Research paper 研究論文

Categorizing shared photovoltaic business models in renewable markets: An approach based on CANVAS and transaction costs
在可再生能源市場中對共享光伏商業模式進行分類：基於 CANVAS 和交易成本的方法

Luciana Marques $^{a, b}$ , Hendrigo Batista da Silva $^{a}$ , Jagruti Thakur $^{c,^{*}, Wadaed Uturbey^{a}, 2, 20}$ Pragya Thakur $^{d}$
盧西安娜·馬爾基斯 $^{a, b}$ , 亨德里戈·巴蒂斯塔·達·席爾瓦 $^{a}$ , 贾格鲁提·塔庫爾 $^{c,^{*}, Wadaed Uturbey^{a}, 2, 20}$ 普拉吉亞·塔庫爾 $^{d}$ $^{a}$ Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
米納斯吉拉斯聯邦大學，巴西 $^{b}$ VITO Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Belgium
$^{b}$ 比利時佛蘭德科技研究所 VITO $^{c}$ KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
瑞典 KTH 皇家科技大學 $^{d}$ Vellore Institute of Technology, India
印度維洛爾科技學院

A R T I C L E INFO
文章資訊

Article history: 文章歷史：

Received 28 April 2023 收到日期：2023 年 4 月 28 日
Received in revised form 28 July 2023
修訂版於 2023 年 7 月 28 日收到
Accepted 1 August 2023
接受日期：2023 年 8 月 1 日
Available online 22 August 2023
可於 2023 年 8 月 22 日在線獲得

Keywords: 關鍵詞：

Business model  商業模式
CANVAS  畫布
Shared PV  共享光伏
Sharing economy  共享經濟

Abstract 摘要

Shared Photovoltaic (PV) business models enable a broader percentage of consumers to benefit from renewable energy because installation and transaction costs are significantly decreased. Designing these shared and community-based business models can contribute to help countries achieve emission reduction targets, particularly in developing countries. A systematization in different categories of how these business models can improve the awareness of opportunities and barriers to such models, including the identification of potential models is yet to be explored in a specific market. This paper proposes such categorization and discusses different shared PV business models observed in this sector, discussing the main similarities and differences of each one based on the CANVAS business model methodology. Further, this paper analyzes these categories in terms of how the decrease in transaction costs from the consumers’ perspective would help to deliver value. Finally, we demonstrate the proposed categorization to existing models in Brazilian and Indian markets, defining which business model categories are more adherent to this market. Moreover, we discuss possible innovative models yet to be applied to these developing countries and barriers to be overcome. It was identified that major existing business models are feasible for both India and Brazil, however, regulatory hindrances needs to be addressed beforehand.
共享光伏（PV）商業模式使更大比例的消費者能夠受益於可再生能源，因為安裝和交易成本顯著降低。設計這些共享和社區基礎的商業模式可以幫助各國實現減排目標，特別是在發展中國家。如何系統化這些商業模式的不同類別，以提高對此類模式的機會和障礙的認識，包括潛在模式的識別，尚待在特定市場中進行探索。本文提出了這樣的分類，並討論了在該領域觀察到的不同共享光伏商業模式，根據 CANVAS 商業模式方法論討論每一種模式的主要相似性和差異。此外，本文從消費者的角度分析這些類別，探討交易成本的降低如何有助於提供價值。最後，我們將所提的分類應用於巴西和印度市場的現有模式，定義哪些商業模式類別更符合該市場。此外，我們討論了尚未應用於這些發展中國家的可能創新模型以及需要克服的障礙。研究指出，現有的主要商業模型對印度和巴西都是可行的，然而，必須事先解決監管障礙。

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
© 2023 作者。由愛思唯爾有限公司出版。這是一篇根據 CC BY-NC-ND 許可證（http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/）的開放存取文章。

1. Introduction 1. 引言

Fossil fuel

{CO}_{2}

emissions are an increasing concern worldwide due to climate change. Multilateral agreements such as the Paris agreement are trying to solve this issue, by pushing countries to adopt a collective long-term goal on climate change mitigation (Savaresi, 2016). Actions towards renewable energy developments are being taken worldwide to accomplish these goals. For instance, solar photovoltaics (PV) panels are becoming an important technology for countries to accomplish their

{CO}_{2}

emissions reduction targets, and an impressive PV diffusion has been observed in different countries in the last decade (Masson and Kaizuka, 2020). Such increase has been occurring in both distributed and utility-scale facilities worldwide (Masson and Kaizuka, 2020), since different sorts of incentives have been given to the sector in the last decade (Matisoff and Johnson, 2017).
化石燃料

{CO}_{2}

的排放因氣候變遷而在全球範圍內日益受到關注。巴黎協定等多邊協議正試圖解決這一問題，推動各國採取集體的長期氣候變遷減緩目標（Savaresi, 2016）。為實現這些目標，全球各地正在採取可再生能源發展的行動。例如，太陽能光伏（PV）面板正成為各國實現其

{CO}_{2}

減排目標的重要技術，並且在過去十年中，不同國家觀察到了驚人的光伏擴散（Masson 和 Kaizuka, 2020）。這一增長在全球的分散式和公用事業規模設施中均有發生（Masson 和 Kaizuka, 2020），因為在過去十年中，該行業獲得了各種激勵措施（Matisoff 和 Johnson, 2017）。

Although these favorable policies have been harnessed by early-adopter consumers and companies, a number of key barriers to the widespread PV adoption still exist, as high up-front cost, long payback time, high transaction costs in the installation and planning of the system, among others (Strupeit and Palm, 2016). To overcome such barriers, the available PV business models must be designed to reduce the consumers’ transaction costs and risks, as well as must provide easy and fast-to-implement solutions (Schleicher-Tappeser, 2012). As such, the concept of business models can be used as a framework for analyzing, operationalizing, and boosting the diffusion of sustainable innovations as PV. Moreover, the identification of different aspects of PV business models can provide the necessary information to identify sociopolitical and regulatory barriers to their implementation.
儘管這些有利政策已被早期採用的消費者和公司所利用，但仍然存在一些關鍵障礙，阻礙了光伏技術的廣泛採用，例如高昂的前期成本、長期的回報時間、安裝和規劃系統的高交易成本等（Strupeit 和 Palm，2016）。為了克服這些障礙，現有的光伏商業模式必須設計成能夠降低消費者的交易成本和風險，並提供易於實施和快速的解決方案（Schleicher-Tappeser，2012）。因此，商業模式的概念可以作為分析、操作化和促進可持續創新（如光伏技術）擴散的框架。此外，識別光伏商業模式的不同方面可以提供必要的信息，以識別其實施過程中的社會政治和監管障礙。

PV business models have evolved in the past years, as regulatory frameworks have enabled different players to operate in this market worldwide. They have been classified into three generations (zero, first and second generations) depending on how utilities are involved in the business model (Frantzis et al., 2008) and different types of individual or shared PV models have
光伏商業模式在過去幾年中不斷演變，因為監管框架使得不同的參與者能夠在全球範圍內運營於此市場。根據公用事業在商業模式中的參與程度，這些模式被分為三個世代（零世代、第一世代和第二世代）（Frantzis et al., 2008），並且存在不同類型的個體或共享光伏模型。

Fig. 1. The three generations of PV business models.
圖 1. 三代光伏商業模式。
been structured in each generation. A summary of those three generations of PV business models is shown in Fig. 1.
每一代的結構已經形成。圖 1 顯示了這三代光伏商業模式的摘要。

The zero generation corresponds to those models when the consumers own and maintain their PV systems on their premises. In this generation, utilities have a passive role of enabling metering and grid connection. It is characterized by high upfront costs, being restricted to a small group of higher income consumers (Drury et al., 2012). Therefore, most of the PV business models in this generation are focused on installation. From an individual PV perspective, such business models are characterized by companies that install systems on the rooftop of houses or commercial buildings. In a shared PV perspective, such business models are better represented by companies that install systems on the rooftop of condominiums such as multi-family or small business buildings.
零世代對應於消費者擁有並維護其自家光伏系統的模型。在這一世代中，公用事業的角色是被動的，主要是提供計量和電網連接。其特徵是高昂的前期成本，並且僅限於一小部分高收入消費者（Drury et al., 2012）。因此，這一世代的大多數光伏商業模型都專注於安裝。從個體光伏的角度來看，這類商業模型的特徵是那些在住宅或商業建築屋頂上安裝系統的公司。在共享光伏的角度來看，這類商業模型更好地由在公寓屋頂上安裝系統的公司來代表，例如多戶住宅或小型商業建築。

The first generation is characterized by third-party ownership. It has emerged in the U.S. in 2005 and is expanding gradually, since it requires an enabling regulatory framework (Drury et al., 2012). In terms of financing, the third-party model has been implemented in 24 U.S. states, being considered one of the major drivers for PV expansion in the last few years (Hong et al., 2018). These business models involve PPA (Power Purchase Agreements) with RESCOs (Renewable Energy Service Company), renting and leasing of PV systems to building occupants. In this generation, companies design, purchase, install and typically operate PV systems (Hong et al., 2018), which decreases largely the upfront costs for consumers. Third-party companies usually have more access to low cost financing, great ability to handle technical risks and the ability to make use of all government incentives (Frantzis et al., 2008). There are also non-profit and crowdfunding initiatives that can facilitate this issue. These business models contribute to PV diffusion among lower income users (Drury et al., 2012). From an individual PV perspective, such business models contribute to diffusion among tenants or apartment households, where installing a PV system on rooftops might not be a simple task. Moreover, individual households and small companies that prefer to avoid upfront costs are benefited from this scenario. From a shared PV perspective, these business models are characterized by contracts with condominiums of multi-family or small business buildings to install a third-party PV system on the building’s premises or by solar farms in remote locations with compensation by virtual net-metering. In the last case, consumers are subscribers of a share of such farms.
第一代的特徵是第三方擁有權。它於 2005 年在美國出現，並逐漸擴展，因為它需要一個支持性的監管框架（Drury et al., 2012）。在融資方面，第三方模式已在美國 24 個州實施，被認為是近幾年來光伏擴展的主要驅動力之一（Hong et al., 2018）。這些商業模式涉及與可再生能源服務公司（RESCOs）簽訂的電力購買協議（PPA），以及將光伏系統租賃給建築物使用者。在這一代中，公司設計、購買、安裝並通常運營光伏系統（Hong et al., 2018），這大大降低了消費者的前期成本。第三方公司通常能夠更容易獲得低成本融資，具備處理技術風險的強大能力，並能夠利用所有政府激勵措施（Frantzis et al., 2008）。還有一些非營利和眾籌倡議可以促進這一問題的解決。這些商業模式有助於在低收入用戶中推廣光伏技術（Drury et al., 2012）。從個人光伏（PV）視角來看，這些商業模式有助於在租戶或公寓家庭之間的擴散，因為在屋頂上安裝光伏系統可能並非一件簡單的任務。此外，個別家庭和小型公司如果希望避免前期成本，則能從這種情況中受益。從共享光伏的角度來看，這些商業模式的特點是與多家庭公寓或小型商業建築簽訂合同，在建築物的場地上安裝第三方光伏系統，或在偏遠地區的太陽能農場進行虛擬淨計量的補償。在最後一種情況下，消費者是這些農場的一部分訂閱者。

The second generation is characterized by a more in-depth involvement of utilities with PV being part of their infrastructure. As PV penetration accelerates, utilities will face an increasing
第二代的特徵是公用事業與光伏系統的更深入參與，光伏系統成為其基礎設施的一部分。隨著光伏滲透率的加速，公用事業將面臨越來越多的挑戰。
pressure to adapt (Funkhouser et al., 2015). A utility can ultimately decide the best place to install a solar facility in order to decrease its distribution costs. However, regulatory frameworks might prevent utilities from owning PV facilities. These business models can be looked from an individual PV perspective, when relations are between utility and consumers only. However, great value is observed in the shared PV perspective, when utilities can offer turn-key PV solutions as part of an electrification strategy to communities without access to electricity, being responsible for the ownership and operation costs (Thakur et al., 2019). Utilities can also play a significant role in business models not actually owned by them. They can act as a re-seller buying all the energy from local communities and selling to final consumers, with a commission for the service.
適應壓力（Funkhouser et al., 2015）。公用事業最終可以決定安裝太陽能設施的最佳位置，以降低其配電成本。然而，監管框架可能會阻止公用事業擁有光伏設施。這些商業模式可以從個別光伏的角度來看，當關係僅限於公用事業和消費者之間時。然而，從共享光伏的角度來看，當公用事業能夠作為電氣化策略的一部分，向無電力接入的社區提供交鑰匙的光伏解決方案，並負責擁有和運營成本時，則觀察到巨大的價值（Thakur et al., 2019）。公用事業在實際上不擁有的商業模式中也可以發揮重要作用。它們可以作為轉售商，從當地社區購買所有能源並銷售給最終消費者，並收取服務佣金。

