用者任務的固有複雜性不會改變（但複雜性可以從使用者轉移到應用程式，或者相反）。Tognazzini 反而提出，任務複雜性不會保持不變，反而會增加。
試圖簡化使用者任務的產品，總是會讓使用者想要執行更複雜的任務。
The argument follows Tognazzini’s previous observation, called Tog’s Law of
Commuting (published in the 1995 book Tog on Software Design),
which suggests that users have a specific amount of time to complete a task,
and if they can finish the work sooner, they will take on more work to fill the
available time.
這個論點沿襲了 Tognazzini 先前的觀察，稱為 Tog on Software Design 一書中)，這個觀察指出使用者有特定的時間來完成任務，如果他們可以更快完成工作，他們就會接手更多工作來填滿可用的時間。
People will strive to experience an equal or increasing level of complexity in their lives no matter what is done to reduce it.
無論如何降低複雜性，人們都會努力在生活中體驗同等程度或越來越高的複雜性。– Bruce Tognazzini, The Complexity Paradox
- Bruce Tognazzini，複雜性悖論。
In spirit, Tog’s Paradox is similar to Jevon’s Paradox (which loosely states
that technological advances which improve the efficiency of using a resource
tend to lead to increased demand) and Parkinson’s law (which states that work
expands so to fill the time available for its completion).
在精神上，Tog「s Paradox 類似於 Jevon」s Paradox (鬆散地說，提高資源使用效率的技術進步，往往會導致需求增加) 和 Parkinson's law (工作擴張，以填補完成工作的時間)。
Examples of Tog’s Paradox
Tog's Paradox 的範例
Tog’s Paradox is highly visible in enterprise software development, where
attempts to streamline workflows often lead to more complex requirements over
time. For instance, a CRM system designed to automate customer interactions
might initially focus on basic functions like managing contacts and tracking
communication history. Once users experience the efficiency gains from these
core features, they begin requesting more sophisticated tools—such as
integrations with other software, advanced reporting, or analytics to
further optimize their work. Each new feature brings added complexity to the
system, requiring not only more robust infrastructure but also additional
training and support. This mirrors Tognazzini’s idea that making tasks more
efficient encourages the demand for additional use cases, driving the
complexity of the software.
Tog 的悖論在企業軟體開發中非常明顯，試圖簡化工作流程往往會隨著時間的推移導致更複雜的需求。舉例來說，為了讓客戶互動自動化而設計的 CRM 系統，一開始可能會專注於管理聯絡人和追蹤溝通歷史等基本功能。一旦使用者體驗到這些核心功能所帶來的效率提升，他們就會開始要求更複雜的工具，例如與其他軟體整合、進階報告或分析，以進一步優化他們的工作。每項新功能都會增加系統的複雜度，不僅需要更強大的基礎架構，還需要額外的訓練和支援。這與 Tognazzini 的想法不謀而合，即提高工作效率會鼓勵對其他使用個案的需求，從而提高軟體的複雜度。
Tog’s observation is also evident when software increases user productivity but
leads to expanded scope in responsibilities. Consider an HR platform that
automates payroll and performance management, freeing up HR staff from routine
tasks. HR teams will need to justify what they do the rest of the time, and may
use this newfound capacity to take on more strategic roles—such as employee
engagement or talent development initiatives—which eventually demands
additional software functionalities. The software that initially saved time
ends up accommodating these new, more complex tasks, reinforcing the idea that
saved time often gets filled with more work, creating an ongoing cycle of
increasing complexity. This phenomenon is common in enterprise software, where
solving one problem often leads to the creation of new, more intricate
challenges.
當軟體提高使用者生產力，但卻導致職責範圍擴大時，Tog 的觀察也很明顯。考慮一個可以自動化薪資與績效管理的人力資源平台，將人力資源人員從例行性的工作中解放出來。人力資源團隊需要證明他們在其餘時間所做的工作是合理的，並且可能會利用這種新發現的能力來擔負更具策略性的角色，例如員工參與或人才發展計畫，這最終需要額外的軟體功能。最初節省了時間的軟體，最終卻要容納這些新的、更複雜的任務，強化了節省的時間往往會被更多工作填滿的想法，造成複雜性不斷增加的持續循環。這種現象在企業軟體中很常見，因為解決一個問題往往會產生新的、更複雜的挑戰。
The law also plays out in consumer applications. Social media platforms like
Instagram or Twitter/X are another clear example. Initially designed to provide
simple ways to share photos or short messages, these platforms quickly expanded
as users sought additional capabilities, such as live streaming, integrated
shopping, or augmented reality filters. Each of these features added new layers
of complexity to the app, requiring more sophisticated algorithms, larger
databases, and increased development efforts. What began as a relatively
straightforward tool for sharing personal content has transformed into a
multi-faceted platform requiring constant updates to handle new features and
growing user expectations. Tog’s Paradox is evident here, as simplifying one
aspect of the communication and sharing often drives demand for other, more
complex ways of sharing content.