As demonstrated by the characteristics of the three generations, one of the main obstacles to the widespread deployment of PV generation is the high upfront cost (Mah et al., 2018), which hinders the participation of multiple consumers who cannot afford such systems. The rise of remote and shared PV businesses models in the later generations (Drury et al., 2012) was able to deal with this barrier, enabling more consumers to benefit from this sustainable technology, because this high cost is no longer paid by one individual. In other words, designing shared and community-based business models is a way to achieve economies of scale and boost market participation (Asmus, 2008; Fina et al., 2019; Foroozandeh et al., 2021). In addition to reducing the upfront cost, community-based PV can contribute significantly to reducing harmful gas emissions (Sifakis et al., 2019, 2020). Besides the environmental benefits, energy independence and personal economic benefits are considered important factors that drive people to decide to participate in a community solar initiative (Peters et al., 2018).
如三代特徵所示，光伏發電廣泛部署的主要障礙之一是高昂的前期成本（Mah et al., 2018），這阻礙了多個無法承擔此類系統的消費者的參與。後幾代的遠程和共享光伏商業模式（Drury et al., 2012）能夠應對這一障礙，使更多消費者能夠受益於這項可持續技術，因為這一高成本不再由單一個體承擔。換句話說，設計共享和基於社區的商業模式是一種實現規模經濟並促進市場參與的方法（Asmus, 2008; Fina et al., 2019; Foroozandeh et al., 2021）。除了降低前期成本外，基於社區的光伏還能顯著減少有害氣體排放（Sifakis et al., 2019, 2020）。除了環境效益外，能源獨立和個人經濟利益被認為是驅使人們決定參加社區太陽能計劃的重要因素（Peters et al., 2018）。

The concept of shared PV business model is widely discussed in the literature, having multiple definitions depending on the regulatory context, local practices, and actors involved. Coughlin et al. describes “community shared solar” (CSS) as a “solarelectric system that provides power and/or financial benefit to multiple community members” (Coughlin et al., 2011, p. 3). For the authors, the idea of having multiple and different members sharing the benefits of the PV system defines a community shared business model. Their model is further separated in three submodels, depending on the system ownership (e.g. utility, special purpose entity, or nonprofit). Moreover, Chan et al. emphasizes that all CSS programs are different, depending on design choices defined by not only the ownership model, but also the subscription model, the system and site selection, how subscribers enroll the program, and how the CSS is managed/operated (Chan
共享光伏商業模式的概念在文獻中被廣泛討論，根據監管背景、地方實踐和參與者的不同而有多種定義。Coughlin 等人將「社區共享太陽能」（CSS）描述為「一種為多個社區成員提供電力和/或財務利益的太陽能電力系統」（Coughlin et al., 2011, p. 3）。對於作者來說，擁有多個不同成員共享光伏系統的利益的想法定義了一種社區共享商業模式。他們的模型進一步根據系統所有權（例如，公用事業、特殊目的實體或非營利組織）分為三個子模型。此外，Chan 等人強調，所有 CSS 計劃都是不同的，這取決於不僅由所有權模型定義的設計選擇，還包括訂閱模型、系統和場地選擇、訂閱者如何註冊該計劃，以及 CSS 的管理/運營方式。
et al., 2017). “Community solar” is again discussed in Asmus (2008), which adds to the definition of business models with PV modules on various buildings operating as a single system. On the other hand, Augustine and McGavisk use the expression “community shared solar” (or more simply “shared solar”) to refer to PV systems providing power and/or benefits to multiple members, while “community solar” to a broader classification, which can include the group purchasing of solar equipment (Augustine and McGavisk, 2016). Finally, Feldman et al. adopt the concept of “shared solar”, described as jointly owned or leased systems whose generation is allocated to offset multiple consumers’ bills (Feldman et al., 2015). From this definition, the authors exclude some cases as shared systems for common areas, crowdfunding financing mechanisms, collective-purchasing programs, among others.
等人，2017）。“社區太陽能”在 Asmus（2008）中再次被討論，該文對商業模式的定義進行了補充，涉及在各種建築上運行的光伏模塊作為一個單一系統。另一方面，Augustine 和 McGavisk 使用“社區共享太陽能”（或更簡單的“共享太陽能”）這一表達來指代為多個成員提供電力和/或利益的光伏系統，而“社區太陽能”則是一個更廣泛的分類，可以包括太陽能設備的團體購買（Augustine 和 McGavisk，2016）。最後，Feldman 等人採用了“共享太陽能”的概念，描述為共同擁有或租賃的系統，其產生的電力用於抵消多個消費者的帳單（Feldman 等人，2015）。根據這一定義，作者排除了某些情況，例如用於公共區域的共享系統、眾籌融資機制、集體購買計劃等。

The literature concepts of “community solar” or “shared solar” typically consider the idea of having one system allowing multiple consumers to share its benefits. After studying different countries’ policies, we give a broader definition to create a general classification of shared PV business models, in which “community solar” and “shared solar” are part of it. We consider any type of PV business model that allows individuals to have access to PV generation through shared mechanisms related to the use of the PV system. The idea is to present in one study a comprehensive set of shared PV models used in the industry as a means to provide comparative information to researchers, policymakers, and decision-makers. For instance, Zhang provides policy recommendations for China based on the examination of the rapidly evolving business models and financing mechanisms in the U.S. (Zhang, 2016), and we seek to provide similar conclusions in the shared PV context.
文獻中所提到的「社區太陽能」或「共享太陽能」概念通常考慮到一個系統讓多個消費者共享其利益的想法。在研究不同國家的政策後，我們給予一個更廣泛的定義，以創建一個共享光伏商業模式的通用分類，其中「社區太陽能」和「共享太陽能」都是其一部分。我們認為任何類型的光伏商業模式，只要允許個人通過與光伏系統使用相關的共享機制來獲得光伏發電的機會，均可納入此範疇。這個研究的目的是呈現一套全面的共享光伏模型，供業界使用，以便為研究人員、政策制定者和決策者提供比較資訊。例如，張提供了基於對美國快速演變的商業模式和融資機制的檢視，對中國的政策建議（張，2016），我們也希望在共享光伏的背景下提供類似的結論。

In addition to the multiple terminology for shared PV, there is no consensus on the literature or industry over its business models (Michaud, 2020). After reviewing over a hundred papers, Horváth and Szabó classifies the PV business models into three categories mainly based on the ownership model (Horváth and Szabó, 2018): host-owned, third-party-owned, and communityshared. The first one includes models in which the owner of the building where the PV system is installed is also the owner and main user. The second one includes business models in which the owner and user of the system are different entities. The last one includes the models operated and administered by different entities, including utilities and non-profit organizations. From the shared PV perspective, this classification has many overlaps between the categories and is unable to include some of the shared PV models currently available. Moreover, some of the shared PV business will be included in the second category, while others in the third. For example, PPAs and solar leases are examples of revenue streams of third-party ownership models but are not present in the community-shared model (Horváth and Szabó, 2018). However, Michaud shows that many community solar models are based on subscriptions (Michaud, 2020), which can be done through PPAs, rental or lease contracts. This threecategory classification approach is also in line with the classification presented by Huijben and Verbong (2013) for the Dutch PV market, which defines PV business models as customer-owned, community shared, and third party.
除了共享光伏的多種術語外，文獻或行業對其商業模式並沒有共識（Michaud, 2020）。在回顧了超過一百篇論文後，Horváth 和 Szabó 將光伏商業模式主要根據所有權模型分為三類（Horváth 和 Szabó, 2018）：主機擁有、第三方擁有和社區共享。第一類包括建築物擁有者同時也是光伏系統的擁有者和主要使用者的模型。第二類包括系統的擁有者和使用者是不同實體的商業模式。最後一類包括由不同實體運營和管理的模型，包括公用事業和非營利組織。從共享光伏的角度來看，這一分類在各類別之間有許多重疊，無法涵蓋目前可用的一些共享光伏模型。此外，一些共享光伏商業模式將被納入第二類，而其他則納入第三類。例如，PPA 和太陽能租賃是第三方擁有模型的收入來源示例，但在社區共享模型中並不存在（Horváth 和 Szabó, 2018）。然而，Michaud 顯示許多社區太陽能模型是基於訂閱（Michaud, 2020），這可以通過購電協議（PPA）、租賃或租約合同來實現。這種三類分類方法也與 Huijben 和 Verbong（2013）為荷蘭光伏市場提出的分類相符，該分類將光伏商業模型定義為客戶擁有、社區共享和第三方。

In Coughlin et al. (2011) and Michaud (2020), the community shared solar models are also classified according to the sponsorship models: utility, special purpose entity (SPE),

^{1}

or nonprofit. This classification suits the U.S. regulatory framework but is again unable to fit many shared PV models around the world as well
在 Coughlin 等人（2011）和 Michaud（2020）的研究中，社區共享太陽能模型也根據贊助模型進行分類：公用事業、特殊目的實體（SPE）、

^{1}

或非營利組織。這一分類適合美國的監管框架，但同樣無法適應世界各地許多共享光伏模型。

as have overlaps depending on other business model aspects. For instance, crowdfunding models can gather financing for community PV projects from different institutions, including companies, non-profit entities, and residential consumers.
因為根據其他商業模式的不同方面而有所重疊。例如，眾籌模型可以從不同的機構籌集社區光伏項目的資金，包括公司、非營利實體和住宅消費者。

The authors of Roberts et al. (2019) study the shared PV business models for apartment buildings. They define 4 types of arrangements between the households: individual, which means without a shared governance among the apartments; shared PV for common property, in which the generation is used to offset the consumption of common areas; shared PV distributed to apartments via embedded network, to offset the consumption of the residents; and shared PV distributed to apartments via a local energy trading, which adds a local market to the model. Barriers to these models are discussed, and focused in the Australian market. Again, the classification proposed by these authors is not able to contemplate all possibilities of a shared PV business model, because it is focused on apartment buildings.
Roberts 等人（2019）的研究探討了公寓大樓的共享光伏商業模式。他們定義了四種類型的家庭安排：個別型，意指公寓之間沒有共享治理；用於公共財產的共享光伏，該產生的電力用於抵消公共區域的消耗；通過嵌入式網絡分配給公寓的共享光伏，以抵消居民的消耗；以及通過本地能源交易分配給公寓的共享光伏，這為模型增添了一個本地市場。文中討論了這些模型的障礙，並集中於澳大利亞市場。再次強調，這些作者提出的分類無法考慮所有共享光伏商業模式的可能性，因為它專注於公寓大樓。

After studying the variations in the definitions and expressions of shared solar, it is imperative to improve the understanding of shared solar for appropriate policy interventions to encourage PV adoption. The gap can be seen by the above literature review, where no consensus of the shared PV business model categories exists, and many overlapping classifications have been proposed so far, which undermines the identification of benefits, challenges, and barriers to the different possible shared PV business models. To fill this gap, the contributions of this paper are as follows:
在研究共享太陽能的定義和表達的變化後，改善對共享太陽能的理解對於適當的政策干預以促進光伏採用至關重要。上述文獻回顧顯示，對於共享光伏商業模式類別並不存在共識，迄今為止已提出許多重疊的分類，這削弱了對不同可能的共享光伏商業模式的利益、挑戰和障礙的識別。為了填補這一空白，本文的貢獻如下：

We propose a different classification of shared PV business models, following literature discussion and real-world examples. The idea is to provide a comprehensive set of shared PV models able to support researchers, the industry, and regulatory decision-makers to identify opportunities and barriers to shared PV adoption. The categories are defined according to Osterwalder’s business model CANVAS (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010);
我們提出了一種不同的共享光伏商業模式分類，基於文獻討論和現實世界的例子。這個想法是提供一套全面的共享光伏模型，以支持研究人員、業界和監管決策者識別共享光伏採用的機會和障礙。這些類別是根據 Osterwalder 的商業模式 CANVAS（Osterwalder 和 Pigneur，2010）定義的；
We analyze the business model categories in terms of transaction costs, considering three factors that impact the level of these costs: adoption decision, compensation of electricity, and ownership. We analyze how transaction cost reduction was explored by companies to deliver value to consumers;
我們從交易成本的角度分析商業模式類別，考慮影響這些成本水平的三個因素：採用決策、電力補償和所有權。我們分析了公司如何探索降低交易成本以向消費者提供價值；
We apply the proposed categorization and analysis to Brazilian and Indian shared PV business models in order to understand how these countries’ contexts influence what business models are more applicable, and what are the barriers for nonexistent ones.
我們將所提出的分類和分析應用於巴西和印度的共享光伏商業模式，以了解這些國家的背景如何影響哪些商業模式更具適用性，以及不存在的商業模式所面臨的障礙。

This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the methodology and the data, Section 3 presents the categories and transaction cost discussion, Section 4 presents the case study in the Brazilian and Indian markets. In Section 5, we highlight the main conclusions.
本文的組織結構如下。第二節介紹方法論和數據，第三節介紹類別和交易成本的討論，第四節介紹巴西和印度市場的案例研究。在第五節中，我們強調主要結論。

2. Methodology 2. 方法論

The methodology applied in this paper is composed of two main methods: (1) Osterwalder’s business model CANVAS, which is applied to classify the shared PV models in a way to provide a comprehensive set; (2) the transaction costs method, which is used to analyze the incentives and barriers of the PV shared business models adoption.
本論文所採用的方法論由兩個主要方法組成：（1）Osterwalder 的商業模式 CANVAS，該方法用於對共享光伏模型進行分類，以提供一套全面的分類；（2）交易成本方法，用於分析光伏共享商業模型採用的激勵和障礙。

The first method results in a comparative table listing different business models on each column and different features in each row based on the CANVAS model. The second method results in a discussion of how each business model category is related to
第一種方法產生了一個比較表，根據 CANVAS 模型列出不同的商業模式於每一列，並在每一行列出不同的特徵。第二種方法則討論了每個商業模式類別之間的關聯。
different levels of transaction costs reduction for users of shared PV.
不同層次的交易成本降低對於共享光伏用戶。

Finally, there is a case study of how each category has adherence to the Brazilian and Indian regulatory and economic contexts, in terms of how many pillars of the CANVAS business model are adherent to each market. Also the main barriers faced by each shared business model based on the Brazilian and Indian regulatory frameworks are discussed.
最後，本文探討了每個類別在巴西和印度的監管及經濟背景下的遵循情況，具體而言，即每個市場中有多少個 CANVAS 商業模型的支柱符合要求。此外，還討論了基於巴西和印度監管框架的每個共享商業模型所面臨的主要障礙。

The establishment of those methods and their further application in the aforementioned case study is based on qualitative and unstructured data obtained from literature, government agencies, companies’ websites and interviews with players from the sector.
這些方法的建立及其在上述案例研究中的進一步應用是基於從文獻、政府機構、公司網站以及與行業參與者的訪談中獲得的定性和非結構化數據。

2.1. Business model CANVAS
2.1. 商業模式畫布

Studying business models is essential to boost the diffusion of innovations and for allowing a more sustainable application of existent technologies (Strupeit and Palm, 2016), e.g. Paiho et al. study business models for improving the energy efficiency of residential buildings (Paiho et al., 2015). Different concepts and definitions of a business model exist (Horváth and Szabó, 2018). Although many researchers disagree on the term meaning, in general they agree that value creation and capture are central aspects defining a business model (Strupeit and Palm, 2016). The Business Model CANVAS is a popular methodology which defines nine building blocks of a business that are vital for value creation and capture. Those blocks are represented in a board, helping entrepreneurs to design a new business or reformulate an existing strategy (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010). As we intend to define business models for shared PV, which is a new application of this distributed generation technology, CANVAS methodology is also applicable. However, describing an entire business able to deliver the shared PV value is out of scope of this study. Therefore, only fundamental blocks that characterize the main differences between shared PV models are used, as schematized in shaded brown in Fig. 2:
研究商業模式對於促進創新擴散及實現現有技術的可持續應用至關重要（Strupeit 和 Palm，2016），例如，Paiho 等人研究商業模式以改善住宅建築的能源效率（Paiho 等人，2015）。商業模式存在不同的概念和定義（Horváth 和 Szabó，2018）。儘管許多研究者對該術語的含義存在分歧，但一般而言，他們一致認為價值創造和捕獲是定義商業模式的核心方面（Strupeit 和 Palm，2016）。商業模式畫布（Business Model CANVAS）是一種流行的方法論，定義了九個對於價值創造和捕獲至關重要的商業構建塊。這些構建塊在一個板上表示，幫助企業家設計新業務或重新制定現有策略（Osterwalder 和 Pigneur，2010）。由於我們打算為共享光伏定義商業模式，這是一種分散式發電技術的新應用，因此 CANVAS 方法論也適用。然而，描述一個能夠提供共享光伏價值的完整商業模式超出了本研究的範疇。因此，僅使用表徵共享光伏模型之間主要差異的基本模塊，如圖中以棕色陰影示意的部分。 2:

Value Proposition: can be described by products and/or services offered by the company to fulfill the requirements of consumer segments (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010). Defining the value proposition of a shared PV business model will impact all its other aspects, being key to identify the different categories of shared PV models, their benefits and barriers. For instance, the value proposition impacts which types of consumers can be targeted/covered by the business (e.g. a shared PV model sold as a turn-key solution to consumers with multiple consuming units might not be interesting for a residential consumer living in an apartment), as well as impacts the revenue streams of the business. In the context of shared PV, value propositions include turn-key solutions, subscription models, matching platforms, among others, offered by “integration” companies, $^{2}$ utilities, third parties, and non-profit organizations (NPOs) to consumers interested in distributed generation.
價值主張：可以通過公司提供的產品和/或服務來描述，以滿足消費者細分市場的需求（Osterwalder 和 Pigneur，2010）。定義共享光伏商業模式的價值主張將影響其所有其他方面，對於識別不同類別的共享光伏模型、其優勢和障礙至關重要。例如，價值主張影響業務可以針對/覆蓋的消費者類型（例如，作為交鑰匙解決方案銷售給擁有多個消費單位的消費者的共享光伏模型可能對住在公寓的住宅消費者不具吸引力），同時也影響業務的收入來源。在共享光伏的背景下，價值主張包括由“整合”公司、 $^{2}$ 公用事業、第三方和非營利組織（NPO）提供給對分散式發電感興趣的消費者的交鑰匙解決方案、訂閱模型、配對平台等。
Customer Segments (target consumers): includes the target consumers a company aims to reach and serve. They may be grouped into distinct segments with common needs/ behaviors. Defining customer segments is important for carefully designing the other aspects of the business model in general, and, in the context of shared PV, it also helps to identify the applicability of a certain model to a certain sociopolitical context (e.g. a community solar focused on residents might not be possible due to local regulations).
顧客細分（目標消費者）：包括公司旨在接觸和服務的目標消費者。它們可以根據共同的需求/行為分為不同的細分市場。定義顧客細分對於仔細設計商業模式的其他方面非常重要，並且在共享光伏的背景下，它也有助於識別某一模型在特定社會政治背景下的適用性（例如，專注於居民的社區太陽能可能因當地法規而無法實現）。

In the context of shared PV, we divide consumers in commercial, residential, and industrial, following power system nomenclature.
在共享光伏的背景下，我們根據電力系統的命名法將消費者分為商業、住宅和工業類別。

Revenue Streams (revenue model): represents the money a company earns from each customer segment (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010), impacting the feasibility of a business. In the context of shared PV, we also consider the revenue model of the consumers, which drives them to invest in distributed generation, thus impacting the adoption of a shared PV business model. The revenue model for consumers depends on local policies and can be of different types, e.g. virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff, access to electricity, among others. For the company offering the shared PV product/service, herein referred to as “intermediary”, revenues can come from the project development and management, installing and operating the system, among others.
收入來源（收入模型）：代表公司從每個客戶群體中獲得的收入（Osterwalder 和 Pigneur，2010），影響商業的可行性。在共享光伏的背景下，我們還考慮消費者的收入模型，這驅使他們投資於分散式發電，從而影響共享光伏商業模型的採用。消費者的收入模型取決於當地政策，並且可以有不同類型，例如虛擬淨計量、上網電價、電力接入等。對於提供共享光伏產品/服務的公司，以下稱為“中介”，收入可以來自項目開發和管理、安裝和運營系統等。
Cost Structure: characterize the most important costs incurred to operate the business (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010). In the context of shared PV, the main costs are related to the system’s upfront investment and operation. Therefore, to differentiate shared PV businesses, we consider who pays for these key costs, e.g. consumers, a third party, etc. This cost will impact the adoption/feasibility of a shared PV business model in a certain sociopolitical context.
成本結構：描述經營業務所產生的最重要成本（Osterwalder 和 Pigneur，2010）。在共享光伏的背景下，主要成本與系統的前期投資和運營有關。因此，為了區分共享光伏業務，我們考慮誰支付這些關鍵成本，例如消費者、第三方等。這些成本將影響在特定社會政治背景下共享光伏商業模式的採用/可行性。

Different value propositions and customer segments impact how to design the other aspects of the business model, defining the core of the business and being essential to determine how shared PV models differentiate. Moreover, the revenue model (for consumers and intermediaries), as well as the cost structure, are key to classifying business models, because the upfront and operation costs are the main costs of this type of business. The definition of these four blocks will determine the feasibility, adoption potential, and implementation challenges of a certain shared PV business model in an specific regulatory context. In addition to those fundamental blocks, we add the ownership model as a defining block, which is related to who pays the cost structure, but not necessarily the same. The ownership impacts who pays the system costs, who benefits from its revenues, and how intermediary companies act to create value.
不同的價值主張和客戶細分會影響商業模式其他方面的設計，定義商業的核心，並對確定共享光伏模型的差異化至關重要。此外，收入模型（針對消費者和中介）以及成本結構是分類商業模型的關鍵，因為前期和運營成本是這類業務的主要成本。這四個區塊的定義將決定某一特定監管環境下共享光伏商業模型的可行性、採用潛力和實施挑戰。除了這些基本區塊外，我們還將所有權模型作為一個定義區塊，這與誰支付成本結構有關，但不一定是相同的。所有權影響誰支付系統成本、誰從其收入中受益，以及中介公司如何行動以創造價值。

The other five building blocks, i.e. key activities, key partners, key resources, customer relationships, and channels, are not considered, because our objective is to generally classify shared PV business models, not to determine the specific aspects necessary to create these businesses. More specifically, key activities define the most important activities in the execution of a value proposition; key partners relate to the suppliers of a business and/or its complementary business alliances; key resources determine the resources necessary to create value for the customer; customer relationships will define how the business will get, keep, and grow its customers; and channels define how the company reaches the customers. As such, all of them describe the operations of a specific company, which do not add value to the categorization proposed in this paper, and do not impact the business potential of shared PV models in different sociopolitical contexts.
其他五個構成要素，即關鍵活動、關鍵夥伴、關鍵資源、客戶關係和渠道，並未被考慮，因為我們的目標是一般性地分類共享光伏商業模式，而不是確定創建這些商業所需的具體方面。更具體地說，關鍵活動定義了執行價值主張中最重要的活動；關鍵夥伴與企業的供應商和/或其互補商業聯盟有關；關鍵資源確定了為客戶創造價值所需的資源；客戶關係將定義企業如何獲取、保持和增長其客戶；而渠道則定義了公司如何接觸客戶。因此，所有這些都描述了特定公司的運營，這對於本文提出的分類並未增加價值，也不會影響共享光伏模型在不同社會政治背景下的商業潛力。

2.1.1. Transaction costs
2.1.1. 交易成本

The reason why consumers make contracts with energy companies under different business models is to decrease the sum of production and transaction cost of energy services (Sorrell, 2007), i.e., consumers want to reduce their electricity bill without incurring high transaction costs, related to organizing and governing the activity (Nolden et al., 2016).
消費者與能源公司在不同商業模式下簽訂合約的原因是為了降低能源服務的生產和交易成本總和（Sorrell, 2007），即消費者希望在不產生與組織和管理活動相關的高交易成本的情況下減少電費（Nolden et al., 2016）。

Fig. 2. Blocks of CANVAS methodology. Shaded blocks are used to classify shared PV business models.
圖 2. CANVAS 方法論的區塊。陰影區塊用於分類共享的光伏商業模式。

Transaction costs include the costs of planning, adapting, executing, and monitoring task completion. Uncertainty, complexity, asymmetric information, and opportunism in some situations are conditions under which transactional inefficiencies may arise (Williamson, 1980). The greater the transaction efficiency gains are delivered to a consumer by a business, more valuable this business will be Amit and Zott (2001). It also involves the reduction of search and information costs, bargaining and decision costs and supervision and enforcement costs (Sorrell, 2007). the authors (Allen, 1991) also links a costly information as one of the necessary conditions for the existence of transaction costs, as well as the variability of goods.
交易成本包括規劃、適應、執行和監控任務完成的成本。不確定性、複雜性、不對稱信息以及在某些情況下的機會主義是可能導致交易效率低下的條件（Williamson, 1980）。企業為消費者提供的交易效率增益越大，該企業的價值就越高（Amit and Zott, 2001）。這還涉及到搜索和信息成本、談判和決策成本以及監督和執行成本的降低（Sorrell, 2007）。作者（Allen, 1991）還將昂貴的信息與交易成本的存在必要條件之一聯繫起來，以及商品的變異性。

The decrease in transaction costs provided to consumers has significant importance in the diffusion of PV technology and business models development. They are mainly associated with how much direct or indirect effort a non-specialist small consumer should put into the process or internalize in order to adopt a PV technology, and to harness local government incentives on renewable energy and other economic benefits. Since PV consumers usually have low expertise in these activities of installing or connecting the PV system with local utility and all the bureaucracy involved with these activities, value is added to consumers when such costs are decreased by a company in a business model.
交易成本的降低對於消費者在光伏技術的擴散和商業模式的發展中具有重要意義。這主要與非專業的小型消費者在採用光伏技術時，應該投入多少直接或間接的努力或內部化的過程有關，以及如何利用地方政府對可再生能源的激勵措施和其他經濟利益。由於光伏消費者通常在安裝或將光伏系統與當地公用事業連接的活動中專業知識較低，並且涉及這些活動的所有官僚程序，因此當公司在商業模式中降低這些成本時，將為消費者增值。

In shared PV business models, transaction costs might be internalized in some cases due to voluntary time and dedication of community directors (Nolden et al., 2020). However, even with information available online, there is a possibility that customers are confused, resulting in high transaction costs considering markets like the building-integrated PV (Curtius, 2018).
在共享光伏商業模式中，交易成本在某些情況下可能因社區董事的自願時間和奉獻而內部化（Nolden et al., 2020）。然而，即使在線上有可用的信息，顧客仍有可能感到困惑，這導致在建築整合光伏等市場中出現高交易成本（Curtius, 2018）。