這項法律也在消費者應用中發揮作用。Instagram 或 Twitter/X 等社交媒體平台是另一個明顯的例子。這些平台最初的設計目的是提供分享照片或簡訊的簡單方式，但隨著使用者尋求額外功能，例如即時串流、整合購物或擴增實境濾鏡，這些平台迅速擴展。每項功能都為應用程式增加了新的複雜層次，需要更精密的演算法、更大的資料庫，以及更多的開發工作。一開始只是一個相對簡單的個人內容分享工具，現在卻變成一個需要不斷更新以處理新功能和不斷增加的使用者期望的多元平台。Tog 的悖論在此顯而易見，因為簡化溝通與分享的某個面向，往往會帶動對其他更複雜的內容分享方式的需求。
Tog’s paradox explains why requirements always change
Tog 的悖論解釋了為什麼需求總是在變
Tog’s Paradox reveals why attempts to finalize design requirements are often doomed to fail. The moment a product begins to
solve its users’ core problems efficiently, it sparks a natural progression of
second-order effects. As users save time and effort, they inevitably find new,
more complex tasks to address, leading to feature requests that expand the
scope far beyond what was initially anticipated. This cycle shows that the
product itself actively influences users’ expectations and demands, making it
nearly impossible to fully define design requirements upfront.
Tog 的悖論揭示了為什麼嘗試敲定設計需求往往注定失敗。當產品開始有效率地解決使用者的核心問題時，就會自然而然地產生二階效應。當使用者省時省力時，他們不可避免地會發現新的、更複雜的任務需要解決，進而提出功能需求，擴大範圍遠遠超過最初的預期。這個循環顯示出產品本身會主動影響使用者的期望與需求，因此幾乎不可能事先完全定義設計需求。
This evolving complexity highlights the futility of attempting to lock down
requirements before the product is deployed. No matter how thorough the initial
planning, the reality is that users’ experiences with the product will inspire
new use cases and deeper needs. The product’s initial efficiency gains create a
feedback loop, where users seek more capabilities and push for new features and
workflows. These second-order effects suggest that software development must
embrace flexibility and continuous iteration.
這種不斷演進的複雜性突顯了在產品部署之前就鎖定需求的徒勞無功。無論最初的規劃有多徹底，現實是使用者使用產品的經驗會啟發新的使用個案和更深層的需求。產品最初的效率提升會產生回饋循環，使用者會尋求更多的功能，並推動新的功能和工作流程。這些二階效應顯示軟體開發必須具備彈性與持續迭代。
Ultimately, Tog’s Paradox underscores that requirements gathering and user
research are not one-time events, but part of an ongoing process. Attempting to
fully specify requirements beforehand fails to account for how the product
itself will influence user behavior and expectations. To truly meet users’
needs, products must be built with the understanding that the needs will change
due to user interactions with those same products, the complexity will grow, and user
demands will evolve, often in unpredictable ways. Recognizing this dynamic is
key to building successful products that remain responsive and relevant over
time.
最後，Tog 的悖論強調需求收集和使用者研究不是一次性的活動，而是持續過程的一部份。嘗試在事前就完全明確需求，並沒有考慮到產品本身會如何影響使用者的行為和期望。為了真正滿足使用者的需求，在建立產品時必須了解需求會因為使用者與相同產品的互動而改變、複雜性會增加、使用者需求會演變，而且往往是以無法預測的方式。認識到這種動態是建立成功產品的關鍵，讓產品隨著時間的推移仍能保持回應性和相關性。
Tog’s Paradox has significant implications for user experience design,
particularly in how complexity impacts usability and user satisfaction over
time. As products evolve and add features in response to user demands, the
original simplicity and ease of use can degrade, leading to a more complex and
sometimes overwhelming interface. This presents a core UX challenge: balancing
the need for added functionality with maintaining an intuitive and accessible
user experience.
Tog's Paradox 對使用者經驗設計有重大的影響，特別是複雜性如何隨著時間影響可用性和使用者滿意度。當產品因應使用者需求而演進與增加功能時，原本的簡潔性與易用性可能會降低，導致介面變得更複雜，有時甚至令人難以適應。這就是使用者經驗設計的核心挑戰：在增加功能的需求與維持直覺且容易使用的使用者經驗之間取得平衡。
Learn more about the Tog's paradox
進一步了解 Tog 的悖論
-
The Complexity Paradox by Bruce Tognazzini (1998)
The Complexity Paradox 作者 Bruce Tognazzini (1998) -
Tog on Software Design, ISBN 978-0201489170 (1995)
Tog on Software Design，ISBN 978-0201489170 (1995)