From the consumers’ point of view, these transaction costs might even be prohibitive without companies that offer a complete turn-key solutions. Therefore, transaction cost reduction opportunities are being used as a way to deliver value to these consumers. In order to evaluate how these costs are decreased by each business model, we consider 2 different variables from the transaction cost economics (TCE): environmental and behavior uncertainty (Sorrell, 2007). These features are indirectly considered by consumers when opting for shared PV systems. The first is related to unanticipated changes in circumstances surrounding a transaction and the second is related to difficulties associated with monitoring the contractual performance of transaction partners, avoiding opportunist behavior (Sorrell, 2007). Such behavior comes when decision makers may unscrupulously seek to serve their self-interests (Rindfleisch and Heide, 1997).
從消費者的角度來看，這些交易成本在沒有提供完整交鑰匙解決方案的公司時，可能甚至是禁止性的。因此，降低交易成本的機會被用作向這些消費者提供價值的一種方式。為了評估每種商業模式如何降低這些成本，我們考慮交易成本經濟學（TCE）中的兩個不同變數：環境不確定性和行為不確定性（Sorrell, 2007）。這些特徵在消費者選擇共享光伏系統時是間接考慮的。第一個與交易周圍環境的意外變化有關，第二個則與監控交易夥伴的合約履行所面臨的困難有關，以避免機會主義行為（Sorrell, 2007）。當決策者可能不擇手段地追求自身利益時，就會出現這種行為（Rindfleisch 和 Heide, 1997）。

In this approach, we consider there are three main features that could be responsible for how large the transaction costs
在這種方法中，我們認為有三個主要特徵可能影響交易成本的大小

Fig. 3. Transaction cost features considered for shared PV business models.
圖 3. 共享光伏商業模式考慮的交易成本特徵。
are borne by the company in favor of the consumers. In the group of environmental uncertainty, we consider the compensation of electricity, since local or remote compensation inputs challenges regarding technological issues. On the other hand, in the group of behavior uncertainty, we consider adoption decisions and ownership of the PV system. In this latter group, these two features encompass the possible uncertainties that may arise in the relation to consumers in an economic transaction in a shared PV business model. Fig. 3 presents the transaction cost features considered in this analysis.
由公司承擔以惠及消費者。在環境不確定性群體中，我們考慮電力的補償，因為本地或遠程補償輸入在技術問題上帶來挑戰。另一方面，在行為不確定性群體中，我們考慮採用決策和光伏系統的擁有權。在後者群體中，這兩個特徵涵蓋了在共享光伏商業模式中與消費者之間的經濟交易相關的可能不確定性。圖 3 展示了本分析中考慮的交易成本特徵。

In other to clarify how each category of shared PV business model tends to deliver to consumers more or less transaction costs reduction, we propose a comparative analysis based on binary variables

x_{i}

. For this comparative purpose, we consider:
為了澄清每種類別的共享光伏商業模式如何向消費者提供更多或更少的交易成本降低，我們提出基於二元變數

x_{i}

的比較分析。為了這個比較目的，我們考慮：

$x_{1}$ as compensation of electricity, considering $x_{1} = 0$ for local compensation and $x_{1} = 1$ for remote;
$x_{1}$ 作為電力的補償，考慮到 $x_{1} = 0$ 用於本地補償和 $x_{1} = 1$ 用於遠程補償；
$x_{2}$ as adoption decision, considering $x_{2} = 0$ for joint decisions and $x_{2} = 1$ for single;
$x_{2}$ 作為採納決策，考慮 $x_{2} = 0$ 以進行聯合決策，以及 $x_{2} = 1$ 以進行單獨決策；
$x_{3}$ as ownership of PV system, considering $x_{3} = 0$ for self-owned ownership and $x_{3} = 1$ for third-party;
$x_{3}$ 作為光伏系統的擁有權，考慮 $x_{3} = 0$ 代表自有擁有權， $x_{3} = 1$ 代表第三方擁有權；

Compensation of electricity could be local or remote. Remote compensation could be perceived as having a higher level of transaction costs reduction, since the system is installed out of the consumer’s premises and electrical and civil infrastructure issues would be mostly reduced in this scenario. The adoption decision of a PV system could be single or joint, and this last one is related to agreements between different consumers, which inputs to them a higher transaction cost to conduct such agreements. Therefore, business models with single adoption decisions tend to deliver higher transaction cost reductions to consumers. Regarding ownership, a self-owned system inputs to consumers
電力補償可以是本地或遠程的。遠程補償可以被視為具有更高的交易成本降低水平，因為系統安裝在消費者的場地之外，這種情況下電力和土木基礎設施問題大多會減少。光伏系統的採用決策可以是單一的或聯合的，而後者與不同消費者之間的協議有關，這使得進行此類協議的交易成本更高。因此，具有單一採用決策的商業模式往往能為消費者提供更高的交易成本降低。關於擁有權，自有系統使消費者投入更多。

Table 1 表 1
Classification of shared PV models.
共享光伏模型的分類。

Pillar 柱子

Integration model 整合模型

Renting of PV systems
租賃光伏系統

Community solar 社區太陽能

Leasing 租賃

Microgrid model 微電網模型

RESCO/PPA

Utility re-seller 公用事業轉售商

Nonprofit 非營利組織

Crowdfunding 群眾募資

Value Proposition 價值主張

Turn-key solution offered by "integration" companies
由「整合」公司提供的交鑰匙解決方案

Subscription model offered by third-party, utility, or government
第三方、公用事業或政府提供的訂閱模式

Community members own the shared PV, defined by a negotiated agreement
社區成員擁有共享的光伏系統，這是由協商達成的協議所定義的

Turn-key solution offered by "integrators" without upfront costs and the possibility of buying the system at the end
由「整合商」提供的交鑰匙解決方案，無需前期成本，並可在最後購買系統

Turn-key solution offered by the utility as an off-grid microgrid solution
公用事業提供的交鑰匙解決方案作為離網微電網解決方案

Turn-key solution installed in the consumers' premises with a pre-defined monthly tariff
在消費者的場所安裝的交鑰匙解決方案，並具有預定的每月費率

Utility buys energy from local communities solar and resells to consumers
公用事業從當地社區購買太陽能，並轉售給消費者

Supporters of the NPO help finance the system through tax-deductible donations or direct investment in the project
非營利組織的支持者通過可扣稅的捐款或對該項目的直接投資來幫助資助該系統

Platform matches investors with consumers interested in the PV generation
平台將投資者與對光伏發電感興趣的消費者配對

Target Consumer 目標消費者

Commercial, industrial 商業、工業

Renters, small business, industries
租戶、小型企業、行業

Owners (of all types) inside community
社區內的所有類型的擁有者

Residential 住宅

Residential, commercial, industrial
住宅、商業、工業

Ownership Model 擁有權模型

Customer-owned 顧客擁有

Third-party, utility, government
第三方、公用事業、政府

Communityowned, utility 社區擁有的公用事業

Third-party flipping to consumer
第三方轉售給消費者

Utility 效用

Utility, third-party 效用，第三方

Local community solar 地方社區太陽能

NPO, community members, donors
非營利組織、社區成員、捐贈者

Various types depending on project
根據項目的不同而有各種不同類型

Revenue model (consumers)
收入模型（消費者）

Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff
虛擬淨計量、上網電價

Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff
虛擬淨計量，餵入電價

Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff
虛擬淨計量、上網電價

Energy access with monthly tariff
每月費率的能源接入

Lower tariff 降低關稅

Virtual net-metering, lower tariff
虛擬淨計量，較低的費率

Virtual net-metering, lower tariff, green donation fund
虛擬淨計量、較低的電價、綠色捐贈基金

Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff
虛擬淨計量、上網電價

Revenue model (supplier or intermediary)
收入模型（供應商或中介）

專案開發與管理（交易成本）

Project

development and management (transaction costs)

項目開發和運營按訂閱收費，服務費用

Project

development and operation charged as subscription, fee for services

Project development and implementation
專案開發與實施

Rental, solar leasing 租賃，太陽能租賃

Monthly tariff 每月費率

Fee for services 服務費用

Commission to utility and tariff to system owners
對於系統擁有者的公用事業和費率委員會

Excess power revenue, green credits sell
超額電力收入，綠色信用出售

Commission to platform 委託平台

Upfront and operation costs
前期和運營成本

System owners 系統擁有者

Third-party, utility, government
第三方、公用事業、政府

System owners 系統擁有者

Third-party 第三方

Utility 效用

Third-party 第三方

Local community solar 地方社區太陽能

Donors, NPO, community members, utility grants, state programs, homeowners
捐贈者、非營利組織、社區成員、公用事業補助、州政府計劃、房主

Investors 投資者

Example 範例

Pharmacy chains and banks (BR)
藥房連鎖店和銀行 (BR)

Enercred (BR), EMGD (BR), Órigo (BR), Mori (BR), CEMIG Sim! (BR), Tucson Electric (US)
Enercred（巴西）、EMGD（巴西）、Órigo（巴西）、Mori（巴西）、CEMIG Sim!（巴西）、Tucson Electric（美國）

Enterprise with multiple consumer units (BR), multi-family households (SE), shared PV apartment buildings (AU)
擁有多個消費單位的企業（BR）、多家庭住戶（SE）、共享光伏公寓大樓（AU）

私營銀行的環境租賃（BR），多家庭住宅綜合體（KR）

Environment

Leasing of private

banks (BR),

multi-family

housing

complexes (KR)

MGPs (IN) MGPs（印度）

University Park Community Solar LLC (US)
大學公園社區太陽能有限責任公司 (美國)

Sacramento Municipal Utility District (US)
薩克拉門托市公用事業區 (美國)

California Habitat for Humanity (US)
加州人類家園（美國）

Citizenergy (EU), Sunexchange (global), Solar Green Power (NL), Ecopower (BE), United PV (CN)
Citizenergy（歐盟）、Sunexchange（全球）、Solar Green Power（荷蘭）、Ecopower（比利時）、United PV（中國）

Pillar Integration model Renting of PV systems Community solar Leasing Microgrid model RESCO/PPA Utility re-seller Nonprofit Crowdfunding Value Proposition Turn-key solution offered by "integration" companies Subscription model offered by third-party, utility, or government Community members own the shared PV, defined by a negotiated agreement Turn-key solution offered by "integrators" without upfront costs and the possibility of buying the system at the end Turn-key solution offered by the utility as an off-grid microgrid solution Turn-key solution installed in the consumers' premises with a pre-defined monthly tariff Utility buys energy from local communities solar and resells to consumers Supporters of the NPO help finance the system through tax-deductible donations or direct investment in the project Platform matches investors with consumers interested in the PV generation Target Consumer Commercial, industrial Renters, small business, industries Owners (of all types) inside community Residential Residential Residential Residential Residential Residential, commercial, industrial Ownership Model Customer-owned Third-party, utility, government Communityowned, utility Third-party flipping to consumer Utility Utility, third-party Local community solar NPO, community members, donors Various types depending on project Revenue model (consumers) Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff Energy access with monthly tariff Lower tariff Virtual net-metering, lower tariff Virtual net-metering, lower tariff, green donation fund Virtual net-metering, feed-in tariff Revenue model (supplier or intermediary) "Project development and management (transaction costs)" "Project development and operation charged as subscription, fee for services" Project development and implementation Rental, solar leasing Monthly tariff Fee for services Commission to utility and tariff to system owners Excess power revenue, green credits sell Commission to platform Upfront and operation costs System owners Third-party, utility, government System owners Third-party Utility Third-party Local community solar Donors, NPO, community members, utility grants, state programs, homeowners Investors Example Pharmacy chains and banks (BR) Enercred (BR), EMGD (BR), Órigo (BR), Mori (BR), CEMIG Sim! (BR), Tucson Electric (US) Enterprise with multiple consumer units (BR), multi-family households (SE), shared PV apartment buildings (AU) "Environment Leasing of private banks (BR), multi-family housing complexes (KR)" MGPs (IN) University Park Community Solar LLC (US) Sacramento Municipal Utility District (US) California Habitat for Humanity (US) Citizenergy (EU), Sunexchange (global), Solar Green Power (NL), Ecopower (BE), United PV (CN)

BR: Brazil; US: United Stated; SE: Sweden; AU: Australia; KR: South Korea; IN: India; EU: Europe; NL: Netherlands; BE: Belgium; CN: China
巴西：BR；美國：US；瑞典：SE；澳大利亞：AU；南韓：KR；印度：IN；歐洲：EU；荷蘭：NL；比利時：BE；中國：CN

Fig. 4. Transaction cost features values considered in the analysis in terms of reduction levels.
圖 4. 在分析中考慮的交易成本特徵值，按減少程度劃分。
all the financing issues and upfront cost regarding buying a PV system, which tends to input to them higher transaction costs than third-party owned systems.
所有與購買光伏系統相關的融資問題和前期成本，這使得他們的交易成本往往高於第三方擁有的系統。

Therefore, the total amount of transaction cost level

y

for each category can be estimated by summing up the values of each feature:
因此，每個類別的交易成本總額

y

可以通過將每個特徵的值相加來估算：

\hat{y} = \sum_{i = 1}^{3} x_{i}

Therefore, to assess transaction costs reduction and assuming equal weights in this paper for the features, if a BM contributes in the reduction of the 3 features, it will have a higher score in

\hat{y}

. Fig. 4 depicts how the transaction cost feature values will be considered in this analysis in terms of transaction cost level reduction.
因此，為了評估交易成本的降低，並假設本文中各特徵的權重相等，如果一個商業模式在降低這三個特徵方面有所貢獻，它將在

\hat{y}

中獲得更高的分數。圖 4 顯示了在這項分析中，交易成本特徵值將如何被考慮，並以交易成本水平的降低為依據。

3. Results and discussion
3. 結果與討論

The results of the methods can be summarized by the comprehensive list of shared PV business models, together with a discussion of their characteristics, adoption potential, barriers, and associated transaction costs.
這些方法的結果可以通過共享的光伏商業模式的綜合清單來總結，並討論其特徵、採用潛力、障礙及相關的交易成本。

3.1. Main business models of shared PV
3.1. 共享光伏的主要商業模式

Based on the CANVAS blocks, we propose nine categories of shared PV business models, which are summarized in Table 1. The categories used here were based on literature and existing shared PV projects. Even though some of them might carry only one block of the CANVAS (e.g. renting of PV Systems is quite related to the revenue streams) or diverge from literature (e.g. community solar is different from community shared solar), they all differ in terms of value proposition together with some of the other CANVAS fundamental blocks used to their classification. Moreover, the divergences from literature notation are explicitly stated when applicable.
基於 CANVAS 模型，我們提出了九種共享光伏商業模式，這些模式在表 1 中進行了總結。這裡使用的類別是基於文獻和現有的共享光伏項目。儘管其中一些可能僅涉及 CANVAS 的一個區塊（例如，光伏系統的租賃與收入來源密切相關）或與文獻有所不同（例如，社區太陽能與社區共享太陽能不同），但它們在價值主張以及用於分類的其他一些 CANVAS 基本區塊方面均有所不同。此外，當適用時，與文獻標註的差異會明確說明。

3.1.1. Integration model
3.1.1. 整合模型

In this model, depicted in Fig. 5, solar integrator companies offer turn-key solutions to consumers, which include project development and management, system installation and maintenance, and documentation required by utilities (Thakur et al., 2019). These companies focus on reducing consumers’ transaction costs and delivering convenience to the customer. Besides offering the complete PV system and installing it, they provide all necessary services required to connect, operate and maintain the system. Among those services, achieving technical and administrative compliance to the distribution utility rules, to obtain access to the electrical grid and export the PV energy in excess, requires specific expertise in electrical energy concepts and regulation of
在這個模型中，如圖 5 所示，太陽能整合公司為消費者提供交鑰匙解決方案，包括項目開發與管理、系統安裝與維護，以及公用事業所需的文件（Thakur et al., 2019）。這些公司專注於降低消費者的交易成本並為客戶提供便利。除了提供完整的光伏系統並進行安裝外，他們還提供連接、操作和維護系統所需的所有服務。在這些服務中，為了達到對配電公用事業規則的技術和行政合規，獲得接入電網的權限並輸出多餘的光伏能源，需要在電能概念和相關法規方面具備特定的專業知識。

Fig. 5. Integration business model.
圖 5. 整合商業模式。
the electricity sector that most consumers do not have. The PV system project and development requires knowledge of the local market to be able to obtain a good performance-cost relationship when integrating the many components that form the system. In the residential sector, this business model is very popular for singular PV systems, in which homeowners are interested in installing a distributed generation on their rooftop and are able to pay for the upfront cost. On the other hand, for shared PV systems, this model suits better commercial and industrial consumers with multiple facilities or franchises in different locations. Those consumers are able to install a larger but distributed PV system in one of their units and use the excess energy to offset the consumption of other sites. System owners are responsible for paying the upfront and operation costs, and are paid back through virtual net-metering or feed-in tariff in those multiple locations. The intermediary companies receive a payment for the project development and management and, in many cases, for maintenance. In Brazil, commercial companies, such as pharmacy chains (Bernardo, 2018) and banks (X., 2021), install a larger PV system in one of their units and offset consumption in their subsidiaries. Community based Solar power plant in Rampura is developed by Development Alternatives, an NGO (Joshi and Yenneti, 2020), is an example of integration model. In India, on-bill financing business model is similar to integration model aids consumers, wherein consumers are benefited in the form of reduced overall cost of system and service, lower transaction costs, and also safeguards operations and management services.
大多數消費者所不具備的電力部門。光伏系統項目和開發需要對當地市場的了解，以便在整合構成系統的多個組件時獲得良好的性能成本關係。在住宅部門，這種商業模式在單一光伏系統中非常受歡迎，房主有興趣在其屋頂上安裝分佈式發電，並能夠支付前期成本。另一方面，對於共享光伏系統，這種模式更適合擁有多個設施或特許經營店的商業和工業消費者。這些消費者能夠在其某一單位安裝更大但分佈式的光伏系統，並利用多餘的能源來抵消其他地點的消耗。系統擁有者負責支付前期和運營成本，並通過虛擬淨計量或在這些多個地點的上網電價獲得回報。中介公司則因項目開發和管理而獲得報酬，在許多情況下還包括維護費用。在巴西，商業公司，如藥房連鎖（Bernardo, 2018）和銀行（X。（2021），在其一個單位安裝更大的光伏系統，並抵消其子公司的消耗。位於 Rampura 的社區太陽能發電廠由非政府組織發展替代方案（Development Alternatives）開發（Joshi 和 Yenneti，2020），是整合模式的例子。在印度，賬單融資商業模式類似於整合模式，幫助消費者，消費者在系統和服務的整體成本降低、交易成本降低以及保障運營和管理服務方面受益。

3.1.2. Renting of PV systems
3.1.2. 太陽能光伏系統的租賃

In this model, depicted in Fig. 6, third-party entities develop shared PV projects, install and manage the PV systems, and offer subscription to consumers (Coughlin et al., 2011; Thakur et al., 2019; Michaud, 2020). The third-party can be a PV company, the utility, or the government. They are responsible for the upfront cost of the distributed system, as well as all the transaction costs related to its installation and operation. The idea is to be able to offer the benefits of PV generation to consumers who cannot own the system, because of the high upfront costs, unavailability of roof space, households that live in an apartment or as tenants, lack of knowledge about PV systems, among others. Therefore, the target consumers are small businesses, industries and households just mentioned. Subscribers can benefit from virtual net metering or feed-in tariffs, depending on local policies. Moreover, the system owner charges subscribers a monthly fee for services to cover the implementation and operation expenses, and the owner’s profit. Examples of this business model are: Enercred (2022), EMGD (2022), Órigo Energia (2022), Mori (2022) and Sim! (2022) in Brazil, and Tucson Electric in U.S (Coughlin et al., 2011).
在此模型中，如圖 6 所示，第三方實體開發共享的光伏項目，安裝和管理光伏系統，並向消費者提供訂閱服務（Coughlin et al., 2011; Thakur et al., 2019; Michaud, 2020）。第三方可以是光伏公司、公用事業公司或政府。他們負責分佈式系統的前期成本，以及與其安裝和運營相關的所有交易成本。這一理念是能夠向無法擁有系統的消費者提供光伏發電的好處，原因包括高昂的前期成本、屋頂空間不足、住在公寓或作為租戶的家庭、對光伏系統缺乏了解等。因此，目標消費者是剛提到的小型企業、工業和家庭。根據當地政策，訂閱者可以受益於虛擬淨計量或上網電價。此外，系統擁有者向訂閱者收取每月服務費，以涵蓋實施和運營費用，以及擁有者的利潤。這種商業模式的例子包括：巴西的 Enercred（2022）、EMGD（2022）、Órigo Energia（2022）、Mori（2022）和 Sim！（2022），以及美國的 Tucson Electric。S (Coughlin 等, 2011)。

Fig. 6. Renting of PV Systems business model.
圖 6. 太陽能光伏系統租賃商業模式。

Fig. 7. Community solar business model.
圖 7. 社區太陽能商業模式。

3.1.3. Community solar 3.1.3. 社區太陽能

This model, depicted in Fig. 7, resembles the integration one, with the difference that multiple consumers join a community agreement to own a shared PV system, instead of having one owner with one (multiple) system (s) using the generation to offset consumption in multiple units, as in the integration model. Consumers must negotiate the terms of the agreement to define participants’ shares, the system location, which integration company will install and operate the system, the revenue policy, among others (Perger et al., 2021). In this case, consumers can be of various types, such as residential, commercial, and industrial (Mehta and Tiefenbeck, 2022). Because the members are the owners of the shared system, they must pay for the upfront and operation costs, as well as the transaction costs related to forming and managing the community. Moreover, their investment is paid back by virtual net metering or feed-in-tariff, depending on local policy. The intermediary company is only responsible for developing the project and installing the system, being also able to get revenue from future maintenance. Examples of this business model are: enterprises with multiple consumer units (EMUCs) in Brazil (BlueSol, 2021), multi-family households in Sweden (Sommerfeldt et al., 2016), and shared PV for apartment buildings in Australia (Roberts et al., 2019).
這個模型，如圖 7 所示，類似於整合模型，不同之處在於多個消費者共同簽訂社區協議以擁有一個共享的光伏系統，而不是像整合模型中那樣由一個擁有者擁有一個（多個）系統，利用發電來抵消多個單位的消耗。消費者必須協商協議的條款，以定義參與者的股份、系統位置、哪家整合公司將安裝和運營系統、收益政策等（Perger et al., 2021）。在這種情況下，消費者可以是各種類型，例如住宅、商業和工業（Mehta and Tiefenbeck, 2022）。由於成員是共享系統的擁有者，他們必須支付前期和運營成本，以及與形成和管理社區相關的交易成本。此外，他們的投資通過虛擬淨計量或上網電價進行回報，具體取決於當地政策。中介公司僅負責開發項目和安裝系統，並且還能從未來的維護中獲得收益。這種商業模式的例子包括：巴西的多消費者單位企業（EMUCs）（BlueSol，2021）、瑞典的多家庭住戶（Sommerfeldt et al.，2016），以及澳大利亞的公寓大樓共享光伏系統（Roberts et al.，2019）。

One should not confound the “community shared solar” (CSS) programs in the literature, as in Coughlin et al. (2011), Chan et al. (2017), with the category proposed here. CSS is broader and might include almost all other business models (e.g. renting of PV systems, leasing, RESCO/PPA, utility re-seller, non-profit, and crowdfunding) depending on design choices such as ownership, subscription model, site selection, etc.
不應將文獻中的「社區共享太陽能」（CSS）計劃，如 Coughlin 等人（2011）和 Chan 等人（2017）所述，與此處提出的類別混淆。CSS 的範疇更廣，可能包括幾乎所有其他商業模式（例如，光伏系統租賃、租約、可再生能源服務公司/購電協議、公用事業轉售商、非營利組織和眾籌），這取決於所有權、訂閱模式、場地選擇等設計選擇。

3.1.4. Leasing 3.1.4. 租賃

This model, illustrated in Fig. 8, resembles the renting of PV systems, but subscribers have the opportunity to buy the system
此模型如圖 8 所示，類似於光伏系統的租賃，但訂閱者有機會購買該系統。

Fig. 8. Leasing business model.
圖 8. 租賃商業模式。
at the end of the leasing period. In a lease, consumers pay a fixed monthly rate regardless of how much electricity is generated in the system (CSE, 2020). In the residential sector, this is a very popular model for singular systems, specially when upfront costs are high. However, in the case of shared PV, this model is more difficult to implement, considering that flipping the ownership of only a share of a system involves building complex agreements. As in the other models, consumers benefit from virtual net metering or feed-in tariffs. Moreover, the system owner (considered as an intermediary) gets revenue from renting and later leasing the solar system. This third-party entity is responsible for the upfront system cost, and its operation while owning it. Environment Leasing of private banks in Brazil (Bradesco, 2022) is an example of this model. In India, RESCO-owned rooftop systems involves complete development of solar projects, and they own and operates the project.
在租賃期結束時。在租賃中，消費者支付固定的每月費用，無論系統產生多少電力（CSE，2020）。在住宅部門，這是一種非常受歡迎的單一系統模型，特別是在前期成本較高的情況下。然而，在共享光伏的情況下，這種模型更難以實施，因為僅轉讓系統的一部分所有權涉及建立複雜的協議。與其他模型一樣，消費者可以受益於虛擬淨計量或上網電價。此外，系統擁有者（被視為中介）通過租賃和後續租用太陽能系統獲得收入。這個第三方實體負責前期系統成本及其擁有期間的運營。巴西的環境租賃私人銀行（Bradesco，2022）就是這種模型的一個例子。在印度，RESCO 擁有的屋頂系統涉及太陽能項目的完整開發，並且他們擁有並運營該項目。

In South Korea, a high rate of multi-family housing complexes accounting for

68 %

of the electricity consumption in the country’s residential sector is an interesting reason to boost the leasing business for shared PV (Hong et al., 2018). The different consumption rates among the families can be an obstacle to implementation, because the requirements to buy the system could be achieved at different times by the families. Moreover, some families could decide not to buy their part.
在南韓，多戶住宅綜合體的高比例佔據了該國住宅部門

68 %

的電力消耗，這是一個有趣的理由來促進共享光伏租賃業務（Hong et al., 2018）。家庭之間不同的消耗率可能成為實施的障礙，因為家庭購買系統的需求可能在不同的時間達成。此外，一些家庭可能會決定不購買他們的部分。

Therefore, good leasing contract designs should foresee a situation in which parts of the PV system are owned by some consumers and other parts are leased, for instance, by indicating the creation of a special purpose entity with well-defined responsibilities and rights for both kind of consumers.
因此，良好的租賃合同設計應預見到一種情況，即光伏系統的某些部分由一些消費者擁有，而其他部分則由租賃的方式提供，例如，通過指明創建一個具有明確責任和權利的特殊目的實體，以適應這兩類消費者。

3.1.5. Microgrid model 3.1.5. 微電網模型

In this model, Fig. 9, utilities offer turn-key solutions as an off-grid microgrid to communities without access to electricity (Thakur et al., 2019). Its main goal is to provide energy to residential consumers, specially of rural towns in developing countries located far away from the electrical grid (Wouters, 2015). When providing electricity through the main grid involves costs that cannot be afforded by the consumers, or when the access to the geographic place is very difficult, isolated microgrids are an option to offer electricity to low-income populations. In these cases, a distribution utility could be the best agent to implement a solution, keeping ownership of the system, and being responsible for its upfront and operation costs. Consumers benefit from having access to energy, paid as a monthly tariff. The utility may develop technical expertise in microgrids or, probably better, it can involve itself in public-private partnerships to develop and install the systems.
在這個模型中，圖 9 顯示公用事業公司為無法獲得電力的社區提供交鑰匙解決方案，作為離網微電網（Thakur et al., 2019）。其主要目標是為居住在遠離電網的發展中國家農村城鎮的消費者提供能源（Wouters, 2015）。當通過主電網提供電力的成本超出消費者的承擔能力，或當地理位置的接入非常困難時，孤立的微電網成為向低收入人群提供電力的選擇。在這些情況下，配電公用事業公司可能是實施解決方案的最佳代理，保持系統的所有權，並負責其前期和運營成本。消費者通過每月的費率獲得能源的接入。公用事業公司可以在微電網方面發展技術專長，或者更好的是，它可以參與公私合營夥伴關係，以開發和安裝這些系統。

This community PV model is very important to improve energy access where the main grid is not present in countries
這個社區光伏模型對於改善在缺乏主電網的國家中的能源獲取非常重要

Fig. 9. Microgrid business model.
圖 9. 微電網商業模式。

Fig. 10. RESCO/PPA business model.
圖 10. RESCO/PPA 商業模式。
such as India, which has examples of this model (Government of India - Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, 2022). Utilities plays a vital role in microgrid, by providing grid to avoid extra expenses in the form of electricity storage, along with provision of procuring electricity during electricity deficit scenario (Ahmad and Alam, 2018).
例如印度，該國有這種模式的例子（印度政府 - 新能源和可再生能源部，2022 年）。公用事業在微電網中扮演著至關重要的角色，通過提供電網以避免以電力儲存形式產生額外費用，以及在電力短缺情況下提供採購電力的服務（Ahmad 和 Alam，2018 年）。

3.1.6. RESCO/PPA

In this model, Fig. 10, Renewable Energy Service Companies (RESCOs) offer turn-key solutions installed in consumers’ premises, who pay a pre-defined monthly per kilowatt-hour tariff, typically competitive with the local utility tariff, to benefit from the system’s generation through a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) (Thakur et al., 2019). The RESCO installs and operates the system on consumers’ property, keeping the ownership of the system. As in some aforementioned models, RESCO businesses are popular in singular residences, in which homeowners cannot afford the high upfront cost, but want to enjoy the benefits from distributed generation. In the case of shared PV, the system can be installed in communities’ buildings, as churches and schools, and in multi-family buildings, and the RESCO sells the energy generated in PV systems to community’s participants. Community members profit from a lower tariff and access to renewable energy. The intermediary (RESCO) is paid for its investments and operation costs with this fee for service. Also, utilities can sponsor this type of business model. An example of this model is the University Park Community Solar LLC in the U.S. (Higuchi, 2015; Coughlin et al., 2011).
在這個模型中，圖 10 顯示可再生能源服務公司（RESCOs）提供安裝在消費者場所的交鑰匙解決方案，消費者支付預先定義的每千瓦時月費，通常與當地公用事業的費率具有競爭力，以通過電力購買協議（PPA）受益於系統的發電（Thakur et al., 2019）。RESCO 在消費者的財產上安裝和運營系統，並保留系統的所有權。與一些前述模型類似，RESCO 業務在單一住宅中非常受歡迎，因為房主無法承擔高昂的前期成本，但希望享受分散式發電的好處。在共享光伏的情況下，系統可以安裝在社區的建築中，如教堂和學校，以及多戶住宅中，RESCO 將光伏系統產生的能源出售給社區的參與者。社區成員從較低的費率和可再生能源的獲取中獲益。中介（RESCO）通過這種服務費用來支付其投資和運營成本。此外，公用事業公司可以贊助這種類型的商業模型。這個模型的一個例子是美國的 University Park Community Solar LLC。（樋口，2015；考克林等，2011）。

3.1.7. Utility re-seller
3.1.7. 公用事業轉售商

In this model, shown in Fig. 11, utilities buy energy from local communities’ shared solar and resell the energy to their consumers. The local community solar has the ownership of the
在此模型中，如圖 11 所示，公用事業從當地社區的共享太陽能購買能源，並將該能源轉售給其消費者。當地社區太陽能擁有該能源的所有權。

Fig. 11. Utility re-seller business model.
圖 11. 公用事業轉售商商業模式。
system, and the utility plays a role of intermediary between the system owners and the final consumers. Moreover, upfront and operation costs are sponsored by the local community solar, which is paid back through selling the energy to the utility. The final consumers can get credits for buying the energy from the local community through the utility, or a lower tariff than the retail market. Utilities can charge a commission for mediating services. An example of this model is the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) with its SolarShares Program (SMUD, 2022).
系統，而公用事業在系統擁有者與最終消費者之間扮演中介的角色。此外，前期和運營成本由當地社區太陽能資助，這些成本通過向公用事業出售能源來償還。最終消費者可以通過公用事業獲得購買當地社區能源的抵免，或享受低於零售市場的費率。公用事業可以對中介服務收取佣金。這種模式的一個例子是薩克拉門托市公用事業區（SMUD）及其 SolarShares 計劃（SMUD，2022）。

3.1.8. Non-profit 3.1.8. 非營利

In this model, as depicted in Fig. 12, supporters of the Nonprofit Organization (NPO) help finance the system through taxdeductible donations or direct investments in the project (Coughlin et al., 2011). The upfront costs are paid by donors, the NPO, utility grants, state programs, or even community members or homeowners. For the last two, the NPO gives consumers access to “cheap” loans. Depending on the arrangement, the system can be owned by the NPO, community members, or donors. Community members benefit from virtual net-metering, lower tariff, or green donation funds. On the other hand, some intermediaries (e.g. donors and NPO) can have revenue from selling excess power and green credits, or deducing taxes (Chan et al., 2019). An example of this business model is California Habitat for Humanity, which built a shared PV system on the rooftop of a building with multiple home units. While the individuals in the Homeowner Association own a panel of the roof-mounted solar array, the Homeowner Association holds additional solar panels in common areas to offset the remaining electricity costs (Chan et al., 2019).
在這個模型中，如圖 12 所示，非營利組織（NPO）的支持者通過可扣稅的捐款或對項目的直接投資來幫助資助系統（Coughlin et al., 2011）。前期成本由捐贈者、NPO、公用事業補助、州計劃，甚至社區成員或房主支付。對於最後兩者，NPO 為消費者提供“便宜”的貸款。根據安排，系統可以由 NPO、社區成員或捐贈者擁有。社區成員從虛擬淨計量、較低的費率或綠色捐贈基金中受益。另一方面，一些中介（例如捐贈者和 NPO）可以通過出售多餘的電力和綠色信用，或扣除稅款來獲得收入（Chan et al., 2019）。這種商業模型的一個例子是加州人道棲息地，該組織在一棟多戶住宅的屋頂上建造了一個共享的光伏系統。雖然房主協會的個人擁有屋頂上安裝的太陽能電池板的一部分，但房主協會在公共區域擁有額外的太陽能電池板，以抵消剩餘的電費（Chan et al., 2019）。

3.1.9. Crowdfunding 3.1.9. 群眾募資

In this model, as depicted in Fig. 13, an online platform matches investors with consumers interested in PV generation or shared PV projects. Different types of projects can be offered in the crowdfunding platform, having similar business models to the aforementioned ones. However, the presence of this new intermediary makes crowdfunding a new model, connected to the idea of sharing economy (Ritter and Schanz, 2019). Moreover, investors can be from multiple groups, especially ordinary citizens across the globe. This generates a big change in the financing model of shared PV projects because the high upfront costs do not need to be paid directly by consumers, third-party, or utilities, through bank loans, government grants, NPO projects, or self capital. Multiple small investors are able to invest in shared PV projects using the crowdfunding platform. Therefore, the PV system can be owned by a utility, government, third party, community members, consumers, or NPO. In addition, final consumers can be benefited from virtual net-metering, feed-in
在這個模型中，如圖 13 所示，一個線上平台將投資者與對光伏發電或共享光伏項目感興趣的消費者匹配。眾籌平台可以提供不同類型的項目，這些項目的商業模式與上述項目相似。然而，這個新中介的存在使得眾籌成為一種新的模式，與共享經濟的概念相連（Ritter 和 Schanz，2019）。此外，投資者可以來自多個群體，特別是來自全球的普通公民。這在共享光伏項目的融資模式上產生了重大變化，因為高額的前期成本不需要由消費者、第三方或公用事業直接支付，而是通過銀行貸款、政府補助、非營利組織項目或自有資本來解決。多個小型投資者能夠通過眾籌平台投資於共享光伏項目。因此，光伏系統可以由公用事業、政府、第三方、社區成員、消費者或非營利組織擁有。此外，最終消費者可以受益於虛擬淨計量、上網電價補貼。
tariff, lower tariff, energy access, or green donation funds. The platform gets commissions from project developers to support its maintenance.
關稅、降低關稅、能源獲取或綠色捐贈基金。該平台從項目開發者那裡獲取佣金以支持其維護。

There are multiple types of crowdfunding for PV projects, including donation-based, reward-based, lending-based, and equity-based (Lam and Law, 2016). Crowdfunding model has a potential to generate funds for PV diffusion. It can generate 2.5 to

4 %

of the total cumulative funds need for PV in Singapore by 2050 (Lu et al., 2018). There are several platforms specialized in PV projects, e.g. Citizenergy (2022), and Sunexchange (2022). Examples of this business model include Solar Green Point in the Netherlands and Ecopower in Belgium (Lam and Law, 2016). There is also a Chinese company, United PV, which introduced crowdfunding initiatives in the PV market, according to Li et al. (2018).
有多種類型的太陽能光伏項目眾籌，包括基於捐贈、基於獎勵、基於貸款和基於股權的眾籌模式（Lam 和 Law，2016）。眾籌模型有潛力為太陽能光伏的擴散產生資金。到 2050 年，它可以為新加坡的太陽能光伏累計資金需求產生 2.5 到

4 %

的資金（Lu et al.，2018）。有幾個專門針對太陽能光伏項目的平台，例如 Citizenergy（2022）和 Sunexchange（2022）。這種商業模式的例子包括荷蘭的 Solar Green Point 和比利時的 Ecopower（Lam 和 Law，2016）。根據 Li et al.（2018）的說法，還有一家中國公司 United PV 在太陽能光伏市場引入了眾籌倡議。

3.2. Transaction costs in PV business models
3.2. 光伏商業模式中的交易成本

These business models have been developed in the shared PV sector as a way to bridge the gap between PV systems and nonspecialist consumers under different regulatory frameworks. They have been developed to decrease either the purchase costs or the transaction costs for final PV consumers. In PV systems, the purchase costs tends to be the largest cost and biggest barrier for consumers, but in the shared PV, transaction costs plays an important role as well. For example, managing a group of household connections can take some time and effort from the consumer.
這些商業模式是在共享光伏領域中發展起來的，旨在彌補光伏系統與非專業消費者之間的差距，並適應不同的監管框架。這些模式的發展旨在降低最終光伏消費者的購買成本或交易成本。在光伏系統中，購買成本往往是消費者面臨的最大成本和最大的障礙，但在共享光伏中，交易成本同樣扮演著重要角色。例如，管理一組家庭連接可能需要消費者花費一些時間和精力。

In this section, we highlight how shared PV business models decrease these costs to consumers for a comparative purpose.
在本節中，我們強調共享光伏商業模式如何降低消費者的這些成本，以便進行比較。

Three main features could be responsible for how large the transaction costs are borne by the company in favor of the consumers: compensation of electricity, adoption decision and ownership.
三個主要特徵可能影響公司為消費者承擔的交易成本的大小：電力補償、採用決策和所有權。

Table 2 presents each configuration of these features and how large the level of transaction costs borne by companies in each category, and therefore reduced to the consumers. We consider here binary values for each feature, summing them up to obtain this transaction cost reduction level

\hat{y}

of each category. For this paper, we have assumed that the three main factors have equal weight in the calculation of TC reduction level.
表 2 展示了這些特徵的每種配置，以及各類別公司所承擔的交易成本水平，因而減少到消費者的成本。我們在此考慮每個特徵的二元值，將其相加以獲得每個類別的交易成本減少水平

\hat{y}

。在本研究中，我們假設三個主要因素在交易成本減少水平的計算中具有相等的權重。

As explained in Fig. 4, three dimensions were considered in the evaluation of each business model: compensation scheme, adoption decision and ownership. The transaction cost reduction level depends on the adherence of each BM to each category.
如圖 4 所示，在評估每個商業模型時考慮了三個維度：補償方案、採用決策和所有權。交易成本降低的程度取決於每個商業模型對每個類別的遵循程度。

Microgrid model, non-profit, crowdfunding and integration model were classified with a higher level of transaction cost reduction, with

\hat{y} = 2

. Then, we have renting of PV systems, leasing and RESCO/PPA, with

\hat{y} = 1

. Finally, community solar and utility reseller were classified as the business model categories with lower transaction cost reduction levels, with

\hat{y} = 0

. Fig. 14 depicts the classification in this analysis considering the cubic framework presented in the methodology.
微電網模型、非營利組織、眾籌和整合模型被歸類為具有較高交易成本降低水平的類別，標記為

\hat{y} = 2

。接著，我們有光伏系統租賃、租賃和可再生能源服務公司/購電協議，標記為

\hat{y} = 1

。最後，社區太陽能和公用事業轉售商被歸類為交易成本降低水平較低的商業模型類別，標記為

\hat{y} = 0

。圖 14 描繪了考慮到方法論中提出的立方體框架的分析分類。

4. Case study 4. 案例研究

The analysis of the main PV business models and the major challenges they face are important methods to provide policy recommendations to a specific market. We discuss what would be the main barriers and challenges for Brazil and India. Initially, the distributed generation (DG) general context is described together with data on market characteristics and size. Then, the shared PV business models adherent to each country’s regulations are identified. Finally, the main barriers and challenges for non-applicable business models are indicated.
主要光伏商業模式的分析及其面臨的主要挑戰是為特定市場提供政策建議的重要方法。我們討論了巴西和印度的主要障礙和挑戰。首先，描述了分散式發電（DG）的一般背景，以及市場特徵和規模的數據。接著，確定了符合各國法規的共享光伏商業模式。最後，指出了不適用商業模式的主要障礙和挑戰。

Table 2 表 2
Transaction costs (TC) level borne by shared PV categories depending on transaction cost features.
共享光伏類別所承擔的交易成本（TC）水平取決於交易成本特徵。

補償計劃

(x_{1})

Compensation

scheme

(x_{1})

收養決策

(x_{2})

Adoption

decision

(x_{2})

Ownership

(x_{3})

所有權

(x_{3})

TC 減少水平

(\hat{y})

TC reduction

level

(\hat{y})

Business model categories
商業模式類別

Remote 遠程

Single 單一

Third-party 第三方

Local 地方

Single 單一

Third-party 第三方

微電網模型、非營利組織、群眾募資

Microgrid Model, Nonprofit,

Crowdfunding

Remote 遠程

Joint 關節

Third-party 第三方

Local 地方

Joint 關節

Third-party 第三方

租賃光伏系統、租賃、可再生能源服務公司/購電協議

Renting of PV systems, Leasing,

RESCO/PPA

Remote 遠程

Single 單一

Self-owned 自有

Integration Model 整合模型

Local 地方

Single 單一

Self-owned 自有

Remote 遠程

Joint 關節

Self-owned 自有

Local 地方

Joint 關節

Self-owned 自有

社區太陽能，公用事業轉售商

Community Solar, Utility

Reseller

Fig. 12. Non-profit business model.
圖 12. 非營利商業模式。

Fig. 13. Crowdfunding business model.
圖 13. 群眾募資商業模式。

4.1. Brazilian market 4.1. 巴西市場

4.1.1. Regulatory context of distributed generation in Brazil
4.1.1. 巴西分散式發電的監管背景

The Brazilian regulation for DG up to 1 MW was established in 2012 by the Normative Resolution 482/2012 (Brasil, Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL), 2012), issued by the electricity sector regulator, the National Electrical Energy Agency (ANEEL), and revised and modified in 2015 and 2017. More recently, a legal framework for DG was established by the federal law 14.300/2022 (Brasil, 2022), and regulated by the Normative Resolution 1059/2023 of ANEEL (Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL), 2023) that revoked previous resolutions. DG is classified into micro DG (up to 75 kW ) and mini DG (between 75 kW and 5 MW , or 3 MW for not dispatchable new units) and only renewable sources hydro, solar, wind, biomass, and
巴西對於最高 1 兆瓦分散式發電（DG）的規範於 2012 年由巴西國家電力監管機構（ANEEL）發布的 482/2012 號規範決議確立（巴西，電力國家局（ANEEL），2012），並於 2015 年和 2017 年進行了修訂和修改。最近，聯邦法律 14.300/2022（巴西，2022）建立了分散式發電的法律框架，並由 ANEEL 的 1059/2023 號規範決議進行規範（電力國家局（ANEEL），2023），該決議撤銷了之前的決議。分散式發電分為微型分散式發電（最高 75 千瓦）和迷你分散式發電（介於 75 千瓦和 5 兆瓦之間，或對於不可調度的新單位為 3 兆瓦），並且僅限於可再生能源來源，包括水能、太陽能、風能和生物質能。

Community Solar, 社區太陽能
Utility Reseller 公用事業轉售商

Fig. 14. Shared PV business model category classification in terms of transaction cost reduction.
圖 14. 共享光伏商業模式類別分類，基於交易成本降低。
high efficiency cogeneration are enabled. Net-metering mechanisms, called energy compensation schemes, are applied to cope with energy valuation. Monthly consumption is compensated by the energy generated by DG units, following some rules. For consumers under binomial time-of-use (TOU) tariffs, in general medium voltage consumers with mini DG, the volumetric part of the tariff is used to value the DG generation. If in a certain month electricity consumption exactly matches DG generation, the prosumer must pay only the demand part of the tariff. If not, the positive difference (net generation) is credited or the negative difference (net consumption) must be paid. On the other hand, for prosumers under monomial volumetric tariffs, which are the majority of low voltage consumers with micro DG, the federal law introduced important modifications. The old rules allowed a one-to-one compensation in which the value of the DG energy
高效率的聯合發電得以實現。淨計量機制，即能源補償計劃，被應用於應對能源評價。每月的消耗量由分散式發電單元所產生的能源進行補償，並遵循一些規則。對於採用二項式時段電價（TOU）計費的消費者，通常是中壓消費者與小型分散式發電，電價的體積部分用於評價分散式發電的產量。如果在某個月份的電力消耗恰好與分散式發電的產量相符，則生產者僅需支付電價的需求部分。如果不相符，則正差額（淨產量）將被記入或負差額（淨消耗）必須支付。另一方面，對於採用單項體積電價的生產者，這是大多數低壓消費者與微型分散式發電，聯邦法律引入了重要的修改。舊規則允許一對一的補償，其中分散式發電能源的價值

Table 3 表 3
Net-metering schemes for distributed PV generation in Brazil as in February/2023.
巴西於 2023 年 2 月的分散式光伏發電淨計量方案。

Net-metering scheme 淨計量方案

Description 描述

地方補償個體 (ILC)

Individual with local compensation

(ILC)

淨計量與以發電單位補償的電力信用

net-metering with electricity credits compensated in the

generation unit

遠程補償個體 (IRC)

Individual with remote compensation

(IRC)

淨計量與在同一公用事業區域內的生產者遠端消費單位中以電力抵免進行補償

net-metering with electricity credits compensated in a remote

consumption unit of the prosumer in the same utility area

Shared with local compensation (SLC)
與地方補償共享 (SLC)

淨計量與在幾個消費單位之間進行本地補償的信用

net-metering with credits compensated locally among several

consumption units

共享遠程補償 (SRC)

Shared with remote compensation

(SRC)

遠端補償多個消費單位的淨計量與抵免

net-metering with credits compensated remotely among

several consumption units

was given by the whole energy tariff, and a small availability payment was established to cope with network operation and expansion costs. Under law 14.300/2022 only

70 %

, approximately, of the whole energy tariff will be considered to value the energy generated from micro DG. The remaining

30 %

of the tariff refers to operation and expansion costs of the distribution system. Therefore, low voltage prosumers with micro DG will have to contribute to network costs. Notice that, even the federal law was issued early in 2022, this modification takes place one year later and in a progressive form, increasing the network payment up to

30 %

in six years.
整體能源費率所提供的，並建立了一個小型可用性支付以應對網絡運營和擴展成本。根據法律 14.300/2022，僅有

70 %

，大約，整體能源費率將被考慮用來評估微型分散式發電所產生的能源。剩餘的

30 %

費率則指的是配電系統的運營和擴展成本。因此，擁有微型分散式發電的低壓生產者將必須為網絡成本做出貢獻。請注意，即使聯邦法律在 2022 年初頒布，此修改將在一年後以漸進的形式生效，並在六年內將網絡支付提高至

30 %

。

There are four different net-metering mechanisms that depend on the DG system location and on the quantity of consumption units that benefit from the generated energy. Table 3 summarizes these schemes. In the local compensation scheme, consumption and generation occur in the same location, and in remote compensation the DG location is different from that of the consumption units that benefit. Both local and remote energy compensation is possible for shared DG models. A shared with local compensation scheme involves different consumption units located nearby on the same plot, e.g., a condominium. A shared with remote compensation scheme considers consumption units in different locations that are organized in a consortium, cooperative or any other civil organization instituted for this purpose, and the generating unit is located in one of the consumption units. Shared schemes are allowed since the regulatory review of 2015.
有四種不同的淨計量機制，這些機制取決於分散式發電系統的位置以及受益於所產生能源的消費單位數量。表 3 總結了這些方案。在本地補償方案中，消費和發電發生在同一地點，而在遠程補償中，分散式發電的位置與受益的消費單位的位置不同。對於共享的分散式發電模型，本地和遠程能源補償都是可能的。共享的本地補償方案涉及位於同一地塊附近的不同消費單位，例如公寓。共享的遠程補償方案考慮位於不同地點的消費單位，這些單位組成一個聯盟、合作社或任何其他為此目的而設立的民間組織，並且發電單位位於其中一個消費單位內。自 2015 年的監管審查以來，允許共享方案的存在。

The Brazilian market of micro and mini DG has grown a lot in the last years, and PV energy dominates the market. By February 2023, there are more than 17,973.00 MW of DG installed power, from which

99.9 %

are PV systems, as informed by the regulatory agency (ANEEL, 2023). The distributed PV market, considering the number of PV grid-connected systems, is almost 30 times greater than in 2018, with 1,699,010 units. On the other side, shared PV models (both local and remote compensation) account only for

0.61 %

of the installed PV power (almost 108.20 MW ), and

0.24 %

of the total number of PV system units, although almost half of this power has been installed during 2022. The shared with local compensation (e.g. condominium) installed power is all PV (ANEEL, 2023).
巴西的微型和迷你分散式發電市場在過去幾年中增長迅速，光伏能源主導著市場。截至 2023 年 2 月，已安裝的分散式發電功率超過 17,973.00 兆瓦，其中

99.9 %

為光伏系統，根據監管機構（ANEEL，2023）的報告。考慮到光伏並網系統的數量，分散式光伏市場幾乎是 2018 年的 30 倍，達到 1,699,010 個單位。另一方面，共享光伏模式（包括本地和遠程補償）僅佔已安裝光伏功率的

0.61 %

（幾乎 108.20 兆瓦），以及光伏系統單位的

0.24 %

，儘管幾乎一半的這些功率是在 2022 年安裝的。與本地補償（例如公寓）共享的已安裝功率全部為光伏（ANEEL，2023）。

4.1.2. Shared PV business models adherence to Brazilian local regulation
4.1.2. 共享光伏商業模式遵循巴西當地法規

Table 4 presents the adherence of each business model of Table 1 to the Brazilian regulation. Rows contain business models as defined in Section 3.1 evaluated in relation to CANVAS pillars, under the perspective of shared arrangements viable in the Brazilian market.
表 4 顯示了表 1 中每個商業模型對巴西法規的遵循情況。行包含在第 3.1 節中定義的商業模型，根據 CANVAS 支柱的角度進行評估，考慮到在巴西市場上可行的共享安排。

The Integration Model suits industrial and commercial consumers with multiple facilities which can adopt the IRC netmetering scheme: the company will install the PV system in one of its facilities and compensate the energy also in the other facilities. The Renting of PV Systems Model can be implemented for SRC net-metering scheme fulfilling all six pillars. Community Solar and Leasing Models can also be implemented in Brazil for both local and remote shared schemes.
整合模型適用於擁有多個設施的工業和商業消費者，這些設施可以採用 IRC 淨計量方案：公司將在其一個設施中安裝光伏系統，並在其他設施中補償能源。光伏系統租賃模型可以實施 SRC 淨計量方案，滿足所有六大支柱。社區太陽能和租賃模型也可以在巴西實施，適用於本地和遠程共享方案。

However, Microgrid, RESCO/PPA, Utility Reseller, and Nonprofit models do not support all six pillars under Brazilian DG market rules. The Microgrid Model as defined in this paper could be implemented as SLC net-metering scheme; however, the Value Proposition pillar does not apply, because utilities cannot offer turn-key solutions to non grid-connected consumers, since they cannot own generation assets. The cost structure does not apply also: microgrids can be implemented under Brazilian regulation but they cannot be owned by a distribution utility due to the generation assets ownership restrictions. On the contrary, both revenue pillars RM-C and RM-SI are valid. Notice that LOW adherence is indicated, because only less than 1% of Brazilians consumers are off-grid. The RESCO-PPA business model is not allowed under Brazilian DG regulation since third parties, like RESCOs, cannot sell energy to consumers served by utilities. The Utility Reseller model cannot be implemented as defined in this paper; however, a variant will be possible in the near future, as discussed in next section. The Non-profit business model fails to adhere to the CANVAS pillar related with supplier or intermediary revenue, because excess DG generation cannot be commercialized and there are no green credits nor reduced taxes mechanisms.
然而，微電網、可再生能源服務公司/購電協議、公用事業轉售商和非營利模型並不支持巴西分散式發電市場規則下的所有六個支柱。本文定義的微電網模型可以作為 SLC 淨計量方案實施；然而，價值主張支柱不適用，因為公用事業無法為非網絡連接的消費者提供交鑰匙解決方案，因為他們無法擁有發電資產。成本結構也不適用：微電網可以根據巴西的法規實施，但由於發電資產擁有權的限制，它們不能由配電公用事業擁有。相反，兩個收入支柱 RM-C 和 RM-SI 是有效的。請注意，指示了低遵循度，因為只有不到 1%的巴西消費者是離網的。根據巴西的分散式發電法規，RESCO-PPA 商業模型是不被允許的，因為第三方，如 RESCO，不能向由公用事業服務的消費者銷售能源。公用事業轉售商模型無法按照本文定義實施；然而，正如下一節所討論的，未來將可能出現一種變體。非營利商業模式未能遵循與供應商或中介收入相關的 CANVAS 支柱，因為過剩的分散式發電無法商業化，且沒有綠色信用或減稅機制。

4.1.3. Barriers to business models
4.1.3. 商業模式的障礙

The Microgrid model, as defined in this paper, refers to communities without access to electricity. In Brazil this model is explored under specific government programs, because utilities cannot own generation assets (Brasil, 2004).
微電網模型，如本文所定義，指的是無法獲得電力的社區。在巴西，這一模型在特定的政府計劃下進行探索，因為公用事業無法擁有發電資產（巴西，2004）。

Utility re-seller model has low adherence to the Brazilian regulation due to the regulatory model of the distribution segment which prevents utilities to buy electricity from consumers or group of consumers. However, federal law 14.300/2022 allows them to buy micro and mini DG energy under a public procedure that still needs to be regulated by ANEEL. Therefore, it is expected that in the future this model could be applied in Brazil. Moreover, it is expected that utilities should use this scheme as a non-wire approach to system expansion and operation improvements.
公用事業轉售商模型對巴西法規的遵循度較低，因為配電部門的監管模型禁止公用事業從消費者或消費者群體購買電力。然而，聯邦法第 14.300/2022 允許他們在仍需由 ANEEL 規範的公共程序下購買微型和迷你分散式發電能源。因此，預期未來這一模型可以在巴西應用。此外，預期公用事業應該將此方案作為系統擴展和運營改進的非電纜方法。

The RESCO/PPA model cannot be applied to low voltage consumers, because their energy must be provided by the local utility, thus they cannot buy energy from third parties. Recently, the Ministry of Mines and Energy issued the ordinance 50/2022 (Brasil, Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), 2022) that allows medium voltage consumers to adhere to the wholesale energy market, starting in January 2024, so those consumers will be able to choose their energy provider. Moreover, there is a law project under study to extend this possibility to all consumers.
RESCO/PPA 模型無法應用於低壓用戶，因為他們的能源必須由當地公用事業公司提供，因此他們無法從第三方購買能源。最近，礦業和能源部發布了第 50/2022 號法令（巴西，礦業和能源部（MME），2022），允許中壓用戶從 2024 年 1 月起參加批發能源市場，這樣這些用戶將能夠選擇他們的能源供應商。此外，還有一項法律草案正在研究中，以擴展這一可能性至所有用戶。

Additionally, law 14.300/2022 allows for new and more flexible forms of consumer union, as civil societies, that can group both individuals and legal entities, and the consortium of consumers. However, they are not well defined from the legal point of view yet. Another barrier is financing, because this new business is not completely understood by financing institutions. Regarding grid access, negative impacts on the operation of the grid are observed in many cases, because some shared PV projects, when looking for locations with good solar potential, install PV
此外，法律 14.300/2022 允許新的、更具彈性的消費者聯盟形式，作為公民社會，能夠將個人和法人團體以及消費者聯盟聚集在一起。然而，從法律的角度來看，它們尚未得到明確定義。另一個障礙是融資，因為這種新業務尚未被融資機構完全理解。關於電網接入，在許多情況下觀察到對電網運行的負面影響，因為一些共享的光伏項目在尋找具有良好太陽能潛力的地點時，安裝了光伏系統。

Table 4 表 4
Business models adherence according to regulation in Brazil as in February/2023.
根據 2023 年 2 月巴西的法規，商業模式的遵循情況。

Business model 商業模式	Business model adherence 商業模式遵循						Final adherence 最終遵循	Brazilian scheme 巴西計劃
Business model 商業模式	VP	TC	OWN	RM-C	RM-SI	CO	Final adherence 最終遵循	Brazilian scheme 巴西計劃
Integration Model 整合模型	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	High 高	IRC
Renting of PV Systems 租賃光伏系統	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	High 高	SRC
Community Solar 社區太陽能	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	High 高	SLC, SRC
Leasing 租賃	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	High 高	SLC, SRC
Microgrid Model 微電網模型	$x$	$✓$	$x$	$✓$	$✓$	$x$	Low 低	SLC
RESCO/PPA	$x$	$✓$	$x$	$x$	$✓$	$x$	None 抱歉，您沒有提供任何文本供翻譯。請提供需要翻譯的內容	-
Utility Re-seller 公用事業轉售商	$x$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$x$	$✓$	None 抱歉，您沒有提供任何文本供翻譯。請提供需要翻譯的內容	-
Non-profit 非營利	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$x$	$✓$	Medium 媒介	ILC, IRC, SLC, SRC
Crowdfunding 群眾募資	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	High 高	ILC, IRC, SLC, SRC

VP: value proposition; TC: target consumers; OWN: ownership model; RM-C: revenue model (consumers); RM-SI: revenue model (supplier or intermediary); CO: costs; ILC: individual with local compensation; IRC: individual with remote compensation, SLC: shared with local compensation; SRC: shared with remote compensation.
VP：價值主張；TC：目標消費者；OWN：擁有權模式；RM-C：收入模式（消費者）；RM-SI：收入模式（供應商或中介）；CO：成本；ILC：具有本地補償的個體；IRC：具有遠程補償的個體；SLC：具有本地補償的共享；SRC：具有遠程補償的共享。
systems in regions with weak electrical grid. Two approaches are possible to cope with this problem, reinforcing the grid and requiring the participation of PV systems in distribution grid operating actions, by using their inverters control capabilities. This latter option is envisaged by law

14.300 / 2022

when allows distribution utilities to buy ancillary services from micro and mini DG, but still needs to be regulated by the electricity sector regulator.
在電力網絡薄弱的地區，系統面臨挑戰。為了應對這一問題，有兩種可能的方法：加強電網以及要求光伏系統參與配電網的運行行動，利用其逆變器的控制能力。法律

14.300 / 2022

中預見了這一後者選項，允許配電公用事業從微型和迷你分佈式發電（DG）購買輔助服務，但仍需由電力行業監管機構進行規範。

In brief, the new law 14.300/2022 introduces many new possibilities for shared business models expansion in Brazil, but specific regulation for some cases still needs to be defined.
簡而言之，新的法律 14.300/2022 為巴西的共享商業模式擴展引入了許多新的可能性，但某些情況的具體規範仍需明確定義。

4.2. Indian market 4.2. 印度市場

4.2.1. Regulatory context of distributed generation in India
4.2.1. 印度分散式發電的監管背景

At present, India’s total installed electricity generation capacity is approximately 412 GW as of February 2023 (Ministry of Power, 2023), which will be approximately 820 GW by 2030, however, the target of renewable capacity is expected to grow by 500 GW by 2030 (TERI, 2022). Expansion of centralized generation will be a sufficient and feasible solution. DG is identified as a solution that caters to reliable supply to the loads.
目前，印度的總裝機發電容量約為 412 GW（截至 2023 年 2 月，電力部，2023），預計到 2030 年將達到約 820 GW，然而，預計可再生能源容量的目標將在 2030 年前增長 500 GW（TERI，2022）。擴大集中式發電將是一個足夠且可行的解決方案。分散式發電被認為是滿足負載可靠供應的解決方案。

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has promoted the adoption of renewable energy initiative in India with the help of various schemes like Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthan Mahabhiyan (PM KUSUM), Rooftop Solar Program, Solar parks, Green Energy Corridor, and Greening of Islands like Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshwadeep (MNRE, 2020). However, at present, India’s power generation is centralized, leading to transmission losses and high dependency on consumers. The distributed renewable energy model can provide a consistent, sustainable power supply solution, especially because the potential of renewable energy in India is high. To promote the distributed generation, Indian government has promoted schemes like Rooftop Solar Scheme and Solar Agri pumps, solar cold storage, Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure using rooftop solar (RTS) and Productive use appliances (MNRE, 2023).
印度新與可再生能源部透過各種計劃，如總理農民能源安全與提升大計（PM KUSUM）、屋頂太陽能計劃、太陽能公園、綠色能源走廊，以及安達曼和尼科巴群島及拉克沙德維普等島嶼的綠化，推動可再生能源倡議（MNRE, 2020）。然而，目前印度的電力生成是集中式的，導致傳輸損失和對消費者的高度依賴。分散式可再生能源模型可以提供穩定、可持續的電力供應解決方案，特別是因為印度的可再生能源潛力很高。為了促進分散式發電，印度政府推動了如屋頂太陽能計劃和太陽能農業水泵、太陽能冷藏、使用屋頂太陽能的電動車充電基礎設施及生產性使用設備等計劃（MNRE, 2023）。

Rooftop solar plays an important role in decarbonization of electricity sector, considering the high cost of electricity and deteriorating environmental quality. In 2014, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy introduced “Grid-connected rooftop and small solar plant scheme” to promote solar installations at rooftop and commercial buildings. This scheme was promoted by State Nodal Agencies (SNAs), Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), Public Sector Units (PSU), Distribution Companies (DISCOMS) and other organizations. Parallelly, the government of India is providing 40% percentage subsidy for residential consumers for systems up to 3 kWp capacity and

20 %

subsidy for 3 kWp to 7 kWp capacity (Rooftop, 2023).
屋頂太陽能在電力部門的脫碳中扮演著重要角色，考慮到電力成本高昂和環境質量惡化。2014 年，新能源和可再生能源部推出了“並網屋頂和小型太陽能電廠計劃”，以促進屋頂和商業建築的太陽能安裝。該計劃由國家節點機構（SNA）、印度太陽能公司（SECI）、公共部門單位（PSU）、配電公司（DISCOMS）及其他組織推廣。同時，印度政府為住宅用戶提供高達 3 kWp 容量系統的 40%補貼，以及對於 3 kWp 至 7 kWp 容量的

20 %

Categorizing shared photovoltaic business models in renewable markets: An approach based on CANVAS and transaction costs 在可再生能源市場中對共享光伏商業模式進行分類：基於 CANVAS 和交易成本的方法

A R T I C L E INFO文章資訊

Article history: 文章歷史：

Keywords: 關鍵詞：

Abstract 摘要

1. Introduction 1. 引言

2. Methodology 2. 方法論

2.1. Business model CANVAS2.1. 商業模式畫布

2.1.1. Transaction costs2.1.1. 交易成本

3. Results and discussion3. 結果與討論

3.1. Main business models of shared PV3.1. 共享光伏的主要商業模式

3.1.1. Integration model3.1.1. 整合模型

3.1.2. Renting of PV systems3.1.2. 太陽能光伏系統的租賃

3.1.3. Community solar 3.1.3. 社區太陽能

3.1.4. Leasing 3.1.4. 租賃

3.1.5. Microgrid model 3.1.5. 微電網模型

3.1.6. RESCO/PPA

3.1.7. Utility re-seller3.1.7. 公用事業轉售商

3.1.8. Non-profit 3.1.8. 非營利

3.1.9. Crowdfunding 3.1.9. 群眾募資

3.2. Transaction costs in PV business models3.2. 光伏商業模式中的交易成本

4. Case study 4. 案例研究

4.1. Brazilian market 4.1. 巴西市場

4.1.1. Regulatory context of distributed generation in Brazil4.1.1. 巴西分散式發電的監管背景

4.1.2. Shared PV business models adherence to Brazilian local regulation4.1.2. 共享光伏商業模式遵循巴西當地法規

4.1.3. Barriers to business models4.1.3. 商業模式的障礙

4.2. Indian market 4.2. 印度市場

4.2.1. Regulatory context of distributed generation in India4.2.1. 印度分散式發電的監管背景

Categorizing shared photovoltaic business models in renewable markets: An approach based on CANVAS and transaction costs
在可再生能源市場中對共享光伏商業模式進行分類：基於 CANVAS 和交易成本的方法

A R T I C L E INFO
文章資訊

2.1. Business model CANVAS
2.1. 商業模式畫布

2.1.1. Transaction costs
2.1.1. 交易成本

3. Results and discussion
3. 結果與討論

3.1. Main business models of shared PV
3.1. 共享光伏的主要商業模式

3.1.1. Integration model
3.1.1. 整合模型

3.1.2. Renting of PV systems
3.1.2. 太陽能光伏系統的租賃

3.1.7. Utility re-seller
3.1.7. 公用事業轉售商

3.2. Transaction costs in PV business models
3.2. 光伏商業模式中的交易成本

4.1.1. Regulatory context of distributed generation in Brazil
4.1.1. 巴西分散式發電的監管背景

4.1.2. Shared PV business models adherence to Brazilian local regulation
4.1.2. 共享光伏商業模式遵循巴西當地法規

4.1.3. Barriers to business models
4.1.3. 商業模式的障礙

4.2.1. Regulatory context of distributed generation in India
4.2.1. 印度分散式發電的監管背景